Major Report

Department of ELEC. & ELEX. ENGG.
A Major Project Report
CHAPTER - 01
INTRODUCTION
S.J.I.T.M. Khargone 1
Department of ELEC. & ELEX. ENGG. A Major Project Report
01.INTRODUCTION :
In a country like India, the agriculture plays the important role in the economy and development
of the country. At the present era, the farmers have been using irrigation technique in India
through the manual control in which the farmers irrigate the land at the regular intervals. This
process sometimes consumes more water or sometimes the water reaches late due to which the
crops get dried. There is a need in the residential/commercial irrigation industry for an irrigation
controller that responds to soil moisture sensors in individual zones as a way of conserving
water. An ideal controller should be "user friendly", i.e., easy to program and requiring a
minimum number of keys or push-buttons to operate the controller. It should also allow
irrigation to take place in zones where watering is required, while bypassing zones where
adequate soil moisture is indicated- To add flexibility, it should be possible to selectively
deactivate any of the moisture sensors to thereby override the modification to the controller
performance caused by sensor inputs. Moreover, the system should be easy to trouble shoot in
the event of faults in any of the plurality of zones.
It can be seen that the combination of hardware and software provides a irrigation controller
that can be implemented at relatively low cost and which is extremely user friendly because it
requires only eight keys in all to carry out a myriad of operations and the operator is, at all times,
apprised by the display of just what needs.
The Project discussed here waters your plants regularly when you are out for vacation. Two stiff
copper wires are inserted in the soil to sense the whether the Soil is wet or dry. The
Microcontroller is used to control the whole system it monitors the sensors and when more than
two sensors sense the dry condition then the microcontroller will switch on the motor and it will
switch off the motor when all the sensors are in wet. The microcontroller does the above job it
receives the signals from the sensors, and this signals operated under the control of software
which is stored in ROM. Now days, water shortage is becoming one of the biggest problem in
the world. Many different methods are developed for conservation of water. We need water in
each and every field. In our day to day life also water is essential. Water is considered to be basic
need of human. Water is needed for everyone human beings, animals, plants, etc..
Agriculture is one of the fields where water is required in tremendous quantity. Wastage of water
major problem in agriculture. Every time excess of water is given to the fields. There are many
techniques to save or to control wastage of water from agriculture. The continuous increasing
demand of food requires the rapid improvement in food production technology. In a country like
India, where the economy is mainly based on agriculture and the climatic conditions are
isotropic, still we are not able to make full use of agricultural resources. The main reason is the
lack of rains & scarcity of land reservoir water. The continuous extraction of water from earth is
reducing the water level due to which lot of land is coming slowly in the zones of un-irrigated
land. Another very important reason of this is due to unplanned use of water due to which a
significant amount of water goes to waste. This problem can be rectified if we use
microcontroller based automated irrigation system in which the irrigation will take place only
when there will be acute requirement of water.
Automatic irrigation systems are convenient, especially for those who travel. If installed and
programmed properly, automatic irrigation systems can even save you money and help in water
conservation. Dead lawn grass and plants need to be replaced, and that can be expensive. But the
savings from automatic irrigation systems can go beyond that.
Watering with a hose or with oscillator wastes water. Neither method targets plant roots with
any significant degree of precision. Automatic irrigation systems can be programmed to
discharge more precise amounts of water in a targeted area, which promotes water conservation
CHAPTER – 02
AUTOMATIC IRRIGATION
02. NEED OF AUTOMATIC IRRIGATION :
Water is a limited resource and should be used wisely. As the population increases, the demand
for water increases. Outdoor water use can account for 50 percent or more of the total water use
for a home during summer months. Studies have shown that homeowners who have automated
irrigation systems often apply too much water to plants too frequently. Outdoor water use can
easily be reduced by irrigating only when plants need water. A routine, visual inspection of the
landscape can help indicate when irrigation should be applied.
Over-irrigation can produce unhealthy plants. Most landscape plants do not need irrigation every
day. Over-watering can create problems such as shallow root systems, causing the plant to
become stressed in adverse environmental conditions. Plants stressed by excessive watering are
more susceptible to disease and pest infestations.
Let rainfall be the main water source for your landscape whenever possible. The frequency of
rainfall and the resulting amount of irrigation needed changes continuously. Plants' water needs
change with the seasons as well. A controller that is easy to adjust seasonally is desirable and
will save a considerable amount of water.
Place a rain gauge in the landscape to measure rainfall amounts. Rain amounts reported on the
Web or weather reports for an area may not represent what is actually happening in a specific
landscape. A rain gauge is a tool that can be useful when scheduling irrigation.
A rain sensor is an essential component of the automated irrigation system. A rain sensor detects
rainfall and prevents the irrigation system from operating during a rainfall event. Rain sensors
are add-on equipment, which are inexpensive and can pay for themselves in water savings. Rain
sensors can be purchased at local home improvement or irrigation supply stores. They are
relatively easy to install by either the homeowner or an irrigation contractor. The rain sensor
should be placed in a location that is not covered by building eaves, does not have interference
from trees and does not collect irrigation water.
Soil moisture sensors can be installed on some automated irrigation systems. Soil moisture
sensors measure the water content in soil and are a management tool that can help to determine
when irrigation is necessary.
Conform to the watering schedule imposed by state and local governments. It is important to be
aware of current outdoor watering restrictions in your community. However, do not feel
compelled to water every day that irrigation is allowed unless plants need watering.
Avoid runoff. The factors affecting runoff are: soil texture, soil compaction, slope and cover on
the soil. Heavy clay soils and compacted soils can produce runoff rapidly. The run time in clay
soils and on slopes can be split into shorter cycles to reduce or prevent runoff from occurring.
Soils covered with vegetation or mulch will not produce runoff as quickly as bare soil.
Irrigate deeply and infrequently, depending on the depth of the root system. Deep, infrequent
irrigation cycles can contribute to the development of healthy root systems that can withstand
adverse environmental conditions. Landscape plants that are watered every day will typically
develop a shallow root system and the plant will become stressed in hot, dry conditions.
The irrigation installer/contractor should provide the homeowner with two things: the
manufacturer's instruction manual for the controller and a "controller chart." A controller chart is
a drawing of the landscape showing areas covered by each irrigation zone of the system. Each
zone is controlled by the corresponding station number within the controller. The manufacturer's
instruction manual gives detailed instructions and explains the options for managing the
irrigation system.
Controller instructions can by supplied by manufacturers or local irrigation distributors upon

request. The name and model number of the controller is necessary to get the proper instructions.
Instruction manuals can be downloaded from most manufacturer websites.
Homeowners can make their own controller charts. First, draw a sketch of the landscape and the
irrigated area. Label each station with the appropriate controller number on the drawing. Also,
note the types of plants in each irrigation zone so run times can be adjusted for each station
depending on the plant water requirements.
CHAPTER – 03
LIST OF COMPONENTS
03. LIST OF COMPONENTS :
No. Component Size Quantity
Resistor
1 R1 10 k 1
2 R2 1k 1
1
3. R3 220E
Capacitor
3 C1 22pf 2
4 C2 104 multilayer 8
5 C3 1000uf 1
IC
6 ATmega8L 1
7 7805 1
8 Diode 1N4007 4
9 Crystal oscillator 16MHz 1
10 Tactile switch 1
11 LCD 16*2 1
12 Soil Moisture Sensor 1
13 Water pump 1
14 Motor Driver (L293D) 1
15 Step Down Transformer 230V to 12V 1
16 Relay 12V 1
17 LED 3mm 2
(Table No. – 01)
CHAPTER – 04
DESCRIPTION OF
COMPONENTS
04. DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS :
4.1 Resistor:
(Fig.1 –Resistor )
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that
is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).The primary
characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working voltage and the
power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less
well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum
permitted current flow. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as
well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design. Resistors can be integrated into hybrid
and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads are relevant to
equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating
their power.
(Fig.2- Colour Coding of Resistor)
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time,
act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit
current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission
lines among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical
power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as
test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit
elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat,
light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within
integrated circuits. The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance:
common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing
tolerance.
4.2 Capacitor:
(Fig.3- Capacitor)
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors

separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the conductors, an
electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated
conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage. Capacitors are
widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the output of power supplies, and for many
other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency equipment to select
particular frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.
4.2.1 Types of Capacitor:
(Fig.4- Types of Capacitor)
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates)
separated by a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized).
The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive
electrolyte, etc. The non conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge
capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide
layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead,
a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the
potential difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is
equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF
(10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).
4.3 Microcontroller ATmega8L:
ATmega8. This member has many features similar to that of ATmega32. But it has reduced
number of features and capabilities, yet it has enough features to work with. Now let me tell you
that if you want to gather knowledge and at the same time want to do it in less cost than the
budget ofATmega32, you can think of making projects with ATmega8. In that case, one feature
you won’t be able to realize is the JTAG interface. But rest of the features is available in this IC.
Let us see what one can get from ATmega8.
Here find the pin diagram of Atmega8 microcontroller:-
(Fig.5 - Pin diagram of Microcontroller)
1. Memory: It has 8 Kb of Flash program memory (10,000 Write/Erase cycles durability), 512
Bytes of EEPROM (100,000 Write/Erase Cycles). 1Kbyte Internal SRAM
2. I/O Ports: 23 I/ line can be obtained from three ports; namely Port B, Port C and Port D.
3. Interrupts: Two External Interrupt source, located at port D. 19 different interrupt vectors
supporting 19 events generated by internal peripherals.
4. Timer/Counter: Three Internal Timers are available, two 8 bit, one 16 bit, offering various
operating modes and supporting internal or external clocking.
5. SPI (Serial Peripheral interface): ATmega8 holds three communication devices integrated.
One of them is Serial Peripheral Interface. Four pins are assigned to Atmega8 to implement this
scheme of communication.
6. USART: One of the most powerful communication solutions is USART and ATmega8
supports both synchronous and asynchronous data transfer schemes. It has three pins assigned for
that. In many projects, this module is extensively used for PC-Micro controller communication.
7. TWI (Two Wire Interface): Another communication device that is present in ATmega8 is Two
Wire Interface. It allows designers to set up a commutation between two devices using just two
wires along with a common ground connection, As the TWI output is made by means of open
collector outputs, thus external pull up resistors are required to make the circuit.
8. Analog Comparator: A comparator module is integrated in the IC that provides comparison
facility between two voltages connected to the two inputs of the Analog comparator via External
pins attached to the micro controller.
9. Analog to Digital Converter: Inbuilt analog to digital converter can convert an analog input
signal into digital data of 10bit resolution. For most of the low end application, this much
resolution is enough.
ATmega8 Datasheet:
Find below the “internal architecture block diagram” of Atmega8
1. X1:
DE-9 serial connector Used to connect computer (or other devices) using RS-232 standard.
Needs a serial cable, with at least 4 pin connected 2, 3, 4 and 5.Works only when JP0 is set to 2-
3 position.
2. DC1:
2.1 mm. power jack Used to connect external power source. Centre positive. Voltage Regulator
Works with regulated +7 to +20 volts DC (9v. to12v. is recommended).It is possible to
alternatively connect external power using 9v. Pin or5v. Pin.
3. ICSP:
2x3 pin header Used to program Atmega with boot loader. The number 1 on both sides of the
board indicates cable pin1 position. Used to upload sketches on Atmega ICs without boot loader
4. JP0
3 pins jumper when in position 2-3, this jumper enables serial connection (throughX1 connector)
to/from computer/devices. Use this as default position. When in position 1-2, it disables serial
communication, and enables external pull-down resistors on pin0 (RX) and pin1 (TX). Use this
only to prevent noise on RX (that seems incoming data to Atmega), that Sometimes makes
sketch not starting. When removing this jumper, serial communication is disabled, andpin0 and
pin1 work as a normal (floating) digital pin. Useful when more digital pins are needed, but only
when serial communication is not necessary. External pull-down/pull-up resistor is required.
5. JP4
2 pins jumper when in position 1-2, this jumper enables auto reset feature, useful when
uploading a sketch to Aurdino, resetting Atmega automatically. It makes unnecessary to press
reset button (S1) when up loading sketches. Be sure that computer COM Port speed is set to
19200bps otherwise auto reset will not work properly. If removed, disables auto reset feature.
Very useful to prevent undesired Atmega reset when using sketches that needs serial
communication. Auto reset works with DTR pulse on serial pin4. Sometimes Aurdino senses a
DTR pulse when connecting X1 (serial connector) and some software’s sends a DTR pulse when
it starts or when it closes, that makes Atmega reset when not desired.
6. S1
Tactile button this button resets Atmega, to restart uploaded sketch or to prepare Aurdino to
receive a sketch through serial connector
7. Power pin out
6 pin header
8. RST pin
Makes Atmega reset when connected to GND. Useful for Shield Boards, or to connect external
reset.
9. NC pin
This pin is not connected in Aurdino S3v3. Aurdino Decimal has a 3.3 volts pin in the same
position.
10. +9v. Pin
When Aurdino DC1 is powered (with battery or DC adaptor), this pin is used as Vout, with the
same voltage supplied on DC1 (see DC1), minus 0, 7 volts. The total supplied current depends
on external power source capacity When Aurdino DC1 is not powered, +9v. Pin can be used as
Vin, connecting it to a external regulated power source (+7 to +20 volts) and connecting 0v. Pin
to external power source GND. In this case, +5v. Pin can be used as Vout, supplying +5 volts.
11. +5v. Pin

When Aurdino DC1 is powered (with battery or DC adaptor), +5v. Pin supplies +5 volts as a
Vout pin. The total supplied current depends on Voltage Regulator (7805 supplies up to 1A).
This applies only to +5v.pin: Atmega in/out pins only supplies max. 40mA on each pin. When
Aurdino DC1 is not powered, this pin can be used as Vin, connecting it to a regulated +5v. And
connecting 0v. Pin to power source GND. In this case, +9v. Pin is inactive.
12. 0v. Pin (GND)
Two 0v. Pins between +5v. And +9v. / One 0v. pin beside AREF pin. When Aurdino DC1 is
powered, 0v. Pin supplies 0 volts reference (GND) for +5v. Pin and +9v. Pin. When DC1 is not
powered, and Aurdino is powered through +5v. Pin or +9v. Pin, 0v. Pin must be used as GND
reference, connecting it to the external power source GND.
13. Digital In/Out Pin out
8 pin header (x2) 8 digital inputs/outputs: 0 to 7, corresponding to Port D. Pin0 (RX) and pin1
(TX) can be used as communication pins.Pin3, pin5 and pin6 can be used as PWM pins
(Atmega168 only).6 digital inputs/outputs: 8 to 13, corresponding to Port B.Pin10 (SS), pin11
(MOSI), pin12 (MISO) and pin13 (SCK) can be used as SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface).Pin9,
pin10 and pin11 can be used as PWM pins (Atmega8 andAtmega168).
14. Analog in Pin out
6 pin header 6 analog inputs: 0 to 5, corresponding to Port C.Pin4 (SDA) and pin5 (SCL) can be
used with I2C (two-wire serial bus).The analog input pins can be used as digital pins with
numbers 14 (analog input 0) to 19 (analog input 5).
15. GND pin
See 0v. Pin (GND).
16. AREF pin
The AREF can be set to Avcc (default), internal 2.56 volts (Atmega8), internal 1.1 volts
(Atmega168), or external AREF.In case of Avcc or internal AREF, AREF pin can be used to
attach external capacitor to decouple the signal, for better noise performance. In case of external
AREF, AREF pin is used to attach the external reference voltage. Remember that it is necessary
to change de fuses (wiring file), and reupload sketch, before connecting external voltage to
AREF.
4.3.1 Architecture of AVR Microcontrollers:
At the very beginning, you have to process the DATASHEET of the AVR device you are going
to use. You will notice that the architecture of the AVR devices are not every different from a
device to another. In need, there no difference between ATMEGA8, ATMEGA16, and
ATMEGA32 but the size of the memories (FLASH and EEPROM). A quick glance at the
features of the ATMEGA16's DATASHEET can give us a brief overview of its characteristics
that makes it a more advanced microcontroller as compared to the 8051. Here is a small
description of some of the most remarkable features:
4.3.1.1 Up to 16 MIPS: The ATMEGA16, being an AVR core, can execute up to 16 Million
Instruction per Second. This is due to the fact that most AVR instructions are executed on a
single clock cycle. So with an 8 MHz clock, you can perform 8 MIPS. Comparatively, an 8051
clocked at 8 MHz, would give a throughput of only 666 KHz, because 8051 need 12 clock cycles
per instruction!
4.3.1.2 EEPROM Memory: Most AVRs, including the ATMEGA16, come with an on chip
EEPROM memory, with ready to use instruction to access this memory, as you will see along
this tutorial (In case you don't know, EEPROM, is one where your program can store
information that won't be lost even in case of power loss).
4.3.1.3 ISP: In System Programming is becoming a standard in today's microcontroller, and
AVRs fully benefit for this technological advance, making it much simpler for developer to test
and debug their chips 'in system' (more about ISP).
4.3.1.4 Very Powerful and versatile TIMERS/COUNTERs: Most AVR timers/counters have
Prescallers, allowing them to be adapted to wide range of applications, and to dramatically
reduce the processor overhead. They also have a high sampling rate, enabling them to count very
fast external events.
There is also a set of built-in devices that importantly reduce the number of components in any
project:
a. PWM channels
b. ADCs
c. USART/TWI/SPI interfaces
d. On-Chip Analog comparator
4.3.2 Internal RC oscillator: This critical feature makes the ATMEGA16 for example; a
microcontroller that can run with only 5V and GND rails, nor any other component or
connection is needed to be made to make it functional. By the way, any ATMEGA8, 16, or 32
microcontroller is shipped with the internal oscillator turned ON and tuned to 1 MHz, making it
ready to be used with adding ANY external components like crystal resonator or capacitors. The
Internal oscillator frequency can be then tuned to different frequencies, up to 8MHz.Another
major characteristic of the AVRs is that some of their internal registers are READ-ONLY, and
some are WRITE-ONLY. You have to stick to the datasheet of your microcontroller, and be
careful with every register you're using.
(Fig.6- Architecture of Microcontroller)
4.4 Voltage Regulator (7805) :
(Fig.7- Voltage Regulator)
Pin Description:
Pin No Function Name
1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input
2 Ground (0V) Ground
3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output
Table No. - 2
7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage
regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed
voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx
in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated
power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending
upon the respective voltage levels.
The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-contained fixed linear
voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits
requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the
family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805
has a 5-volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage
regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related
line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs
can be used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.
78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO-220 form factor, although they
are available in surface-mount, TO-92, andTO-3 packages. These devices support an input
voltage anywhere from around 2.5 volts over the intended output voltage up to a maximum of 35
to 40 volts depending on the model, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though
smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating).
Advantages
 78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant, regulated source
of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and efficient uses of space. Other
voltage regulators may require additional components to set the output voltage level, or to
assist in the regulation process. Some other designs (such as aswitched-mode power supply)
may need substantial engineering expertise to implement.
 78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much current. They
have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most
applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the 78xx devices can provide
protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts of the circuit.
Disadvantages
 The input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage by some minimum amount
(typically 2.5 volts). This can make these devices unsuitable for powering some devices from
certain types of power sources (for example, powering a circuit that requires 5 volts using 6-
volt batteries will not work using a 7805).
 As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input current required is always the same
as the output current. As the input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage, this
means that the total power (voltage multiplied by current) going into the 78xx will be more
than the output power provided. The difference is dissipated as heat. This means both that for
some applications an adequate heat sink must be provided, and also that a (often substantial)
portion of the input power is wasted during the process, rendering them less efficient than
some other types of power supplies. When the input voltage is significantly higher than the
regulated output voltage (for example, powering a 7805 using a 24 volt power source), this
inefficiency can be a significant issue. Buck converters may be preferred over 78xx
regulators because they are more efficient and do not require heat sinks, but they are more
expensive.
The LM7805, like most other regulators, is a three-pin IC.

Pin 1 (Input Pin): The Input pin is the pin that accepts the incoming DC voltage, which the
voltage regulator will eventually regulate down to 5 volts.
Pin 2 (Ground): Ground pin establishes the ground for the regulator.
Pin 3 (Output Pin): The Output pin is the regulated 5 volts DC.
(Fig.8-7805 IC)
Be advised, though, that though this voltage regulator can accept an input voltage of 36 volts, it
is recommended to limit the voltage to 2-3 volts higher than the output regulated voltage. For a
5-volt regulator, no more than 8 volts should be applied as the input voltage. The difference
between the input and output voltage appears as heat. The greater the difference between the
input and output voltage, the more heat is generated. If too much heat is generated, through high
input voltage, the regulator can overheat. If the regulator does not have a heat sink to dissipate
this heat, it can be destroyed and malfunction. So the two options are, design your circuit so that
the input voltage going into the regulator is limited to 2-3 volts above the output regulated
voltage or place a heat sink in your circuit to dissipate the created heat.
4.5 Diode:
(Fig. -9 Diode)
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in one

direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow of current in
one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most
common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n
junction connected to two electrical terminals A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes,
a plate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor
electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German
physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes,
developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are
made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as selenium or germanium are sometimes used.
A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow through it in only one direction.
Although a transistor is also a semiconductor device, it does not operate the way a diode does. A
diode is specifically made to allow current to flow through it in only one direction. Some ways in
which the diode can be used are listed here.
a. A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct
Current) for a power supply device.
b. Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies.
c. Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current.
This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram. The meaning of the symbol is
(Anode) (Cathode).Current flows from the anode side to the cathode side. Although all
diodes operate with the same general principle, there are different types suited to different
applications.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction
(the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve.
This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating

current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio
receivers—these diodes are forms of rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on–off action, because of
their nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting
electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction
(a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-
biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can
be used as a temperature sensor or as a voltage reference.
A semiconductor diode's current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting
the semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during
manufacture. These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform many
different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect
circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV
receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio-frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn
diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (light-emitting diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and
IMPATT diodes exhibit negative resistance, which is useful in microwave and switching circuits.
4.6 Crystal Oscillator :
(Fig.10- Crystal Oscillator)
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency.
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency
This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time, as inquartz wristwatches, to provide a
stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitter
sand receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so
oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal oscillators ,but other piezoelectric
materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits.
Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of
megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for
consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz
crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators, and oscilloscopes.
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses a piezoelectric resonator, a crystal,
as its frequency-determining element. Crystal is the common term used in electronics for the
frequency-determining component, a wafer of quartz crystal or ceramic with electrodes
connected to it. A more accurate term for it is piezoelectric resonator. Crystals are also used in
other types of electronic circuits, such as crystal filters.
Piezoelectric resonators, crystals are sold as separate components for use in crystal oscillator
circuits, an example is shown in the picture. They are also often incorporated in a single package
with the crystal oscillator circuit, shown on the right hand side.
Operation-
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly
ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with
appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For
example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical
filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of
sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple,
rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut
in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-
cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal.
When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric
field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known
as electrostriction or inverse piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz generates an
electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that
a quartz crystal behaves like an RLC circuit, composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor,
with a precise resonant frequency.
Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that
the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific characteristics depend
on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its crystallographic
axes). Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size, does not change
much. This means that a quartz clock, filter or oscillator remains accurate. For critical
applications the quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called
a crystal oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external
mechanical vibrations.
4.7 Tactile Switch:
(Fig.11- Tactile Switch)
A tactile switch is an on/off electronic switch that is only on when the button is pressed or if
there is a definitive change in pressure. Another way to consider it, as momentary make or brake
switch. As soon as a tactile switches button is released, the circuit is broken.
A main area of tactile switches, are tact switches. Tact switches are tactile electromechanical
switches for keyboards, keypads, instruments or interface control-panel applications. Tact
switches react to user interaction with the button or switch when it makes contact with the
control panel beneath. In most cases this is usually a printed circuit board (PCB).
Tactile Switch Applications
Typical Tactile Switch applications include: Low power, miniature devices, digital switching,
anything where operator feedback is required (a switch confirmation coming from the switch
being depressed) will find that the perfect choice is a Tactile switch.
4.8 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):
(Fig. 12- LCD)
LCD is a type of display used in digital watches and many portable computers. LCD displays
utilize to sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric
current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through
them. LCD technology has advanced very rapidly since its initial inception over a decade ago for
use in lap top computers. Technical achievements has resulted in brighter displace, higher
resolutions, reduce response times and cheaper manufacturing process. The liquid crystals can be
manipulated through an applied electric voltage so that light is allowed to pass or is blocked. By
carefully controlling where and what wavelength (color) of light is allowed to pass, the LCD
monitor is able to display images. A backlight provides LCD monitor’s brightness. Over the
years many improvements have been made to LCD to help enhance resolution, image, sharpness
and response times. One of the latest such advancement is applied to glass during acts as switch
allowing control of light at the pixel level, greatly improving LCD’s ability to display small-
sized fonts and image clearly. Other advances have allowed LCD’s to greatly reduce liquid
crystal cell response times. Response time is basically the amount of time it takes for a pixel to
“change colors”, in reality response time is the amount of time it takes a liquid crystal cell to go
from being active to inactive.
This is due to following reasons:

a. The declining prices of LCDs.
b. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to LEDs,
which are limited to numbers and a few characters.
An intelligent LCD display of two lines, 20 characters per line that is interfaced to the
microcontroller. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU
to keep displaying the data. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.
Most of the LCD modules conform to a standard interface specification. A 14-pin access is
provided having eight data lines, three control lines and three power lines. The connections are
laid out in one of the two common configurations, either two rows of seven pins, or a single row
of 14 pins. One of these pins is numbered on the LCD’s printed circuit board (PCB), but if not, it
is quite easy to locate pin1. Since this pin is connected to ground, it often has a thicker PCB
track, connected to it, and it is generally connected to metal work at same point.
Pin Diagram and Description of LCD:
(Fig. 13- Pin Diagram of LCD)
Pin Description:

2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE
4 Selects command register when low; and data register when high Register Select
5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-
(Table No.-3)
1. Vcc, Vss and Vee: -

While Vcc and Vss provide +5V and ground respectively, Vee is used for controlling LCD
contrast.
2. RS Register Select: -
There are two very important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used for their selection as
follows. If RS=0, the instruction command code register is selected, allowing the user to send a
command such as clear display, cursor at home, etc. If RS=1, the data register is selected,
allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD.
3. R/W, read/write: -
R/W input allows the user to write information to the LCD or read information from it.
R/W = 1 for reading.
R/W= 0 for writing.
4. EN, enable: -
The LCD to latch information presented to its data pins uses the enable pin. When data is
supplied to data pins, a high–to-low pulse must be applied to this pin in order for the LCD to
latch in the data present at the data pins. This pulse must be a minimum of 450 ns wide.
5. D0 – D7: -
The 8–bit data pins, DO – D7, are used to send information to the LCD or read the contents of
the LCD’s internal registers. To display letters and numbers, we send ASCII codes for the letters
A–Z, a-z numbers 0-9 to these pins while making RS=1.There are also instruction command
codes that can be sent to the LCD to clear the display or force the cursor to home position or
blink the instruction command codes. We also use RS = 0 to check the busy flag bit to see if the
LCD is ready to receive information. The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W=1 and
RS=0, as follows: if R/W = 1, RS = 0. When D7= 1 (busy flag = 1), the LCD is busy taking care
of internal operations and will not accept any information.
4.9 Soil Moisture Sensor :

Soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content in soil. Since the direct gravimetric
measurement of free soil moisture requires removing, drying, and weighting of a sample, soil
moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content indirectly by using some other property
of the soil, such as electrical resistance, dielectric constant, or interaction with neutrons, as a
proxy for the moisture content. The relation between the measured property and soil moisture
must be
(Fig.14- Soil Moisture Sensor)
calibrated and may vary depending on environmental factors such as soil type, temperature,
or electric conductivity. Reflected microwave radiation is affected by the soil moisture and is
used for remote sensing in hydrology and agriculture. Portable probe instruments can be used by
farmers or gardeners.
Soil moisture sensors typically refer to sensors that estimate volumetric water content. Another
class of sensors measure another property of moisture in soils called water potential; these
sensors are usually referred to as soil water potential sensors and include tensiometers and
gypsum blocks.
Soil Moisture Sensor is a simple breakout for measuring the moisture in soil and similar
materials. The soil moisture sensor is pretty straight forward to use. The two large exposed pads
function as probes for the sensor, together acting as a variable resistor. The more water that is in
the soil means the better the conductivity between the pads will be and will result in a lower
resistance, and a higher SIG out.
To get the SparkFun Soil Moisture Sensor functioning all you will need is to connect the VCC
and GND pins to your Arduino-based device (or compatible development board) and you will
receive a SIG out which will depend on the amount of water in the soil. One commonly known
issue with soil moisture senors is their short lifespan when exposed to a moist environment. To
combat this, we’ve had the PCB coated in Gold Finishing (ENIG or Electroless Nickel
Immersion Gold). We recommend either a simple 3-pin screw pin terminal or a 3-pin jumper
wire assembly to be soldered onto the sensor for easy wiring.
4.10. water pump:
A liquid under high pressure will move to an area of less pressure if a path is provided. The
centrifugal pump works in the same way as sucking on the straw. As the engine starts, the
impeller turns which forces the water around it out of the pump's discharge port.
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical
action. Pumps can be classified into three major groups according to the method they use to
move the fluid: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps.
Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy to
perform mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources,
including manual operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, come in many sizes, from
microscopic for use in medical applications to large industrial pumps.
Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water from
wells, aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry for water-
cooling and fuel injection, in the energy industry for pumping oil and natural gas or for
operatingcooling towers. In the medical industry, pumps are used for biochemical processes in
developing and manufacturing medicine, and as artificial replacements for body parts, in
particular the artificial heart and penile prosthesis.
Centrifugal pumps are used to induce flow or raise pressure of a liquid. Its working is simple. At
the heart of the system lies impeller. It has a series of curved vanes fitted inside the shroud
plates. The impeller is always immersed in the water. When the impeller is made to rotate, it
makes the fluid surrounding it also rotate. This imparts centrifugal force to the water particles,
and water moves radially out. Since the rotational mechanical energy is transferred to the fluid,
at the discharge side of the impeller, both the pressure and kinetic energy of the water will rise.
At the suction side, water is getting displaced, so a negative pressure will be induced at the eye.
Such a low pressure helps to suck fresh water stream into the system again, and this process
continues. From foregoing discussions it is clear that, the negative pressure at the eye of the
impeller helps to maintain the flow in the system. If no water is present initially, the negative
pressure developed by the rotating air, at the eye will be negligibly small to suck fresh stream of
water. As a result the impeller will rotate without sucking and discharging any water content. So
the pump should be initially filled with water before starting it. This process is known as
priming.
A submersible pump (or sub pump, electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a device which has
a hermetically sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged
in the fluid to be pumped.[4] The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump
cavitation, a problem associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid
surface. Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet pumps having to pull
fluids. Submersibles are more efficient thanjet pumps.
Working principle
The submersible pumps used in ESP installations are multistage centrifugal pumps operating in a
vertical position. Although their constructional and operational features underwent a continuous
evolution over the years, their basic operational principle remained the same. Produced liquids,
after being subjected to great centrifugal forces caused by the high rotational speed of the
impeller, lose their kinetic energy in the diffuser where a conversion of kinetic to pressure energy
takes place. This is the main operational mechanism of radial and mixed flow pumps.
The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the protector by a mechanical coupling at the
bottom of the pump. When fluids enter the pump through an intake screen and are lifted by the
pump stages. Other parts include the radial bearings (bushings) distributed along the length of
the shaft providing radial support to the pump shaft turning at high rotational speeds. An optional
thrust bearing takes up part of the axial forces arising in the pump but most of those forces are
absorbed by the protector’s thrust bearing.
4.11 Motor Driver (L293D);
L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as current
amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and provide a higher-current signal. This
higher current signal is used to drive the motors.
L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode of operation, two DC
motors can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse direction. The motor
operations of two motors can be controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15. Input logic
00 or 11 will stop the corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in clockwise and
anticlockwise directions, respectively.
Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for motors to start operating.
When an enable input is high, the associated driver gets enabled. As a result, the outputs become
active and work in phase with their inputs. Similarly, when the enable input is low, that driver is
disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state.
Pin Diagram-
(Fig. 15- Pin Diagram of Motor Driver IC L293D)
Pin Description-
1 Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Enable 1,2
2 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 1
3 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 1
8 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V) Vcc 2
9 Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Enable 3,4
15 Input2 for Motor 1 Input 4
16 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 36V) Vcc 1
(Table No. -4)
4.12 Power supply:
AC Step Down Bridge DC

Filter Regulator
Transformer Rectifier
(Fig. -17 Block Diagram of Power Supply)
The main work of sections of Power supply is described as:
 Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Bridge Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing Circuit - Smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Voltage Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
(Fig.18- Circuit of Power supply)
4.13 Relay:
(Fig. 19- Relay)
What is a relay?
We know that most of the high end industrial application devices have relays for their effective
working. Relays are simple switches which are operated both electrically and mechanically.
Relays consist of a n electromagnet and also a set of contacts. The switching mechanism is
carried out with the help of the electromagnet. There are also other operating principles for its
working. But they differ according to their applications. Most of the devices have the application
of relays.
Why is a relay used?

The main operation of a relay comes in places where only a low-power signal can be used to
control a circuit. It is also used in places where only one signal can be used to control a lot of
circuits. The application of relays started during the invention of telephones. They played an
important role in switching calls in telephone exchanges. They were also used in long distance
telegraphy. They were used to switch the signal coming from one source to another destination.
After the invention of computers they were also used to perform Boolean and other logical
operations. The high end applications of relays require high power to be driven by electric
motors and so on. Such relays are called contactors.
There are only four main parts in a relay. They are
 Electromagnet
 Movable Armature
 Switch point contacts
 Spring
How relay works?

The working of a relay can be better understood by explaining the following diagram given
below.
(Fig.20- Relay Design)
The diagram shows an inner section diagram of a relay. An iron core is surrounded by a control
coil. As shown, the power source is given to the electromagnet through a control switch and
through contacts to the load. When current starts flowing through the control coil, the
electromagnet starts energizing and thus intensifies the magnetic field. Thus the upper contact
arm starts to be attracted to the lower fixed arm and thus closes the contacts causing a short
circuit for the power to the load. On the other hand, if the relay was already de-energized when
the contacts were closed, then the contact move oppositely and make an open circuit.
As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned by a force back to its
initial position. This force will be almost equal to half the strength of the magnetic force. This
force is mainly provided by two factors. They are the spring and also gravity. Relays are mainly
made for two basic operations. One is low voltage application and the other is high voltage. For
low voltage applications, more preference will be given to reduce the noise of the whole circuit.
For high voltage applications, they are mainly designed to reduce a phenomenon called arcing.
Relay Basics
The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 – pin relay shown below. There are
two colours shown. The green colour represents the control circuit and the red colour represents
the load circuit. A small control coil is connected onto the control circuit. A switch is connected
to the load. This switch is controlled by the coil in the control circuit. Now let us take the
different steps that occour in a relay.
(Fig.21-Relay operation)
 Energized Relay (ON)
As shown in the circuit, the current flowing through the coils represented by pins 1 and 3 causes
a magnetic field to be aroused. This magnetic field causes the closing of the pins 2 and 4. Thus
the switch plays an important role in the relay working. As it is a part of the load circuit, it is
used to control an electrical circuit that is connected to it. Thus, when the relay in energized the
current flow will be through the pins 2 and 4.
(Fig.22- Energized Relay (ON)
 De – Energized Relay (OFF)

As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the switch opens and thus the open circuit
prevents the current flow through pins 2 and 4. Thus the relay becomes de-energized and thus in
off position.
(Fig.23- De-Energized Relay (OFF)
In simple, when a voltage is applied to pin 1, the electromagnet activates, causing a magnetic
field to be developed, which goes on to close the pins 2 and 4 causing a closed circuit. When
there is no voltage on pin 1, there will be no electromagnetic force and thus no magnetic field.
Thus the switches remain open.
4.14 LED :
(Fig.24- LED)
Description: LEDs - those blinky things. A must have for power indication, pin status, opto-
electronic sensors, and fun blinky displays.
This is a very standard red LED. The lens is 3mm in diameter, and is diffused.
Features:
 1.8-2.2VDC forward drop

 Max current: 20mA
 Suggested using current: 16-18mA
 Luminous Intensity: 150-200mcd
CHAPTER - 05
BLOCK DIAGRAM &
WORKING
5.1. Block Diagram
(Fig. 25- Block Diagram of Project)
5.2 WORKING –
The Microcontroller based automated irrigation system consists of moisture sensor, analog to
digital converter, microcontroller, Relay, motor driver, solar panel and a battery. The moisture
sensor is buried in the field at required depth. If the moisture content in the field gets reduced to
lower threshold limit, the signal is produced from the microcontroller to turn ON relay. The relay
in turn on the water pump then water from the source is supplied to the field. Moisture level
sensed from the sensor will be displayed in the LCD display. After reaching upper threshold
limit, the sensor gives corresponding signal to the microcontroller and the relay is turned OFF
and hence the pump gets off.
This system uses solar panels to power the circuit. In agricultural field, the proper usage of
automatic irrigation method is very vital due to some shortcomings of the real world like scarcity
of land reservoir water and scarcity of rainfall. The water level (the ground water table) is getting
reduced due to continuous extraction of water from the ground and thus gradually resulting in
water scarcity in the agricultural zones slowly turning them into barren lands. In these irrigation
systems solar energy generated from the solar panels is used for operating the irrigation pump.
The circuit comprises moisture sensors built by using ATMEGA8L IC. Two stiff copper wires
are inserted into the soil to know whether soil is wet or dry. A charge controller circuit is used to
charge the photovoltaic cells for supplying the solar energy to the whole circuit. A moisture
sensor is used for sensing the soil condition – to know whether the soil is wet or dry, and the
input signals are then sent to microcontroller, which controls the whole circuit. The
microcontroller is programmed by using KEIL software. Whenever the soil condition is ‘dry’,
the microcontroller sends commands to the relay driver and the motor gets switched on and
supplies water to the field. And, if the soil gets wet, the motor gets switched off. The signals that
are sent from the sensors to the microcontroller through the output of the comparator operate
under the control of a software program which is stored in the ROM of the microcontroller. The
LCD displays the condition of the pump (on or off) interfaced to the microcontroller. The system
provides with several benefits and can operate with less manpower. The system supplies water
only when the humidity in the soil goes below the reference. Due to the direct transfer of water
to the roots water conservation takes place and also helps to maintain the moisture to soil ratio at
the root zone constant to some extent. Thus the system is efficient and compatible to changing
environment. The Microcontroller Based Automated Irrigation System monitors and controls all
the activities of drip irrigation system efficiently. Microcontroller Based Automated Irrigation
System is a valuable tool for accurate soil moisture control in highly specialized greenhouse
vegetable production and it is a simple, precise method of irrigation. It also helps in time saving,
removal of human error in adjusting available soil moisture levels and to maximize their net
profits. The system provides with several benefits and can operate with less manpower.
CHAPTER – 06
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM &
PROGRAM
6.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM –
(Fig. 26- Circuit Diagram of Project)
6.2 PCB Layout –
(Fig.27 – PCB Layout)
6.3 PROGRAM –
ORG 0H
LJMP STRT
ORG 000BH
LJMP INTRR
ORG 0030H
STRT:
SETB P1.5
MOV P0,#0FFH
PL:
SETB P3.5
SETB P3.3
CLR P3.4
SETB P3.4
H9:
JB P3.5,H9
CLR P3.3
LCALL INI
MOV A,#'S'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'u'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'b'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'m'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'i'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'t'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'t'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'e'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'d'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'B'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'y'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'M'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'o'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'h'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'i'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#0C4H
ACALL CW
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'t'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'V'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'i'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'p'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'u'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'l'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'M'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
ACALL DELAY
MOV A,#01H
ACALL CW
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'o'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'i'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'s'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'t'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'u'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'r'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'e'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'S'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'e'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'n'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'s'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'o'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'r'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'B'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'a'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'s'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'e'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'d'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'I'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'r'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'r'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'i'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'g'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'a'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'t'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'i'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'o'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#'n'
ACALL DWRO
ACALL DE
MOV A,#0C6H
ACALL CW
ACALL DE
MOV TMOD,#02H
MOV IE,#82H
MOV R1,P0
MOV A,R1
MOV R4,A
ACALL COMPAIR
MOV A,R4
LCALL CONV
LCALL DTA
ACALL DELAY
LJMP STRT
DELAY:
MOV R3,#0FFH
MOV P2,A
CLR P3.1
CLR P3.0
SETB P3.2
ACALL DE
CLR P3.2
RET
DWRO:
MOV P2,A
SETB P3.1
CLR P3.0
SETB P3.2
ACALL DE
CLR P3.2
RET
SETB TR0
CPL P1.5
RET
END
CHAPTER – 07
ADVANTAGES,
DRAWBACKS &
APPLICATIONS
7.1 Advantages –
1. Saves water - Studies show that drip irrigation systems use 30 - 50% less water than
conventional watering methods, such as sprinklers.
2. Improves growth - Smaller amounts of water applied over a longer amount of time provide
ideal growing conditions. Drip irrigation extends watering times for plants, and prevents soil
erosion and nutrient runoff. Also, because the flow is continuous, water penetrates deeply into
the soil to get well down into the root zone.
3. Discourages weeds - Water is only delivered where it's needed.
4. Saves time - Setting and moving sprinklers is not required. A timer delay as per environment
can be added to the system for automatic watering.
5. Helps control fungal diseases, which grow quickly under moist conditions. Also, wet foliage
can spread disease.
6. Adaptable - A drip irrigation system can be modified easily to adjust to the changing needs of
a garden or lawn.
7. Simplest Method - Start by drawing a map of your garden and yard, showing the location of
plantings. Measure the distances required for lengths of hose or plastic tubing to reach the
desired areas.
8. Automation eliminates the manual operation of opening or closing valves.
9. Possibility to change frequency of irrigation and fertigation processes and to optimise these
processes.
10. Adoption of advanced crop systems and new technologies, especially new crop systems that
are complex and difficult to operate manually.
11. Use of water from different sources and increased efficiency in water and fertiliser use.
12. System can be operated at night, water loss from evaporation is thus minimized.
13. Irrigation process starts and stops exactly when required, thus optimising energy
requirements.
7.2 Drawbacks–
1. The systems can be very expensive.

2. Self-help compatibility is very low with big-scale systems, which are very complex.
3. Most automated irrigation systems need electricity.
7.3 Applications –
Almost every irrigation system can be automated. It makes sense in every region of the world as
it saves time and water. Furthermore, high‐tech designs allow for very efficient irrigation i.e.
metering the water volumes more precisely. Once the system is optimized, laborers do not have
to worry about the irrigation process and can concentrate on more important tasks.
CHAPTER – 08
CONCLUSION
08 Conclusion & Future Direction –
As water supplies become scarce and polluted, there is a need to irrigate more efficiently in order
to minimize water use and chemical leaching. Recent advances in soil water sensor make the
commercial use of this technology possible to automate irrigation management for vegetable
production. However, research indicates that different sensors types may not perform alike under
all conditions. Reductions in water use range as high as 70% compared to farmer practices with
no negative impact on crop yields. Due to the soil's natural variability, location and number of
soil water sensors may be crucial and future work should include optimization of sensor
placement. Additional research should also include techniques to overcome the limitation of
requiring a soil specific calibration.
REFERENCES –
1. McDermott, James E. Horne; Maura (2001). The next green revolution : essential steps to a
healthy, sustainable agriculture . New York [u.a.]: Food Products Press. p. 226. ISBN
1560228865 .
2. Simalenga, Mark Hankins ; illustrations by Francis Njeru & Michael Glen-Williamson ; layout
by Michael Okendo ; edited by Timothy (1995).
3. India's Solar Power GREENING INDIA'S FUTURE ENERGY DEMAND
4. Wethe, David (29 November 2012). "For Fracking, It's Getting Easier Being Green" .
Bloomberg Businessweek . Retrieved 12 December 2012.
5. C. D. West Stirling Engines and Irrigation Pumping, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
ORNL/TM-10475, August 1987
6. Decagon Devices " List of peer-reviewed publications using Decagon soil moisture sensors ".
Retrieved: 20 July 2015.1. ^ a b McDermott, James E. Horne; Maura (2001). The next green
revolution : essential steps to a healthy, sustainable agriculture . New York [u.a.]: Food Products
Press. p. 226. ISBN 1560228865 .
7. Forbes T. Brown (2006). Engineering System Dynamics . CRC Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-
8493-9648-9 .
8. Kenneth L. Kaiser (2004). Electromagnetic Compatibility Handbook . CRC Press. pp. 13–52.
ISBN 978-0-8493-2087-3 .
9. Dukes, M.D.; Scholberg, J.M. 2005. Soil moisture controlled subsurface drip irrigation on
sandy soils. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 21(1):89-101.
10. Irmak, S.; Haman, D.Z. 2001. Performance of the Watermark granular matrix sensor in sandy
soils. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 17(6):787-795.

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Department of ELEC. & ELEX. ENGG.

A Major Project Report

02. NEED OF AUTOMATIC IRRIGATION :

Controller instructions can by supplied by manufacturers or local irrigation distributors upon

03. LIST OF COMPONENTS :

No. Component Size Quantity

9 Crystal oscillator 16MHz 1

12 Soil Moisture Sensor 1

14 Motor Driver (L293D) 1

15 Step Down Transformer 230V to 12V 1

(Table No. – 01)

04. DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS :

(Fig.2- Colour Coding of Resistor)

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors

4.2.1 Types of Capacitor:

(Fig.4- Types of Capacitor)

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

4.3 Microcontroller ATmega8L:

(Fig.5 - Pin diagram of Microcontroller)

11. +5v. Pin

(Fig.6- Architecture of Microcontroller)

4.4 Voltage Regulator (7805) :

(Fig.7- Voltage Regulator)

Pin No Function Name

1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input

2 Ground (0V) Ground

3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output

The LM7805, like most other regulators, is a three-pin IC.

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts primarily in one

This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating

4.6 Crystal Oscillator :

(Fig.10- Crystal Oscillator)

4.7 Tactile Switch:

(Fig.11- Tactile Switch)

Tactile Switch Applications

4.8 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):

(Fig. 12- LCD)

This is due to following reasons:

Pin Diagram and Description of LCD:

(Fig. 13- Pin Diagram of LCD)

Pin No Function Name

1. Vcc, Vss and Vee: -

4.9 Soil Moisture Sensor :

(Fig.14- Soil Moisture Sensor)

4.10. water pump:

4.11 Motor Driver (L293D);

(Fig. 15- Pin Diagram of Motor Driver IC L293D)

Pin No Function Name

1 Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Enable 1,2

2 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 1

3 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 1

4 Ground (0V) Ground

5 Ground (0V) Ground

6 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 2

7 Input 2 for Motor 1 Input 2

8 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V) Vcc 2

9 Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Enable 3,4

10 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 3

11 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 3

12 Ground (0V) Ground

13 Ground (0V) Ground

14 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 4