Chapter 3 : Introduction to Atmospheric Vehicle

Chapter 3 : Introduction To Atmospheric Vehicles

• Lighter-than-Air vehicle

• Heavier-than-Air Vehicle

• Category of aircraft

• Aircraft Anatomy – types of wing, fuselage and control surfaces

• Aircraft system – propulsion system, avionics systems and structure

• Component and basic principles of Rotary flight- Helicopter

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Atmospheric Vehicles : Lighter-Than- Air (LTA)

Lighter-than-air flight was the first method used to

take to the skies.

Lifting capabilities depends on being inflated (or

expand) with a gas that is lighter than the air in
which it is supported.

Lighter-Than-Air
Air that is less dense (or "lighter") rises. Heating Vehicle
the air inside of an envelope (or balloon) makes
the heated air less dense, thereby causing it to
rise.

Another method is to fill the envelope with low- Balloons Dirigibles/ Airship
density (or "light") gas such as hydrogen, which is
very flammable, or helium.

There are two basic types of lighter-than-air

vehicles -- balloons and dirigibles.

Balloons are unpowered LTA where the pilot can

only control altitude.

Dirigibles, often called airships, are powered LTA

craft, light-than-air vehicles that can be steered.
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LTA: THE BOUYANCY

Balloons and airships lift because

they are buoyant, meaning that the
total weight of the airship or balloon
is less than the weight of the air it
displaces. The Greek philosopher
Archimedes first established the
basic principle of buoyancy.

Hot air balloons were first flown by

the brothers Joseph and Etienne
Montgolfier as early as the spring
of 1783. While the materials and
technology are very different, the
principles used by the earliest
eighteenth-century experimenters
continue to carry modern sport and
weather balloons aloft.
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LTA: The Nonrigid Airship and Semirigid Airship

There are three types of airships: the

nonrigid airship, often called a
blimp; the semirigid airship, and the
rigid airship, sometimes called a
Zeppelin.

The first effort at building an airship

involved stretching the round balloon
into an egg shape that was kept
inflated by internal air pressure.
These non-rigid airships,
commonly called blimps, used
ballonets, air bags located inside
the outer envelope that expanded
or contracted to compensate for
changes in the gas. Because these
blimps often collapsed under stress,
designers added a fixed keel under
the envelope to give it strength or
enclosed the gas bag inside a frame.
These semirigid airships were often
used for reconnaissance flights.
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LTA: Rigid Airship or Zeppelin

The rigid airship was the most useful type of airship. A rigid airship has an internal framework of steel or
aluminum girders that supports the outside material and gives it shape. Only this type of airship could
reach sizes that made it useful for carrying passengers and cargo.
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Heavier-than-air (HTA) aircraft

•An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by

gaining support from the air, or, in general, the
atmosphere of a planet. It counters the force of
gravity by using either static lift or by using the
dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the
downward thrust from jet engines.

•Three categories of HTA aircraft are airplane,

helicopter and glider.

•lift is produced by a reaction between

wings and motion through the air

•an airplane is a heavier-than-air craft that is

propelled by an engine and uses fixed wings
to generate lift.

•a helicopter also propelled by an engine but

uses rotating wings(blades) to generate lift.

•a glider is a heavier-than-air craft that is not

supported by engine power. its propulsion
through the air is derived from gravity &
aerodynamic forces.
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Airfoil Geometry

The amount of lifts generated by an aerofoil depend upon:

a) The shape of the aerofoil.

b) The plane area of the aerofoil (Aspect Ratio).

c) The square of the velocity (U).

d) The density of the air (ρ).

e) The aerofoil inclination to the airflow (AOA).

An object with this shape is called an airfoil. Often, the

words "wing" and "airfoil" are used interchangeably, but they
shouldn't be. Airfoil shapes are designed to generate as
much lift as possible while incurring as little drag as
possible.
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Aircraft Category AIRCRAFT

HEAVIER THAN AIR

LIGHTER THAN AIR

NON POWER
POWER DRIVEN NON POWER
DRIVEN POWER DRIVEN
DRIVEN

AEROPLANES ROTORCRAFT

LANDPLANES AM PHIBIAN

SEAPLANES

HELICOPTER GYROCOPTER

FLOAT EQUIPPED
FLYING BOATS SEAPLANES
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Airplanes Anatomy
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Gliders Anatomy
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Airplanes Description
.
Fuselage – The fuselage is the central body portion of an airplane, designed to
accommodate the pilot/crew and the passengers and/or cargo.

Cockpit – In general aviation airplanes (all except those operated by airlines and the
military) the cockpit is usually the space in the fuselage for the pilot and passengers; in
some aircraft it is just the pilot’s compartment.

Propeller – A propeller is a rotating blade on the front of the airplane. The engine turns
the propeller, which pulls the airplane through the air.

Wings – Wing are the parts of airplanes that provide lift and support the entire weight
of the aircraft and its contents while in flight.

Flaps –Flaps are the movable sections of an airplane’s wings that are closest to the
fuselage. They move in the same direction on both wings at the same time, and enable
the airplane to fly more slowly.

Landing Gear – A landing gear is underneath the airplane and supports it while on the
ground. A landing gear usually includes a wheel and tire.
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Airplanes Description
Ailerons – Ailerons are the outward movable sections of an airplane’s wings. They move in
opposite directions (if one goes up, the other goes down). They are used in making turns
,and they control movement around the longitudinal axis (imagine a line through the
airplane from the nose to the tail).

Rudder – The rudder is the movable vertical section of the tail that controls lateral
(side-to-side) movement. When the rudder moves one direction, the aircraft nose moves
the same direction, while the tail moves in the opposite direction.

Horizontal Stabilizer – The horizontal stabilizer is the horizontal surface at the rear of the
fuselage designed to balance the airplane.

Elevator – The elevator is the movable horizontal section of the tail that causes the plane
to move up and down. When the elevator moves one direction, the nose moves in the
same direction.

Spinner - streamlined part that covers the end of the Prop shaft.
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Helicopter Anatomy
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Airplanes Configuration: Wing structure

• Wings are the major characteristic
for airplanes

•Wings can be configured as high

wing, low wing or mid wing

• Most modern airplanes are

monoplanes; that is, they have one
wing.

•Airplanes with two wings are called

biplanes.

•There have even been triplanes, the

most famous of which was the Fokker
triplane flown by the Red Baron in
World War I.
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Airplanes Configuration
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Wing Tips Configuration

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Tails Configuration
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Wing And Tail Combinations Configuration

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Engines Mounting Configuration

Embedded engines Podded engines

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Wing Diheral
Wing Dihedral refers to the angle of wing
panels as seen in the aircraft's front view.
Dihedral is added to the wings for roll
stability; a wing with some Dihedral will
naturally return to its original position if it is
subject to a briefly slight roll displacement.
Most large airliner wings are designed with
Dihedral.
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Wing Planform
Aircraft wings are built in many shapes and sizes for
difference application. It is depending on the desired
flight characteristics of an aircraft. Also, wing designed in
difference configurations to achieve greater lift, balance
or stability in flight.
Forward swept wing

Here shows a number of typical wing types

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Aspect Ratio
Aspect Ratio is a measure of how long and slender a wing is from tip
to tip. The Aspect Ratio of a wing is defined to be the square of the
span divided by the wing area and is given the symbol AR. The formula
is simplified for a rectangular wing, as being the ratio of the span to
the chord length as shown on the figure below.
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Airplane Monoplane Wing Configuration

Each wing type has its own flight characteristics. Next is the most
common types of airplanes wing and its flight characteristics :

High Wing

•The wings are rooted on top of the fuselage. These planes typically have a dihedral to their main
wing that adds additional stability and provides the most “self-correction” when exiting turns. Better
ground visibility, gravity fuel feed, but high drag.

•This configuration is favored for training purposes because it offers more stability at slower speeds
and a tendency to right itself, allowing an apprentice pilot more room for error. High wing planes
make excellent trainers and also typically lose less altitude through gentle aileron turns than their
counterparts.

•Least aerobatic and typically the slowest of the three major designs but also has the lowest
minimum airspeed requirements so they are perfect for beginners.

•Most high wing planes are not considered extremely aerobatic, but are capable of many
maneuvers such as rolls, loops and inverted flight to mention a few.

•Most aerodynamically stable as the fuselage acts like a pendulum under the wing.
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Low Wing

• Low wing planes have the wing located below the fuselage and the centerline of the airframe. Found
on fighter planes, personal aircraft, and passenger jets.

•The wing is rooted at the bottom part of the aircraft fuselage, usually just below the pilots seat in GA
aircraft. Good for touring and passenger aircraft, low drag. Low wing designs take advantage of the
fuselage as a lifting surface, handle high speed very well, are very sturdy airplanes and have a nice
place to hide retractable landing gear!

•Generally the wing has a more pronounced dihedral to give it more stability in turns and help prevent
stalling at slower speeds.

•The wing have tendency to want to loose altitude in a turn, requiring more coordinated elevator
and/or rudder, but also lend themselves to be more aerobatic than a high wing plane. Low-wing
designs can accommodate sport flying and combat aerobatics very well. Low-wing planes tend to slip
easier than other design due to the fact that the fuselage sits atop the main wing and is unable to
interrupt lateral airflow. Considerable rudder input is required to maintain a flat turn, especially if no
dihedral is present. Not the best choice for a beginner but a very common next step as skills improve.

•Landing characteristics are different compared to a high wing plane in that they require more speed
on approach and are much more influenced by ground effect
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Mid Wing

•The rooting takes place approximately half way up the fuselage. Nice very strong wing and
fuselage binding for aerobatics.

•Mid-wing planes are typically very well balanced and offer much bigger control surfaces
makes them highly maneuverable and predictable in their flight characteristic

•With the center of lateral rotation intersecting with the longitudinal axis, stunts and extreme
maneuvers behave predictably and adhere to their axes. Although usually configured for
massive thrust, mid-wings are typically not the fastest design.

•The control surface throw distance is enormous on these planes and they are very sensitive
to input, so not the best beginner plane for most flyers. Even on low rates, their roll rate is
blistering fast.
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Airplane Control Surface

The airplane’s motion about its longitudinal axis resembles the roll of a ship from side to side. In fact,
the names used in describing the motion about an airplane’s three axes were originally nautical terms.
They have been adapted to aeronautical terminology because of the similarity of motion between an
airplane and the seagoing ship.

In light of the adoption of nautical terms, the motion about the airplane’s longitudinal axis is called “roll”;
motion about its lateral axis is referred to as “pitch.” Finally, an airplane moves about its vertical axis in
a motion, which is termed “yaw”—that is, a horizontal (left and right) movement of the airplane’s nose.

The three motions of the airplane (roll, pitch, and yaw) are controlled by three control surfaces. Roll is
controlled by the ailerons; pitch is controlled by the elevators; yaw is controlled by the rudder.
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Primary flight controls

Ailerons:

•Deflection of aileron trailing edge alters both lift and drag With aileron deflection, there is
asymmetrical lift (rolling moment) about the longitudinal axis and drag (adverse yaw).

•An airplane has a pair of ailerons, controlled by servos, that move opposite of each other unless
they are in the neutral (flat with the wing) position. With the right aileron up and the left aileron
down the airplane will roll to the right. Move the right aileron down, the left goes up and the
airplane starts rolling to the left.

•Always act in an opposing manor :

Yoke "turns" left: left aileron rises creating downward lift, as the right lowers creating
upward lift
Yoke "turns" right: right aileron rises creating downward lift, as the left lowers creating
upward lift
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Primary flight controls

Rudder:

•Creates a yawing moment

•Manipulates the vertical axis

•Used to yaw the aircraft left and right

•The rudder manipulates the airfoil through a system of cables and pulleys:
"Step" on the right rudder pedal: rudder moves right creating a yaw to the right
"Step" on the left rudder pedal: rudder moves left creating a yaw to the left
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Primary flight controls

Elevator

•Creates a pitching moment . The nose of the plane moves

in the direction of the elevators. Point the elevator up and
the nose goes up and the airplane climbs. Move the
elevator so it is pointing down and the nose goes down and
the airplane descends.

•Manipulate the lateral axis Used to pitch the aircraft up and

down by creating a load on the tail.

• The yoke manipulates the airfoil through a system of

cables and pulleys:
Yoke "pulls" back: elevator raises creating
downward lift, raising the nose
Yoke "pushes" forward: elevator lowers creating
upward ift, lowering the nose
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Secondary flight controls

Flaps (High Lift Device)

Flaps are the most common high-lift devices

used on practically all airplanes. These surfaces,
which are attached to the trailing edge of the
wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any
given angle of attack.

The plain flap is the simplest of the four types. It

increases the airfoil camber, resulting in a
significant increase in the coefficient of lift at a
given angle of attack. At the same time, it greatly
increases drag and moves the center of pressure
aft on the airfoil, resulting in a nose-down pitching
moment.

The split flap is deflected from the lower surface

of the airfoil and produces a slightly greater
increase in lift than does the plain flap. However,
more drag is created because of the turbulent air
pattern produced behind the airfoil. When fully
extended, both plain and split flaps produce high
drag with little additional lift.
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Secondary flight controls

Flaps (High Lift Device)

The most popular flap on airplanes today is the slotted flap.

Variations of this design are used for small airplanes as well as
for large ones. Slotted flaps increase the lift coefficient
significantly more than plain or spilt flaps. On small airplanes,
the hinge is located below the lower surface of the flap, and
when the flap is lowered, it forms a duct between the flap well
in the wing and the leading edge of the flap. When the slotted
flap is lowered, high-energy air from the lower surface is
ducted to the flap’s upper surface.

Fowler flaps are a type of slotted flap. This flap design not
only changes the camber of the wing, it also increases the
wing area. Instead of rotating down on a hinge, it slides
backwards on tracks. In the first portion of its extension, it
increases the drag very little, but increases the lift a great deal
as it increases both the area and camber. As the extension
continues, the flap deflects downward, and during the last
portion of its travel, it increases the drag with little additional
increase in lift.
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Secondary flight controls

Slats (High Lift Device)

High-lift devices also can be applied to the leading

edge of the airfoil. The most common types are fixed
slots, movable slats, and leading edge flaps.

Fixed slots direct airflow to the upper wing surface

and delay airflow separation at higher angles of attack.
The slot does not increase the wing camber, but allows
a higher maximum coefficient of lift because the stall is
delayed until the wing reaches a greater angle of
attack.

Movable slats consist of leading edge segments,

which move on tracks. At low angles of attack, each
slat is held flush against the wing’s leading edge by the
high pressure that forms at the wing’s leading edge. As
the angle of attack increases, the high-pressure area
moves aft below the lower surface of the wing,
allowing the slats to move forward. Some slats,
however, are pilot operated and can be deployed at
any angle of attack. Opening a slat allows the air
below the wing to flow over the wing’s upper surface,
delaying airflow separation.

Leading edge flaps, like trailing edge flaps, are used

to increase both CLmax and the camber of the wings.
This type of leading edge device is frequently used in
conjunction with trailing edge flaps and can reduce the
nose-down pitching movement produced by the latter.
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Secondary flight controls

Spoilers (High Drag Device)

high-drag devices called spoilers are deployed

from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow,
reducing lift and increasing drag. Spoilers are
used for roll control on some aircraft, one of the
advantages being the elimination of adverse yaw.
To turn right, for example, the spoiler on the right
wing is raised, destroying some of the lift and
creating more drag on the right. The right wing
drops, and the airplane banks and yaws to the
right. Deploying spoilers on both wings at the
same time allows the aircraft to descend without
gaining speed. Spoilers are also deployed to help
shorten ground roll after landing. By destroying lift,
they transfer weight to the wheels, improving
braking effectiveness.
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Unconventional Flight Control Surface

Elevons

•Combining the function of ailerons and

elevators into a single set of control
surfaces
• Elevons are usually found on Delta
wing aircraft. On this type of aircraft the
wings are enlarged and extend to the
back of the plane.
•There is no separate horizontal
stabilizer where you would find the
elevators on conventional straight-wing
aircraft. When the elevons are both up
or both down they act like elevators.
•With both up, the nose of the airplane
goes up and the aircraft climbs. With
both down, the nose of the airplane
goes down and the aircraft dives or
descends.
•When the elevons go up and down
opposite of each other they act like
ailerons.
•Left elevon up and right elevon down -
- aircraft rolls to the left. Left elevon
down and right elevon up -- aircraft
rolls to the right.
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Unconventional Flight Control Surface

Differential Thrust/ Thrust vector

•Differential thrust (normally found in some RC

airplanes) have no ailerons, elevators, elevons, or
rudders. Other names you might read: twin motor
thrust vectoring, differential throttle, differential
motor control, differential steering.

•The definition for thrust vectoring for real aircraft

is a bit more complicated, for RC aircraft the term
thrust vectoring is generally used to describe a
method of changing the direction of the aircraft by
applying more or less power to a pair of (usually)
wing-mounted motors.

•Applying less power to the left motor causes the

aircraft to turn to the left. Less power to the right
motor sends the aircraft to the right.

•Differential thrust is applying differing amounts

of power so that you get differing amounts of thrust
from each motor. It may be found with rear-facing
or forward-facing twin props
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Secondary flight controls

Trim Tab

Trim systems are used to relieve the pilot of the need to maintain
constant pressure on the flight controls. Trim systems usually
consist of cockpit controls and small hinged devices attached to
the trailing edge of one or more of the primary flight control
surfaces. They are designed to help minimize a pilot’s workload
by aerodynamically assisting movement and position of the flight
control surface to which they are attached. Common types of
trim systems include trim tabs, balance tabs, antiservo tabs,
ground adjustable tabs, and an adjustable stabilizer

Trim Tab attached to the trailing edge of the elevator. Most trim
tabs are manually operated by a small, vertically mounted control
wheel. However, a trim crank may be found in some airplanes.
The cockpit control includes a tab position indicator.

Balance Tab look like trim tabs and are hinged in

approximately the same places as trim tabs. The essential
difference between the two is that the balancing tab is coupled
to the control surface rod so that when the primary control
surface is moved in any direction, the tab automatically moves
in the opposite direction. In this manner, the airflow striking the
tab counter-balances some of the air pressure against the
primary control surface, and enables the pilot to more easily
move and hold the control surface in position.
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Antiservo tab also functions as a trim device to

relieve control pressure and maintain the stabilator
in the desired position. The fixed end of the linkage
is on the opposite side of the surface from the horn
on the tab, and when the trailing edge of the
stabilator moves up, the linkage forces the trailing
edge of the tab up. When the stabilator moves
down, the tab also moves down. This is different
than trim tabs on elevators, which move opposite of
the control surface.

This tab works in the same manner as the balance

tab except that, instead of moving in the opposite
direction, it moves in the same direction as the
trailing edge of the stabilator. For example, when
the trailing edge of the stabilator moves up, the
linkage forces the trailing edge of the tab up. When
the stabilator moves down, the tab also moves
down.
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ground adjustable tabs

adjustable stabilizer
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Basic Propulsion System

Propeller engine

In a typical propulsion system, an engine

mixes fuel with air and burns the fuel to
release the energy. The resulting heated gas
moves a piston, which is attached to a
crankshaft. This spins a propeller, or prop,
which is essentially an array of spinning
wings.

Each blade is an airfoil with an angle of

attack. The angle is greater toward the
center because the speed of the propeller
through the air is slower close to the hub.
Many larger prop-driven aircraft boast
propellers with adjustable pitch mechanisms.
These mechanisms let the pilot adjust the
propeller's angle of attack depending on air
speed and altitude. There are, of course,
variations. For example, in turbo prop
planes, a gas turbine spins the propeller,
and electric aircraft designs don't employ
combustion.
•Propeller engine: engine of propulsion or traction equipped
with blades.
•Carburetor: apparatus where fuel is mixed with to feed an
internal combustion engine.
•Crank: arm perpendicular to an axle used to create circular
motion.
•Piston: cylindrical part that moves up and down in a tube
and transmit power produced by the fuel.
•Cylinder: type of roller that applies uniform pressure.
•Valve: regulation device.
•Exhaust: device composed of parts that allow the expulsion
of spent gases.
•Propeller blade: blade, arm of the propeller.
Spark plug: ignition device of an internal combustion engine
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Propeller

A cross section of a typical propeller blade is shown in

figure. This section or blade element is an airfoil
comparable to a cross section of an airplane wing. One
surface of the blade is cambered or curved, similar to
the upper surface of an airplane wing, while the other
surface is flat like the bottom surface of a wing.

Airfoil sections of propeller blade

Blade angle, usually measured in degrees, is the angle

between the chord of the blade and the plane of
rotation and is measured at a specific point along the
length of the blade. Because most propellers have a flat
blade “face,” the chord line is often drawn along the
face of the propeller blade. Pitch is not the same as
blade angle, but because pitch is largely determined by
blade angle, the two terms are often used
interchangeably. An increase or decrease in one is
usually associated with an increase or decrease in the
other.

Propeller blade angle.

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Gas turbine engine

Also known as a jet engine, this means

of propulsion works a lot like a rocket
engine, only it obtains the necessary air
from the surrounding atmosphere rather
than a tank. As such, jet engines don't
work in space either. Many variants of
gas turbine engines, such as those seen
on most airliners, collect the necessary
air through fanlike rotary compressors. A
ramjet, however, doesn't use a
compressor. Instead, the airplane builds
up speed, which forces air through
forward-facing vents in the engine. In this
model, the aircraft's speed naturally
compresses the air necessary for
combustion.
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Rocket engine

While a propeller engine uses the

surrounding air as the working fluid of its
propulsion, all a rocket needs is the thrust of
its own combustion exhaust gas. This is why
a rocket can provide thrust in space, but a
propeller cannot. A rocket engine combines
fuel and an internal source of oxygen called
an oxidizer. The oxygen and fuel ignite in a
combustion chamber, exploding in a hot
exhaust. These gases pass through a nozzle
to produce thrust.
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Aircraft System
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Flight Instruments

Flight Instruments
Airspeed indicator: Essentially, this gauge
tells the pilot how fast the aircraft is traveling in
relation to the ground. The indicator depends
on a differential pressure gauge, not unlike a
tire gauge.
Chapter 3 : Introduction to Atmospheric Vehicle
Flap Operating Range - The white arc specifies the speed range over which
the wing flaps can be extended.
Power-Off Stall Speed with Flaps Extended and Landing Gear Deployed
(VS0) - The lower limit of the white arc denotes the minimum speed at which the
plane can be flown in landing configuration without stalling. Once stalled, the
wing rapidly loses lift and the aircraft becomes difficult or impossible for the pilot
to control.
Maximum Flaps Extended Speed (VFE) - The upper limit of the white arc
dictates the maximum airspeed at which the flaps can be fully extended. Higher
speeds will induce loads on the flaps that may exceed their structural limits
resulting in damage to the aircraft.
Normal Operating Range - The green arc specifies the range of airspeeds
over which the plane can be safely flown in cruise configuration with flaps and
landing gear retracted.
Power-Off Stall Speed with Flaps and Landing Gear Retracted (VS1) - The
lower limit of the green arc denotes the minimum speed at which the plane can
be flown in cruise configuration without stalling.
Maximum Normal Operation Speed (VNO) - The upper limit of the green arc
dictates the maximum cruise speed in a clean configuration.
Caution Range - The yellow arc specifies a speed range the pilot should avoid
unless flying in very smooth air.
Never Exceed Speed (VNE) - The red line dictates the maximum speed at
which the plane can be operated in smooth air. The pilot should never fly faster
than this airspeed or risk structural damage.
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Flight Instruments

Heading indicator: The heading indicator simply tells

Altimeter: As the name implies an altimeter
the pilot in which direction the plane is heading. The
measures altitude. The indicator in this case is a
device depends on both a gyroscope and a magnetic
barometer, which measures air pressure.
compass, however, as both are susceptible to
different errors during flight.

Flight Instruments
Turn coordinator: A typical turn coordinator
indicates the plane's yaw or roll rate while also
indicating the rate of coordination between the
plane's bank angle and the rate of yaw. This
device depends on a gyroscope, as well as an
inclinometer ball in a glass cylinder to indicate
when the aircraft is skidding or slipping.
Chapter 3 : Introduction to Atmospheric Vehicle
Variometer: Also known as a vertical speed
indicator, this device indicates the rate of a plane's
rate of climb or descent. Working along similar
lines as the altimeter, the variometer depends on
atmospheric pressure readings to determine how
swiftly altitude changes are occurring.
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Flight Instruments

Attitude indicator: An attitude indicator

illustrates the aircraft's orientation of pitch,
yaw and roll. By use of a gyroscope, the
indicator provides spatial clarity even in
disorienting flight conditions.
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Helicopters
Helicopters are classified as rotary
wing aircraft, and their rotary wing is
commonly referred to as the main rotor
or simply the rotor.

Helicopter is capable of direct vertical

take-off and landing; it can also hover in
a fixed position. These features render it
ideal for use where space is limited or
where the ability to hover over a precise
area is necessary.

The helicopter is type of aircraft in which

lift is obtained by means of one or more
power-driven horizontal propellers
called rotors.

Helicopter Component
Main rotor blade -- The main rotor blade performs the same
function as an airplane's wings, providing lift as the blades
rotate -- lift being one of the critical aerodynamic forces that
keeps aircraft aloft. A pilot can affect lift by changing the rotor's
revolutions per minute (rpm) or its angle of attack, which refers
to the angle of the rotary wing in relation to the oncoming wind.
Stabilizer -- The stabilizer bar sits above and across the main
rotor blade. Its weight and rotation dampen unwanted vibrations
in the main rotor, helping to stabilize the craft in all flight
conditions. Arthur Young, the gent who designed the Bell 47
helicopter, is credited with inventing the stabilizer bar.
Rotor mast -- Also known as the rotor shaft, the mast connects
the transmission to the rotor assembly. The mast rotates the
upper swash plate and the blades.
Chapter 3 : Introduction to Atmospheric Vehicle
Engine -- The engine generates power for the aircraft. Early
helicopters relied on reciprocating gasoline engines, but modern
helicopters use gas turbine engines like those found in
commercial airliners.
Tail boom -- The tail boom extends out from the rear of the
fuselage and holds the tail rotor assemblies. In some models, the
tail boom is nothing more than an aluminum frame. In others, it's a
hollow carbon-fiber or aluminum tube.
Anti-torque tail rotor -- Without a tail rotor, the main rotor of a
helicopter simply spins the fuselage in the opposite direction. It's
enough to make your stomach heave just thinking about all that
endless circling. Thankfully, Igor Sikorsky had the idea to install a
tail rotor to counter this torque reaction and provide directional
control. In twin-rotor helicopters, the torque produced by the
rotation of the front rotor is offset by the torque produced by a
counterrotating rear rotor.

Transmission -- Just as it does in a motor vehicle, a

helicopter's transmission transmits power from the engine to
the main and tail rotors. The transmission's main gearbox steps
down the speed of the main rotor so it doesn't rotate as rapidly
as the engine shaft. A second gearbox does the same for the
tail rotor, although the tail rotor, being much smaller, can rotate
faster than the main rotor.

Landing skids -- Some helicopters have wheels, but most

have skids, which are hollow tubes with no wheels or brakes. A
few models have skids with two ground-handling wheels.
 Chapter 3 : Introduction to Atmospheric Vehicle

Helicopter: The control devices

1. Foot pedals -- A pair of foot pedals controls
the tail rotor. Working the pedals affects which
way the helicopter points, so pushing the right
pedal deflects the tail of the helicopter to the
left and the nose to the right; the left pedal
turns the nose to the left.

2. Cyclic-pitch lever -- A helicopter pilot controls

the pitch, or angle, of the rotor blades with two
inputs: the cyclic- and collective-pitch levers,
often just shortened to the cyclic and the
collective. The cyclic, or "stick," comes out of
the floor of the cockpit and sits between the
pilot's legs, enabling a person to tilt the craft to
either side or forward and backward.

3. Collective-pitch lever -- The collective-pitch

lever is responsible for up-and-down
movements. For example, during takeoff, the
pilot uses the collective-pitch lever to increase
the pitch of all the rotor blades by the same
amount.
 Chapter 3 : Introduction to Atmospheric Vehicle

Helicopter :The Swash Plate Assembly

A helicopter's main rotor is the most important part of the vehicle. It

provides the lift that allows the helicopter to fly, as well as the
control that allows the helicopter to move laterally, make turns and
change altitude. The pilot controls the main rotor on helicopter
through a device known as the swash plate assembly.

The swash plate assembly consists of two parts -- the upper and
lower swash plates.

The upper swash plate connects to the mast, or rotor shaft,

through special linkages. As the engine turns the rotor shaft, it also
turns the upper swash plate and the rotor blade system. This
system includes blade grips, which connect the blades to a hub.
Control rods from the upper swash plate have a connection point
on the blades, making it possible to transfer movements of the
upper swash plate to the blades. And the hub mounts to the mast
via the Jesus nut, so named because its failure is said to bring a
pilot face-to-face with Jesus.

The lower swash plate is fixed and doesn't rotate. Ball bearings
lie between the upper and lower swash plates, allowing the upper
plate to spin freely on top of the lower plate. Control rods attached
to the lower swash plate connect to the cyclic- and collective-pitch
levers. When the pilot operates either of those two levers, his or
her inputs are transmitted, via the control rods, to the lower swash
plate and then, ultimately, to the upper swash plate.
 Chapter 3 : Introduction to Atmospheric Vehicle

How Helicopters Fly

The rotating wings of a helicopter function just like the
airfoils of an airplane wing, but generally helicopter
airfoils are symmetrical, not asymmetrical as they are on
fixed-wing aircraft. The helicopter's rotating wing
assembly is normally called the main rotor. If you give
the main rotor wings a slight angle of attack on the shaft
and spin the shaft, the wings start to develop lift.

The directional flight is achieved by tilting the swash

plate assembly with the cyclic, which alters the pitch of
each blade as it rotates. As a result, every blade
produces maximum lift at a particular point. The rotor still
generates lift, but it also creates thrust in the direction
that the swash plate assembly is tilted. This causes the
helicopter to lean -- and fly -- in a certain direction.

The tail rotor produces thrust like an airplane's

propeller does. By producing thrust in a sideways
direction, this critical part counteracts the engine's desire
to spin the body. Normally, the tail rotor is driven by a
long driveshaft that runs from the main rotor's
transmission back through the tail boom to a small
transmission at the tail rotor.
Chapter 3 : Introduction to Atmospheric Vehicle
 Chapter 3 : Introduction to Atmospheric Vehicle

Aircraft Design Process

During the wing design process, eighteen parameters must be determined.

They are as follows:

1. Wing reference (or planform) area (wing cubic loading)

2. Number of the wings (wing cubic loading)
3. Vertical position relative to the fuselage (high, mid, or low wing)
4. Horizontal position relative to the fuselage (Incidence angle and AOA)
5. Cross section (airfoil type)
6. Aspect ratio (wing cubic loading)
7. Taper ratio (wing cubic loading)
8. Tip chord (wing cubic loading)
9. Root chord (wing cubic loading)
10. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (Stability and CG)
11. Span (wing cubic loading)
12. Twist angle (AOA)
13. Sweep angle (Stability and CG)
14. Dihedral angle (Stability)
15. Incidence angle (AOA)
16. High lifting devices such as flap
17. Aileron (AOA)
18. Tail Configuration (Stability and CG)