G Model

EPSR-4719; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS

Electric Power Systems Research xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

Review

High Voltage AC underground cable systems for power transmission –

A review of the Danish experience: Part 2
Claus Leth Bak ∗ , F. Faria da Silva
Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Pontoppidanstræde 111, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper is a second of two presenting a review of research results in underground cable transmis-
Received 4 November 2014 sion obtained by the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University ET/AAU and Danish TSO
Received in revised form 12 May 2016 Energinet.dk within the last six years. The main core of the results are obtained by PhD students research-
Accepted 27 May 2016
ing electrical engineering topics related to using underground cables for power transmission at EHV level
Available online xxx
and including the 420 kV level. The research topics were laid down by ET/AAU and Energinet.dk in the
DANPAC (DANish Power systems with Ac Cables) research project. The main topics are discussed on the
Keywords:
basis of 39 references published by ET/AAU and Energinet.dk.
Underground cable transmission
Time domain simulations
Part I of the paper explains the events that lead to the research project, reactive power compensation,
Electromagnetic transients modelling for transient studies, including field measurements and improvements to the existing models,
Cable modelling and temporary overvoltages due to resonances.
Insulation coordination Part II covers transient phenomena, harmonics in cables, system modelling for different phenomena,
Fault location main and backup protections in cable-based networks, online fault detection and future trends.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. Transient phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.1. Cable energisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.2. Zero-missing phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Harmonics in cable based systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Cable system modelling and harmonic studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1. Modelling depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1.1. Switching phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1.2. Resonance phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.2. Systematic method for simulating switching transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5. Protection of cable systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.1. Main protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.2. Backup protection – ground loop impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.3. Summary of protection of cable systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6. Fault location in cable based transmission network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6.1. Introduction to fault location in cable-based transmission networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6.2. Methods for online fault locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6.2.1. Impedance-based method for fault location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6.2.2. Travelling wave-based fault location methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6.2.3. Design of a fault locator for cross-bonded cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6.2.4. Verification and accuracy of fault locator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: clb@et.aau.dk (C.L. Bak).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2016.05.035
0378-7796/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: C.L. Bak, F. Faria da Silva, High Voltage AC underground cable systems for power transmission – A
review of the Danish experience: Part 2, Electr. Power Syst. Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2016.05.035
G Model
EPSR-4719; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 C.L. Bak, F. Faria da Silva / Electric Power Systems Research xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

6.3. Summary of fault location methods for cross-bonded cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
8. Future trends in cable transmission systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

1. Introduction difference contributes to the differences observed in probability

distributions [9,10]:
This paper is part 2 of the publication “High Voltage AC under-
ground cable systems for power transmission – a review of the • Switching surge currents of equal magnitude cause lower over-
Danish experience” and it is intended to be read after having read voltage for cables than for overhead lines, because of the lower
part 1. surge impedance of the former.
• As the propagation velocity of the overvoltage is slower for cables,
a cable can be considered as a longer overhead line in terms of
2. Transient phenomena
the propagation of the overvoltage.
• In the energisation of cables, each cross-bonding point becomes
2.1. Cable energisation
the point of reflection. It is more difficult for the overvoltage to
propagate to the open end terminal.
There are no records of the insulation strength being exceeded
by a slow-front overvoltage originated by a cable energisation [1].
As the charging capacitance of overhead lines is relatively small,
Yet, TSOs and DSOs continue to require its study when installing a
there were only minor differences between overhead lines with
new cable due to the lack of experience with long HV cables.
100% compensation and those without compensation.
The magnitude of the overvoltage depends on several factors.
A case requiring special consideration is the energisation of
The most relevant are the switching instant, the network fault level,
cables in parallel (i.e., more than one cable connected to the same
the line length, bonding and the shunt compensation level [1–3].
busbar), which shows similarities to the energisation of capacitor
Trapped charges are normally not considered, as cables are not
banks in parallel [11] due to the dominance of capacitance in a
expected to be re-energised; however, they are of outmost signifi-
cable. It may produce high inrush-currents, though not as high as
cance in cases of re-energisation [2].
for capacitor banks due to the series inductance of the cables, which
The influence of the switching instant, the network fault level
reduces the frequency and magnitude of the inrush currents [12].
and the line length is similar to OHLs, for which studies have been
This phenomenon is strongly dependent on the network fault level;
made several decades ago [4].
the weaker the network, the higher the energy flowing between
The reflection and refraction of the waves at bonding points
cables, and thus, the higher the inrush-current [12].
alter the waveforms of both voltage and current [5,6]. As a
Another case of relevance is the hybrid line type (OHL/Cable),
result, the waveform and the peak voltage depend on the bond-
which poses a need for special attention with regards to lightning
ing configuration and also on the length of the minor and major
protection. Substations in urban areas tend to interconnect with
sections for cross-bonded cables [7,8]. Typically, the peak volt-
the transmission network via cable lines or combined OHL/Cable
age is higher when the cable is cross-bonded, but this is not a
lines, where rural part of the line is laid out as an OHL, and the
rule.
last 5–10 km’s before entering the substation is laid in cable in
Fig. 1 shows the cumulative voltage distribution when using
order to avoid the impact of the OHL in the urban areas. The tran-
a lumped source for cables and equivalent OHLs. The simulations
sition between OHL and cable necessitates insulation coordination
were made for four different lengths (24, 48, 72, 96 km) and four
studies of the substation transformers [13,14] as lightning impulse
different equivalent networks (1, 15, 30, 100 mH). Details on the
current entering the OHL part can enter the substation and result
simulations are available in [1].
in dangerous overvoltages, especially in cases with an open-ended
The simulations show that the overvoltage is lower for cables
busbar. Moreover, the adding of undergrounding sections in an
than for OHLs, when exceeding 1.7 pu.
overhead line, if not too many, does not alter significantly the avail-
The energisation overvoltage of cables is different from that of
ability of the entire link as demonstrated in [15].
overhead lines in the following points, and it is estimated that this

2.2. Zero-missing phenomenon

Zero-missing phenomenon may occur when energising together

a cable and a shunt reactor’s and having a degree of compensation
more than 50% of the cable’s reactive power. The phenomenon is
characterised by a current not crossing zero for several seconds in
one or more phases, and it is described in detail in [2,16].
The cable is unloaded during the energisation and the only
currents flowing are the cable’s charging current and the shunt
reactor current. These two current are virtually in phase opposi-
tion and cancel each other partially, reducing the magnitude of the
AC current flowing through the circuit breaker.
A decaying DC component also appears at the switching, with a
magnitude that depends on the reactive power compensation level,
i.e., the inductance of the shunt reactor and the switching angle. The
initial magnitude of the DC component is equal to the magnitude
Fig. 1. Cumulative voltage distribution using lumped source [1]. of the shunt reactor AC current for a switching at zero voltage and

Please cite this article in press as: C.L. Bak, F. Faria da Silva, High Voltage AC underground cable systems for power transmission – A
review of the Danish experience: Part 2, Electr. Power Syst. Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2016.05.035
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EPSR-4719; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS
C.L. Bak, F. Faria da Silva / Electric Power Systems Research xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 3

1 1

0.5 0.5

Current [pu]
Current [pu]

0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time [s] Time [s]

Fig. 2. Currents during the energisation for 75% reactive power compensation. Left: Switching at zero voltage (0◦ ); Right: Switching angle of 70◦ ; Dashed-dotted line: AC
current in the cable; Dotted line: AC Current in the shunt reactor; Dashed line: DC current in the shunt reactor; Solid Line: Total current through the circuit breaker.

equal to zero for a switching at peak voltage. The time constant 1000
1980 kV
depends on the system resistance and inductance.
Fig. 2 shows the energisation of a cable with 75% of reactive 800
power compensation for two different switching angles. The cable

Voltage [kV]
is switched for zero voltage in the first case, resulting in maximum
DC component and it has zero-missing, as the DC component is
larger than the AC. In the second case, a switching angle of 70◦
is used and zero-missing is no longer present. Several counter-
measures can be used to avoid zero-missing. The reactive power
compensation may be done by more than one shunt reactor with
less than 50% of the reactive power being compensated by a shunt
reactor connected directly to the cable, and the rest by shunt reac-
tors connected via a circuit breaker. This approach is especially
suitable for long cables requiring compensation in the order of
several hundreds of MVar. However, this may not always possible,
because of the rated capacitive switching current values of circuit
breakers and the voltage rise limits [17].
Pre-insertion resistor in the circuit breaker [18] or a resistance
in series with the shunt reactor [2] can damp the DC component
in one cycle. However, the former increases the costs of the circuit
breaker, whereas the latter increases the losses. A method for the
calculation of the ideal value of the pre-insertion resistor in function
of the cable is available in [18]. If single-phase circuit breakers are
available, synchronised switching may be applied and the switch-
ing angle selected so that the DC component is inferior to the AC
component [2,19].
3. Harmonics in cable based systems
The resonance frequency is lower for cables than for OHLs of
equal length, because of the larger capacitance of the former. As
a result, the excitation of the resonance points by low frequency
harmonics is more likely to occur in a cable-based network than
in an OHL-based network, and it may result in TOVs. However, it
is important to refer that the X/R ratio of a cable can be an order
of magnitude lower than the X/R ratio of an equivalent OHL [20],
which results in a larger damping at the resonance point, when
compared with a resonance at a same frequency in an OHL.
The cable bonding influences both the magnitude and the fre-
quency of the resonance points. Fig. 3 shows the voltage at the
receiving end of a cable in function of the frequency for two bond-
ing configurations: both-ends bonding and cross-bonding with one
major section. The behaviour of a cable with both ends bonded is
similar to an OHL: a constant decrease in magnitude of the parallel
resonance points as the frequency increases. One cross-section is
sufficient to change this behaviour. The resonance frequency shifts
and more resonance points appear, due to the bonding at the minor
sections [21]. These points are characterised by a low magnitude for
both parallel and resonance frequencies. The points of maximum
600
400
200
0
0 5000 10000 15000
Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 3. Voltage at cable receiving end for a 134.5 kV peak voltage at the cable sending
end. Solid line: Both-ends bonding; Dashed line: One major-section; Dotted line:
Two major-sections.
and minimum magnitude also shift and are for different frequen-
cies. As the number of major-sections increases, this effect becomes
more visible as observed in Fig. 3.
4. Cable system modelling and harmonic studies
4.1. Modelling depth
The modelling depth, i.e., the number of busbars behind the node
of interest included in the simulation model, may have a strong
influence on the simulation results. Ideally, the model would con-
tain as many busbars as possible, however, this would be too time
consuming both when setting up the model and when running the
simulation.
As a result, modelling guidelines suggesting a required mod-
elling depth would be helpful. The detail level depends on the
phenomenon under study [2,16] and it can be separated into two
main groups: Switching phenomena and resonance phenomena.
4.1.1. Switching phenomena
Several possibilities exist for simulating the switching transient
of a cable. The cable may be connected to a lumped equivalent
source, which typically overestimates the overvoltage [1] and does
not show accurate waveforms, as it does not consider the prop-
agation of the waves into the adjacent lines. The inclusion of the
surrounding area in the model improves the accuracy. The standard
[22] suggests including only the network of same voltage level up
to one or two busbars behind the node of interest, with the rest of
the network being modelled by an equivalent Thévenin. Although
it is a good rule, this method is not accurate for all cases, mainly
not when energising a long cable surrounded by shorter cables or
OHLs. For such cases, the method described in [23] can be used to
decide the modelling depth.

Please cite this article in press as: C.L. Bak, F. Faria da Silva, High Voltage AC underground cable systems for power transmission – A
review of the Danish experience: Part 2, Electr. Power Syst. Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2016.05.035
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EPSR-4719; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS
4 C.L. Bak, F. Faria da Silva / Electric Power Systems Research xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 4. Three different complexity zones of the simulation model [4].
In normal conditions, the largest overvoltage during the tran-
sient occurs at the receiving end of the cable being energised,
assuming no resonances. Typically, it corresponds to the moment
when the wave generated at switching reaches the receiving end of
the cable for the second time. In other words after being reflected
at the receiving end and posteriorly at the sending end of the cable,
happening in a total time corresponding to 3, where  is the trav-
elling time of the coaxial mode in the cable.
Depending on the relative lengths of the cable being energised
and the neighbour cables/OHLs, the transient voltage waves that
propagate in the surrounding cables/OHLs at switching can be
reflected at the end of the cable/OHL and/or bonding sections. It is
then refracted to the cable being energised and reach its receiving
before a time period of 3, influencing the peak overvoltage.
The simulation model is divided into three zones, each with dif-
ferent levels of modelling detail. The first area includes the nodes
close to the busbar of interest, it is modelled in detail using FD-
models and it contains all minor cross-sections if present. This level
of detail is required because of the reflections at the end of the
minor-sections and at the end of the cables/OHLs, which may reach
the receiving end of the cable being energised before a period of 3.
The area contains all the lines reached in a period of time equal to
 by a wave travelling at intersheath-mode speed. The second area
continues to use FD-models, but it is not necessary to include all
the cross-bonded sections, it is sufficient to consider one major-
section. This area contains all the lines reached in a period of time
equal to  by a wave travelling at the coaxial-mode speed.
The third and last area represents the cables and/or OHLs by
means of lumped parameters models and it has a modelling depth
of one busbar, and is then connected to an equivalent network. Fig. 4
shows an example of the three areas.
4.1.2. Resonance phenomena
An exact estimation of the frequency and magnitude of the res-
onance points are necessary for a proper assessment of the TOV
[24]. Ideally, frequency scans of the network would be available and
the admittance of the equivalent network would be modelled by a
Frequency-Dependent Network Equivalents (FDNE). For practical
reasons this is not normally possible, and approximations must be
made using simulation models.
One possible method is to design a detailed network model and
to extract the frequency domain response of the node(s) of interest
which is fitted into a rational-function model of appropriate order
to obtain the FDNE [25]. A practical example of the use and accuracy
of this method is given in [26].
Please cite this article in press as: C.L. Bak, F. Faria da Silva, High Voltage AC underground cable systems for power transmission – A
review of the Danish experience: Part 2, Electr. Power Syst. Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2016.05.035
The drawback of this method is the need for a reference detailed
network model. For example, [26] already had a full model of the
400 kV French grid in EMTP-RV which used to obtain the FDNE. Such
detailed models may not exist or it may be too time consuming to
develop them for a project. Moreover, the process is not always
direct and vector fitting techniques must be used [25].
Another possibility is to use an empirical approach consisting
of:
• Designing a detailed system up to a distance of two or three bus-
bars from the point of interest and use an equivalent network
(50/60 Hz) for the rest of the grid;
• Repeating the previous point, but increasing the modelling depth
of the detailed area in one busbar;
• Comparing the frequency spectrums for both systems;
• Repeating the process until the difference between the spectrums
is minimum around the frequencies of interest;
The simulation of a cable requires more computation time than
the simulation of an OHL and this process may be time consuming
if many cables are included in the model. A possible adaption of this
method for grids or areas with a large number of cables is suggested
in [16]. Here, the model is divided in two levels of detail, a first
level close to the area of interest using FD-models for the cables
and/or OHLs and a second level using lumped-parameters models
connected to the equivalent network.
The first iteration considers one/two busbars depth with FD-
models and three or more with lumped-parameters. The model
continues to be augmented until the frequency scan stops changing.
This approach allows having FD-models only for the cables close to
the point of interest, reducing the computational time.
The theoretical origin of the resonance frequencies have been
thoroughly studied in [27] and a derivation of theoretical formulas
of the frequency component contained in the overvoltage related
to long EHV cables is developed. This method is proven to agree
very well with EMTP type simulation results, Fig. 5.
4.2. Systematic method for simulating switching transients
A systematic method for the simulation of switching transients
is given in [5]. The method divides the phenomena into resonance
and switching phenomena, with the latter subdivided into energi-
sation and de-energisation; the modelling of which also depends
on the network configuration and connected equipment.
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Fig. 5. Comparison of dominant frequencies found through theoretical formulas and
EMTP simulations [27].
The modelling requirements of the cables and remaining equip-
ment for different phenomena is given in [2,5]. The complexity of
the models depends on the system and the phenomenon under
analysis. A good approach is firstly to simulate the phenomena
enumerated in this paper and in [2]. More detailed studies are
then performed for the limited cases indicated by a preliminary
analysis. Regarding the cable modelling, Bergeron models are nor-
mally used as a first approximation for the majority of phenomena.
The Bergeron model is a fast and stable model which will typi-
cally overestimate the overvoltages. Thus, it may be replaced by
FD-models if the results are close to a limit situation, e.g., long
overvoltages, peak voltage close to the insulation limit or possi-
ble resonance scenarios. It is important to note that the Bergeron
model should be tuned for the frequency of interest in order to
avoid inaccurate dampings. References [2,5] provide a thorough
list of recommended cable models as well as recommendations for
the modelling of other equipment for different phenomena which
may be used for designing simulation models.
5. Protection of cable systems
Protection of EHV cable systems have been a major issue of the
DANPAC due to the very different nature of the line impedance as
compared to OHL’s. This is studied in [1,28,29].
5.1. Main protection
Current differential relays are usually applied to the protection
of EHV cable systems. When they are applied to a long EHV cable
system, the following two issues need to be considered:
• The sum of currents at both ends does not become zero in the
normal operating condition due to the cable charging current.
The charging current needs to be compensated when setting the
relay [30].
• Since shunt reactors can be directly connected to the cables, it
is necessary to measure line currents, excluding shunt reactor
currents. CTs and current differential relays are connected so that
the actual line current minus shunt reactor current is input into
current differential relays [31].
For long HV underground cables, the charging current is rel-
atively large, usually necessitating the setting of a suitable and
insensitive bias current in the differential relay operating charac-
teristic.
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review of the Danish experience: Part 2, Electr. Power Syst. Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2016.05.035
5
5.2. Backup protection – ground loop impedance
Backup protection of EHV cable systems normally adopts dis-
tance protection. The following items are often discussed with
respect to the distance protection of long EHV cable systems:
• It is required to know accurately the impedances of cable systems.
• Negative sequence distance protection is effective since it is not
affected by the load current.
• Low order harmonics are contained in voltages and currents
under disturbances, such as contingencies and network opera-
tions. Careful considerations are necessary to extract fundamen-
tal components from them. This is usually remedied in modern
numerical relays [33].
Cable faults are normally single line to ground (SLG) faults. Short
circuits are mostly man-caused and rarely occur, except in cases of
installation issues such as the proper assembly of cable joints and
water treeing. In a SLG fault, a cable core is short-circuited to the
cable sheath and surrounding ground (soil). The single phase to
ground impedance, as seen by distance relay, is seen to be radi-
cally discontinuous and varying as a function of line length [28,29].
Moreover, the laying conditions of a cable, e.g. minor-sections
with different lengths, asymmetries or variations in the distance
between cables along the route, cause a difference between the
real cable impedance and the value estimated by means of clas-
sical formulae [32], being measurements required for an accurate
estimation of this parameter. This makes the use of distance protec-
tion challenging for cable lines as distance protection relies upon a
linear relation between measured impedance and distance to fault.
The largest discontinuity of ground loop reactance at cross-bonding
points easily extends to values the double of non-symmetries in
overhead line impedances [33].
As an example, a proposed line in Denmark (also described in
part 1 of this paper and in [1,29]) has been examined with regards
to impedance discontinuity. The ground loop impedances for one
major section were calculated using the steady-state calculation
function of the ATP-EMTP. The cable parameters were calculated
by the subroutine CABLE CONSTANTS with the target frequency
50 Hz within ATP-EMTP. Fig. 6 shows the compensated ground loop
impedances for different cable layouts with/without phase conduc-
tor transposition. It is found that the transposition does not have
any impact on the ground loop impedance when the cable is laid
in a trefoil formation. Comparing the ground loop impedance, the
discontinuity at the cross-bonding points is larger in the following
order as shown in Table 1:
(1) Directly buried in a flat formation without transposition (Flat
w/o Transp.)
(2) Directly buried in a flat formation with transposition (Flat w
Transp.)
(3) Directly buried in a trefoil formation (Trefoil)
(4) Laid in a tunnel in a trefoil formation with transposition (Tun-
nel)
This order is reasonable considering the impedance balance
between phases [33].
The zero-sequence compensation factor k0 is calculated with the
positive-sequence impedance Zl1 , and zero-sequence impedance
Zl0 for the total length of the line.
Assuming that both Zl1 and Zl0 have a linear relationship to the
distance to the fault location, k0 takes a constant value regardless
of the fault location. However, for cross-bonded cables, Zl0 does not
have a linear relationship to the distance to the fault location. As a
result, the actual value of k0 = (Zl0 − Zl1 )/(3Zl1 ) changes depending
on the fault location. Since k0 is set as a constant value for each
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Fig. 6. Compensated ground loop impedance (left and middle) and k0 (right) for cross-bonded cables with one major section [29].

Table 1
Largest discontinuity of ground loop reactance at cross-bonding points (cable with one major section) [29].

Cable layouts (1) Flat w/o transposition (2) Flat w transposition (3) Trefoil (4) Tunnel

Largest discontinuity 17.0% 14.5% 13.8% 11.7%

zone setting, it causes an error in the calculation of the ground loop
impedance, see Fig. 6, right.
Furthermore, grounding practice at the substation and end of
the major section together with cable laying (formation) play a role
for the variations in the ground loop impedance. This is described
by analysing two layouts by means of measurements. The ground-
ing of phase conductors is close to the grounding of cable heads in
phase conductor grounding (1). As shown in the lower left of Fig. 7,
the sheath return current can go back to the source without going
through the substation grounding resistance in this case. In con-
trast, the grounding of phase conductors is far from the grounding
of cable heads in phase conductor grounding (2). As shown in the
lower right of Fig. 7, the sheath/earth return current needs to go
through the substation grounding resistance in this case [33].
It is therefore expected that Zl0 obtained by the setup with phase
conductor grounding (1) has a smaller real part. Table 2 compares
Zl0 and k0 with the substation grounding resistance 1 ohm. It is
known that Zl1 is not affected by the phase conductor grounding
or substation grounding resistances, but this is also shown in the
table just to confirm it. The calculation results show that the phase
conductor grounding has a significant effect on both Zl0 and
k0 . Since this difference will affect the calculated ground loop
impedance, it is necessary to know which phase conductor ground-
ing was selected for the field measurements of Zl0 [33]. It is clear
from Fig. 7 and Table 2 that knowledge of the actual substation
grounding design is necessary in order to be able to model the
EMTP type simulations correctly. This means that phase conduc-
tor grounding (1) is more appropriate for the field measurements
of Zl0 , considering that the value is used for the impedance relay
setting. If the field measurements are conducted with phase con-
ductor grounding (2), the results need to be modified using EMTP
simulations [29]. If we consider a cable consisting of several major
sections, i.e. a cable of a length 5–10 fold of one major section, the
discontinuous impedance becomes less predominant when com-
pared to a shorter cable. This is illustrated in Fig. 8 by assessing
the impedance of the 500 kV 40 km Shin-Toyosu cable line in Japan
[29]. As can be seen from Fig. 8, the longer the cable, the less pro-
nounced the discontinuities, and the measured (as by a distance
relay) impedance looks almost linear, leading to the conclusion
that distance protection can be applied without communication
for cables of a reasonable length. The actual operation of the pro-
tection relays with regards to the dynamic behaviour of cable based

Fig. 7. Comparison of phase conductor groundings [29].

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Table 2
The effect of phase conductor grounding (1 ohm) [29].
Phase conductor grounding (1) (2)
Zl1 [] 0.487 + j5.07
Zl0 [] 4.82 + j2.78 7.50 + j3.42
k0 −0.122 − j0.296 −0.0639 − j0.467
Fig. 8. Ground loop impedance for the Shin-Toyosu cable line with different cable
layouts [29].
transmission system, including the effects of line directly con-
nected shunt reactors (which can be “seen” by the protection relays)
and possible hybrid line configurations makes it worthwhile to
study the dynamic impact on both differential and distance pro-
tection. Cable systems can be modelled in time domain simulation
tools such as EMTDC/PSCAD together with relay operation [33,34]
and the impact of cable system dynamics can be assessed, both with
regards to trip when correct and unwanted trip. The time domain
simulations can be converted into comtrade file format and used
for transient replay by means of relay test set OMICRON CMC 356
advanced transplay. Thereby, real relay operation can be examined
in a very realistic way [35,36].
5.3. Summary of protection of cable systems
It is difficult to protect a short cross-bonded cable by a distance
relay without communication as the discontinuities at cross-
bonding points can go up to 17% of the total reactance considering
one major section, depending on the length. The substation
grounding resistance affects the zero-sequence compensation
factor k0 . Since a constant value is assumed for the zero-sequence
compensation k0 , large errors in k0 are present when a ground
fault occurs near the relay location. Cable layouts and transposition
affect the nonlinear characteristic of the ground loop impedance
as the discontinuity is caused by an imbalance of impedances
between phases. A cable laid in a flat formation has a larger
discontinuity than a cable laid in a trefoil formation. However, it
is difficult to see the difference in a long cross-bonded cable as
the former becomes small due to transposition of the screens and
their homogenous nature. Longer cross-bonded cables of lengths
above 20–30 km can be protected by means of distance relays,
because the longer the cable, the less dominant (relatively seen)
the impedance discontinuities.
6. Fault location in cable based transmission network
6.1. Introduction to fault location in cable-based transmission
networks
When replacing OHL transmission lines with underground
cables, easy fault location is made more complicated and time con-
suming. This is the case for both on-shore cables as well as off-shore
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review of the Danish experience: Part 2, Electr. Power Syst. Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2016.05.035
7
cables. In some cases, on-shore cables replace transmission lines.
This is important for the overall reliability of the transmission sys-
tem, hence outage time must be kept to a minimum. Off-shore
cables are used for off-shore wind farm network connections and
are usually laid as a radial line (i.e. single line connecting the wind
farm to land). Therefore, a failure in such a cable would hinder
the wind farm in producing power to the network. For large scale
off-shore wind farms, the outage time becomes very costly.
Off-line fault location time-domain reflectometer (TDR) and
bridge methods can be used to locate bolted faults in cable systems
[37]. However, it is commonly seen for power cables with extruded
insulation that the insulation closes after the fault [1]. The result is
a high resistivity fault which can be very difficult to locate using
both TDR and bridge methods. Methods which rely on re-opening
the insulation at the fault location are therefore used [35]. These
can, however, cause more damage to the cable or, more seriously,
if the equipment used is not powerful enough to re-open the insu-
lation [38], fail completely in locating the fault. Fault location times
of several days can be expected and, on top of this, repair time must
be added.
6.2. Methods for online fault locations
At the present stage, little work is reported for fault loca-
tion in cross-bonded cable systems. Some results are reported in
[37,39–41,42]. Two basically different methods for online fault
location exist; one is impedance-based and the other travelling
wave-based [43].
6.2.1. Impedance-based method for fault location
Impedance-based fault location methods are widely used for
OHL transmission lines. Such methods rely on the comparison of
measured series impedance to pre-known line impedance in a prin-
ciple similar to distance protection. Distance protection will work
properly with an accuracy of app. 5%, but such an error will trans-
late to an impractical large distance for fault search when the cable
length is in the range of transmission line lengths. Furthermore, as
shown in chapter V, the impedance of cross-bonded cables shows
discontinuities, which leads to even worse conditions with regards
to an accurate fault location [24]. For hybrid lines (OHL and cable),
recent research [38,44] shows that the impedance-based fault loca-
tion method faces even larger difficulties. This is due to both the
usual double-sided infeed in a transmission network as well as the
very different impedances of OHL vs. cable, making the fault loca-
tion of a fault in the cable part very sensitive to minor errors in the
OHL impedance.
6.2.2. Travelling wave-based fault location methods
The wave propagation velocity vwave is an inherently necessary
parameter to be used in travelling wave fault location meth-
ods. The precision of fault location directly relies upon a very
precise value for vwave . Electromagnetic pulse propagation on cross-
bonded three-phase cable systems is a complicated field of study.
Moreover vwave depends strongly upon the cable configuration,
i.e. it depends on the cable’s physical parameters and installation
layout, including ECC (Earth Continuity Conductor) and soil param-
eters of the cable system [45,46]. Field measurements are the only
reliable way to get access to values for vwave precise enough for fault
location purposes. A measurement campaign was conducted at the
Anholt Offshore wind farm electrical connection and published in
[47,48,49]. The system under study remained as depicted in Fig. 9.
All data is available in [47]. Measurements were conducted on the
59.6 km part of the cable line. Before the measurements were con-
ducted, modal velocities were determined by modal decomposition
of the cable shown in Fig. 9; these are shown in Fig. 10. As can be
seen, the coaxial modes are frequency independent and equal for
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Fig. 9. 245 kV electrical connection of the Anholt offshore wind farm [47].

Fig. 10. Modal velocities for first minor section of the Anholt cable evaluated from 1 Hz to 1 MHz. C denotes coaxial modes, I denotes Intersheath ECC modes and G denotes
the ground mode [47].

frequencies above 10 kHz, and, at the same time, they are faster 200
Measured core voltage at Joint 0 and 33
than intersheath and ground modes. This makes the initial fault 100
Measured voltage Joint 0

wave approaching a fault location device inherently being a coax- Measured voltage Joint 33
Voltage [V]

0
ial wave and a common wave velocity can be used for all three -100
phases and be independent of the fault location all along the entire -200
length of cable. -300
A validated method for measuring the electromagnetic pulse -400
propagation velocity to be used for fault location is presented in -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
(a) Time [ms]
[47]. The method relies on injecting a 3 kV lightning surge from
-240 -220
a portable lightning surge generator. It is shown to be sufficient
to conduct sending end voltage and current measurements with -260 -240
Voltage [V]

Voltage [V]

oscilloscopes. Travelling wave fault location can be either single-

-280 -260
terminal or two-terminal methods. The single-terminal method is
not practically applicable in cross-bonded cable systems, as reflec- -300 -280
tions from the cross-bonding point will interfere with the second
-320 -300
wave and make it hard to detect the reflections [38]. The two- 136 138 140 142 144 146 -5 0 5

terminal method can be written as (b) Time [µs] (c) Time [µs]

Fig. 11. (a) Low resolution zoom of the core voltage at Joint 0 and 33 after a single
phase to sheath fault is applied at Joint 27, (b) high resolution of the core voltage at
l − (A − B ) · vC
x= (1) Joint 33 and (c) at Joint 0 [38].
2

6.2.3. Design of a fault locator for cross-bonded cables

In (1), where l is the cable line length, vC is the asymptotical
velocity of the coaxial mode, and  A and  B are the coaxial fault
wave arrival instances at the two terminals A and B where the fault
locator units are installed. Fig. 11 shows a fault transient for the
Anholt cable in the voltage of phase A at Joint 0 and 33 after a fault
has been applied at Joint 27. The fault wave is first observed in
the steady state signal at Joint 33; later on, it appears at joint 0.
Using the time instances from the visual inspection of Fig. 11 and
the coaxial wave velocity measured on the Anholt cable, the fault
location is determined as 31.385 km; an error of 30 m (0.08%).
A real system for fault location can be set up principally as shown
in Fig. 12.
This system uses two similar units installed at each cable end
and a centrally placed data processing system. The units installed in
the substations are time synchronised using GPS and continuously
monitor the cable by sampling the three input signals at 10 MHz. In
case of a cable fault, the buffered data is saved and sent by WAN to
the central data processing location. Wavelets are a useful tool for
online fault detection [50] that can be used as a trigger mechanism
as described in [51].

Please cite this article in press as: C.L. Bak, F. Faria da Silva, High Voltage AC underground cable systems for power transmission – A
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Fig. 12. Fault locator system for fault location in cross-bonded cable systems [51].
Table 3
Obtained accuracy of fault location system for cross-bonded cable [38].
Fault Cable length Fault location
resistance [] [km] error at 5% [m]
0 18 37
36 56
60 85
10 18 39
36 60
60 86
6.2.4. Verification and accuracy of fault locator
Three 150 kV cross-bonded cable systems with lengths of 18 km,
36 km and 60 km are implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC. Single core
to sheath to ground faults are applied at 5%, 35%, 60% and 90%. All
minor sections are 2 km long, resulting in cable systems with three,
six and ten major sections. The model details can be found in [38].
The fault resistance varies from 0  to 10  and the fault inception
angle is set as 45◦ , 55◦ and 90◦ . The sheath currents measured at
both ends are used as input to the fault locator system. The obtained
accuracy for 45◦ is shown in Table 3.
6.3. Summary of fault location methods for cross-bonded cables
Cross-bonded cable systems pose challenges as compared to
overhead lines with respect to locating faults. This is shown to
be overcome by using a two-terminal synchronised fault location
system, employing a semi-manual assessment of automatically
recorded travelling waves from each end of the line. Such a system
has an even better accuracy compared to already existing systems
used for overhead lines [52].
7. Conclusions
The overall conclusions are that underground cables for power
transmission is both a possible and very good solution, although a
number of technical issues highly different from their counterparts
for overhead lines must be complied with in the design phase. For
underground transmission cables of a realistic length, it is recom-
mended to follow a design practice such as for instance described
in Cigré Power System Technical Performance Issues Related to the
Application of Long HVAC Cables: Cigré Technical brochure WG
C4.502, Cigré 2013 [2]. Proper time domain simulations must be
conducted to reveal switching as well as the electrical behaviour of
lightning and it must be borne in mind that lightning overvoltage
actually can enter parts of the transmission system above ground
and enter into cables and their connection to substations.
This review paper, part 1 and part 2 have covered the main
challenges when facing a governmental decision to underground
almost the entire transmission system.
Please cite this article in press as: C.L. Bak, F. Faria da Silva, High Voltage AC underground cable systems for power transmission – A
review of the Danish experience: Part 2, Electr. Power Syst. Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2016.05.035
9
Fault location Fault location Fault location
error at 35% [m] error at 60% [m] error at 90% [m]
30 28 43
50 41 61
75 60 81
31 28 42
54 43 63
85 61 84
8. Future trends in cable transmission systems
At the time of submission (autumn 2014), several papers report
a progress in both the intentions of installing underground cables,
onshore and offshore as well as the actual installed systems. An
example is the Cigré 2014 General session, where SC B1 holds 33
publications within isolated cables. Many obstacles have been over-
come by research carried out by the research community so far, but
as cable transmission systems are still in their youth, operational
experience as well as continued research uncovers needs for fur-
ther research in the years to come. Some key research issues are
identified as:
• Three phase submarine cables, modelling of losses. It is of major
interest to be able to assess the losses of a submarine cable for
e.g. network connection of an offshore wind farm. Present loss
calculation models overestimate losses[53,54] when compared
with the reference IEC standard [55], which in turn leads to an
overly expensive cable installation, making the widespread use
of offshore wind power less favourable.
• Resonance forming in large interconnected transmission
networks employing comprehensive share of cables. Both series
and parallel resonances can form unintendedly and become
excited by transmission voltage harmonics originating from
HVDC converters and other sources.
• Transmission cable system maintenance and assessment of esti-
mated lifetime. As more and more transmission lines become
undergrounded, there will be a need for being able to assess
the fidelity of these “invisible” and difficult to access power sys-
tem components in order to plan maintenance and replacement
philosophies as well as to ascertain reliability.
Acknowledgements
Danish TSO Energinet.dk is acknowledged for providing funding
for 5 PhD students and supervision of numerous masters’ student
thesis works as well as having always played a very professional
role in researching the topics of undergrounding the transmis-
sion system. The opportunity to perform real measurements upon
transmission cable systems during their installation has been of
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10 C.L. Bak, F. Faria da Silva / Electric Power Systems Research xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
especially great value in validating the findings and methods of the
research conducted.
The PhD students are acknowledged for enabling a major
research success in each of the individual research works con-
ducted. Finally, Dr. Wojciech Wiechowski for having grasped the
challenge from the beginning of the project and made possible the
progress by involving Energinet.dk.
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