Budding and Enoironmenr, Vol. 32, No. 5, pp.

405410, 1997
%, 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All nghts reserved
Pergamon Printed m Great Britain
036&1323/97 $17.00+0.00

PII: SO360-1323(97)00009-7

Investigation of the Thermal Performance

of a Passive Solar Test-Room with Wall
Latent Heat Storage

A. K. ATHIENITIS* (Received 28 August 1996; revised 13 November 1996; accepred 3 March 1997)
c. LIu*
D. HAWES*
D. BANU*
D. FELDMAN*

An experimental and numerical simulation study is presented of the application of phase change
materials (PCM) in building envelope components for thermal storage in a passive solar test-room.
Gypsum board impregnated with a phase change material was used. The experimental study was
conducted in a full-scale outdoor test-room with the PCM gypsum board as inside wall lining. An
explicitJ%zite difference model was developed to simulate the transient heat transfer process in the
walls. Reasonable agreement between the simulation and the experimental results was observed. It
was shown that the utilization of PCM gypsum board in a passive solar building may reduce the
maximum room temperature by about 4°C during the daytime and can reduce the heating load at
night significantly. 0 1991 Elsevier Science Ltd.

INTRODUCTION incorporated in the building envelope to achieve latent

heat storage. Feldman et al. [l-3] carried out extensive
Building envelope thermal capacity reduces the room
research on the use and stability of organic compounds
temperature swings caused by fast changes in the ambient
for latent heat storage, including fatty acids (capric,
temperature, by high solar gains, and by on/off cycling
lauric, palmitic and stearic), butyl stearate, dodecanol
of heating/cooling systems. Buildings with large glazed
and polyethylene glycol600. In addition to the studies of
areas, such as office buildings or passive solar residential
their properties, research was also carried out on
buildings, may present the most frequent discomfort
materials which act as PCM absorbers. Various materials
problems during the heating season, when the solar radi-
were considered, including different types of concrete and
ation is utilized both for reducing the heating load as well
gypsum. The utilization of latent heat storage over a
as for natural daylighting. Overheating is often observed
comfortable indoor temperature range in buildings can
in passive solar buildings during spring and fall when
result in an increase in the thermal storage capacity in
some heating is required-usually in houses with large
the range of 10&130% [I, 41.
window areas with near-south (SE to SW) orientation
In the present study PCM gypsum board was made
and ineffective or inadequate thermal mass. During these
by soaking conventional gypsum board in liquid butyl
shoulder periods, the solar gains are significant and usu-
stearate (BS) [1], a PCM with phase change range of
ally exceed the instantaneous heating loads. Thus, sig-
16.&20.8”C. The PCM gypsum board used contained
nificant amounts of thermal mass are required to store
about 25% by weight proportion of butyl stearate. Its
the excess solar gains without causing large room tem-
thermal properties were measured with a Differential
perature swings. The use of phase change materials in
Scanning Calorimeter (DSC).
building products has rendered it feasible to store sig-
The objectives of this study were the following.
nificant amounts of thermal energy in the building
envelope without the uncomfortable temperature swings 1. Investigation of the thermal performance of PCM
and large structural mass associated with sensible heat gypsum board used in a passive solar building.
storage. 2. Estimation of the benefits from the application of
Storage as latent heat is caused by a phase change in PCM gypsum board in passive solar buildings in terms
the PCM. Energy storage may be achieved by melting of the reduction of room overheating and energy
the PCM and energy recovery by freezing it. This process savings.
involves the absorption or release of heat, even though
Full-scale experiments in an outdoor test-room were per-
little or no change in temperature occurs. PCMs may be
formed and a mathematical model was developed to
simulate the transient heat transfer process in the walls
*Centre for Building Studies, Concordia University, of the test-room which contain PCM gypsum board as
Montreal, Quebec H3G lM8, Canada. inside lining.
406 A. K. Athientis et al.

EXPERIMENT
An existing outdoor test-room was used for this exper-
imental study [5]. The test-room, shown in Fig. 1, is
located in Montreal (45’N latitude). It has a double-
glazed window facing 10 degrees east of south. The ther-
mal resistance of the vertical walls is 2.4 RSI (m’ . “C/W),
3.6 RSI for the ceiling and 5.4 RSI for the floor. The
room has three heating systems-baseboard, ceiling
panels, and floor heating-all electric and controlled by
a computer which also controls the data acquisition
system. The floor heating system was used in the present
study. PCM gypsum board was attached over the existing
drywall (gypsum board) on the vertical walls of the test-
room. The thickness of both the PCM gypsum board and
the existing drywall was 13 mm. The total area of PCM
gypsum board (vertical walls) was approximately 20m’
and the mass of PCM absorbed in it was 47 kg, or
7.5 kg/m2 floor area. Proportional control with a pro-
grammable setpoint was employed in this study. The
auxiliary heating power is given by
where
r,,(t) = measured room air temperature [‘Cl
r,,(t) = setpoint temperature at time t [“Cl
K, = proportional control constant, 1000 W/ ‘C.
The heating system was delivering heat if the controlled
temperature was at least half a degree lower than the
desired setpoint. The experiments were conducted under
winter weather conditions with outside temperature
low as -25’C. During the test, the room air temperature
(or the globe temperature in some cases) was set to a high
setpoint of 23 C during the daytime (6:00 a.m. to 5:00
p.m.) and to 16’C for the rest of the time. When the room
air temperature changes, the PCM in the gypsum board
undergoes solid-liquid transition in the phase change
range of BS (1620.8”C). If the temperature rises through
this range, the PCM wallboard acts as the latent heat
storage device. Conversely, if the temperature
through this range, energy will be released.
Temperatures at approximately 30 different locations
in the test room were measured and recorded against real
time. These included the front and back surface tem-
peratures of the PCM gypsum board on each wall, the
air temperature, the temperature of heating panels, etc.
A 1 ft’ (0.093 m’) piece was cut out from the PCM gypsum
board and replaced with ordinary gypsum board in order
to compare the thermal behaviour of the two drywall
specimens (with and without PCM) under similar thermal
conditions. The front and back surface temperatures of
the small piece of ordinary board were measured and
recorded. The same measurements were taken on the
PCM gypsum board immediately adjacent to this piece
of ordinary gypsum board (see Fig. 1).
Mathematical model
The heat transfer mechanism in the PCM gypsum
board is complex, especially when the butyl stearate is in
the phase transition stage. During the freezing process,
the PCM in the gypsum board could exist in three states
(solid, liquid and two-phase). In addition, the physical
and thermal properties of the gypsum matrix and the
PCM in the gypsum pores are also different. To simplify
(1)
the mathematical model, the following assumptions are
made.
The PCM and the gypsum matrix are considered as
a body of uniform equivalent physical and thermal
properties, such as specific heat, density, thermal con-
ductivity and latent heat.
The heat transfer process across the PCM gypsum
board and the original wall is treated as a one-dimen-
as sional problem.
Based on the above assumptions, the wall heat transfer
is treated as a one-dimensional, transient heat diffusion
problem with uniform physical and thermal properties.
The model takes into account the transient boundary
conditions, absorbed solar radiation, the melting/freezing
of the PCM and employs a nonlinear film coefficient. The
simulation of rate of latent heat release or absorption by
drops the PCM is based on the test results from a DSC. The
equivalent measured uniform properties of the PCM gyp-
sum board were: a density of 900 kgjmj, a specific heat
capacity of 1260 J/(kg ‘C), a thermal conductivity of

+ 0.81 _I t- 0.901 t-- 0.21

?Ir 0.60

k 2.24

-r
1.08

c-
0.94

t 0.87 -/-- 1.08---_1

2,82 l/““ Note: unit = m
I-
Fig. I. Schematic of outdoor test-room.
 Thermal Performance of a Passive Solar Test-Room 401

of interest as shown in Fig. 3. In Fig. 3, T, and T2 indicate

Solar rad. transmitted
the temperatures at which the freezing process starts and
ends respectively; qmax indicates the maximum latent heat
1
,O h
flow. The area of triangle T, T, qmaxis the value of latent
heat for the phase transition range T, to T,. With known
1 Tea (sol-air
1 Temperature) heating or cooling rate, R, we have

.: .,,.; :.. .,
I
PCM gypsum -----+ ;.: ‘: . J-Original L, = ;.qm,x(Tr- T,)*;, (4)
board
hi _+ ; ,,.;.;:;i.;.:i;;‘: wall
I > where
x L, = latent heat for the temperature range T, to T2
Fig. 2. Wall section schematic for heat transfer model.
[J/W
R = heating or cooling rate [“C/s]
T,, Tz = temperatures at which the freezing process
0.21 W/(m “C) and a latent heat equal to 30 700 J/kg. One starts (16.O”C) and ends (20.8”C), respectively
square metre of PCM board stores about 430KJ of [“Cl.
energy during the change of phase, of which approxi-
mately 85% is latent heat. From trigonometry and interpolation, the latent heat
The heat diffusion through the wall (Fig. 2) is described flow, q,, is thus determined at a temperature T as
by the following one-dimensional heat diffusion equa- T- T,
tion: 41 = 2. L,’ R (T2 _ T,)l ’ (5)

ak 0 a*T(x, t) Comparing the actual DSC curves with the approxi-

pc*-=k*T+q,
at OX mation, it was found that the relationship between L,
and L is
with boundary conditions
L, = 0.62 x L. (54
-kT = h,(r)(T,,- T(0,t))+qg,(t) atx=O (2a) Numerical solutions have been successfully applied to
modelling of building components with PCMs [7]. The
_kaTw) explicit finite difference method is particularly suitable
___ = h,( T(x, t) - T,,) at outside surface,
ax for modelling of nonlinear heat diffusion problems such
as the present case of heat transfer through the PCM
(2b) gypsum board. It can easily accomodate nonlinear heat
where transfer coefficients and temperature dependent heat
p = density [kg/m31 sources, such as those due to release of latent heat.
c = specific heat [J/(kg “C)] The finite difference thermal network model for the
k = thermal conductivity w/(m “C)] wall consisted of 14 nodes for the PCM board and three
h,(t) = inside film coefficient [W/(m’ “C)] more nodes for the original wall behind it, as shown in
h, = outside film coefficient [W/(m* “C)] Fig. 4. The insulation (fibreglass) was modelled with a
q, = latent heat flux when phase change occurs [w] pure thermal resistance as it has negligible thermal
qs(t) = absorbed solar radiation [W/(m’ “C)] capacity as compared to PCM gypsum board. Only one
t = time [s] thermal capacitance was employed for the original dry-
T(x,t) = temperature [“Cl wall because it was determined that this was sufficiently
T,, = sol-air temperature [“Cl accurate; the original drywall stores a negligible amount
x = distance [m]. of heat. The energy balance equation for the thermal
network is
The latent heat flux which represents equivalent
internal heat generation due to freezing of PCM at a T,p- T,
’ (6)
specific temperature was modelled by the enthalpy Ri,
method. The enthalpy method [6] simulates the heat
released from solidification as a volumetric heat gen- The subscript i indicates the node for which the energy
eration term. balance is written and j all nodes connected to node i,
while p is the time interval; R,,, is the thermal resistance
between nodes i and j, C, is the thermal capacitance
9, =pL$ associated with node i, and q, represents a heat source at
node i such as absorbed solar radiation or internal heat
where generation (latent heat flow). The time interval At was
,f$ = solid fraction in the two-phase region at the selected based on the following condition for numerical
solidus front stability:
L = latent heat for complete phase transition.

The value of latent heat L and the rate of solidification for all nodes i.
df,/dt in equation (3) were obtained from the DSC test.
The DSC curve was modelled in the temperature range
408 A. K. Athientis et al.

(4
1.69 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : *

1.2..
20.4”C

0.8..

- Freezing
- 0.4-p
3
.5 ..
2B 0-m

5 Melting -)
* -0.4.-

-0.8-- 20.9”C

-1.2-7

_( : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : t
-8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36

Temperature (“C)

Freezing
E ¶max _----___--
2
6:
z q
$

TI T T2

Temperature (“C)
Fig. 3. (a) Actual phase transition curve for PCM gypsum board from differential scanning calorimeter
(DSC). (b) Approximation of DSC curve.

Existing drywall (13 mm) Insulation (fibreglass)

\ Aluminium siding
hi 34: i671

T,i 16
.
01

Room air

I-13mm -----+

PCM board
13 layers

1 Riz 2 R23 3 4 S-15

-_

= REF
Fig. 4. Wall section, nodal discretization. and finite difference thermal network model.
 Thermal Performance of a Passive Solar Test-Room 409

28- - Room air

26 - - PCM board front I
II
-----O.boardfront
24 - ........... PCM board back
- - O.board back
22 -

20 -

18-

\
,2= - - _ _ _ - ’

10 I I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (hour after midnight)
Fig. 5. Experimental results from a typical winter sunny day (0. board denotes ordinary board in Fig. 1;
PCM board temperatures are measured near ordinary board).

Experimental and simulation results application of PCM gypsum board can significantly
Figure 5 shows representative experimental results for reduce overheating in a passive solar building.
a sunny day. Temperatures of the front and back surfaces Figure 6 compares experimental and simulation results
of the PCM drywall and the ordinary drywall cut-out are for freezing of the PCM board in terms of front surface
shown. The surface temperature of the PCM gypsum temperatures. The corresponding results for ordinary
board rises to 21°C as compared to 27°C for the ordinary board (0. board) are also given. The approximate rms
(non-PCM) gypsum board piece (measured in adjacent difference between simulation and experimental results
locations, see Fig. 1). As can be seen, the maximum front was 0.25”C. The maximum error occurred during the
surface temperature of the PCM board is significantly freezing process. This error is primarily due to non-uni-
lower (by 6°C) than the maximum temperature of the form phase change of the PCM in the drywall.
piece of ordinary drywall adjacent to it. This is due to the The above results show that during the freezing process
storage of solar gains as latent heat in the PCM board, which could last 7-11 hours, the surface temperature of
while in the ordinary board the solar radiation is stored PCM gypsum board is approximately 1LlS”C higher
as sensible heat, resulting in an increase of surface tem- than the surface temperature of ordinary board. With a
perature. The reduction of mean radiant temperature total of about 20 m2 PCM gypsum board used in the test-
resulting from PCM use improves thermal comfort sig- room, the increase in heat transferred from the wall to
nificantly, while permitting effective storage of solar gains. the room as compared to ordinary board (if it were used
In a previous study with the same test-room [S] before over the same area) is approximately IOMJ. This is
PCM wallboard was employed, room air temperature approximately equal to 15% of the total heating load,
was often as high as 30°C at noon on sunny days. Under which indicates a significant potential for reduction of
similar circumstances to those of Fig. 5, the room air energy consumption and peak loads. However, for
temperature was only 26°C when PCM wallboard was definitive results on energy conserved, two identical
used. This decrease in maximum room temperature of rooms, one with PCM board and one without it, must
about 4°C represents a significant improvement in ther- be tested simultaneously under the same outdoor
mal comfort. Therefore, a major conclusion is that the conditions

23r __------ Mdl. PCM board

-.- Expr. PCM board
Expr. O.board
..-.-.-. Mdl. O.board
\
g 20-

$ 19-
;;;
k 18-
E
g 17-

16-

14 I I I I I I
16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Time (hour from afternoon to midnight)
Fig. 6. Comparison of experimental and theoretical results for freezing of the PCM (0. board = ordinary
board, mdl. = simulation results, expr. = experimental results).
410 A. K. Athientis et al.

fore be concluded that PCM applied over a large surface

CONCLUSION
area in a passive solar building is effective for storage of
An experimental investigation of the thermal per- solar gains and improvement of thermal comfort.
formance of gypsum board impregnated with a phase The simulation results were generally in reasonably
change material (butyl stearate) was performed in a direct close agreement with the experimental results, indicating
gain outdoor test-room. An explicit transient finite that the explicit one-dimensional non-linear finite
difference model was also developed to simulate the tran- difference model is satisfactory for simulating PCM
sient heat transfer in a wall with PCM gypsum board as gypsum board. The mathematical model may be used
interior lining. in conjunction with other building thermal analysis
The experimental results showed a significant software to evaluate the design parameters and the
reduction of room mean radiant temperature due to operational characteristics of buildings with PCM gyp-
absorption of solar gains in the PCM board in con- sum board or other phase change materials as inside
junction with melting of the butyl stearate. It can there- wall lining.

REFERENCES

1. Feldman, D., Banu, D., Hawes, D. and Ghanbari, E., Obtaining an energy storing building material
by direct incorporation of an organic phase change material in gypsum wallboard. Solar Energy
Materials, 1991, 22,231-242.
2. Feldman, D., Khan, M. A. and Banu, D., Energy storage composite with an organic phase change
material. Solar Energy Materials, 1989, 18, 333-341.
3. Feldman, D., Shapiro, M., Banu, D. and Fuks. C. J., Fatty acids and their mixtures as phase change
materials for thermal energy storage. Solar Energy Materials, 1989, 18,201-216
4. Hawes D. W., Latent heat storage in concrete. Ph.D. thesis, Concordia University, Montreal, 1991.
5. Athienitis, A. K. and Shou, J., Control of radiant heating based on the operative temperature.
ASHRAE Transactions, 1991,97(2), 784-787.
6. bzisik, M. N. and Uzzell, J. C., Exact solution for freezing in cylindrical symmetry with extended
freezing temperature range. Journal of Heat Transfer, 1979, 101, 33 1-334
7. Kedl R., Wallboard with latent heat storage for passive solar application. Oak Ridge National
Laboratory/TM-l 1541 Distribution Category UC-202, 1991.
8. Athienitis, A. K. and Chen, T., Experimental and theoretical investigation of floor heating with thermal
storage. ASHRAE Transactions, 1993, 99(l), 104991057.