Welding Module #2 PDF

Welding
Bharat Singh
Mechanical Engg. Deptt.
GLA University Mathura
BMEC 0006 Mechanical Engineering 1

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Objective of Module # 2
 Upon successful completion of this Module, you will
be able to …
• Identify definitions and terminology associated with
welding
• Demonstrate safe working habits in the welding
environment
• Name the parts and types of welds and weld joints
• Interpret basic welding symbol information
• Identify opportunities available to welders

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Welding
 Welding is a process of joining metallic components
with or without application of heat, with or without
pressure and with or without application of Filler
metal.
 Welding processes can be classified on the basis of
following technological criteria:
 Welding with or without filler material
 Source of energy for welding
 Arc and non-arc welding
 Fusion and pressure welding
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Welding without filler material
 A weld joint can be developed just by melting of
edges (faying surfaces) of plates or sheets to be
welded especially when thickness is lesser than 5
mm.
 A weld joint developed by melting the fating surfaces
and subsequently solidification only (without using
any filler metal) is called “autogenous weld”.
 Laser beam welding
 Electron beam welding
 Resistance welding,
 Friction stir welding
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Welding with filler material
 For welding of thick plates/sheets using any of the
following processes filler metal can be used as per
needs according to thickness of plates.
 Application of autogenous fusion weld in case of
thick plates may result in hollow weld or under fill like
discontinuity in weld joint
 Metal inert gas welding: (with filler)
 Submerged arc welding: (with filler)
 Flux cored arc welding: (with filler)
 Electro gas/slag welding: (with filler)

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Source of Energy for welding
 Based on the type of energy being used for creating metallic
bonds between the components to be welded, welding
processes can be grouped as under:
 Chemical energy: Gas welding, explosive welding,
thermit welding
 Mechanical energy: Friction welding, ultrasonic
welding
 Electrical energy: Arc welding, resistance welding
 Radiation energy: Laser beam welding, electron
beam welding

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Arc Welding
 All those welding processes in which heat for melting the faying
surfaces is provided after establishing an arc either between
the base plate and an electrode or between electrode & nozzle
are grouped under arc weld .Arc based welding processes
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding:
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding:
 Plasma Arc Welding:
 Gas Metal Arc Welding:
 Flux Cored Arc Welding:
 Submerged Arc Welding:.

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Non-arc welding
 In which metallic bond is produced using pressure or
heat generated from sources other than arc namely
chemical reactions or frictional effect etc., are
grouped as non-arc based welding processes
 Resistance welding processes: uses electric resistance heating
 Gas welding: uses heat from exothermic chemical reactions
 Thermit welding: uses heat from exothermic chemical reactions
 Ultrasonic welding: uses both pressure and frictional heat
 Diffusion welding: uses electric resistance/induction heating to
 facilitate diffusion
 Explosive welding: involves pressure

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Pressure Welding
 In which pressure is primarily applied (with little or no
application of heat for softening of metal up to plastic
state) for developing metallic bonds are termed as
solid state welding processes
 Resistance welding processes
(spot, seam, projection, flash butt, arc stud welding)

 Ultrasonic welding
 Diffusion welding
 Explosive welding

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Fusion Welding
 Welding processes in which heat is primarily applied
for melting of the faying surfaces are called fusion
welding processes.
 Gas Welding
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding
 Electro Slag/Electro Gas Welding
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General Classification

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Terminology and Equipments
used in Welding
Welding Electrode
 In arc welding an electrode is used to conduct current through a work piece to fuse two
pieces together. Depending Upon the process, the electrode is either consumable or
non consumable.
 Consumable & non-consumable electrodes - Consumable electrodes provide a path
for the current. They also supply filler metal to the joint. Non-consumable electrodes
are only used as a conductor for the electrical current, such as in gas tungsten arc
welding
 The American Welding Society (AWS) numbering system can tell a welder quite a bit
about a specific stick electrode including what application it works best in and how it
should be used to maximize performance
 The prefix "E" designates an arc welding electrode. The first two digits of a 4-digit
number and the first three digits of 5-digit number indicate minimum tensile strength.
For example, E6010 is a 60,000 psi tensile strength electrode while E10018 designates
a 100,000 psi tensile strength electrode.
E 60 1 0 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa,
or 1 MPa = 0.145
ksi.
Electrode Tensile Strength Position Type of Coating and
Current
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Electrode Specification
Digit Three
 "1" designates an all position electrode, "2" is for flat and horizontal positions only;
 "4" indicates an electrode that can be used for flat, horizontal, vertical down and
overhead. Digit Type of Coating Welding Current
0 High cellulose sodium DC+
Digit 1 High cellulose potassium

2 High titania sodium
AC, DC+ or DC-
AC, DC-
3 High titania potassium AC, DC+
Four 4 Iron powder, titania AC, DC+ or DC-
5 Low hydrogen sodium DC+
6 Low hydrogen potassium AC, DC+
7 High iron oxide, iron powder AC, DC+ or DC-
8 Low hydrogen potassium, iron powder AC, DC+ or DC-

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Welding Flux
 Welding Flux is a combination of carbonate and silicate materials used in welding
process to protect weld from atmospheric gases and contamination.
 When the heat of the weld zone reaches the flux, the flux melts and outgases. The gases
produced push the atmospheric gas back, preventing oxidation (and reactions with
nitrogen).
 The melted flux covers the molten metal in the weld zone. Flux materials are chosen so
that the density of the melted flux / slag is lower than that of the metal being welded, so
that the flux floats to the top of the weld puddle and leaves pure or nearly pure metal to
solidify below.
 The flux cover also helps thermally insulate the weld and reduce the cooling rate

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Electrode Polarity
 In case of D. C. welding, polarity depends on the way electrode is connected to the
power source i.e. whether electrode is connected to positive or negative terminal of the
power source.
 If electrode is connected to negative terminal of the power source, then it is called
direct current electrode negative (DCEN) or straight polarity and if electrode is
connected to positive terminal of the power source then it is called direct current
electrode positive (DCEP) or reverse polarity.
 Polarity in case of A.C. welding doesn’t remain constant as it changes in every half
cycle of current.
Selection of appropriate polarity is important for successful welding
 1.Distribution of heat generated by welding arc at anode and cathode,

 2. Stability of the arc and
 3. Cleanliness of weld

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Electrode Polarity…
 For proper penetration, uniform bead appearance, and good welding results, the correct
polarity must be used when welding with any given metallic electrode.
 Incorrect polarity will cause poor penetration, irregular bead shape, excessive spatter,
difficulty in controlling the arc, overheating, and rapid burning of the electrode.

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Filler Metal
 Metallic object/Wire used to fill the gap between the base
metals to be joined. It need not be a part of electrical
circuit.

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Pinch Force/Effect
 Flow of current through the arc gap develops the electromagnetic field.
Interaction of this electromagnetic field with that of charge carriers produces
a force which tends to pinch the drop hanging at the tip of the electrode also
called pinch force. The pinch force reduces the cross section for molten metal
drop near the tip of the electrode and thus helps in detachment of the droplet
from the electrode tip .

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Arc Blow
 Arc blow is basically a deflection of a welding arc from
its intended path i.e. axis of the electrode. Deflection of
arc during welding reduces the control over the
handling of molten metal by making it difficult to apply
the molten metal at right place. A severe arc blow
increases the spattering which in turn decreases the
deposition efficiency of the welding process

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Welding Positions
 Flat welding Positions: In flat welding, plates to be
welded are placed on the horizontal plane and weld
bead is also deposited horizontally .

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Horizontal Welding
 In horizontal welding, plates to be welded are placed

in vertical plane while weld bead is deposited
horizontally This technique is comparatively more
difficult than flat welding. Welding parameters for
horizontal welding should be selected carefully for
easy manipulation/placement of weld metal at the
desired location.

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Vertical Welding
 In vertical welding, plates to be welded are placed on the vertical plane and
weld bead is also deposited vertically. It imposes difficulty in placing the
molten weld metal from electrode in proper place along the weld line due to
tendency of the melt to fall down under the influence of gravitational force

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Overhead Welding Position
 In overhead welding, weld metal is deposited in such a way that face
of the weld is largely downward and there is high tendency of falling
down of weld metal during welding. Molten weld metal is moved
from the electrode (lower side) to base metal (upper side) with great
care and difficulty hence, it imposes problems similar to that of
vertical welding but with greater intensity.

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Syllabus

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Electric Arc Welding or
Arc Welding
 Electric Arc:-An electric arc is a visible plasma discharge between
electrodes and work that is caused by electrical current ionizing gasses in the
air. Electric arc occur in nature in the form of lightning.
 Characteristics: A welding arc is high current low voltage electric discharge
 Ranges: Welding Current:- 10-1000 Amp
 Welding Voltage: 10 -50 volts

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Method of Arc Initiation
 The method of initiating a welding arc depends upon the process used. However, in general these methods can
be grouped into two categories.
1. The electrode and the work piece are short-circuited momentarily by touching each other.
2. The ionization of the gases between the electrodes to work gap achieved by the application of high
voltage across it
 Ist Method:
The touch method of initiating the arc is normally used for processes in which the mobile
arc is employed.For thick electrodes, the arc initiation is done by touching the electrode
to the work piece and then withdrawing it. Upon touching, a heavy short circuit current
flows in the circuit causing melting of minute points of contact. When the electrode is
withdrawn it results in sparking and ionization of the gap between the electrode and the
work piece. This method of initiating the welding arc is known as ‘touch’ method and
the arc so initiated is called ‘drawn’ arc.
The method is used for arc initiation in arc welding machine process or SMAW process.

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IInd Method
 The electrode and work piece are bought close to each other without touching
and a high voltage of the order of 104 volts is applied. As a high voltage at
normal mains frequency of 50 hertz will be lethal thus high frequency high
voltage is applied, for arc initiation, with the help of the spark gap oscillator.
This helps in ionizing the gases in the gap between the electrode and the work
piece and the arc are, thus initiated in a few milli-seconds. As soon as the arc
is stabilized, the auxiliary high frequency high voltage supply is switched off
automatically.
 Note :This method of arc initiation is utilized in the gas tungsten arc welding
machine and carbon arc welding machine processes so as to avoid the
contamination of tungsten electrode or to eliminate the chance of pickup of
carbon from the carbon electrode if touch method is used to initiate the arc.

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Arc Welding Process
 All arc welding processes apply heat generated by an electric arc for
melting the faying surfaces of the base metal to develop a weld joint .
Common arc welding processes are
 Manual metal or shielded metal arc welding (MMA or SMA),

 Metal inert gas arc (MIG),
 Tungsten inert gas (TIG),
 Submerged arc (SA),
 Plasma arc(PA),
 Carbon arc (CA) Welding etc.

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SMAW
In this process, the heat is generated by an electric arc between base metal and a consumable electrode.
In this process electrode movement is manually controlled hence it is termed as manual metal arc
welding. This process is extensively used for depositing weld metal because it is easy to deposit the
molten weld metal at right place where it is required and it doesn’t need separate shielding. This
process is commonly used for welding of the metals, which are comparatively less sensitive to
the atmospheric gases.
• *Older, simple technology **The electrode is also the filler rod. **Strong welds if done properly
(but often not). **Very high heat input: good for thick parts, bad for grain growth and distortion.

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Power source SMAW
 This process can use both AC and DC. The constant current DC
power source is invariably used with all types of electrode (basic,
rutile and cellulosic) irrespective of base metal (ferrous and non-
ferrous). However, AC can be unsuitable for certain types of
electrodes and base materials.
 In case of DC welding, heat liberated at anode is generally greater
than the arc column and cathode side. In case of DC welding, polarity
determines the distribution of the heat generated at the cathode and
anode and accordingly the melting rate of electrode and penetration
into the base metal are affected.
 If arc is moving at speed S (mm/min) then net heat input is
calculated as Hnet= VI (60)/(S X 1000) kJ/mm

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Shielding in SMA welding
 In case of shielded metal arc welding, the protection to the weld pool
is provided by covering of
 a) Slag formed over the surface of weld pool/metal and
 b) Inactive gases generated through thermal decomposition of
flux/coating materials on the electrode
 Disadvantages:-
 Shielding of the weld pool by inactive gases in SMAW is not found
very effective due to two reasons
 a) Gases generated by thermal decomposition of coating materials
don’t necessarily form proper cover around the arc and welding pool.
 b) Continuous movement of arc and varying arc gap during welding
further decreases the effectiveness of shielding gas.

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SMAW Disadvantages
 Hence, it is not usually recommended for developing weld joints of
reactive metals like Al, Mg, Ti, Cr and stainless steel.
 These reactive metal systems are therefore commonly welded using
welding processes like GTAW, GMAW etc. that provide more
effective shielding to the weld pool from atmospheric contamination.
Applications
 Pipelines, tanks, pressure vessels, structural, and field
work where deep penetration is necessary. Specially
suited for pressure pipelines which cannot be welded
from inside. Storage tanks, gear blanks, machinery, steel
furniture, truck bodies, foundry equipment, shaft build-up
etc.
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TIG
 This process uses the heat generated by an electric arc between the non-
consumable tungsten electrode and work piece (mostly reactive metals like
stainless steel, Al, Mg etc.) for melting of faying surfaces and inert gas is used
for shielding the arc zone and weld pool from the atmospheric gases.
• Characteristics:-The electrode is tungsten (not consumed), The filler rod is
separate and fed manually, High skill labor required to achieve good weld,
Difficult to automate, Low heat input and small weld bead: distortion and
grain growth are minimized.

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TIG (GTAW)
 TIG Welding Component:
 a) DC/AC power source to deliver the welding current as per needs,
 b) Welding torch (air/water cooled) with tungsten electrode and gas nozzle,
 c) Inert shielding gas (He, Ar or their mixture) for protecting the molten weld pool
contamination from atmospheric gases and
 d) Controls for moving the welding torch as per mode of operation (manual, semi-
automatic and automatic)
 e) Filler Rod
Power Source:
 TIG welding normally uses constant current type of power source with welding current
ranging from 3-200A or 5-300A or higher and welding voltage ranging from 10-35V .
Pure tungsten electrode of ball tip shape with DCEN provides good arc stability.

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TIG
Welding Torch:-TIG welding torch includes three main parts namely non-consumable
tungsten electrode, collets and nozzle. A collet is primarily used to hold the tungsten
electrodes of varying diameters in position. Nozzle helps to form a firm jet of inert gas
around the arc, weld pool and the tungsten electrode.
Shielding Gas
 Helium, Argon and their mixtures are commonly used as inert shielding gas for
protecting the weld pool depending upon the metal to be welded, criticality of
application and economics. The selection of inert gases to be used as shielding gas in
GTAW and GMAW process depends upon the type of metal to be welded and
criticality of their applications. Carbon dioxide is not used with GTAW process, at high
temperature in arc environment, the thermal decomposition of the carbon dioxide
produces CO and O2. Generation of these gases adversely affect the quality and
soundness of the weld joint and reduces the life of tungsten electrode.

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MIG(GMAW)
This process is based on the principle of developing weld by melting faying surfaces of
the base metal using heat produced by a welding arc established between base metal
and a consumable electrode.
Characteristics:
Complex mechanism but simple to perform and easy to automate. The electrode is also the filler rod, fed
continuously from a spool. It melts in the arc. For steel or aluminum. Low skill level can achieve
good weld. Medium heat input: distortion and grain growth are significant.

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MIG
 a) DC/AC power source to deliver the welding current as per needs (either constant
voltage or constant current type)
 b) Welding torch (air/water cooled) with Consumable Continuous Filler and gas
nozzle,
 c) Inert shielding gas (He, Ar or their mixture) for protecting the molten weld pool
contamination from atmospheric gases and
 d) Wire Pool Control

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SAW (Submerged Arc Welding)
 Submerged arc welding (SAW) process uses heat generated by an electric arc
established between a bare consumable electrode wire and the work piece. Since in this
process, welding arc and the weld pool are completely submerged under cover of
granular fusible and molten flux therefore it is called SAW.
Layer of slag over the molten weld metal results:
 A. Increased protection of weld metal from atmospheric gas contamination and so
improved properties of weld joint
 B. Reduced cooling rate of weld metal and HAZ owing to shielding of the weld pool by
molten flux and solidified slag in turn leads to a) smoother weld bead and b) reduced
the cracking tendency of hardenable steel.

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SAW
 Components :
Power Source: Generally, submerged arc welding process uses power source at 100 %
duty cycle; which means that the welding is done continuously for minimum 5 min
without a break or more. Depending upon the electrode diameter, type of flux and
electrical resistivity submerged arc welding can work with both AC and DC.
Alternating current and DCEN polarity are generally used with large diameter
 electrode (>4mm).

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SAW
Welding Electrode
 The diameter of electrodes used in submerged arc welding generally ranges from 1–5
mm. The electrode wire is fed from the spool through a contact tube connected to the
power source. Electrode wire of steel is generally copper coated for two reasons a) to
protect it from atmospheric corrosion and b) to increase their current carrying capacity.
 SAW fluxes
 SAW Fluxes can influence the weld metal composition appreciably in the form of
addition or loss of alloying elements through gas metal and slag metal reactions. Few
hygroscopic (tending to absorb moisture from the air) fluxes are baked (at 250–300C
for 1-2 hours) to remove the moisture. There are four types of common SAW fluxes
namely fused flux, agglomerated flux, bonded flux and mechanical fluxes.

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SAW
 Due to unique features like welding arc submerged under flux and use of high welding current
associated with submerged arc welding processes compared with other welding process, it offers
following important advantages:
1. High productivity due to high deposition rate of the welding metal and capability weld continuously
without interruptions as electrode is fed from spool, and the process works under 100% duty cycle.
2. High depth of penetration allows welding of thick sections
3. Smooth weld bead is produced without stresses raisers as SAW is carried out without sparks, smoke
and spatter
Application
 Submerged arc welding is used for welding of different grades of steels in many sectors
such as shipbuilding, offshore, structural and pressure vessel industries fabrication of
pipes, penstocks, LPG cylinders, and bridge girders. Apart from the welding, SAW is
also used for surfacing of worn out parts of large surface area for different purposes
such as reclamation, hard facing and cladding.

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Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
 The plasma arc welding (PAW) can be considered as an advanced
version of TIG welding. Like TIGW, PAW also uses the tungsten
electrode and inert gases for shielding of the molten metal.
S TIG PAW
n
1 Low velocity plasma and diffused arc is generated In case of PAW very high velocity and coherent
in the TIG welding plasma is generated
2 Large surface area of the arc exposed to ambient Lower surface of area of arc is exposed to air
air and base metal in case of TIG welding causes
greater heat losses than PAW and lowers the
energy density
3 No use of Nozzle for arc constriction Use of Nozzle for arc constriction

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Principle of PAW
In plasma arc welding, arc is forced to pass through nozzle (water cooled copper) which causes the
constriction of the arc . Constriction of arc results in
(a)reduction in cross-sectional area of arc,

(b) increases energy density
.
(c) increases to velocity of plasma approaching to the sound velocity and temperature to about 25000 0C

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Principle of PAW
A coherent, calumniated and stiff plasma is formed due to constriction
therefore it doesn’t get deflected and diffused. Hence, heat is transferred
to the base metal over a very small area which in turns results in high
energy density and deep of penetration and small width of the weld pool /
key hole / cut.

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Principle of PAW
 Process Parameters
 Energy density and penetration capability of plasma jet is determined
by the various process parameters namely
 plasma current,
 nozzle orifice diameter and shape,
 plasma forming gas (He, Ar, Air, ) and flow rate of plasma carrying.
 PAW uses the constant current type power source with DCEN
polarity. The DCEN polarity is invariable used in PAW because
tungsten electrode is used for developing the arc through which
plasma forming gas is passed

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Carbon Arc Welding(CAW)
 Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a welding process, in which heat is
generated by an electric arc struck between an carbon electrode and
the work piece. The arc heat melts the work pieces edges, forming a
joint.
 If required, filler rod may be used in Carbon Arc Welding. End of the
rod is held in the arc zone. The molten rod material is supplied to the
weld pool.
 Shields (neutral gas, flux) may be used for weld pool protection
depending on type of welded metal.

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Working Principle

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CAW
Advantages of Carbon Arc Welding:
 Low cost of equipment and welding operation;
 High level of operator skill is not required;
 The process is easily automated;
 Low distortion of work piece.
Disadvantages of Carbon Arc Welding:

 Unstable quality of the weld (porosity);
 Carbon of electrode contaminates weld material with carbides.

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Atomic Hydrogen Welding
 Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW) is an arc welding
process that makes use of an arc between two tungsten
metal electrodes within an atmosphere composed of
hydrogen. Shielding is obtained from the hydrogen.
 The electric arc produced in the process efficiently breaks
up the molecules of hydrogen that later recombine through
an extreme release of heat.
 H2 H + H - 100700 cals(Heat)

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Atomic Hydrogen Welding
Set-Up
2 tungsten electrode.
 Hydrogen gas cylinder with
regulator and hose.
 Electrode holder or torch.
AC/Dc power supply machine
with controller.
 Filler rod if needed.

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Limitations
1. Cost of welding by this process is slightly higher than with the other
process. Welding is limited to flat positions only.
2. Because of the high levels of heat produced in this welding process,

welders need to be even more aware of the dangers they are exposed
to.
3. Skilled welder is required.
4. Due to advances in inert gases AHW may be limited.
5. Hydrogen is highly inflammable gas so it should be taken care.

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Applications
 Atomic hydrogen welding is used in those applications where rapid
welding is necessary, as for stainless steels and other special alloys.
 For most of the ferrous and non ferrous metals.
 For thick as well as thin sheets or small diameter wires (2-10mm).

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Resistance Welding
 Resistance Welding is a pressure welding technique using high current
and low voltage
 The local heating and temperature of the metallic pieces raises to the
fusion. Electric current passing through the two overlapping
workpiece causes localized heating due to resistance offered by the
workpiece .
 Subsequent application of pressure results in permanent joining of the
workpiece by the formation of weld without the use of filler material
 Work pieces are placed between two rods or wheels(rolls), which
serve as conductor for producing welds.
AC electric current is supplied through copper electrodes or rolls
connected to the secondary coil of a welding transformer.
 It is used for welding thin sheets of similar metallic materials

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Resistance Welding
Voltage : 0.5 to 10 V
At 15000 Amp
H = Amount of heat generated at the contacting area of the elements to be welded ( Joules)
I = Current ( Amperes )
R = Resistance of the circuit at contacting area ( ohms)
T = time for which electric current passes through the joint. ( sec ) ( 0 . 25 sec )

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Resistance Welding
 Advantages of Resistance Welding:
• High welding rates;
• No/Low fumes;
• Cost effectiveness;
• Easy automation;
• No filler materials are required;
• Low distortions.
 Disadvantages of Resistance Welding:
• High equipment cost;
• Low strength in case of discontinuous welds;
• Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to 1/4” (6 mm);
 The following metals may be welded by Resistance Welding:
• Low carbon steels - the widest application of Resistance Welding
• Aluminum alloys
• Medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and Alloy steels (may be welded, but the
weld is brittle)
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Classification of Resistance
Welding
 Types of Resistance Welding are:
• Resistance spot welding

• Resistance seam welding
• Resistance butt welding 1. Upset welding
• 2. Flash welding
• Resistance projection welding etc

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Resistance Spot Welding
 Spot Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which two or more
overlapped metal sheets are joined by spot welds. The method uses pointed
copper electrodes providing passage of electric current. The electrodes also
transmit pressure required for formation of strong weld.
 It consist of a transformer core having primary and secondary
 The workpiece to be weld are pressed between tips of the electrodes and high
current at low voltages is passed through the workpiece.

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 Due to resistance offered by the workpiece ( sheet metal ) to the flow
of current , the temperature at the contact surfaces rises to fusion point
and the weld is completed on freezing.
 The operation is repeated by changing the position of the workpiece
plate to get the weld at another point. Spot welding is widely used in
automotive industry for joining vehicle body parts and in metal
furniture.

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Plot of squeezing force & current in cycle
(1) Parts inserted between electrodes,
(2) Electrodes close, force applied,
(3) Current on,
(4) Current off,
(5) Electrodes opened.

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In Automotive Industry

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Seam Welding
 Seam Welding is a Resistance Welding process of
continuous joining of overlapping sheets by passing them
between two rotating electrode wheels. Heat generated by
the electric current flowing through the contact area and
pressure provided by the wheels are sufficient to produce
a leak-tight weld.

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Seam Welding
Seam Welding is high speed and clean process, which is used when
continuous tight weld is required (fuel tanks, drums, domestic radiators,
gasoline tanks, automobile muffler).

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Seam Welding

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Difference Between Spot and
Seam Welding
 Spot Seam
1. The electrodes are a 1. Electrodes are a pair of

pair of copper rods rotating copper rolls between
between which the which sheets to be welded
sheets to be welded are passed
are positioned 2. The seam weld joints are
2. The welding takes continuous
place at discrete
intervals 3. It is used to weld
3. It is used for components such as a fuel
components such as tank shells & other application
flat sheets , panels as which require the joint to be
in car bodies. leak proof
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Resistance Butt Welding
It is of two types
• 1. Upset welding
• 2. Flash welding
 1. Upset Welding is used to join the pieces end to end.The process is best
suited to rods , pipes and many other parts Of uniform cross section.
 In upset butt welding , the parts are clamped and brought in solid contact and
current is applied so that the heat is generated through the contact areas of the
parts.

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 When the temperature of the interface reaches to plastic state, the
current is switched off and the two parts are pressed together firmly.
This results in lateral flow of the surfaces oxide layers. This action of
pressing together is called upsetting.
 Butt welding is used for welding small parts. The process is highly
productive and clean.

Department
2. Flash Butt Welding
 Flash welding is similar to upset welding except that the heat is obtained by
means of an arc than the simple resistance heating.
 The two parts are brought together and the power supply is switched on.
 As the parts are moved closer , flashing or arcing raises the temperature
of the parts to a welding temperature.
 Now power is switched off and two parts are rapidly pressed (forced)
 Together causing a small upset. This squeezes out liquid metal and oxides ,
formed on the joint surfaces and the two parts are welded together.
Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames, aircraft landing gears are produced
by Flash Welding.

Department
Flash Butt Welding

Department
Resistance Projection Welding
 1) Start of operation, contact between parts is at
projections
 2) When current is applied, weld nuggets similar to spot
welding are formed at the projections.

Department
Oxyacetylene/Gas Welding
 Oxyacetylene/Gas welding: Welding done by heating the
workpiece with flames obtained from oxy-fuel gases is usually
referred to as gas welding.
 The oxyacetylene welding process uses a combination of
oxygen and acetylene gas to provide a high temperature flame.
OAW is a manual process in which the welder must personally
control the torch movement and filler rod application.

Department
Working Principle
 Cylinders contain oxygen and acetylene gas at extremely high
pressure. High temperature generated during the process.
 Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides, Common
fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium, Lithium and borax.
 Flux can be applied as paste, powder, liquid, solid coating or gas.

Department
Gases used
 Oxygen extracted from air and compressed into cylinders at high pressure. Cylinder is
black. Oil should never be brought into contact and should not be used on fittings.
 Acetylene (C2H2) is a fuel gas. Cannot be compressed directly as explodes at high
pressures.Cylinder colour coded maroon. Acetylene is extremely unstable in its pure
form at pressure above 103Kpa. Acetone is also present within the cylinder to stabilize
the acetylene.

Department
Gas welding Equipments
 Oxygen Cylinder
 Acetylene cylinder
 Pressure Regulator
 Hose pipes
 Mixing Chamber /Torch
 Filler Rod

Department
Types of Flames
 In this process there are generally three types of

flames which are characterized based on the
temperature and applications used. They are:
 Oxidizing flame
 Carburizing flame
 Neutral Flame

Department
Neutral Flame
 The neutral flame has a one-to-one ratio of acetylene and oxygen.It is generally preferred
for welding. The neutral flame has a clear, well-defined, or luminous cone indicating that
combustion is complete.
 Neutral welding flames are commonly used to weld:
 Mild steel, Stainless steel, Cast Iron, Copper, Aluminum
 In the neutral flame, the temperature at the inner
cone tip is approximately 5850ºF (3232ºC), while at the end of the outer
sheath or envelope the temperature drops to approximately 2300ºF
(1260ºC). This variation within the flame permits some temperature
control when making a weld.

Department
Carburizing Flame
 The carburizing flame has excess acetylene, the inner cone has a feathery edge
extending beyond it. This white feather is called the acetylene feather. If the
acetylene feather is twice as long as the inner cone it is known as a 2X flame,
which is a way of expressing the amount of excess acetylene. The reducing or
carburizing flame can always be recognized by the presence of three distinct
flame zones. There is a clearly defined bluish-white inner cone, white
intermediate cone indicating the amount of excess acetylene, and a light blue
outer flare envelope.
 It has a temperature of approximately 5700ºF (3149ºC) at the inner cone tips.
Carburizing flame may add carbon to the weld metal.
 A carburizing flame is advantageous for welding high carbon steel and hard
facing such nonferrous alloys as nickel and Monel.

Department
Oxidizing Flame
 Oxidizing welding flames are produced when slightly more than one volume of oxygen is
mixed with one volume of acetylene. To obtain this type of flame, the torch should first be
adjusted to a neutral flame. The flow of oxygen is then increased until the inner cone is
shortened to about one-tenth of its original length. When the flame is properly adjusted, the
inner cone is pointed and slightly purple. An oxidizing flame can also be recognized by its
distinct hissing sound.
 The temperature of this flame is approximately 6300ºF (3482ºC) at the inner cone tip.
 An oxidizing flame should not be used for welding steel because the deposited metal will be
porous, oxidized, and brittle.
 Application:This flame will ruin most metals and should be avoided .Used in cutting
operation ,welding of zinc alloys, Copper alloys, manganese steel alloys, cast iron.

Department
GAS WELDING
 Advantages of an oxy-acetylene weld
• inexpensive
• requires very little specialized equipment.
 Disadvantages
• any traces of carbon left in the weld will weaken it.

Department
Electron Beam Welding(EBW)
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a fusion welding in
which coalescence is produced by heating the workpiece
due to impingement of the concentrated electron beam of
high kinetic energy on the workpiece. As the electron
beam impinges the workpiece, kinetic energy of the
electron beams converts into thermal energy resulting in
melting and even evaporation of the work material.

Department
Principle
 In general, electron beam welding process is carried out in vacuum. In this
process, electrons are emitted from the heated filament called electrode. These
electrons are accelerated by applying high potential difference (30 kV to 175
kV) between cathode and anode. The higher the potential difference, the higher
would be the acceleration of the electrons. The electrons get the speed in the
range of 50,000 to 200,000 km/s. The electron beam is focused by means of
electromagnetic lenses. When this high kinetic energy electron beam strikes on
the workpiece, high heat is generated on the work piece resulting in melting of
the work material. Molten metal fills into the gap between parts to be joined and
subsequently it gets solidified and forms the weld joint.

Department
EBW Equipment
 a) Electron gun,
Lanthanum hexaboride
(LaB6) or tungsten
 b) Power supply,
 c) Vacuum Chamber,
 d) Workpiece
holding device

Department
Advantages
 1) High penetration to width can be obtained, which is difficult with other
welding processes.2) High welding speed is obtained.3) Material of high
melting temperature can be welded. 4) Superior weld quality due to welding
in vacuum. 5) High precision of the welding is obtained.
 6) Distortion is less due to less heat affected zone.
 7) Dissimilar materials can be welded.
 8) Cleaning cost is negligible. 9) Reactive materials like beryllium, titanium

etc. can be welded. 10) Materials of high melting point like columbium,
tungsten etc. can be welded.
 11) Very wide range of sheet thickness can be joined (0.025 mm to 100 mm)
Department
Disadvantages
 1) Very high equipment cost.
 2) High vacuum is required.
 3) High safety measures are required.
 4) Large jobs are difficult to weld.
 5) Skilled man power is required.

Department
Applications
1. Electron beam welding process is mostly used in joining of refractive
materials like columbium, tungsten, ceramic etc. which are used in
missiles.
2. In space shuttle applications wherein reactive materials like beryllium,
zirconium, titanium etc. are used.
3. In high precision welding for electronic components, nuclear fuel

elements, special alloy jet engine components and pressure vessels for
rocket plants.
4. Dissimilar material can be welded like invar with stainless steel.

Department
LASER Beam Welding
Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Laser Beam Welding (LBW) is a fusion joining process that produces coalescence
of materials with the heat obtained from a concentrated beam of coherent,
monochromatic light impinging on the joint to be welded.
In the LBW process, the laser beam is directed by flat optical elements, such as
mirrors and then focused to a small spot (for high power density) at the workpiece
using either reflective focusing elements or lenses. It is a non-contact process,
requiring no pressure to be applied. Inert gas shielding generally employed to
prevent oxidation of the molten pool and filler metals may be occasionally used.
The Lasers which are predominantly being used for industrial material processing
and welding tasks are the Nd-YAG laser and 1.06 μm wavelength CO2 laser, with
the active elements most commonly employed in these two varieties of lasers
being the neodymium
(Nd) ion and the CO2 molecules respectively.
Department
LASER Processing

Department
Department
LBW Process Advantages
 1) Heat input is close to the minimum required to fuse the weld metal, thus heat
affected zones are reduced and workpiece distortions are minimized.
 2) Time for welding thick sections is reduced and the need for filler wires and
elaborate joint preparations is eliminated by employing the single pass laser
welding procedures.
 3) No electrodes are required; welding is performed with freedom from electrode
contamination, indentation or damage from high resistance welding currents.
 4) LBM being a non-contact process, distortions are minimized and tool wears
are eliminated.
 5) Welding in areas that are not easily accessible with other means of welding
can be done by LBM, since the beams can be focused, aligned and directed by
optical elements.
 6) Laser beam can be focused on a small area, permitting the joining of small,
closely spaced components with tiny welds.

Department
Advantages …….cont
 7) Wide variety of materials including various combinations can be
welded.8) Thin welds on small diameter wires are less susceptible to
burn back than is the case with arc welding.
 9) Metals with dissimilar physical properties, such as electric
resistance can also be welded.
 10) No vacuum or X-Ray shielding is required.
 11) Laser welds are not influenced by magnetic fields, as in arc and
electron beam welds. They also tend to follow weld joint through to
the root of the work-piece, even when the beam and joint are not
perfectly aligned.
 12) Aspect ratios (i.e., depth-to-width ratios) of the order of 10:1 are
attainable in LBM.

Department
Limitations
 1) Joints must be accurately positioned laterally under the beam and at a
controlled position with respect to the beam focal point.
 2) In case of mechanical clamping of the weld joints, it must be ensured that
the final position of the joint is accurately aligned with the beam impingement
point.
 3) The maximum joint thickness that can be welded by laser beam is
somewhat limited. Thus weld penetrations of larger than 19 mms are difficult
to weld.
 4) High reflectivity and high thermal conductivity of materials like Al and Cu
alloys can affect the weldability with lasers.
 5) An appropriate plasma control device must be employed to ensure the weld
reproducibility while performing moderate to high power laser welding.
 6) Lasers tend to have fairly low energy conversion efficiency, generally less
than 10 percent. 7) Some weld-porosity and brittleness can be expected, as a
consequence of the rapid solidification characteristics of the LBM.

Department
Solid State Welding (SSW)
 Coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:
• Pressure alone, or
• Heat and pressure
• If both heat and pressure are used, heat is not enough
to melt work surfaces
• For some SSW processes, time is also a factor
 No filler metal is added
 Each SSW process has its own way of creating a
bond at the faying surfaces

Department
Prerequisite
 Essential factors for a successful solid state weld are
that the two faying surfaces must be:
• Very clean
• In very close physical contact with each other to
permit atomic bonding

Department
Solid State Welding Processes
 Friction welding
 Explosion welding
 Diffusion welding
 Ultrasonic welding
 Forge welding
 Cold welding
 Roll welding
 Hot pressure welding

Department
Friction Welding
 Friction Welding (FRW) is a solid state welding process which produces
welds due to the compressive force contact of workpieces which are either
rotating or moving relative to one another. Heat is produced due to the
friction which displaces material plastically from the faying surfaces
 In friction welding the heat required to produce the joint is generated by
friction heating at the interface. The components to be joined are first
prepared to have smooth, square cut surfaces. One piece is held stationary
while the other is mounted in a motor driven chuck or collet and rotated
against it at high speed. A low contact pressure may be applied initially to
permit cleaning of the surfaces by a burnishing action. This pressure is then
increased and contacting friction quickly generates enough heat to raise the
abutting surfaces to the welding temperature.

Department
Friction Welding
As soon as this temperature is reached, rotation is stopped and the pressure is
maintained or increased to complete the weld. The softened material is
squeezed out to form a flash. A forged structure is formed in the joint. If
desired, the flash can be removed by subsequent machining action. Friction
welding has been used to join steel bars upto 100 mm in diameter and tubes
with outer diameter upto 100 mm.

Department
Narrow HAZ in FW
 1.No fusion
 2.Low Peak Temperature
 3.Welding is done by external Pressure applied
 4. Frictional heat less than fusion heat

Department
Advantages

Department
Limitations

Department
Explosion Welding (EXW)
It is SSW process in which rapid coalescence of two
metallic surfaces is caused by the energy of a
detonated explosive
 No filler metal used
 No external heat applied
 No diffusion occurs - time is too short
 Bonding is metallurgical, combined with mechanical

interlocking that results from a rippled or wavy
interface between the metals

Department
Explosive Welding
 Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals,
 In particular to clad one metal on top of a base metal
over large areas
 (1) Setup in parallel configuration, and
 (2) during detonation of the explosive charge

Department
Advantages
 (i) Ease of the process.
(ii) Extremely big surface can be bonded.
(iii) Welds can be created on heat-treated metals with no affecting
their microstructures.
(iv) This foils can be bonded to heavier plates.
(v) Broad range of thicknesses can be explosively clad jointly.
(vi) Explosive bonds have a solid condition joint that is free from
warmth affected zone.
(vii) Good explosive bonds typically contain strength equal to or
greater than that of the weaker of the two metals joined.
(viii) Lack of porosity, phase changes and structural changes
communicate improved mechanical properties to the joints.

Department
Limitations
 (i) In industrial areas the use of explosives will be harshly limited by the noise
and earth vibrations caused by explosion.
(ii) The rules relating to the storage of explosives and the difficulty of
preventing them from falling into unauthorized hands can well prove to be the
major obstruction to the use of explosive welding.
(iii) Metals to be bonded by this procedure must possess some ductility and
some crash resistance. Metals harder than about 50 RC are tremendously hard
to weld.
(iv) Metal thicknesses bigger than 62 mm of every alloy cannot be joined
simply and need high explosive loads.
(v) Resources such as beryllium, tungsten, boron, glass and ceramics are not
usually processed by explosive welding.

Department
Diffusion Welding
SSW process uses heat and pressure, usually in a
controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time for
diffusion and coalescence to occur
 Temperatures  0.5 Tm
 Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal
 Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state

diffusion
 Limitation: time required for diffusion can range from
seconds to hours

Department
Application of Diffusion Welding
 Joining of high strength and refractory metals in
aerospace and nuclear industries
 Can be used to join either similar and dissimilar
metals
• For joining dissimilar metals, a filler layer of different
metal is often sandwiched between base metals to
promote diffusion

Department
Basic Metallurgy of Fusion
Welding
 In general, a weld can be divided in four different zones
 1.Fusion Zone
 2.Weld Interface
 3.HAZ
 4.Parent Metal
 1.The fusion zone (referred to as FZ) :can be characterized as a mixture of
completely molten base metal (and filler metal if consumable electrodes are in
use) with high degree of homogeneity where the mixing is primarily
motivated by convection in the molten weld pool. Temperature reached above
liquids temperature.
 2.Weld Interface : The weld interface, which is also referred to as mushy
zone, is a narrow zone consisting of partially melted base material which
has not got an opportunity for mixing.

Department
Heat Affected Zone
 The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the area of base material,
either a metal or a thermoplastic, which is not melted and
has had its microstructure and properties altered by
welding.
 The amount of change in microstructure in HAZ depends
on the
 1.Amount of heat input,
 2.Peak temp reached,
 3.Time at the elevated temp, and the
 4.Rate of cooling

Department
HAZ cont..
 The heat affected zone (HAZ) is the region that experiences a peak
temperature that is well below the solidus temperature while high enough that
can change the microstructure of the material.
 As a result of the marked change in the microstructure, the mechanical
properties also change in HAZ and, usually, this zone remains as the weakest
section in a weldment.
 The unaffected base metal zone surrounding the HAZ is likely to be in a
state of high residual stress, due to the shrinkage in the fusion zone. However,
this zone does not undergo any change in the microstructure

Department
Preheating In Welding
 Preheating of the plate will reduce the cooing rate, which
will allow longer time for gases to escape during the liquid
to solid state and solid-solid transformation.
 It may also reduce the cooling rate below the critical
cooling rate so that martensitic transformation can be
avoided and austenite can be transformed into softer
phases and phase mixtures like pearlite, bainite etc.These
soft phases further reduce the cracking tendency.

Department
PWHT

Department
Welding Defects
 The defects in the weld can be defined as
irregularities in the weld metal produced due to
incorrect welding parameters or wrong welding
procedures or wrong combination of filler metal and
parent metal.
 It can simply be defined as:
 “Defects introduced during welding beyond the
 acceptance limit that can cause a weld to fail”

Department
FAILURE DUE TO WELDING
DEFECT ON %AGE BASIS
 According to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
welding defect causes are broken down into the following % age:-
 • 41% Poor process conditions

 •32% Operator error
 •12% Wrong technique
 •10% Incorrect consumables and
 •5% Bad weld grooves

Department
Defects as per IIW
 Crack :includes all types of cracks such as
 crater cracks, hot cracks, cold cracks, etc
 Cavity :includes blow holes, porosities, shrinkage,
 Incomplete fusion & penetration: includes lack of fusion,
lack of penetration, etc
 Solid inclusion includes Slag, metal oxides, tungsten, wagon
track, etc
 Imperfect shape-Under cut, under fill,over lap, excessive
penetration, improper bead shape, etc
 Miscellaneous defects: Includes arc strike, excessive spatter,
rough surface, uneven ripples, etc
Department

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Welding

BMEC 0006 Mechanical Engineering 1

BMEC 0006 Mechanical Engineering 2

 Source of energy for welding

 Arc and non-arc welding

 Fusion and pressure welding

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(spot, seam, projection, flash butt, arc stud welding)

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Digit 1 High cellulose potassium

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 1.Distribution of heat generated by welding arc at anode and cathode,

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 In horizontal welding, plates to be welded are placed

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 Manual metal or shielded metal arc welding (MMA or SMA),

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(a)reduction in cross-sectional area of arc,

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 High level of operator skill is not required;

 The process is easily automated;

 Low distortion of work piece.

Disadvantages of Carbon Arc Welding:

 Carbon of electrode contaminates weld material with carbides.

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2. Because of the high levels of heat produced in this welding process,

3. Skilled welder is required.

4. Due to advances in inert gases AHW may be limited.