Fundamental Research on
Underwater Welding
Effects of water environment
structures of welds
BY R. T. BROWN AND K. M A S U B U C H I
ABSTRACT. The study on which this
paper is based was conducted as part
of a systematic research on f u n -
damentals of underwater welding.
The entire program covered various
subjects including the heat transfer
and flow during underwater welding,
the mechanisms of metal transfer and
arc bubble formation, and the effects
of water environment on the metal-
lurgical structures and the properties
of underwater welds. This paper
primarily discusses the last subject.
An experimental investigation was
made of the welding metallurgy and
microstructure of underwater shield-
ed metal-arc welds. The paper dis-
cusses various topics including tem-
perature histories and microstruc-
tural transformation, optimum weld-
ing current and speed, optimum weld
bead shape, and optimum hardness
profiles.
Introduction
Attempts to use underwater weld-
ing for the repair and salvage of ships
and other ocean engineering struc-
tures have been marginally success-
ful since the early part of this century.
During the First World War period,
bare electrodes wrapped with some
waterproofing material were used.
Shielded metal-arc electrodes were
utilized in underwater welding soon
after their introduction into the weld-
ing industry in the late 1920's. Prob-
lems of underwater visibility led to the
adoption of a drag welding technique
for most underwater welding applica-
tions in the early 1930's. Iron powder
electrodes were developed in 1946
and were found to improve under-
water drag welding. The quality of
R. T. BROWN is Graduate Student and
K. MASUBUCHI is Professor at the De-
partment of Ocean Engineering, Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts 02139.
Paper was presented at the 55th AWS
Annual Meeting held at Houston, Texas,
May fi-70, 1074
178-s i J U N E 1975
on metallurgical
even the best of these underwater
welds was still substantially less than
that of similar air welds. Underwater
welds were r e p o r t e d to p r o d u c e
about 80% of the tensile strength and
50% of the ductility of corresponding
air welds (Ref. 1). But these low weld
quality properties still provided for
joint integrity that was satisfactory for
the t e m p o r a r y repair welds and
salvage applications for which they
were used.
The expansion of the offshore oil
drilling and production industry has
led to the construction of large, per-
manent steel platforms, tanks, and
pipelines in the ocean. Repairs or
modifications requiring welded joints
have been hindered by the poor qual-
ity of underwater welds. This poor
weld quality has been especially limit-
ing to pipeline welding. The need for
high quality underwater welds has led
to m u c h e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n and i n -
vestigation into both technical and
practical aspects of underwater weld-
ing (Ref. 2). In addition to the metal-
arc process, several approaches to
underwater welding have been in-
vestigated including chamber weld-
ing (Refs. 3-8), gas metal-arc welding
(Refs. 9-13), gas metal-arc welding
enclosed in a movable, diver held
chamber (Ref. 14), plasma arc weld-
ing (Refs. 15, 16) and explosive b o n d -
ing (Ref. 17). Although several of
these processes show potential for
improving the quality of underwater
welds, most research and investiga-
tion remains centered around the
shielded metal-arc process. Cham-
ber welding techniques are limited by
the high cost of a suitable chamber
and the relatively few joint configura-
tions which can be enclosed in a
chamber. Gas metal-arc welding pro-
cesses have produced excellent u n -
derwater welds especially when used
in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a m o v a b l e
chamber.
The primary limitation of these
processes is their increased c o m -
plexity, both in equipment and tech-
nique. It may be that these sophis-
ticated systems will solve the prob-
lem of producing high quality welds
for critical applications such as pipe-
line welding. However, for structural
repair, modification, and construc-
tion, the shielded metal-arc process
might be preferred because of its rel-
ative simplicity. As the job depth in-
creases, the need to use saturation
diving and other engineering c o m -
plications will make it desirable to use
only the simplest and most versatile
welding processes and techniques
(Refs. 18-20).
Most of the developments and im-
provements in underwater welding
have come from trial and error in-
vestigations by those who actually
needed a more satisfactory under-
water weld. But beginning in the early
1960's and continuing to the present
time, several w o r k e r s have been
studying the processes and phenom-
ena of underwater welding on a
more fundamental scientific and e n -
gineering basis. Several workers in
Russia have r e p o r t e d on various
aspects of both shielded metal-arc
and thin wire (GMA) underwater weld-
ing processes (Refs. 21-35). A l -
though they have laid few theoretical
foundations for the phenomena they
have observed, their observations are
many and precise. Dr. E. A. Silva has
also done extensive work from this
technical perspective (Refs. 36-39).
During the last several years, a
series of research programs has been
c o n d u c t e d at the D e p a r t m e n t of
Ocean Engineering of the Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology under
the direction of Professor K. Masu-
buchi (Refs. 17, 40-47). The three-
year program on "Fundamental Re-
search on Underwater Welding" was
initiated on July 1, 1971. The objec-
tive of the program is to better under-
stand fundamentals of underwater
welding. The program covers the
following phases:
Phase 1: Survey of fundamental in-
formation on underwater
 welding and cutting
Phase 2: A study of heat flow dur-
ing underwater welding
Phase 3: Mechanisms of metal
transfer in underwater
arc welding
Phase 4: Effects of water environ-
ment on metallurgical
structures and prop-
erties of welds
Phase 5: Development of new, i m -
proved underwater weld-
ing methods
The program has been supported
by the National Sea Grant Office of
the National Oceanic and A t m o -
spheric Administration, Department
of C o m m e r c e . The W e l d i n g Re-
search Council and Ishikajima-Hari-
ma Heavy Industries have provided a
portion of matching funds for the pro-
gram during the second and the third
year.*
This paper presents primarily the
work performed by R. T. Brown, and
represents a significant portion of
Phase 4. Details of the work are given
in the M. S. thesis by Brown.
A final report of the entire program
is under preparation.
Comparing Air and
Water Welds
Although the basic mechanisms of
structural change are known and u n -
derstood, the highly transient and
nonuniform nature of welding makes
accurate microstructural prediction
extremely difficult. Even if the weld
microstructure were completely de-
termined, it is doubtful that the re-
sulting mechanical properties could
be accurately predicted. Thus, experi-
mental investigation and verification
would be necessary. Similar uncer-
tainties in the physical manipulation
of the welding arc make a precise es-
timation of the welding heat input
from specified welding conditions not
possible. The specific nature of the
links from the optimum welding c o n -
ditions to the heat input and temper-
ature histories to the microstructural
formations to the mechanical joint
properties are not fully understood.
The approach to determining how
the heat transfer phenomena and
microstructural transformations are
affected by underwater welding —
and thereby influence joint prop-
erties — has been to study the differ-
ences between air welding and under-
water welding. Since the basic weld-
ing metallurgy in air has been well
studied (Refs. 48-53), much under-
s t a n d i n g of u n d e r w a t e r w e l d i n g
metallurgy can be gained by examin-
ing the dissimilarity between air and
"Nine other Japanese companies pro-
vided additional matching funds during the
third year to cover primarily the cost for
printing the final report.
water welds. Because most under- appear to be significantly different for
water welding has been performed air welds. This suggests that the most
under emergency conditions for sal- critical effects of the water do not
vage or temporary repair to ships and begin to affect the weld until the weld
offshore structures, each situation puddle has formed and begins to
has been s o m e w h a t u n i q u e and solidify.
therefore not easily compared with The remainder of this investigation
other underwater welding efforts or covers the microstructure and hard-
with air welding results. Although ness of u n d e r w a t e r S M A welds.
some workers have provided c o m - H a r d e n i n g b e c o m e s very critical
parisons between air and water welds following welding. However, under-
(Refs. 16, 37, 41), the research re- water welding does not result in a
ported here attempts to provide more weld metal quench that is beyond
fundamental material upon which to modification and control. Larger weld
base general conclusions and in- beads, resulting from a higher heat in-
sights into underwater welding metal- put, will give less hardening. Thus,
lurgy. welding with a 1/8 in. electrode will
The first useful i n f o r m a t i o n to cause more severe hardening than
emerge from this investigation con- will a 3/16 in. electrode. Similarly,
cerns the optimum welding param- higher heat inputs will decrease the
eter values during underwater SMA hardening effects. Localized marten-
(shielded metal-arc) welding with dif- site transformations appear in a l -
ferent types and sizes of electrodes. A most all underwater welds i m m e d i -
comparison between these under- ately adjacent to the fusion line and
water optimum values and the cor- extending for less than 0.5 m m . The
responding optimum values in air
indicate that underwater welding re-
quires a higher current for the same
arc voltage. The welding speed shows
no general trend between air welding
and water welding.
Another portion of the investiga-
tion involves the weld bead shape
characteristics of underwater welds
compared with air welds. The largest
variation in weld bead shape is
caused by changing the welding cur-
rent from nonoptimum to optimum
values. Penetration remains a func-
tion of the welding current and is not
strictly dependent on the electrode
size or the welding medium. Under-
cutting is a problem for many of the
underwater welds. The weld bead size
is quite similar for corresponding air
and water welds, a l t h o u g h water
welds tend to be narrower with a Fig. 1 — Correlation of the maximum
higher reinforcement. The general temperature with regions in the heat-af-
shape of underwater welds does not fected zone
3000
2500-
- 2000
I 500-
I 000-
500
TIME
Fig. 2 — Possible microstructural transformations during welding
WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT! 179-8
 extent of the HAZ in underwater welds tures of bainite and martensite or such a chart is limited in welding
is reduced by 30-50%, indicating a mixed products such as Widmanstat- metallurgy because the metal is un-
more rapid dissipation of heat from ten structures. Figure 2 illustrates the dergoing continuous cooling. C o n -
the weld bead into the base metal. basic transformations and modifica- tinuous Cooling Transformation (CCT)
Although many of the observations tions to the grain size and crystal diagrams have been developed to aid
and conclusions of this investigation structure that may occur during a metallurgists in predicting the micro-
were perhaps expected from previous welding cycle. Underwater welding is structure of a metal sample which is
intuitive reasoning, their documenta- subject of very severe quench condi- continuously cooled from a specific
tion and quantification is important tions and therefore, often results in maximum austenitizing temperature,
and necessary to the future develop- the formation of the less desirable Tm . These diagrams are more useful
ment of underwater welding tech- nonequilibrium transformation p r o d - than IT diagrams, but their value for
nologies. ucts of m a r t e n s i t e a n d b a i n i t e . predicting the microstructure of a
Figures 3A and 3B show the dif- weld HAZ is still incomplete because
Temperature Histories and ferences in cooling rates between air of the nonuniform maximum temper-
Microstructural Transformation welding and underwater w e l d i n g . atures across the HAZ and because of
While air welds may cool from melt- the extremely short time at this max-
The solidification and microstruc- ing to 200 F in 60 seconds, an under- i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e . Their relative
tural transformations of any weld are water weld will cool down to 200 F predictive power is illustrated by
determined by the temperature his- within 5 seconds. Thus, underwater Fig. 4.
tory of that welded joint. The max- cooling rates are 10 to 15 times more
imum temperature of a region in the rapid than those in air.
HAZ will govern the recrystallization
Experimental Procedure and
Predicting the microstructure of
and grain growth phenomena. Figure
Results
metal subjected to a particular heat
1 illustrates the correlation between treatment (temperature history) has A series of bead-on-plate welds
the maximum temperature, Tm, and been the theme of extensive metal- were made on 4 X 6 X % in. plates of
the distance from the fusion line. The lurgical research. Isothermal Trans- 1020 steel u s i n g E 6 0 1 3 , E 7 0 1 4 ,
cooling rate from Tm will determine formation (IT) diagrams record the E6027, and E7024 electrodes of 1/8,
the type of transformation process crystal transformations from austen- 5/32, and 3/16 in. diam. The objec-
that occurs. Slow cooling rates will re- ite that will occur isothermally at a tive of the weld bead series was to:
sult in the equilibrium crystal struc- specified temperature. The value of 1. Determine the optimum welding
ture of pearlite within a ferrite matrix. conditions in air and underwater
More rapid cooling will induce non- for the electrodes studied;
\ (A ) Isotfrermol Tronsf or mol ion
e q u i l i b r i u m t r a n s f o r m a t i o n struc- -A Diagram ( 2 % C ) 2. C o m p a r e these c o r r e s p o n d i n g
F \

200-
sets of optimum welding condi-
tions and obtain conclusions or
make observations about the ef-
-a- \ \ fect of underwater welding on
\
Cooling rate a i 2 5mm from the fusion Una these conditions;
400- .
X
^ ^ V Underwaler welding conditions
j - ^ " ^ \ (E60I3 5/32")
3. C o m p a r e the g e o m e t r i c a l and
\ ^—-Air welding conditions microstructural properties of the
\ \ resulting weld beads and de-
T I M E I Seconds)
100 IOOO IOO0O IOO0O0
termine those characteristics
_1_ which are changed or modified as
* (B) Continuous Cool.ng Trgnsformotio

Me • ng (6) Underwater Weld

\ O.agram I 2 % C )
a result of underwater welding;
o 4. Attempt to correlate the modified
/(|)\ ,^ geometrical and metallurgical
£ IOOO -
(2)

tr
- A j
properties of the underwater weld
\ Ro id Cooling Rotes —
beads with fundamental mechan-
= 500 - / /(2>
sX isms of underwater welding.

I i i
20 25 Optimum Welding Current
A 300 A ac-dc drooping charac-
Fig. 3 — Temperature histories of air welds Fig. 4 — Relationship between T and CCT teristic welding machine was used
compared to those of underwater welds diagrams for 0.2% C steel along with a strip-chart recorder to

AIR ISP)
S m i . l G I X AMPS SETT inn MO AVS

jjjjjjf^l nvfrt*'
\ ff^taff

20 jm/fj. 5SBS.
$
Mre
~ II)

TIME ISECMIDS)

Fig. 5 — Voltage and current recordings during air and underwater welding. (A) E7014 (1/8 in.) electrode: (B) E6027 (3/16 in.) electrode

180-s I J U N E 1975
measure and record the voltage and TABLE I
the current during welding. The cur- SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED WELDING PARAMETERS

rent ranges for the air weld spec- Air Welding Underwoter Welding
imens were approximated by c o n - Current Speed Current Speed
( amps) (ipm] (amps) (ipm)
sulting the manufacturer's suggested
I/8" E60II 1 60 ( B u r k e s , 1950)
values. The current ranges for the u n - E60I3 50-120 { Airco)
derwater welds were assumed to be 95-125 ( R.T. Brown , 1974 ) I I - 1 6 , p m 1 15-150 ( R. T B r o w n , 1974 ) 1 7 -24 .pm
E70I4 1 15-150 (Westinghouse)
10-20% higher based on previous 150-170 ( R.T B r o w n , 1974) 1 3 - 1 5 i p m 1 5 0 - 170 ( R.T. B r o w n , 1974) 11-15 ipm
published information. These E7024 140-180 (Westinghouse)
130-170 ( R.T. B r o w n , 1974 ) 1 2 - 1 4 ipm 170 + (R.T. Brown, 1974) 15 - 1 6 + ipm
previously suggested current values General I/8 140-150 (Levin , K i r l e y , 1972)
are summarized and compared with 8/32" E60I I 200 (Burkes, 1950)
the values obtained from this study in E60I3 1 2 0 - 190 ( W e s t i n g house) 170-190 ( N a v y , 1968) 13-16 ipm
200-260 (Silva, 1971)
Table 1. The optimum welding cur- 2 0 0 - 250 (Brown, 1973)
rent was obtained for each electrode 190-210 (Meloney , 1973) 1 2 - 1 5 ipm
150-170 ( R.T B r o w n , 1974 ) 1 5 - 1 9 ipm 160-190 ( R. T B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 ) 1 4 - 2 3 ipm
by examining the weld beads as they E70I4 120-190 (Airco ) 200-250 ( Brown, 1973)
appeared on the plate and by examin- 170-190 ( R.T B r o w n , 1974) 12 - 1 3 I pm 170-210 ( R.T. B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 ) 1 1 - 1 7 ipm
E7024 1 8 0 - 2 5 0 ( Westinghouse)
ing the geometrical characteristics of 240-280 ( S i l v a , 1971)
200-260 ( S i l v a , 1971 )
170 + ( R.T. B r o w n , 1974) II - 13+ipm
the cross sections. Visual inspection 1 70-210 ( R.T B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 ) 1 1 - 1 5 ipm
E6027 180-250 ( West mg house ) 2 4 0 - 280 ( S i l v a , 1971 )
of the welded plates involved examin- 250-300 ( S i I V O , 197 1) 140 + ( R. T, B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 )
ing the regularity and consistency of 1 30 + (R, T B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 ) 1 0 - 11+ipm 180-200 ( Levin, Kirley, 1972)
General 5 / 3 2 " 200-220 ( A v i l o v , 1955)
the weld beads. The cross-section '
analysis involved m a x i m i z i n g the 5/16" E60I3 100-210 ( W e s t i n g house ) 220-260 ( N a v y , 1968) 12-14 ipm
180-200 ( R.T B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 ) 1 5 - 1 7 ipm 200-240 ( R.T. B r o w n , 1974) 15-16 ipm
p e n e t r a t i o n to w i d t h ratio and E70I4 190-260 ( Westing house )
220 + ( R.T. Brown, 1 974) 7 - 8-Hpm
minimizing undercut and reinforce- 220-260 ( R.T B r o w n , 1 9 7 4 ) I I - 13 ipm
ment. E6027 250-325 (Westinghouse) 180 + ( R.T Brown , 1974) 8 —1 0+ipm
190-210 + (R.T Brown,1974) 1 0 - 1 3 ipm 220-270 ( A v i l o v , 1955)
The welding current ranges for air General 3/16 225-280 (Craf tweld)
welds recommended in this study
' = ----^
tend to be in the manufacturer's sug-
gested ranges. The underwater cur-
rent ranges are in all cases higher TABLE 2
than the air welding ranges. For the rlLLD BEAU WIDTH VARIATIONS FROM THE OPTIMUM OR 3EST CONDITIONS
E6013 ( 1 / 8 , 5 / 3 2 , 3/16 in.) elec-
trodes, this increase is 10-20 A. For
WATER (S?) WATER (RP) ! %
the E7014 (1/8, 5/32, 3/16 in.) elec-
trodes, the increase is 20-30 A. For
ELECTRODE AIR (S?)
WIDTH
VARIATION
tll.H 7
MAX
W i DTK
VARIATION
WIN % WIDTH m
the E7024 (1/8, 5/32 in.) electrodes,
the increase was not determined be- 3,2-4 80 1,6-4,8 33 3.2-6.4 53
E60I3 1/8"
cause actual welding currents above 4-6,4 62 5,5-8 70
E6013 5/32" 6,3-3 80
the air welding current range of 170- 5.6-8,6 64
6,3-8 80 6.4-9.6 65
220 A were not obtainable due to the E5013 3/16"
limiting effect of the elongated arc
length which occurred. Similarly, it
3-9.6 83 6.4-8 80 6.4-3 80
was impossible to specify the o p - E7014 1/8"
timum underwater welding current for 8-9,6 83 4.8-8 60 6.4-9,6 67
E7014 5/32"
the E6027 (5/32, 3/16 in.) electrodes. 11,2-14.4 78 9,6-12,8(0) 75 6,4-12,8 50
E7014 3/16"
The effect of an elongated arc
length on the actual welding current
can be demonstrated by noticing that, 12,8-14.4 89 4.8-12.8 37 6,4-9.6 £7
E7024 1/8"
for air w e l d i n g with E6013 elec- 9.5-12,8 85 8-11.2(0) 72 6.4-11.2 57
E7Q24 5/32"
trodes, there is no difference be-
tween the machine setting and the
9.6-12.8 75 6.4-9,6(0) 67 9,6-14.4 65
m e a s u r e d current values. Under- E6027 5/32"
water welding with E6013 produces 12,8-17.6 73 3.2-11,2(0) 29 6.4-11.2 57
E6027 3/16"
only slightly elongated arc lengths
and the differences between the ma-
chine settings and the m e a s u r e d
values are 10-20 A. For E7014 air Figure 5a is the strip chart record- unsatisfactory weld deposits when
welds, the actual current is identical to ing for E7014 (1/8 in.) electrodes and underwater welding with either E7024
the machine setting values. For u n - shows the initial underwater current (5/32 in.) or E6027 (5/32 in. and 3/16
derwater E7014 welds, the decrease readings equal to the machine setting in.) electrodes.
in observed current is 10-30 A, with but the s u b s e q u e n t decrease to The variability in arc length in-
larger current lags for the larger elec- values limited by the long arc lengths duces inconsistencies in the weld
trode (3/16 in). This effect becomes (due to the elongated flux barrel). bead deposit. The weld bead size and
more noticeable for E7024 and E6027 Figure 5b further illustrates this ef- penetration become irregular. This ef-
electrodes which both have a much fect with E6027 (3/16 in.) electrodes. fect is easily observable by compar-
thicker flux covering. For E7024 (1/8 Even in air, the elongated arc column ing various 5/32 in. electrode weld
in.) electrodes welded in air at a ma- results in a significant current differ- deposit widths. The minimum weld
chine setting of 190 A, the observed ence of 130 A at a machine setting of bead width for the best E6013 (5/32
current was 170 A, a decrease of 20 A. 300 A. Underwater welding intensifies in.) air weld is 80% of the maximum
For the same electrode welded u n - this effect and the chart recordings width. But for underwater welds, this
derwater at 200 A machine settings, show the accompanying variability in width variability increases so that the
the observed currents are only 150 the arc length. This difficulty in main- minimum width is only 64% of the
and 100 A for straight polarity and re- taining a constant arc length at a suf- maximum width. Values for E7014
verse polarity, respectively. ficiently high current results in very width variations increase from 83% in

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT! 181-8

 TABLE 3 underwater welding is a stronger ef-
WELDING SPEED, CURRENT, AND POWER INPUT
fect than the increase in speed and so
(KILO HEAT
the net effect is to increase the heat
ELECTRODE CURRENT (AMP) VOLTAGE (VOLT) POWER WATTS) SPEED (IPM) INPUT (KJ/ IN) input to an optimum underwater weld.
Table 3 summarizes this data.
6013 AIR 9 0 - II 0 20-23 2-2 5 12-16 9-10
1/8" SP 1 30-150 25 - 27 3 4 -4 24 - 2 5 9-10
RP 1 30-140 26-27 3 4 1 7 -22 9
Optimum Weld Bead Shape
6013 AIR 1 30-170 23 - 2 7 3.5 - 4 . 2 17-19 11-13
5/32"SP 1 60-190 25 - 29 4-5 20-25 11-12 Underwater welds have previously
RP 1 50-180 2 1-24 3 6-4 19-23 10-1 1 been reported to be more spread out
6013 AIR 160-180 20-23 3 4 -3.8 15-17 14-17 and less penetrating than air welds,
3/l6"SP 18 0 - 2 1 0 23 - 3 0 4.6-5 4 16 - 18 13- 18 due in part to the rapid cooling rates
RP 160-180 27-28 4 6 - 4.8 22-23 15-24 in underwater welding (Ref. 39). The
7014 AIR 1 3 0 - 150 24 - 2 6 3.5 13-15 14-1 5 present experiments provide more
1/8" SP 1 50-160 27 - 2 8 4 - 45 19-21 11-12 data for evaluating these shape
RP 140-150 27 - 2 8 4.3 - 4 . 7 22 - 2 5 13-15
characteristics in underwater welds.
7014 AIR 160-180 23-26 4-43 12-13 17-19 M a c r o p h o t o g r a p h s of the under-
5/32"SP 1 70-190 27 4 6-5 12-17 18-23 water and air weld beads were made
RP 1 30-170 27-30 4-4 8 1 1 -13 20-23
and c o m p a r e d . The following shape
7014 AIR 200-240 23 - 26 4 8-5 8 11-13 23-26 factors were considered in addition to
3/l6"SP 160-190 28-35 5.8 12 34-36
120-180 7-8 38-48
the bead size:
RP 30 - 4 5 4. 5 - 5. 5
1. The weld penetration-shape fac-
6 0 2 7 AIR 1 20-180 32 - 42 4 3-54 10-11 28-32 tor (width divided by penetration)
5/32"SP 4 5-55
RP 80-130 38-42 5 -5.5 7 28-42 indicates the degree of relative
penetration obtained.
6 0 2 7 AIR 140-170 34 - 3 9 5-5.5 10 29-36 2. The percentage of reinforcement
3/16" SP 1 50-190 35 - 4 5 4 - 5,5 9 36-44
RP 100-160 34-40 4-5.5 8 36-52 (% filler metal divided by total weld
bead) indicates the relative
7 0 2 4 AIR 120-150 26-31 3.5-4.3 12-14 18-30
1/8" SP 1 50-160 3 0 - 35 3 5-55 15-16 2 1 -22
amount of fusion that has taken
RP 50-100 37-43 3 7 4- 9 23-32 place.
3. The relative depth of penetration
7 0 2 4 AIR 140-160 30-35 5-5.2 1 3-15 24-27
5/32"SP 130-180 35-40 3 6-6.3 1 3 33-36 (penetration divided by total bead
RP 8 0-200 35-45 4-5 3 7 35-44 height) indicates the relative height
of reinforcement and depth of
penetration.
air to 60% underwater. E7024 elec- with 5-6 kW will result in a speed of 12 In measuring these shape charac-
trodes are exceptionally smooth in air ipm in air. Underwater welding in- teristics, it must be remembered that
(86%) but become irregular under- duces two modifications. The power there are three separate factors in-
water (57%). E6027 electrodes are not r e q u i r e d for o p t i m u m w e l d bead fluencing changes in the weld bead
as steady in air (75%), but become appearance is increased, and the shapes:
quite inconsistent underwater where resulting 'natural d r a g ' speed is 1. The weld bead shapes are chang-
the arc may actually stop and have to higher. Underwater, an E7014 (1/8 in.) ing as a result of moving from a
be reignited. (Table 2). electrode with 4 kW results in a speed nonoptimum welding current to
of 20-23 ipm. Underwater, an E7014 the o p t i m u m or best o b t a i n e d
(3/16 in.) electrode with 5-6 kW will welding current.
Optimum Welding Speed
result in a speed of 8-11 ipm. This 2. There are changes due to varying
When employing the drag tech- suggests that the optimum current electrode size and due to different
nique, the welding speed is almost was not achieved for the 3/16 in. elec- flux c o v e r i n g c o m p o s i t i o n and
entirely a function of the welding cur- trodes, as this would have given a thickness.
rent. The power input of the arc will more efficient (lower) power/speed 3. Finally, there are various changes
result in a specific "digging power" ratio. which result in switching from air
which is the ability of the arc to pene- This inability to reach the optimum welding to underwater welding
trate the base plate and to cut the welding current is further illustrated conditions.
weld crater. It is best to keep the tip of by examining data from the E6027 un- The effects from underwater welding
the electrode resting on the lip of the derwater electrodes. Because the conditions are masked behind these
weld crater. Slowing down the elec- elongated arc barrel in underwater other two factors. However, by c o m -
trode may cause it to fall into the weld welding limited the current to 150-175 paring the weld beads obtained at or
crater and result in melt through. A, which was less than the air values, near the optimum welding current, it
Speeding up the electrode will cause the power input was limited to below appears that the shape of air and un-
it to move ahead of the weld crater 5.5 kW and the speed in underwater derwater weld beads are very similar
and result in a discontinuous weld welding was limited to below the o p - for the same welding current.
bead. t i m u m . The natural tendency to lower For an E6013 (5/32 in.) air weld at
Data from E7014 electrodes show the welding speed when the power in- 175 A and 13 k J / i n . heat input, the
the effects of increased power to in- put is limited acts to maintain a con- penetration was 2.2 mm (Fig. 6). For
crease the 'natural d r a g ' welding stant heat input, but does not fully an E6013 (5/32 in.) underwater (SP)
speed and of larger electrode diam- compensate for the decreased heat weld at 180 A with a heat input of 11
eters to decrease the 'natural drag' input due to the elongated arc length kJ/in., the penetration was 2.3 m m .
welding speed in air and underwater. and r e d u c e d current w h e n using An E6013 (5/32 in.) water (RP) weld at
The most obvious effect is the de- E6027 and E7024 electrodes under- 175 A with a heat input of 11 k J / i n .
creasing speed with larger electrode water. Optimum underwater welding had a penetration of 2.3 m m . Thus, for
diameters. An E7014 (1/8 in.) elec- speeds are 5-10 ipm faster for 1/8 in. the same current, the penetration was
trode with a 3.5 kW power input will electrodes while they are only 2-5 ipm identical between air and water welds.
give a speed in air of 15 i p m . An faster for 3/16 in. electrodes. For this same electrode, the air
E7014 (3/16 in.) electrode welded The higher optimum power input in speed was 17 ipm while the two un-

182-s I J U N E 1 9 7 5
derwater speeds were 22 ipm (SP)
and 19 ipm (RP). Thus, the under-
water speed was slightly increased.
The air weld had a width of 8.5 mm,
and thus a width/penetration shape
factor of 3.9. The underwater SP weld
was narrower (5.5 mm) and gave a
shape factor of 2.4. The underwater
RP weld was not as narrow as the un-
derwater SP weld (7.5 mm), and thus
gave a shape factor very similar to the
air weld of 3.3 The % reinforcement
values for these weld beads were
35%, 42%, and 49%, respectively.
This indicates that the air weld was

\(2024)
2

Curvent i ^ ^
HeatVnput;
2 2 mm
^ ^ I 9 5 \ a r r * s \ .
19 V j / i n ^
23 mm2

'
y /
/£05amp4
1 9 Kj/n o_
Penetration • 1 9/r\m 2.7 m A ">
Width.\ SJS m\n 8 . 7 ohm -,
Reinforcement / l m i 2. 1 / n m -
Shape f a c t o * /5.0 \ 3.2/ «
WM a r e a : \ / 39 mmn 4 0 mm2
Max. h a r d n e s s / 221 KHN\ 20pKHN

CurrE 9 0 amps a. Curren

Heat 2 KJ/m ™ Heat tn
Penet mm Q- Penetra
Widt 5.2 mm LJ Width :
Reinforcement • 1.7 mm I- Reinforcement 2.0
Shape factor • 2.2 Shape factor • 4.0
W M area ; I 6 mm^ W M ar ea ; 24 mm'
Max h a r d n e s s 4 3 0 KHN M a x hardness 3 2 5 KHN

J20I3)

7 mm . 1 2rrm2
Current Current- \ \jrf0 aVp s 1 80 a m p s a.
H e a t inp Heat input - \ . S2y*> KJyjn Ao KJ/m*
Penetra Penet ration^ ^"*-» .9 mm\. JS 1. 6 mm or
Wid th' Width • 7.8 mm \*^ 8.2 mm UJ
Reinforcement • 2.4 Rein f o r c e m e n t ; 1 .5 mm 2.4 mm t
Shape factor- 3 3 Shape factor • 8.7 5 1 §
WM a r e a ; 30 WM a r e a : 1 7 mm2 2 7 mm2
Max. h a r d n e s s 590 KHN Max. hardness : 500 KHN 435 KHN

Fig. 6 — Weld bead shape characteristics for E6013 (5/32 in.) Fig. 7 — Weld bead shape characteristics for E7014 (5/32 in.)
electrodes. X 7.5, reduced 51% electrodes x 7.5, reduced 51%

p
I4 mm2 15 m m '
CuXrent ; — I 9 5n• m p s I95 amps
Hea K i n p u t : zY KJ/in 27 K J / m Q_
PenetYation • j^-fiLO mm I.7 mm y
Width \ < 9.5 mm I 1.6 mm or
Remforcernpnt 2.0 mm 2.1 mm
Shape factoNc 4.7 4.3
WM a rea : 30 mm2 3 8 mm2
Max. hard ness' 230KHN I80 KHN

Fig. 8 — Weld bead shape characteristics for E7024 (5/32 in.) Fig. 9 — Weld bead shape characteristics for E6027 (5/32 in.)
electrodes. X 7.5, reduced 51% electrodes. X 7.5, reduced 51%

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT! 183-s

 TABLE I
PENETRATION COWARISO!

1/S" 5/32" 3/16"

E60I 3 - 1/8 E6013 AIR .5-1.2.IM 1.2-3."." .6-1.9nn
1,7-2.8
VICKERS SP .5-1.7 l,2-2.i(
1,6-2.3 2.0-2.7
MICROHARDNESS HA1ER RP ).9-2.1
( 1 0 0 grams) 200 600 200 600 200 600
600 200 E70W AIR .8-1.9 1.1-2.7 1.3-2.H
1.2-2.1 1,3-2.0
2- HATER SP 1.2-1.9
Air HATER RP 1.2-1.8 .9-1.6 1.8-2.4
SP dend ri te dendrite de ndr i te dendrite
I I I I I I I I I E7021 AIR ,9-1.6 .9-2.0
(ION) ( 1012) (1013) (1014) 1.2-1.9 1.2-2.1
Fu sion
.9 .9-1.1
Distance coarsening coarsening coarsening
From I - coarsening E6027 AIR .6-1.7 1,7-2.11
Fusion refining refining refining
refining HATER SP 1.3-1,5 1.1-2,0
Line 2- I I I I i l l i I I I I I I I HAILR RP 1.3-1,' 1.3-2,1
(mm) base metal base meta base metal
base metal
3-
tration.
6.4 K J / i n 0 KJ/in 9.7 K J / i n 9 KJ/in Figure 8 illustrates the E7024 (5/32
4-
in.) weld bead cross sections. The
penetrations of all these welds are
Water 2- limited by the elongated flux barrel.
SP Although the sizes of the welds are
(1214)
similar to other electrode deposits,
Fusion
the width is increased and the weld
shapes are poorer. The increased
Distance reinforcement due to this loss of
From
Fusion penetrating power accompanying the
Line drop in the arc current is especially
(mm) apparent in the cross sections of
E6027 (5/32 in.) welds (Fig. 9).
10 K J / i n Table 4 summarizes the penetra-
tion data for the best weld beads ob-
tained d u r i n g these e x p e r i m e n t s .
Water Penetration is a function of the cur-
RP rent and heat input and is not strictly
dendrite
dependent on the electrode size. It
(1114)
Fusion also does not appear to depend on
t-H the surrounding medium except indi-
Distance Jrtensi te
From r e f i n ing rectly through the decreased heat in-
Fusion ireaking put in water welding.
Line I I I
base metal A type of undercutting is observed
(mm)
in most of the underwater weld spec-
imens. It results f r o m the rapid
5.5 K J / i n 5.2 K J / i n 9.0 K J / i n 9.3KJ/in
4- solidification of the weld puddle and is
perhaps the most severe weld shape
effect from underwater welding.
Fig. 10 — Hardness profiles for welds made with E6013 (1/8 in.) electrodes The size of the weld beads made in
air and underwater at the same cur-
rent settings are very similar. No large
fused deeper than either water welds, tions of E7014 (5/32 in.) welds, illus- decrease in the melting power of an
while the water welds tended to have trates some further ideas concerning arc is experienced in welding under-
more reinforcement than the air weld. underwater welding. The welding cur- water. However, underwater welds do
This effect is also reflected in the rela- rents and the heat inputs for these appear to be slightly more narrow
tive depth of penetration values. The welds were very similar. However, the with more reinforcement than similar
air weld value was 0.54 and the un- penetration is better in the air welds. air welds. Besides the "undercutting"
derwater values were 0.53 (SP) and The speed in air of 12-13 ipm corres- tendency, no major problems with un-
0.49 (RP). ponds with speeds of 12-17 ipm (SP) derwater w e l d i n g will result f r o m
Although these differences can be and 11-13 (RP) in the underwater changes in the weld shape.
noted, the overall impression is that welds. The weld bead size appears
the E6013 weld bead deposits are decreased in the underwater welding Optimum Hardness Profiles
very similar between air and under- case. The narrowing effect remains
water welding conditions. A clear dif- present in the underwater welds. Microhardness profiles were made
ference exists in the extent of the HAZ Taken together, these observations across all of the weld bead samples
of these welds. The air weld bead has may indicate that, although the under- using a Wilson Tukon Microhardness
an HAZ width of 3 mm while the un- water welds are a p p r o a c h i n g the tester with a 100g diamond indenter.
derwater weld HAZ widths are both shape of corresponding air welds, the The results were recorded on a series
only 1 mm wide. This shows clearly water medium surrounding the arc of charts such as those shown in Figs.
that although the weld puddle forma- bubble and the weld puddle neces- 10 through 12. The base metal hard-
tion processes may be quite similar in sitates a slightly higher o p t i m u m ness was between 160 Hk (100g) and
underwater or air welding, the heat welding current, an optimum value 200 Hk (100g). For practical pur-
dissipation processes in underwater that was not obtained here. The rea- poses of comparing hardness pro-
welding are much more rapid than son for this again appears to be due files, 200 Hk (100 g) is considered as
in air. to the arc flux barrel elongation. This base metal hardness and higher
Figure 7, showing the cross sec- elongation severely limits the pene- values are considered hardened.

184-s I J U N E 1 975
 Of all the air weld samples, E6013 5/32 in. electrode series. Underwater welding.
(1/8 in.) welds produced the highest (SP) welds, with heat inputs of 13-18 1. The most basic observation is
hardness values over the largest kJ/in. gave only moderate hardening that larger heat inputs normally pro-
region. This is because the heat input in the weld metal of 200-300 Hk duce larger weld beads and that to-
to the weld beads was the smallest (100g). Although the characteristic gether they produce less hardening in
(6-10 kJ/in.), giving the most rapid "martensite spike" adjacent to the f u - the weld metal and the HAZ. The ef-
cooling rates and hardening that was sion line was present with a hardness fect remains unchanged between air
at least 275 Hk (100g). This indicates of 600 Hk (100g), this hardening de- and underwater welds.
that transformation products other creases to 250 Hk (100g) within 0.5 2. The HAZ widths in air welds are
than pearlite are present. The hard- m m . Underwater (RP) welds had 20-50% wider than the correspond-
ened HAZ extends for about 1.5 m m . slightly higher heat inputs of 11-24 ing water weld HAZ. This shows that
The underwater (SP) welds were kJ/in., and gave even less hardening the temperature gradients across the
extremely hardened to values above than the SP series. The martensite underwater HAZ are steeper, which
400 Hk (100g). The grains adjacent to spike region was hardened to only results from the more rapid heat dis-
the fusion line are very large and 400-500 Hk (100g). The HAZ widths of sipation rates.
hardened to 600 Hk (100 g). Harden- the underwater welds were 1-1.5 m m , 3. L o c a l i z e d m a r t e n s i t e t r a n s -
ing occurs in the weld metal itself giv- again showing the narrower HAZ due formations appear in almost all un-
ing an entire weld bead that is ex- to the rapid dissipation of heat u n - derwater welds immediately adja-
tremely hard and brittle. The under- derwater. cent to the fusion line, but extending
water (RP) welds appear less severe- Emerging from these specific for less than 0.5 m m .
ly hardened than the SP welds with a E6013 profiles, and also from those of 4. The primary mechanism of heat
hardness of 300-400 Hk (100g). The the other weld series, are several gen- dissipation from the weld bead ap-
m a x i m u m hardness in the grain eral trends providing insight into the pears to be conduction through the
coarsened region is less than 500 Hk hardening process in u n d e r w a t e r base plate rather than heat transfer
(100g). The heat input values for the
air and underwater welds were very
similar, being 5-10 k J / i n . The under-
water quench environment explains
the hardened underwater welds, but
does not account for any differences VICKERS E60I3-5/32
between SP and RP welds. However, MICROHARDNESS
the RP welds were in this case larger, (IOO grams) 200 600 200 600 200
indicating more of a heat input than
was perhaps measured. The larger
weld beads will cause a slightly slower
cooling rate and thus, give lower
hardness readings.
Figure 11 shows the E6013 (5/32
in.) series of microhardness profiles.
In the air welds, the size of the weld
b e a d s a n d the c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y
higher heat inputs are large enough to
reduce the hardening to below a value
of 250 Hk (100g). Underwater (SP)
welds resulted in weld metal harden-
ing of 400 Hk (100g). The HAZ region
adjacent to the fusion line reached a
hardness of 500 Hk (100g) and is pre-
dicted to contain martensite grains.
The hardness drops to base metal
hardness values within 0.5-1 m m , in-
dicating the extremely localized de-
posits of martensite. The entire HAZ
widths are more narrow than the air
welds because of the steepness of the
isothermal field lines in underwater
welding. Although the heat inputs to
both the air and underwater welds
were 10-13 kJ/in., the extent of heat
spreading in the water welds was only
50-70% of the spatial extent in air. The
underwater (RP) welds were slightly
more hardened than the SP welds,
due again to a slightly lower heat in-
put and smaller weld bead size.
The air hardness profiles of the
E6013 (3/16 in.) welds are very similar
to the 5/32 in. welds except that the
extent of the HAZ is larger, cor-
responding to the higher heat inputs
of 14-17 kJ/in. The HAZ widths were
1.5-2 m m . The underwater weld pro-
files show a striking decrease in
hardening from the previous 1/8 and Fig. 11 — Hardness profiles of welds made with E6013 (5/32 in.) electrodes

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT! 185-8

 ;•*

E60I3-3/I6 Ve r t i c a I
VICKERS Traverse
MICROHARDNESS
(IOO g r a m s ) 200 600 200 600 200 600 200
Ai r I
SP dendrite dendrite dendrite
I I I I I I I
Fusion
1031 ,_£32_ 1033
I I I -t-

I
coarsening coarsening coarsening
D istance refine refine r e f i ne
From
Fusion
Line base metal base metal base metal
(mm)

14.7 K J / i n 16 KJ/in 14 K J / i n

Water dendri t e
SP

Fusion
• mart.
D istance
From
Fu s i o n
Line
( mm)

Water
RP
Fu s ion
D istance
From
Fu s ion
Line
(mm)
Fig. 12 — Hardness profiles of welds made with E6013 (3/16 in.)
directly into the surrounding water.
This can be further deduced by ex-
amining the dendritic structure of u n -
derwater weld beads which clearly
show that the primary direction of
heat flow was through the HAZ into
the base plate.
5. The best comparative measure
for predicting cooling rates comes
from measuring the heat input by the
weld size. This is because the aver-
age heat input value calculated from
the average current, voltage, and
speed may be less indicative of the
actual instantaneous heat input than
the weld bead size.
6. The critical heat input that re-
sults in an HAZ that extends to the
bottom of the 1/4 in. plate for an air
weld is 25 k J / i n . For a water weld, it
takes 40 k J / i n . to extend the HAZ to
the bottom of the plate. This shows
18 K J / i n
dendrite
1134
mart.
refine
grouping
I I
No Data
electrodes
that underwater welding requires
more heat to extend the maximum
temperature profiles a given dis-
tance. (This type of quantitative infor-
m a t i o n is v a l u a b l e for c h e c k i n g
n u m e r i c a l models of underwater
welding.)
Several microphotographs of un-
derwater weld microstructures are in-
cluded as representative examples of
the peculiar structures found in un-
derwater welds, and are not primarily
intended for quantitative analysis.
Figure 13 shows the HAZ of micro-
structure (100x) of an E7014 (5/32 in.)
underwater (RP) weld. The heat input
to this weld was 21 k J / i n . The very
coarse grains near the fusion line and
the directional segregation in the den-
dritic weld metal are evidence of the
rapid cooling rates.
Figure 14 shows the microstruc-
Fig. 13 — Heat-affected zone microstruc-
ture of E7014 (5/32 in.) underwater weld
made at 150 A, reverse polarity, 21 kJ/in.
x 100, reduced 48%
ture of an E7014 (5/32 in.) under-
water weld with a slightly lower heat
input of 18 k J / i n . The martensitic
grains are clearly seen adjacent to the
fusion line and also dispersed in a
portion of the grain refinement region
of the HAZ. Underwater welds show
striking changes in structure across
the HAZ, unlike air welds which tend
to be much more homogeneous. The
hardness reading of 610 Hk (100g)
indicates the severe hardening that
does occur, while the lower readings
of 390 and 380 Hk (100g) on either
side show the very localized extent of
this hardening. Figure 15 provides yet
another example of an underwater
weld HAZ. This E6013 (5/32 in.) weld
has a heat input of only 11 k J / i n . and
the extent of the HAZ is much smaller.
But the martensite grains are still
observable adjacent to the fusion line.
Although not explicitly shown in
these photographs, a complete anal-
ysis of all underwater weld bead cross
sections made in this study have re-
vealed no porosity problems. Porosity
has been reported to be a major dif-
ficulty with underwater welds, but this
was not experienced in the present
work. The other c o m m o n underwater
weld defect, underbead cracking, was
not observed either, in spite of the
martensite grains that were p r o -
duced directly under the weld beads.
This may be explained in part by the
lack of restraint during bead-on-plate

186-S I J U N E 1975
testing.
Summary and Conclusion
Continuing with research at M.I.T.
on the basic processes and m e c h a n -
isms of underwater SMA welding, the
weld bead shape and microstructural
hardness were investigated and cor-
related with the welding parameters
of current, voltage and s p e e d . C o m -
parisons between air and water welds
were m a d e in an effort to provide a
fundamental understanding of the
causes behind the c o m m o n l y o b -
served modifications and defects in
underwater welded joints. Although
many of the results obtained have
been predicted and were expected,
the documentation of the rapid c o o l -
ing, hardening and other heat flow re-
lated information is important. It was
found that almost all water welds p r o -
duced a small region of hard mar-
tensite immediately s u r r o u n d i n g the
weld bead. Hardness values in this
region approach 600 Hk (100g) a l -
though the extent of this zone is less
than 0.5mm. The HAZ hardening in
u n d e r w a t e r w e l d i n g is not totally
beyond control, since higher heat i n -
puts associated with the larger 3/16
in. e l e c t r o d e did p r o d u c e less
hardening. The weld bead shape of
underwater and air welds was f o u n d
to be very similar at the same w e l d -
ing current and speed. The similarity
of the weld bead shape along with the
almost identical volt-ampere r e c o r d -
ings suggest that the primary effect of
the water medium is to p r o d u c e very
rapid solidification and cooling once
the weld p u d d l e has been f o r m e d ,
and that the water does not have a
major effect on the penetration or
other aspects of the weld puddle for-
mation.
References
1. "Underwater Cutting and Welding,"
U.S. Navy Technical Manual, U.S.N.
Supervisor of Diving, Naval Ship Systems
Command.
2. Brown, R. T., Masubuchi, K., "Latest
D e v e l o p m e n t s in U n d e r w a t e r W e l d i n g
Technologies," Underwater Journal, Vol.
5, No. 5, 1973.
3. Gilman, "The Application of Hyper-
baric Welding for the Offshore Pipeline In-
dustry," OTC 1970, Vol. 2, No. 1252, pp.
243-248, 1970.
4. Lynch, Pilia, "Pipeline Hot-tap W e l d -
ing under 110 feet of Sea Water," Welding
Journal, Vol. 48, (3), March, 1969, pp. 183-
190.
5. Pilia, "Underwater Pipeline Welding,
110-Feet Down," Symposium on Under-
water Welding, Cutting and Hard Tools,
Battelle Memorial Institute, 1967, pp. 33-
40.
6. Robinson, "Underwater Welding in a
Dry Environment," Symposium on Under-
water Welding, Cutting and Hard Tools,
Battelle Memorial Institute, 1967, pp. 2 1 -
29.
7. Wallace, K. W., Morrissey, G., " D r y -
Ke • a i
... • f%
*.Ms-j-
J*' ^
58' :•.: '•:
% ';$
Martens> :: e
Fig. 14 — Heat-affected zone microstruc-
ture ot E7014 (5/32 in.) underwater weld
made at 160 A, straight polarity, 18 kJ/in.
x 100, reduced 48%
Weld Modes in an Underwater Habitat,"
Offshore, Vol. 28, No. 10, 1968, p. 67.
8. Warren, Angel, Gray, "Saturation
Diving, A Tool for Offshore Pipelining,"
OTC 1971 #1436.
9. Billy, A. F., "Investigation of Under-
water Semi-Automatic Arc Welding for
Naval Salvage and Seafloor Construc-
tion," NCEL Preliminary, 1971.
10. Billy, A. F., "The Effects of Gas Metal-
Arc Parameters in Seawater on Welding
Current, Arc Voltage, Bead Geometry, and
Soundness," NCEL Preliminary, 1971.
11. Madatov, Potapevskii, "Features of
Underwater Thin Wire Welding," Welding
Production, Vol. 14, No. 2, February 1967,
pp. 51-55.
12. Savich, I. M., "Underwater Welding
with C o r e d E l e c t r o d e W i r e , " Welding
Production, October, Vol. 22, No. 4, 1969,
p. 70.
13. Shlyamin, A. I., Dubova, T. N., " S e m i -
Automatic Underwater Welding," Welding
Production, No. 7, July, 1961, pp. 49-55.
14. M o h r , Kluttz, W h i t e , " H y d r o w e l d
Underwater Welding Process," OTC 1973,
#1782.
15. Hasui, I., "Plasma Underwater W e l d -
ing," Journal ot Japan Welding Society,
Vol. 40, No. 7, 1971, pp. 622-631.
16. Hasui, Fukushima, Kinugawa, " D e -
velopment of Underwater Plasma W e l d -
ing Process," Second International Ocean
Development Conference, Vol. 2, October
5-7, 1972, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 1005-1036.
17. Anderssen, A. H., "The Underwater
Application of Exothermic Welding," M.I.T.
Engineer's Thesis, 1972.
18. Emerson, H., Angel, T., and Cox, L.,
WELDING
:%••
f- '
t. . J
%'
'"• [ .
S i
f
^*lf
**?
Fig. 15 — Heat-affected zone microstruc-
ture ot E6013 (5/32 in.) underwater weld
made at 180 A, straight polarity, 11 kJ/in.
x 100, reduced 48%
"Saturation Diving — A Tool for Under-
water Welding and Cutting," Presented at
the Symposium on Underwater Welding,
Cutting, and Hand Tools, Battelle M e m o -
rial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, pp. 1-5,
1967.
19. Grubbs. C. E., Seth, O. W., " M u l t i -
pass All-Position 'Wet' Welding — A New
Underwater Tool," OTC 1970, #1620, pp.
41-54.
20. Vagi, J. J., Mishler, H. W., Randall,
M. D., "Underwater Cutting and Welding
State-of-the-Art," a report to the Naval
Ship Systems C o m m a n d from Battelle
Memorial Institute, C o l u m b u s Labora-
tories, Ohio, 1968.
21. Avilov, T. I., "Electrodes for U.W.
W e l d i n g a n d Cutting S t e e l . " Welding
Production. Vol. 3, No. 6, 1955.
22. Avilov, T. I., "The Static Characteris-
tics of the Welding Arc Under Water,"
Svarochnoe Proizvodstvo, 1959, No. 5, pp.
16-17.
23. Avilov, T. I., "Properties of Under-
water Arcs," Welding Production, Vol. 7,
No. 2, 1960, pp. 30-33.
24. Madatov, "Concerning the Effect of
the Salinity of Sea Water on the Process of
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RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT! 187-8
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AWS D10.10-75
Local Heat Treatment of Welds in Piping
and Tubing
In the manufacture of welded articles or structures in the shop or in
the field, it m a y be desirable, for a variety of reasons, to h e a t the weld
regions before welding (preheating), between passes (interpass heating),
or after welding (postheating). This document presents in detail the
various m e a n s commercially available for h e a t i n g pipe welds locally,
either before or after welding, or between passes. The relative a d v a n t a g e s
and d i s a d v a n t a g e s of each method are also discussed. Although the
document is oriented principally toward the h e a t i n g of welds in piping
and tubing, the discussion of the various h e a t i n g methods is applicable
to a n y type of welded fabrication.
Topics covered include the following:
• Measurement of Temperature
• Induction H e a t i n g
• Electric Resistance H e a t i n g
• Flame Heating
• Exothermic H e a t i n g
• Gas-Flame Generated Infrared H e a t i n g
• R a d i a n t H e a t i n g by Quartz L a m p s .
The price of AWS D10.10-75, Local H e a t T r e a t m e n t of Welds in
Piping a n d Tubing, is $3.50. Discounts: 25% to A a n d B members; 20% to
bookstores, public libraries a n d schools; 15% to C a n d D members. Send
your orders to the American Welding Society, 2501 N.W. 7th Street,
Miami, F L 33125. Florida residents add 4% sales tax.

188-S | JUNE 1975