Gender Equality in Argentina Page |1

Gonzales, Ged-ang, Cabiedes

I. HISTORY of Gender Equality in Argentina

A. Consequences of Catholic Church
During the colonization of Argentina in the sixteenth century, Spain brought Catholicism
as the main religion and basic normative parameter to the country. After the independence in
1816, the national state Argentina was formed. During this process Argentina together with other
South American countries adopted a patriarchal conception of the family with influences from
Spain and France
. Single women were then under the authority of their fathers, and married women of
their husbands. The patriarchal conception is evident in the 1869 Argentinean civil codes, which
contained legislation of the family. The framework stated the right for the man to decide over his
wife and family. The woman had to obey the man and in every way follow his rules. Not only
were women excluded as fully citizens; they also had very few rights in their private sphere. In the
1869 civil code legislation, women were defined as dependent and inadequate to conduct
public activities on their own.1
The strong catholic values not only pervade the Argentinean society, but also influence
national legislation. The Catholic morals and values about for example sexuality have influenced
laws regarding abortion, women's rights and marriage. Over the years there have been frequent
conflicts regarding family norms in Argentina between, on the one hand the hierarchy of the
Catholic Church and on the other hand the liberal social actors who wanted legal changes and
new norms in the society. The Catholic Church has fought to keep the civil and national laws as
close to their view of the family as possible2
Under the nineteenth century the influential pope Leo XIII stated: “the family is the most
important building block of society and the households headed by a lonely mother are
incomplete”. The Church has often reinforced and supported the woman's role as a self-
sacrificing mother belonging in the home domains. Another famous quotation from pope Leo XIII
illustrates the catholic view of man's position in the family: “As Christ is head of the church so is
the husband the head of the wife”. 3
In the beginning of the twentieth century gender equality before the law was a gradual
struggle. In 1926 an Argentinean law stated the equal rights between men and women, but not
until 1968 equal property rights and full civil capacity were legislated for women. 4

B. Evita Perón
Another important milestone for women in Argentina was the law stating women’s right
to vote, in 1947. The law had been pushed during the electoral campaign by the president Juan
Domingo Perón and his wife Eva “Evita” Perón. The first lady Evita became a front figure and
spokesperson for women’s right to vote but also for female empowerment in general. Her role in
the struggle for equal civil and political rights between men and women was significant.5
Evita also played an important role in making women appears in the public sphere. In
1949 she together with other political active women founded the Female Peronist Party (PPF),
whose ambition was to promote female political participation. As a result of the work made by
PPF, many women appeared into the politic arena. The Peronist party however also supported
the ideal of women first and foremost as mothers, which in many ways opposed the idea of a
free and politically engaged woman.6

1
Erwing (2014), Gender Equality in Argentina (Master’s Programme) University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
2
Id
3
Id at 16
4
Id
5
Id
6
Erwing, SupraI note at 1
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Gonzales, Ged-ang, Cabiedes

C. UN and Gender (In)equality in Argentina

In July 1985, Argentina ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).7 In October 2012 the UN Human Rights council and the
Universal Periodic Review, evaluated Argentina and its effort to achieve the ratified UN
conventions. The UNCT Report articulates concerns about the lack of efficient mechanism by
the federal government to ensure the provincial governments and municipalities to fully
implement the CEDAW. This concern is shared with the HR committee and a number of
Argentinean NGOs. The UNCT observed that the state have made major efforts to combat
discrimination against women on the national level by strengthening the legislative framework,
introducing institutional mechanisms and implementing public equality policies. Criticism
however was levelled against the implementation of CEDAW on provincial and municipal level,
which according to UNCT lacked effective and functional instruments for ensuring gender
equality.8
According to UNDP (2008) another challenge for Argentina is not only to promote
gender equality in the public sphere but also in the private sphere. The large number of female
politicians in the national parliament must be spread to national and local companies and other
private sectors in order to pervade the country with gender equality. Another challenge
pinpointed in the report is for Argentina to promote gender equality at provincial and local level,
where the need for empowering women is great in some parts of the country. 9
The eight millennium development goals (MDG) were adopted by the UN member
countries in 2000 as a platform for fighting inequality and poverty around the world. The eight
goals are; 1) eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, 2) achieve universal primary education, 3)
promote gender equality and empower women, 4) reduce child mortality, 5) improve maternal
health, 6) combat HIV and other deceases, 7) ensure environmental sustainability and 8) a
global partnership for development.10

D. Women´s Movement in Argentina

Women's participation in demonstrations and protests has led to that violation of
women's human rights and gender equality issues have been noticed. Some of the most high
profile demonstrations have led to local women's movements in Argentina led by women for
women, with human rights for women as their core issue. 11
Policies and issues mainly affecting women such as domestic violence and child-care
have historically been and still are seen as “private” issues for the family to solve without state
involvement. Several women’s movements in Argentina have organized identification of a
traditional female gender construction, such as motherhood and household tasks. They have
fought for their problems to be accepted not as private problems, but seen as matters of public
policies and subject for legislative changes. During periods of economic and political crises,
women in Argentina have mobilized in social movements to demand human rights and better
living conditions. 12
One of the most widely known women's movements in Argentina is “Madres en la plaza de
Mayo” (Mothers of the plaza de Mayo), which was established in 1977 in Buenos Aires. The
movement started as a protest by mothers as a response to their children’s disappearance
during the military regime. What started as demonstrations in front of the government building in
order to draw attention and create debate about their children’s disappearance, developed to
the first Argentinean women’s movement where women made their voices heard out on the
street. The Mothers further developed and divided later into two groups with different goals.

7
https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-8&chapter=4&lang=en, (last viewed on
April 25, 2019).
8
Erwing, SupraI note at 1
9
Id at 17
10
Id
11
Erwing, Supra note 1
12
Id at 18
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Gonzales, Ged-ang, Cabiedes

While one group continued to focus on the disappearance of their children, the other group
spread their opinions about the unjust social and political structures in Argentina. The latter
branch became an influential and famous group fighting against violation of women’s human
rights.13

E. Female Political Participation in Argentina

The female political empowerment has further developed since Evitas days and
Argentina has today one of the highest per cents of female participation in the political
representing in the world. The relatively large proportion of women representatives is a result of
that Argentina in 1991 as the first country in the world introduced gender quotas to the
parliament. The Quota law (Ley de Cuotas, Law 24,012) stipulates that at least 30 per cent of the
parliamentarians must be women. According to the ranking of the participation of women in
ministerial posts and parliamentary seats made by Economic Forum in 2011, Argentina is the 20th
most gender equal country in the world, of a total number of 135 countries. This is a positive
development for Argentina, which in 2009 was to be found on place 26. The gender quotas
have hence numerically been a success in Argentina.14

F. Previous Legislative Enactments Supporting Gender Equality

1947 - Enactment of women’s suffrage15
1985 – ratified the CEDAW (Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women)16
Amendment to Argentina’s Civil Law 17
o 1985: changed the regime of patria potestad
o 1987: Incorporated divorce
1991 – Argentine Quota Law & Consejo Nacional de la Mujer 18
1994 - Ley Nacional (law on domestic violence), expanded in 2009.19
1994 - Incorporated the ratification of the CEDAW into the text of the new constitution. 20
1995 – Decriminalized adultery21

13
Id
14
Id at 19
15
Id at 16
16
Erwing, Supra note 1
17 Franceschet, (2010) Explaining Domestic Violence Policy Outcomes in Chile and Argentina, Cambridge University
Press
18
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism_in_Argentina (last viewed on April 25, 2019)
19
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Argentina (last viewed on April 25, 2019)
20
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism_in_Argentina (last viewed on April 25, 2019)
21
Id
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Gonzales, Ged-ang, Cabiedes

II. Present Status of Gender Equality in Argentina

A. Gender Gap

Figure 1. Gender Gap by Country, 2018

In the figure shown above, Argentina exhibits 27% gender gap and shows 73% gender
parity.22

B. Economic Participation and Opportunity

Figure 2. Economic Participation & Opportunity, 2018

In the figure shown above, Argentina exhibits a .6 average score on Economic

participation and economy and would require an additional .4 to close the gender gap and
attain gender parity.23

C. Educational Attainment

Figure 3. Educational Attainment, 2018

In figure 3, Argentina exhibits an average score of 1 which indicates that it has reached
gender parity in the educational attainment of its women.24

22
Global Gender Gap Index, 2018, World Economic Forum
23
Id
24
Global Gender Gap Index, 2018, World Economic Forum
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Gonzales, Ged-ang, Cabiedes

D. Health & Survival

Figure 4. Health & Survival, 2018

In the figure shown above, Argentina exhibits an average score of 1 which indicates that
it has reached gender parity in health and survival of its women. 25

E. Political Empowerment

Figure 5. Political Empowerment, 2018

In the figure shown above, Argentina exhibits a .4 average score on political

empowerment and would require an additional .6 to close the gender gap and attain gender
parity.26

F. Global Rankings

Economic Participation & Opportunity Educational Attainment

Rank 114 Rank 63

GLOBAL INDEX
Rank 36
Health & Survival Political Empowerment

Rank 1 Rank 23
Figure 6. Global Ranking of Argentina for Global Gender Gap, 2018

As shown in figure 6, Argentina ranked 114th in economic participation and opportunity,

63rd in educational attainment, 1st in health and survival and 23rd in political empowerment. Thus,
ranking 36th in the Global Index out of 149 countries included in the 2018 Global Gender Gap. 27

25
Id
26
Id
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Gonzales, Ged-ang, Cabiedes

G. Rankings by Region, 2018

Figure 7. Ranking by the Region of Latin America and the Caribbean

In the figure shown above, Argentina ranked 7 th in the region of Latin America and the
Caribbean.

H. Recent Movements & Legislative Enactments on Gender Equality

2007 to 2015 – First Female President was elected28

2009 - The Comprehensive Law on the Prevention, Punishment and Elimination of
Violence against Women in their Interpersonal Relations 29
2012 – Anti-femicide law30
2015 – “Not One Less” Movement31
2018 – Increase in Paid Paternity Leave (Buenos Aires)32

27
Global Gender Gap Index, 2018, World Economic Forum
28
Supra note at 4
29
Id
30
Id
31
id
32 Lee, (2018) Paid Paternity Leave Increased to Encourage Co-Parenting in Buenos Aires (last viewed on April 7,
2019) https://www.thebubble.com/paid-paternity-leave-increased-to-encourage-co-parenting-in-buenos-aires/,
Gender Equality in Argentina Page |7
Gonzales, Ged-ang, Cabiedes

III. Challenges and Recommendations

A. Challenges in Attaining Gender Equality in Argentina

1. CULTURE

a. Culture of Deep Rooted Machismo - In Argentina, the culture is still deeply rooted in
machismo which affects people in their acceptance of gender equality. Machismo runs
deeps in Argentina, and manifests itself daily on any city street. Directing flirtatious
comments – known as piropos – at passing women is considered an art form by many
men, although it often consists of little more than crude catcalls and aggressive
propositioning. Even the president, Mauricio Macri, has defended the practice. “Deep
inside, all women like to hear a piropo, even women who say they don’t,” Macri said in
a radio interview in 2014 when he was mayor of Buenos Aires. “I don’t believe them.
There can’t be anything nicer than being told how pretty you are, even if it comes
along with vulgarity, like being told what a nice ass you have.” 33
Tango, a music genre, which is popular in Argentina, also shows deep rooted
machismo. Edmundo Rivero's 1963 tango classic, Amablemente, tells the story of
a man finding his lover in the arms of another, then recounts the woman's brutal
murder, while the rival is spared. "With great calmness, lovingly, he stabbed her 34
times," the lyrics say. "The man is not guilty in these types of situations,"34
Human rights campaigners argue that such behavior is symptomatic of a culture
that refuses to see women as worthy of respect.35
b. Influence of Catholicism - Traditionally, politics was seen as male domain. As such,
women were subordinated first to their fathers and then to their husbands. This created
struggle between the government and conservative groups mostly connected to the
church, in passing laws relating to women rights.36

2. CHALLENGES ON ECONOMIC AUTONOMY

Figure 8. Economic Autonomy of Women in Argentina37

As shown in Figure 8, that women in urban areas who are without income have greatly
decreased from 2007 to 2017. However, comparing the percentage of women without their own
income to men, it still shows that more men are financially independent, as 18.5% of women are

33
Goῆi, (2016) Argentinian Activists Pin Blame on Machismo as Attacks On Women Rise, viewed on April 7, 2019
(https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/27/argentinian-activists-machismo-attacks-women-niunamenos)
34
McGowan, (2019) All-women Argentina tango festival calls for end to machismo, viewed on April 7, 2019
(https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/03/female-argentina-tango-festival-calls-machismo-
190311184858304.html)
35
Goῆi, (2016) Argentinian Activists Pin Blame on Machismo as Attacks On Women Rise, viewed on April 7, 2019
(https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/27/argentinian-activists-machismo-attacks-women-niunamenos)
36
Supra note 3
37
Gender Equality Observatory for Latin America & the Caribbean, UN ECLAC
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Gonzales, Ged-ang, Cabiedes

still without their own income. Women are also working more unpaid work time in the industry
compared to men, that an average woman spends around 58.5 hours of unpaid overtime per
week in Argentina.

FEMALE
MALE
0 50 100
Figure 9. Gender Wage Gap, 2018

As shown in the figure, women earn on average 27 percent less than their male
counterparts and among workers with incomplete secondary education, this raises to a
staggering 45 percent.38

3. RATE OF FEMICIDE

Figure 10. Latin America (16 Countries): Femicide 39

The United Nations’ Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL)
released a report revealing that over 2,795 women over the age of 15 were killed in 2017
because of their gender in Latin America and the Caribbean. The report, conducted by the
Gender Equality Observatory branch of CEPAL, polled 23 countries throughout the region. 40

4. POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT

Figure 11. Percentages of Women Working in the Government41

38
Conn, (2018), Gender Equality: Argentina’s Pipe Dream?, viewed on April 10, 2019
(https://www.thebubble.com/gender-equality-argentinas-pipe-dream/)
39
https://oig.cepal.org/sites/default/files/nota_27_esp_0.pdf viewed on April 10, 2019
40
Davis, (2018), Report: There Were 2,795 Femicides in Latin America in 2017, viewed on April 10, 2019
(https://www.thebubble.com/femicide-rate-latin-america-report/)
41
Supra note 7
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Gonzales, Ged-ang, Cabiedes

As shown in Figure 11, 38.9% of the legislators in Argentina are women as of 2018 which is
a high percentage compared to other countries. However, in other offices in the government
such as participation in ministerial cabinets, only 11.1% are women. In 2013, only 10.2% of the
elected mayor are women and in 2017, only 20% of judges in the highest court are women.
These indicate a low significance in the participation of women in the running of certain offices
in the government.

5. POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

The government of Argentina has enacted several policies and programs to achieve
gender parity, however, these policies and programs have received low funding from the
government which prevents the attainment of gender equality.42 In addition, since Argentina
has a Federal system of government, reports have shown that there are poor implementations of
the policies and programs for gender equality because the local government units are more
focused on their localized problems and goals. It is also reported that with a lack of detailed
report and information gathered from the local states, new policies and appropriate programs
are harder to implement.43

B. Recommendations

From the foregoing challenges, the following are the recommendations of the reporters:

Raise awareness on machismo practices that is behind actions which creates inequality.
Allotment of more funds and accessible legal aid for victims of violence and harassment
whether in work or family life.
Stricter implementation of policies in the local government units.

42
(https://worldjusticeproject.org/our-work/programs/rights-action-access-justice-women-argentina) viewed on
April 10, 2019
43
An Agenda for Women’s Rights in Argentina, (2011) Shadow Report and Concluding Observations of the CEDAW
Committee to the Argentine State