YEREVAN STATE UNIVERISTY

HOVHANNES TOVMASYAN

THE CONGNITIVE VALUE OF EPITHETS

IN THE GOSPEL OF JOHN

THESIS IN APPLICATION FOR THE SCIENTIFIC DEGREE OF

A CANDIATE OF PHILOLOGICAL SCIENCES

SYNOPSIS

YEREVAN – 2002

The title has been approved by the English Philology Department of the Yerevan State University.

Scientific Leader: Doctor of Philological Sciences, Professor S. Gasparyan

Official Opponents: Doctor of Philological Sciences, Professor L. Hovsepyan
Candidate of Philological Sciences, Assistant Professor G. Gasparyan
Leading Organization: Department of English Theory, V. Brosov State Linguistic University

Defense of the thesis will take place on January 24, 2003 at the session of the 009 Research Council of
Yerevan State University.

The complete text of the thesis is available at the library of the University.

This synopsis is distributed on December 24, 2002.

Secretary of the 009 Professional Council: I. Ter-Poghosyan.

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 The inner need for expression and communication is mainly achieved by means of language,
which in its most comprehensive sense is “someone’s saying something to someone else about
something”.1 This activity occurs both as an inner speech and as an utterance. Charged with various
rational and psychological elements, this discourse necessarily implies the availability of an object,
an addressee, to whom it is directed in the entirety of its content and form. If, in the case of the
inner speech (or self-expression), the subject transforms simultaneously into the object of that
discourse, becoming its own interlocutor, then at the level of an utterance (or communication), the
spoken word, the listener, as the addressee of a spoken discourse, is another entity, a second subject.
Communication, wherein at least two subjects interact, raises issues of self-consciousness and
comprehension. That which is signified (an object, a concept, an activity, in a broader sense, the
content) is not often adequately perceived by the second subject, bringing about misunderstanding
and inadequate response. This creates a need for reiterating the meaning, re-signifying the content
of a discourse, which equally refers to the spoken word as well as to the written expression. The
latter is capable of spreading not only geographically but also diachronically.
The origin and development of hermeneutics (Gk. ἑρμηνεύω) is conditioned by the need for a
relative comprehension of the meaning of the (spoken or written) word, while the shifts that occur
in the process of comprehension between the general and particular, the so-called “hermeneutical
cycle”, raises the need for studying various elements of the discourse as components of a given
context.2
Consequently, an element of speech that gives an aesthetic value to a discourse and, as we
will see, helps interpret a text is the epithet (Gk. ἐπίθετον). Epithets originate from the clichés of the
spoken word and have been an object of recognition and study since the Antiquity. 3 The purpose of
the study, therefore, is to determine the factors that constitute the cognitive value of epithets as well
as to identify the forms in which they appear. For this purpose, we will: a) remain loyal to the
traditional perspectives (e.g. definitions, characterizations) that distinguish the epithet from other
stylistic devices; b) evaluate the epithet not only as an aesthetic device, but also as a unit that
enhances interpretation; c) study the historical and literary contexts of a discourse in order to
explain the background and intent of the author for using epithets.
The material for the research is the Bible, particularly the Gospel of John (KJV). For
centuries, these God-breathed texts have been objects of various interpretations. The novelty of the
research includes a renewed perspective on the epithet and its object, whereby this connection is not
viewed merely in syntactical terms; rather, the overall theme and or the character of the text may be

1
E. Atayan, The Inner Formation and the Outer Application of Language (in Armenian), Yerevan State University,
Yerevan, 1981, p. 192.
2
Schleiermacher F., Hermeneutik, Heidelberg, 1959.
3
Baevsky B.S., The Unabridged Soviet Encyclopedia (in Russian), p. 221. See also Aristotle, Poetics.

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considered as the object of an epithet. Another novelty is the proposition of the cognitive function
of the epithet as well as the principle of distinguishing between explicit and implicit epithets. In
general, the introduction of an interpretive perspective adds theoretical value to this study. The
practical worth of this research is in its conceptual approaches; they may be applied in the studies of
other stylistic devices as well as in the interpretation of various texts.4
The first chapter examines the theory of the epithet. The epithet is defined as a type of an
attributive, complete with emotive and allegoric overtones, thereby differing from regular
attributives.5 On the functional level, if an attributive restricts an object with an obvious feature,
then the epithet is capable of revealing not previously recognized or appreciated qualities in an
object, which bear particular meanings in the mind of the author. 6 Thus, not all grammatical
attributives are epithets, neither are all epithets grammatical attributives. The difference, according
to the traditional approach, lies in the aesthetic blend of a phrase, the logical and the artistic
definitions, wherein a word used in a logical definition may, in another phrase, in a metaphorical
sense, be charged with qualities of an epithet. Most studies note the part of speech epithets are used
in.7 However, theoretical classification of the epithet also refers to its composition (simple,
complex), position, function (epitheton necessarium or epithete de nature and epitheton ornans or
epithete de cironstance), origin (personal and permanent), etc. The overlap of classifications and
terminology require a more thorough study of the epithet.
The second chapter reflects on the development of the biblical texts, informing of their
inspiration, canonization, transmissions and translations.8 It also reviews the history of their major
translations (LXX, the Vulgate) as well as those in English (Wycliffe, Tyndale, KJV, etc).
The third chapter, “The Epithet as a Means of Signifying the Meaning of the Text”, is built
upon the theoretical foundations of the first two chapters. The epithets identified and analyzed here
are not merely reflections of some fine, artistic style, but also, and foremost, high-value interpretive
units. For example, the following phrase, which uses realia, not only creates a mind-picture, but also
transmits additional ideas to the reader.
“Then Pilatte therefore took Jesus, and scourged him. And the soldiers platted a crown of
thorns, and put it on his head and they put on him a purple robe, and said, Hail, King of the
Jews! And they smote him with their hands.” (John 19.1-3, KJV)

4
The paper comprises an introduction, four chapters, conclusion and a bibliography.
5
Akhmanova, O. S. Dictionary of Linguistic Terms, M. 1966.
6
Thus, the renowned Armenian linguist and poet, Paruir Sevak, observes that in the selection of an epithet, more than
anywhere else, the taste and the acumen of the author is clearly seen, the selection of an epithet requires an utmost
concentration of [literary] abilities, the courage not to go along the beaten path (Aristakesyan, A., Paruir Sevak, 1984).
7
Most widespread are the adjectives (sunny smile, sleeping town), also nouns (a heart of stone), adverbs (the mountain
loudly witnesses) and noun-phrases (shacks lost in the dark), etc.
8
Geisler N., A General Introduction to the Bible, 1986.

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 The reference to these two realia not only reveals the underlying irony, but, as we study the
historical setting, points to violations to the Jewish law (although not unexpected, see Is. 53:5). 9
Each of these phrases creates a contrast, the word “thorn” reminds of a constant pain (as in “thorn in
the flesh”), while “crown” speaks of victory; the “purple robe” is royal attire, a king is never to be
mocked. Moreover, we not only see “thorn” as an epithet for “crown” and “purple” as an epithet for
“robe”, but we see both phrases as being themselves epithets for the mocking attitude that prevailed
at that moment.
The object, which the next epithet describes, is the humanity and divinity of Christ.
“Jesus, therefore, being wearied with his journey, sat thus on the well; and it was about the
sixth hour” (John 4:6, KJV).
The “sixth hour” is an allusion to Christ’s crucifixion. The fact that things occur at a
predetermined timing refers to Christ’s divinity, while their confinement to natural time and its
power, points to his humanity.
The consistent use of certain phrases may give additional meaning to the text. One of such
phrases used in the Gospel is “by night” in reference to the time Nicodemus came to see Jesus.
“There was a man of the Pharisees, named Nicodemus, a ruler of the Jews: the same came to
Jesus by night” (John 3:1-2, KJV).
Obviously this refers to the time between dusk and dawn, while its metaphorical use has long
been known (“Yet hath my night of life some memorie” Shakespeare). It may also refer to a time of
intellectual or moral decline.10 The darkness depicted by this prepositional phrase contrasts the
illumination that the ruler was seeking in Christ, but because this move might jeopardize his
reputation, he determines to seek him out when he has less chance to be spotted.11
The writer of the Gospel shows the change in Nicodemus brought about in that meeting. The
change is seen in his call to impartiality.
“Nicodemus saith unto them, (he that came to Jesus by night, being one of them) Doth our
law judge any man before it hear him, and know what he doeth?” (John 7:50, KJV).
The same phrase occurs in the third and final reference to Nicodemus.
“And there also came Nicodemus, which at the first came to Jesus by night, and brought a
mixture of myrrh and aloes, about an hundred pound weight” (John 19:39, KJV).
Therefore, this phrase may be viewed as an epithet to describe the darkness in which
Nicodemus came to Jesus (that of personal fear or popular misconception) and the contrast that the
encounter effected on him.

9
McGee, J. Vernon, 1904-Thru the Bible Commentary, Thomas Nelson, Inc. 1997.
10
The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles, (c) 1973 by the Oxford University Press; Webster’s
New World Dictionary of American English, (c) 1988 by Simon and Schuster, Inc.
11
The Life-Application Study Bible, 1990, p. 1877; The Spirit-Filled Life Study Bible, 1983, p. 1577.

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 The fourth chapter, “The Role of Implicit Epithets in the Interpretation of a Composition”,
starts with deliberations on attribution and predication. By means of a transformation from
predication (the apple is red) to attribution (the red apple), even though this attributive clause is tacit
(thus, the name “implicit”), the reader identifies a certain type of epithetic structure. This kind of
deduction does not contradict the traditional views on epithets.
We derive these implicit epithets from the prologue to the Gospel as well as from the seven “I
am” statements of Jesus. Take, for instance, the first phrase: “In the beginning was the Word”.
The Greek auxiliary translated “was” implies an unfinished, continuous condition. Not a neology,
this sense was present in the Greek concept of the Logos. In the mind of the author (and the reader),
the Logos has preceded everything and is ever-existent. Thus, the human being thinks of Logos as
eternal, the eternal Logos, where “eternal” is implicitly present in the original phrase.
A similar pattern applies to the “I am” statements. For example, let’s consider the following:
“Then Jesus spake unto them, saying, I am the light of the world: he that followeth me shall
not walk in darkness, but shall have the light of life” (John 8:12, KJV).
Derived from the Greek for “white”, in addition to being taken as the means for vision, itself
an object for vision and signifying an illuminating body, the noun “light” is used metaphorically as
an idea, understanding (e.g. “He worked according to his light” Thakeray). It also refers to divine
illumination.12 The first word uttered by God, which is known to humanity, includes a reference to
light (Gen. 1:3). Allegorically, this theme passes through the entire Scripture, up to the last lines
(Rev. 22:5). Upon hearing this phrase, “the light of the world”, the Jew may have thought of the
pillars of fire and cloud guiding his ancestors in the wilderness.13 So it is not foreign to the spirit of
this passage to read between the lines that Christ illuminates, it is one of his attributes; he is the
illuminating Word!
The transformation method thus allows the interpreter to explore the depths of the text and
identify cases of implicit attribution, which communicate the intent of the author. Apparently, the
apostle John does not use epithets merely for emotive or decorative purposes, but for a higher goal
of introducing the incarnate Son of God. In general, the paper suggests a need to further study this
device, whose occurrences show evidence of cognitive function and thus can serve in interpreting
the given text.

12
The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles, (c) 1973 by the Oxford University Press.
13
Meyer, F. B. The Gospel of John, 1950, p. 128.