Journal of Veterinary Advances

Toxicological Impact of Crude Oil Contaminated Water on the

Serum Biochemistry of Adult Rabbits in the Humid Tropics

Nyeche V. N., Ajuogu P. K. and Nodu M. B.

J Vet Adv 2015, 5(4): 685-692

DOI: 10.5455/jva.20150421011656

Online version is available on: www.grjournals.com

 ISSN: 2251-7685 AJUOGU ET AL.

Original Article

Toxicological Impact of Crude Oil Contaminated

Water on the Serum Biochemistry of Adult Rabbits
in the Humid Tropics
1
Nyeche V. N., 2Ajuogu P. K. and 3Nodu M. B.
1
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Rivers
State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Animal Science and Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt, Choba East west Road Rivers
State, Nigeria.
3
Department of Animal Science and Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, Niger Delta University, Amasoma Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

Abstract
This work was carried out to evaluate the toxicological responses of Rabbits serum biochemistry exposed
to graded levels of crude oil contaminated water. Thirty two (32) adult New Zealand white breed of rabbits
were randomly assigned into four treatment groups designated A, B, C, and D respectively according to the
graded levels of crude oil contaminated water as follows: Treatment A (control) 0.00% contaminated water,
treatment B 0.01%, treatment C 0.02% and treatment D 0.03% crude oil in a completely randomized
experimental design (CRD). From the results, all the serum biochemical parameters of the rabbits (Cholesterol,
glucose, protein, urea, creatinine, total bilirubin and conjugated bilirubin) exposed to the treatment were
significantly (P < 0.05) affected by the treatment amongst the treatment groups except albumin that was not
impacted significantly (P > 0.05). In conclusion crude oil contaminated water was adjudged to have adverse
influence on the blood chemistry and the general physiology of the rabbits.

Keywords: Crude oil, contamination, water, serum, biochemistry, rabbits, tropics.

Corresponding author: Department of Animal Science and Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt, Choba East west Road Rivers State, Nigeria.
Received on: 21 Mar 2014
Revised on: 30 Apr 2014
Accepted on: 21 Apr 2015
Online Published on: 30 Apr 2015
685 J. Vet. Adv., 2015, 5(4): 685-692
 TOXICOLOGICAL IMPACT OF CRUDE OIL CONTAMINATED WATER ON …
Introduction
Farm animals like cattle, sheep, rabbits and
poultry including game animals are the major
sources of animal protein in Nigeria. The lives
of these animals have however been jeopardized
especially in the Delta region of Nigeria where
oil exploratory/exploitation activities have
resulted in spillages and environmental
degradation. Rabbits constitute one of the most
recently well-recognized source of rapid animal
protein supply in Nigeria (Ekpenyong, 1986;
Aduku and Olukosi, 1990; Berepubo, 1994;
Nodu, 2000). This has made rabbit farming a
fast growing sub-sector of the animal industry.
Some of the unique features that have endeared
rabbits to Nigeria livestock farmers and
researchers include their efficient conversion of
waste food and surplus garden produce as well
as other unconventional “feeds” (not useful to
man) into edible meat (Owen et al., 2008).
Other prospects are the fact that rabbit meat
(“lagum”) is less prone to religious bias
nationwide and the rabbit has on average a short
gestation period of 31 days.
Some of the oil exploration installations are
located on the most productive farmlands and
valuable ecosystems in Rivers State of Nigeria
and other operational areas in the Niger Delta
region. Amadi et al., (1993) established that all
oil installation, exploration, production and
transportation activities carry risk of oil spillage
through human error, equipment failure,
blowouts, operational discharge, accidents,
outright sabotage, natural and even unknown
causes. As Cairns and Pratt (1993) puts it, the
impairment and progressive deterioration of the
environment exposed to different levels of oil
pollution in the region was clearly noted from
early times but the control measures were taken
only after some serious incidents involving
human victims occurred. These complaints are
further worsened by the frequent oil spillage
occurring from burst oil pipes crisscrossing the
area. The toxicology of crude oil which is an area
that studies or examines the effects of dosages of
given compounds (material or chemical) on the
686
lives of animals or plants exposed to it has
continued to receive wide attention (Yahaya 2001;
Ovuru et al., 2004; Ngodigha, 2009, George 2010).
Crude oil has been noted to contain several
poisonous compounds, which accumulate in the
body and induce toxic symptoms that sometimes
result in death (Heintz et al., 1999). Crude oil,
is broadly characterized as paraffinic/naphtanic
or aromatic (Chapelle, 1993), contains smaller
proportions of non-hydrocarbon compounds,
such as oxygen, thiols, heterocyclic nitrogen
and sulphur compounds, as well as
metalloporphyrins (Anoliefo 1991, Traven
1992, Chapelle, 1993). Baker (1981) noted that
within each series of hydrocarbons, the small
molecules are more toxic than the larger
molecules.
The Effects of poison brought about by the
components of crude oil on life of animals
cannot be accurately evaluated. This is because
of the complicated nature of crude oil pollution
since toxic chemicals seldom occur singly.
Gibson (1991). Several of these chemicals or
components of the oil act together to produce an
effect on the subject (animal or plant) giving a
synergistic effect. Sometimes this effect results
in weakening of the immune system so that the
animal may fall victim much more easily to
various parasitic and other disease organisms
(Yahaya, 2001).
Some are identified as carcinogens, mutagens,
and teratogens (CDC, 1999). Exposure of humans
and animals to these chemicals is increasing in
terms of the environmental level and the different
usage of crude oil (Patrick-Iwuanyanwu et al.,
2011). Difference in exposure or contact will occur
based on location, work, personal activities, age,
diet use of protective equipment and other factors.
The toxic effect can be acute lethal, sub-lethal or
both, depending on the level of exposure, organism
exposed and the dosage it is exposed to (Rothman et
al., 1996).
In several organs, mainly heart and liver, cell
damage is followed by increased activities of a
number of cytoplasmic enzymes in the blood, a
phenomenon that provides the basis for clinical
diagnosis of diseases e.g. liver enzymes are usually
raised in acute hepatotoxicity but tend to decrease
J. Vet. Adv., 2015, 5(4): 685-692
 AJUOGU ET AL.
with prolonged intoxication due to damage to the
liver cells. A number of investigations have been
conducted on the direct and indirect effects of crude
oil on poultry (Nwokolo et al., 1984), goat
(Ngodigha et al., 1999) and rabbits (Monsi et al.,
1991; Berepubo et al., 1994; Ovuru et al., 2004).
Owu et al., (2005) reported a significant reduction
in red blood cell and haematocrit value in Guinea
pigs which were exposed to crude oil. Also,
Olawale and Owuora (2007), observed that crude
oil contaminated diet could pose serious effect on
the hormonal system, which may consequently
affect the reproduction process in organisms found
in a crude oil polluted environment, and change in
the endocrine system which may cause changes in
reproductive development, growth or behaviour that
can affect the animals or human or their offspring
(Naz et al., 1999). According to Monosson et al.,
(1999), anti-androgens in adult animals increase the
serum levels of androgens, luteinizing hormone and
estrogen. This may imply that the crude oil is acting
as anti-androgenic compounds, and thereby
inducing spontaneous abortions, still birth and
reproductive malfunction (Alvarez et al., 2007).
Cytotoxic and biochemical derangement are
associated with ingestion of marine animals in
polluted area (Nwankwoala and George, 2000).
Brain damage such as cerebral cortex malfunctions
was also been observed in fetuses of pregnant rats
exposed to bonny light crude oil, (Fischer et al.,
2005). The advantageous features of the rabbit
have encouraged its choice for this study whose
broad aim is to determine the possible
consequences of crude oil spillages on the
physiological performance of livestock and/or
game in crude petroleum-bearing ecosystem or
environment. The objective of this work is to
assess the impact of crude oil contamination on
the serum chemistry of rabbits in the Niger
Delta.
Materials and Methods
The study was carried out at the rabbitry
section of Rivers State University of Science
and Technology Teaching and Research Farm,
Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, a city
687 J. Vet. Adv., 2015, 5(4): 685-692
located in the south-south region (Niger Delta) of
Nigeria.
Thirty two (32) post pubertal adult (7-8
months) New Zealand breed of rabbits were
used for this study. They were housed in
conventional standard single tie hutches of two
compartments, and were randomly assigned into
four treatment groups of eight animals,
designated A, B, C and D respectively. In a
complete randomized experimental design
(CRD), each treatment was further sub-divided
into four replicates of two (2) per replicate. The
treatment groups were allocated to four graded
levels of crude oil contaminated water as
follows:
Treatment A (control) 0.00mls crude oil
contaminated water.
Treatment B.O.O1% crude oil contaminated
water.
Treatment C.O.02% crude oil contaminated
water.
Treatment D.O.03% crude oil contaminated
water.
Experimental Technique
The crude petroleum oil used in this study
was Bonny light grade, obtained from Nigeria
Agip oil Company (NAOC) at Obirikom flow
station in Ogba-Egbema Ndoni Local
Government Area of Rivers State. They were
exposed for 24 hours in a sheltered pan to allow
evaporation of light fraction in order to ensure a
stable product (White 1992). This is to
simulation the natural occurring condition
following oil spillages in the oil-bearing
communities and was diluted with borehole water
to obtain concentrations of 0.01%, 0.02 %, and
0.03%, assigned to treatments B, C, and D
respectively. Treatment A (0.00%), represent the
control. On the arrival, the animals were pre-
conditioned for two weeks to get them
acclimatized to the new environment, during
which feeds (growers mash and forages) and
clean water were given ad libitum.
After the pre-conditioning period, the
rabbits were exposed to treated water containing
graded levels of crude oil contaminated water as
thus, Treatment (A) (control) 0.0% crude oil,
 TOXICOLOGICAL IMPACT OF CRUDE OIL CONTAMINATED WATER ON …
(B) = 0.01% crude oil, (C) (0.02%) crude oil
and (D) O. 03% crude oil respectively.
Other management practices were strictly
observed, for instance regular washing and
disinfections of the feeders and drinkers,
regular deworming with ivomec, intermittent
administration of anti-biotics, prophylactic
administration of coccidiostart etc.
Blood Collection and Analysis
After the twelve weeks experimental
periods, 10ml blood samples were collected
from all the experimental rabbits via the ear
vein and decanted into a sterile well labeled
heparinized sample bottles, and stored in an ice
pack, which was immediately taken to the
laboratory for serum biochemical analysis. The
blood samples were allowed to coagulate at room
temperature and centrifuged for 10mins at 3000
rmp. The total Protein concentration was assessed
using Biuret method. 5.0ml of Biuret reagent was
pipetted into tubes labeled blank, standard, test, and
control. 0.1ml of distilled water, standard, sample
and control were pipetted into their respective tubes,
mixed and incubated for 30minutes at 25ºC. The
absorbance’s were measured against the reagent
blank at wavelength of 546nm. The concentration of
total protein was calculated by dividing the
absorbance of sample against absorbance of
standard multiplied by concentration of standard
(Henry et al., 1974).
Bromocresol green (BCG) method by Doumas
et al., (1971) was used for albumin estimation. 3ml
of Bromocresol green reagent was pipetted into
tubes labeled blank, standard, sample and control.
0.01ml of distilled water, standard, sample and
control was pipetted into their respective tubes,
mixed and incubated at 25 ºC for 5minutes. The
absorbance were measured at 578nm against the
reagent blank. The concentration of Albumin was
determined by dividing the absorbance of sample
against absorbance of standard multiplied by
concentration of standard. The liver to body weight
ratio was determined by taking the weight of the
whole liver and comparing it with the final body
weight as described by Sunmonu and Oloyede
(2007). urea, creatinine and cholesterol were carried
out following standard procedures of (Meyer et al.,
688
1992), using Quimica Clinica Aplicada (QCA) test
kits (Quimica Clinica Aplicada, Spain) and a
Spectrum lab 21A Spectrophotometer (Spectrum
lab, England).
Total Bilirubin is determined in the presence of
caffeine, which releases albumin bound Bilirubin by
the reaction with diazotized sulphanlic acid (Meyer
et al., 1992). The glucose level was determined in
the presence of glucose oxidase, formed when
hydrogen peroxide reacts with phenol and 1-
aminophenazone to give red violet colour as
indicator (Barham et al., 1972 and Teuscher et al.,
1971).
Results
Total Protein
From the results, total protein was
significantly (p < 0.05) affected by the
treatments between the treatment groups. The
increment was according to the increasing
levels of the crude oil contamination. The
values are 50.50 g/l, 66.50 g/l, 70.80 g/l and
70.80 g/l for treatments A, B, C and D
respectively.
Albumin
There was significant difference (p < 0.05)
between the treatment groups. Treatment D
49.00 g/l is significantly higher than C (48.00
g/l), B (46.00 g/l) and A (44.55 g/l).
Creatinine
There was significant difference (p < 0.05)
on the creatinine values between the treatment
groups according to the increased levels of
crude oil contaminated water. Treatment D
(4.35 mmol/L) had higher creatinine status than
treatments C (3.15 mmol/L) and B (2.50
mmol/L). The least was recorded in treatment
group a (1.55 mmol/L).
Urea
There was a progressive significant (p <
0.05) increase on the urea level as the treatment
increases. Treatment D (8.42 mmol/L) was
significantly higher than groups C (5.35
mmol/L), B (5.65 m mol/L) andA (4.75 m
mol/L).
J. Vet. Adv., 2015, 5(4): 685-692
 AJUOGU ET AL.

Glucose highest and the least values were recorded in

The influence of crude oil contaminated
water on glucose did not differ significantly (p
> 0.05) defer between the treatment groups. But
there was observable numerical difference
between the groups. Treatment D (6.35 m
mol/L) was numerically higher than A, (5.85 m
mol/L), B (6.30 m mol/L) and D (6.30 m
mol/L).
Total Bilirubin
Statistical analysis of the total Bilirubin
was significantly (p < 0.05) impacted amongst
the treatment groups. There was a progressive
significant increment in total bilirubin status as
the treatments increases, their values are 3.74
g/L, 5.80 g/L, 6.25 g/L and 7.40 g/L for
treatments A, B, C and D respectively. The
treatments D (7.40 g/L) and A (3.74 g/L).
Conjugated Bilirubin
Treatment effect on conjugated bilirubin
was significantly different (p < 0.05) between
the treatment groups. Treatments D (3.85 m
mol/U) are significantly (p < 0.05) higher than
treatments B (2.35 m mol/U), C (2.98 m mol/U)
and A (2.01 m mol/U) respectively.
Cholesterol
Influence of the treatment on the
cholesterol status was significantly different (P
< 0.05) between the treatment groups.
Treatments A (1.13 m mol/L) and B (1.58 m
mol/L) are significantly (p < 0.05) lower than
treatment C (2.55 m mol/L) and D (2.60 m
mol/L).

Table 1: Effect of crude oil contaminated water on Serum Biochemical parameters .

Treatments
S/No Serum Biochemical parameters
A B C D
1. Total Protein (g/l) 50.50  4.64 66.50  4.55 70.80  2.42
d c b
75.00  2.82
a

2. Albumin (g/l) 44.55a  2.05 46.00a  2.05 48.00a  0.50 49.00a  0.50
3. Creatinine (m mol/L) 1.55  0.50
d
2.50 c  0.00 3.15 b  0.00 4.35 a  0.00
4. Urea (m mol/L) 4.752c  0.02 5.65 b  0.05 5.35 b  0.00 8.42 a  0.41
5. Glucose (m mol/L) 5.85  0.00
a
6.30  0.34
a
6.30 a  0.34 6.35 a  0.34
6. Total Bilirubin (g/L) 2.74  0.34
d
5.80  0.05
c
6.25 b  0.14 7.40 a  1.00
7. Conjugated bilirubin (m mol/U) 2.01 d  0.00 2.35 c  0.00 2.98 b  0.00 3.85 a  0.00
8. Cholesterol (m mol/L) 1.13  0.00
c
1.58  0.00
b
2.55 a  0.00 2.60 a  0.00
Mean  SEM on the some row with different superscript differs significantly ( p < 0.05).

Discussion significant increase in serum urea and creatinine

Serum biochemistry investigated in this
study showed an elevated increase according to
the increased levels of crude oil contaminated
water amongst the treated groups. Increase in
urea and creatinine have been used as important
indices for the evaluation of the effects of
chemicals on the kidney (Davis and Berndt,
1994). Urea and creatinine are important
metabolites that are usually excreted by the
kidney. Their presence in the blood suggests
kidneys inability to excrete them; this also
implies a decrease in glomerular filtration rate,
which may have been induced by the
hydrocarbon fractions present in the diet. The
689 J. Vet. Adv., 2015, 5(4): 685-692
levels observed in this study, is in line with
Henry (2001), who reported that serum and
urinary concentrations of urea and creatinine are
indices of renal function, and low urinary clearance
of urea and/or creatinine evident by their low
urinary concentrations and consequent rise in their
serum levels are pointers to impaired renal function.
Also Counts et al., (1995) reported that
chemically induced nephrotoxicity by
halogenated hydrocarbons, injure the proximal
tubule monolayer, resulting in gaps in the
epithelial lining leading to back leak of filtrate
and diminished glomerular filtration rate.
Similarly, George (2010) established increased
urea and creatinine status of rabbits exposed to
 TOXICOLOGICAL IMPACT OF CRUDE OIL CONTAMINATED WATER ON …
crude oil contaminated food. The significant
increase in the bilirubin levels (both conjugated
and total bilirubin) amongst the tested groups
may suggest the haemolytic process or toxicity
to the liver caused by crude oil intoxication
(Saneky et al., 1993). Another associated reason
could be a metabolic disturbance in the liver
involving defective conjugation and/or
excretion of bilirubin. Its rate of elimination is
an important contributing source to the
excretion of the xenobiotic, but is of primary
importance for the excretion of the animal
metabolites (Ovuru et al., 2004). ). Bilirubin is
a by-product of the breakdown of heamoglobin
from red blood cells in the liver. Its level is a
good indication of the liver function. Its
abnormal elevation suggests liver damage or
disease. Mononucleosis, hemolytic anaemia,
low levels of exposure to the sun, and toxic
effects of some products (Udem, et al., 2011),
http//wwwcarbonbasedcom/ebother; htm\\liver
function).
Since the liver encounters environmental
toxicants and waste products, within this frame
work, it extracts the environmental toxicants
and waste products to prevent their circulation
to other parts of the body. A linear progressive
increase in cholesterol concentration according
to the increasing levels of crude oil
contaminated water may be related to the
general increase in lipid mobilization.
Cholesterol is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis
of related sterols such as bile acids, adenocortical
hormones (stress indicator), androgens and
estrogens (Rahmani, et al., 1988). Ovuru et al.,
(2004) also reported that increased cholesterol level
in the serum, is an index of stress in animals. In this
study, increase in surum concentration of
cholesterol with increasing concentration of crude
oil contaminated water was observed. Serum
cholesterol rises when there is renal retention
damage resulting in diminished removal of
lipoprotein from plasma, thus causing the
concentration to increase markedly. This
supports previous workers kato et al., (1982),
Quazi et al., (1983) who reported an increase in
serum cholesterol of rats fed triglycerides and
liver lipids fed PCB. These findings including
690
the results of this research supports the fact that
increased cholesterol level is an index of stress
in animals of which crude oil caused (stressor).
Also the retention of protein in the blood is
an indicator of major functional changes in
kidney and liver (Agrawal and John, 1990).
Protein has nutritive transporting protective,
buffering and energy function (Cheesborough,
1992). In this study, the increased protein in the
serum with increasing levels of crude oil
contamination, may suggest a haemo
concentration, presence of abnormal globulins
or some form of liver and kidney dysfunction
(Ganong, 2005). Serum glucose in this study
increased with increasing crude oil
contamination which may also indicate stress
due to increased glucose concentration in the
blood as a result of hypocalcaemia and the
interference with the secretion of insulin from
the pancreas (Ganong, 2005).
It could also imply reduced functional
ability of the pancreas in its insulin production
due to crude oil toxicity. Sahal et al., (1994)
reported increased blood glucose concentration
leading to diabetes mellitus. Udem et al., (2011)
reported that mononucleosis, haemolytic
anaemia, toxins leads to increase in serum
bilirubin due to liver damage. Ovuru et al.,
(2004) in their work, revealed that impairment
of organs like liver and kidney functions leads
to accumulation of metabolites and Xenobiotics.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study shows that rabbits’
exposure to petroleum hydrocarbon is a risk factor
for impairment of renal and liver function as
indicated by serum metabolites assessed in this
study. Its’ devastating consequences on the
general physiology of the test animals were
revealed which ultimately will affect
productivity and food security (Summonu and
Oloyede, 2009; Ngodigha 2009; Ovuru et al.,
2004). Also, the present study, substantiated
already existing, reports on the crude oil
intoxication of both aquatic and Teretial life
(Summonu and Oloyede 2009; Berepubo et al.,
2001) using rabbits as the test animal.
J. Vet. Adv., 2015, 5(4): 685-692
 AJUOGU ET AL.
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