Introduction

Determinants of personality
Theories of personality, Types of
personality
Personality traits
16 factors of personality
Role of personality at workplace
Working personality of police personnel
Chapter- 5 Personality

5. PERSONALITY

Personality is a concept that we use continuously in our in our day-to-day

routine, when dealing with people. We talk about people as having a good

personality or a bad personality or arrogant personality or aggressive

personality. Sometimes we refer to disagreements among people as being

due to personality conflicts. Personality can be reflected in a person‘s

temperament and is a key factor influencing individual behaviour in

organization.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The origin or the etymological derivative of personality comes from the

word ―persona‖, theatrical masks worn by Romans in Greek and Latin

drama. Personality also comes from the two Latin words ―per‖ and

―sonare‖, which literally means ―to sound through‖. This concept extends

to Jung‘s component of ―persona‖, meaning ―public image‖, which refers

to the role expected by social or cultural convention.

According to Fromm, 1974; ―Personality is the totality of individual

psychic qualities, which includes temperament, one‘s mode of reaction

and character, and two objects of one‘s reaction.‖1

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Personality may be biologically defined as the governing organ or super

ordinate institution of the body in as much as it is located in the brain.

―No brain, no personality‖ (Murray, 1951). 2 Personality is a person‘s

unique pattern of traits. (Guilford, 1959).3 Personality is the record of a

person‘s experiences and behaviour together with the psychological

systems, which contribute casual determination to the existing and

functioning record. Some casual determination is found within the record

itself. (Cartwright, 1979).4 According to the psycho-analytic theory

propounded by Sigmund Freud, Personality is made of three major

systems-‗Id‘, ‗Ego‘ and ‗super-ego‘ and the human behaviour is the

product of interaction among these systems. 5

Personality has been defined by Shaffer as Personality consists of

observable behaviour, and it is also individual and intrinsic. It is defined

as an individual‘s typical or consistent adjustment to his behaviour. 6

Allport (1937), the humanistic trait and self theorist, discusses the

development of personality as a three-pronged task for the individual:

 Self-objectification: ―that peculiar detachment of the mature person

when he surveys his own pretensions in relation to his abilities, his

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comparison with the equipment of others, and his opinion of

himself in relation to the opinion others hold of him.‖

 Extension of self: self--―going beyond self to invest energies in

causes and goal-seeking that transcend his or her individual life‖;

 Unifying philosophies of life: ―mature persons live their lives by

some dominant guiding principles by which they place themselves

in the scheme of things.‖ 7

Allport further said that personality can best be understood as:

 a mixture of major and minor ―traits‖ by which a single life is

known,

 a personality ―trait‖ is a biological, psychological and social

mixture that disposes a person toward specific kinds of action

under specific circumstances. 8

5.2 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

Every person has a different personality and there are a lot of factors

which contribute to that personality. We call them the ‗determinants of

personality‘ or the ‗factors of personality‘.

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These determinants and factors of personality can belong to very different

categories. Earlier, the major debate was primarily between the heredity

and environmental factors. Many psychologists believe that the

environment, in which an individual lives in, forms his personality. On

the other hand, some psychologists used to debate that personality is pre-

determined at the time of birth – which means that it is

hereditary. Actually, it appears that both the environmental and heredity

factors contribute as the important determinants and factors of

personality.

There are various determinants of personality and these have been

categorized indifferent ways.

5.2.1. Environmental Factors of Personality:

The environment that an individual lives in has a major impact on his

personality. The culture and environment establish attitudes, values,

norms and perceptions in an individual. Based on the cultures and

traditions, different senses of right and wrong are formed in individuals.

These environmental factors also include the neighbourhood a person

lives in, his school, college, university and workplace. Moreover, it also

counts the social circle the individual has. Friends, parents, colleagues,
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co-workers and bosses, everybody plays a role as the determinants of

personality.

i) Socialisation Process: The contribution of family and social

group in combination with the culture is knows as socialisation.

In the words of Mussen ― Socialisation is the process by which

an individual infant acquires, from the enormously wide range

of behavioural potentials that are open to him at birth, those

behaviour patterns that are customary and accepted according to

the standards of his family and social group. It initially starts

with the contact with mother and later on the other members of

the family and the social group plays influential role in shaping

an individual‘ personality. 9

ii) Identification Process: Identification process occurs when a

person tries to identify himself with some person whom he feels

ideal in the family. Generally a child in the family tries to

behave like his father or mother. The identification process can

be examined from three different perspectives. First,

identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour

(including feelings and attitudes) between child and model.

Second, identification can be looked as the child‘s motives or

desires to be like the model. Third, it can be viewed as the

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process through which the child actually takes on the attributes

of the model.

5.2. 2. Biological Factors of Personality:

i) Heredity Factors of Personality: The heredity factors play a very

important role as the major determinants and factors of

personality. Heredity factors are the ones that are determined at

the time of conception. These factors not only affect the

physical features of a person, but the intelligence level,

attentiveness, gender, temperament, various inherited diseases

and energy level, all get affected by them.

The example of how heredity factors determine such a huge and

significant part of an individual‘s personality can easily be

observed in children. Many children behave exactly how their

parents do. Similarly, twin siblings also have a lot of things in

common.

ii) Physical Features: Just as environmental factors, there are many

physical factors as well that determine your personality. These

physical factors include the overall physical structure of a

person: his height, weight, colour, sex, beauty and body

language, etc. An individual‘s personality can change over time.

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Physical factors are one of the major reasons of that. Most of

the physical structures change from time to time, and so does

the personality. With exercises, cosmetics and surgeries etc.

many physical features are changed, and therefore, the

personality of the individual also evolves.

iii) Brain: Another biological factor that influences personality is

the role of brain of an individual. Though some promising

inroads are made by researchers, the psychologists are unable to

prove empirically the contribution of human brain in

influencing personality. Preliminary results from the electrical

stimulation of the brain (ESB) research gives indication that

better understanding of human personality and behaviour might

come from the study of the brain.

5.2.3. Situational Factors of Personality:

Although these factors do not literally create and shape up an individual‘s

personality, situational factors do alter a person‘s behaviour and response

from time to time. The situational factors can be commonly observed

when a person behaves contrastingly and exhibits different traits and

characteristics. For example, a person‘s behaviour will be totally different

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when he is in his office, in front of his boss, when compared to his

hangout with old friends in a bar.

In this way, situational factors impact a personality in a significant way.

They often bring out the traits of a person that are not commonly seen.

5.2.4 Cultural Factors

Culture is traditionally considered as the major determinants of an

individual‘s personality. The culture largely determinants what a person

is and what a person will learn. The culture within a person is brought up,

is very important determinant of behaviour of a person. Culture is

complex of these belief, values, and techniques for dealing with the

environment which are shared among contemporaries and transmitted by

one generation to the next. Culture required both conformity and

acceptance from its members. There are several ways of ensuring that

members comply with the dictates of the culture. The personality of an

individual to a marked extended determined by the culture in which he is

brought up. According to Mussen ―each culture expects, and trains, its

members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group. In spite

of the importance of the culture of the culture on personality, researchers

were unable to establish linear relationship between these two concepts

―personality‖ and ―culture‖. 10

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5.3 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

5.3.1 Biological Theories

Biological approaches suggest that genetics are responsible for

personality. Research on heritability suggests that there is a link

between genetics and personality traits.

One of the best known biological theorists was Hans Eysenck, who

linked aspects of personality to biological processes. Eysenck argued that

introverts had high cortical arousal, leading them to avoid stimulation.

On the other hand, Eysenck believed extroverts had low cortical arousal,

causing them to seek out stimulating experiences. 11

5.3.2 Behavioural Theories

Behavioural theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction

between the individual and the environment. Behavioural theorists study

observable and measurable behaviours, rejecting theories that take

internal thoughts and feelings into account. Behavioural theorists

include B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson.

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5.3.3 Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the

work of Sigmund Freud and emphasize the influence of the unconscious

mind and childhood experiences on personality. Psychodynamic theories

include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual stage theory and Erik

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.

Freud believed the three components of personality were the id, the ego,

and the superego. The id is responsible for all needs and urges, while the

superego for ideals and moral. The ego moderates between the demands

of the id, the superego, and reality. 12

Erikson believed that personality progressed through a series of stages,

with certain conflicts arising at each stage. Success in any stage depended

upon successfully overcoming these conflicts. 13

5.3.4 Humanist Theories

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual

experience in the development of personality. Humanist theorists

emphasized the concept of self-actualization, which is an innate need for

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personal growth that motivates behaviour. Humanist theorists include

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

5.3.5 Trait Theories

The trait theory approach is one of the largest areas within personality

psychology. According to this theory, personality is made up of a number

of broad traits. A trait is basically a relatively stable characteristic that

causes an individual to behave in certain ways. Some of the best known

trait theories include Eysenck's three-dimension theory and the five

factor theory of personality.

5.4 TYPES OF PERSONALITY

Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different

types of individuals. Personality types are sometimes distinguished

from personality traits, with the latter embodying a smaller grouping of

behavioural tendencies. Researchers have divided personality types

differently that we will consider 4 types.

5.4.1 Personality type A

Personality type A People that have the fallowing evident features can be

put in the group of this kind of personality type: They are quick at studies

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and speak clearly and very fast and provide short and strong answers to

the questions, the gap between asking question and receiving answers

from them is very short and they often have strict and twisted face. They

are not satisfied about their job and try to get higher position; they are

ambitious and try a lot to win in any situation they like to dominate the

opponent. They are often seen with clenched fists and have hostile face.

5.4.2 Personality type B

The fallowing features are observed in these people: They are seen with

favourable and mild smile. They seldom interfere and talk while others

are talking and don't interrupts others' speech. The quality of their speech

is uniform. Before answering question they pause and think. Their face

seems calm and friendly. This group tries to dominate the opponent.

Competence is not important for them and they are not usually ambitious

from the work that they dominate on, merit is not important for them and

they are not usually ambitious. They are satisfied about work that has

been assigned to them and they seldom sigh. Their method of

conversation is calm and with pausing.

5.4.3 Personality Type C

These people are known with the fallowing evident features: Most people

in this group love discovering new things and know the performance and

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application of things around them. They are interested in details. They

seem calm and do not like to dominate the opponent. They don't get used

to impose their believes to anyone. They are introvert and like their

physical exercise and seem pragmatist. People in this group have often

mental stress and depression. Working with other people is difficult for

them and they like to work alone. They are independent and intelligence.

People in this group are capable of getting career.

5.4.4 Personality type D

People in this group are affected by mental depression more than other

groups. They are stressed and get angry more than others. They don't feel

comfortable with others. They are social and like to communicate with

others but they fear that their behaviour will not be accepted by others.

They have less self-esteem and this fear threats them permanently that

they will not be accepted by others. Some scientists believe that all

personal features aren't genetic and some factors affect them and may

affect a person who is situated at an especial position..

5.5 PERSONALITY TRAITS

There are many ways to measure personality, but psychologists have

mostly given up on trying dividing humanity neatly into types. Instead,

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they focus on personality traits. The most widely accepted of these traits

are the Big Five. The Big Five are the ingredients that make up each

individual's personality. A person might have a dash of openness, a lot of

conscientiousness, an average amount of extraversion, plenty of

agreeableness and almost no neuroticism at all. Or someone could be

disagreeable, neurotic, introverted, conscientious and hardly open at

all. Here's what each trait entails:

5.5.1 Openness

Openness is shorthand for "openness to experience." People who are high

in openness enjoy adventure. They're curious and appreciate art,

imagination and new things. The motto of the open individual might be

"Variety is the spice of life."

People low in openness are just the opposite: They prefer to stick to their

habits, avoid new experiences and probably aren't the most adventurous

eaters.

5.5.2 Conscientiousness

People who are conscientious are organized and have a strong sense of

duty. They're dependable, disciplined and achievement-focused. You

won't find conscientious types jetting off on round-the-world journeys

with only a backpack; they're planners.

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People low in conscientiousness are more spontaneous and freewheeling.

They may tend toward carelessness.

5.5.3 Extraversion

Extraversion versus Introversion is possibly the most recognizable

personality trait of the Big Five. The more of an extravert someone is, the

more of a social butterfly they are. Extraverts are chatty, sociable and

draw energy from crowds. They tend to be assertive and cheerful in their

social interactions.

Introverts, on the other hand, need plenty of alone time, perhaps because

their brains process social interaction different. Introversion is often

confused with shyness, but the two aren't the same. Shyness implies a

fear of social interactions or an inability to function socially. Introverts

can be perfectly charming at parties — they just prefer solo or small-

group activities.

5.5.4 Agreeableness

Agreeableness measures the extent of a person's warmth and kindness.

The more agreeable someone is, the more likely they are to be trusting,

helpful and compassionate. Disagreeable people are cold and suspicious

of others, and they're less likely to cooperate.

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5.5.5 Neuroticism

Neuroticism is a fundamental personality trait in the study of psychology

characterized by anxiety, moodiness, worry, envy, and jealousy.

Individuals who score high on neuroticism are more likely than the

average to experience such feelings as anxiety, anger, envy, guilt and

depressed mood. They respond more poorly to stressors are more likely

to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as

hopelessly difficult. They are often self conscious, shy, and they may

have trouble controlling urges and delaying gratification.

5.6 16 FACTORS OF PERSONALITY

Raymond B. Cattell has developed a different approach to the

description and analysis of personality. He relies on data collected from

three sources: a person's life record, self-ratings, and objective tests.14

Drawing from people's life records and self-ratings, Cattell identified

major personality factors both within individuals and across people in

general.

According to Cattell, there is a continuum of personality traits. In other

words, each person contains all of these 16 traits to a certain degree, but

they might be high in some traits and low in others.15 The following

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personality trait list describes some of the descriptive terms used for each

of the 16 personality dimensions described by Cattell.

1. Warmth: reserved versus warm-hearted

2. Reasoning: Concrete versus abstract

3. Emotional Stability: Calm versus high strung

4. Dominance: Forceful versus submissive

5. Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained

6. Rule-Consciousness: Nonconforming versus dutiful

7. Social Boldness: Shy versus venturesome

8. Sensitive: Tough versus sensitive

9. Vigilance: Trusting versus suspicious

10. Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical

11. Privateness: Genuine versus discreet

12. Apprehension: Worried versus confident

13. Openness to Change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar

14.Self-Reliance: Group-oriented versus solitary

15.Perfectionism: Flexible versus organized

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16.Tension: Placid versus tense

Cattell distinguishes between surface traits, which are observable patterns

of behavior, and source traits, which he viewed as underlying, internal

traits responsible for our overt behavior. He viewed the source traits as

more important. Source traits can be identified only by means of

computer analysis of all the collected data. Cattell also distinguishes

between general traits -- those possessed by all -- and specific traits --

those typical of only one person.

5.7 ROLE OF PERSONALITY AT WORKPLACE

Workplaces are dictated not only by policies but also the personalities of

employees. Trying to stifle personality can result in disgruntled and

frustrated employees. When managers understand the role of personality

in the workplace, they can use it to grow the company and move it

forward.

5.7.1 Creativity

A person's ability to think creatively stems from her personality.

Brainstorming sessions and one-on-one idea exchanges with employees

can help spark creativity. When employees are allowed to apply their

creativity to solving company issues, the company benefits from a wider

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variety of ideas and options. Managers must maintain control over

creativity, however, to prevent aggressive personalities from dominating.

Policies regarding the submission of ideas can help keep aggressive

personalities in check while still benefiting from their creativity.

5.7.2 Retention

Appealing to an employee's individual personality can help increase job

satisfaction and reduce employee turnover. For example, rather than

assume that all employees welcome challenges, you should talk with

them to gauge their feelings on job duties. Some employees might prefer

routine jobs with few changes or surprises, while others might look

forward to challenges. By gauging employee personalities, you can better

match employees with job duties.

5.7.3 Teamwork

Some people are not inclined to work well in a team. They are strongly

independent, or they prefer to follow their own set of instructions. These

personality traits are important to discover in the interview process

through written tests and personal discussions. Hiring someone who does

not value teamwork can significantly hinder a work team's progress.

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5.7.4 Production

Some people are just not motivated and cannot be motivated. When their

personal productivity drops and they are consistently behind on deadlines,

they drag down their department and the company as a whole. This also

causes resentment and frustration among staffers who are forced to work

harder to make up for the drop in productivity. They may even slow down

their own productivity if the uninspired employee is kept on at the

company. A general drop in morale will occur.

5.8 WORKING PERSONALITY OF POLICE PERSONNEL

The characteristics usually associated with police personalities in present

times are machismo, bravery, authoritarianism, cynicism and aggression.

Additional characteristics have been associated with police personalities

as well: suspicious, solidarity, conservative, alienated and thoroughly

bigoted (Balch, 1977, Skolnick, 1977)16, 17.

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REFRENCES & NOTES

1. Fromm E, (1973). The Crornp Hvrnan Dcsrrucrhmess. Holt. Rinchan and

Winston. New York.
2. Murray, H.A. (1973). ―Toward a Classification of Interactions‖. In T. Parsons
& E.A. Shils (Eds). Toward a General Theory of Action. Harvard University
Press. 434-464.
3. Guilford, J. P. (1959). Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
4. Cartwright, D.S. (1979). Theories and Models of Personality. W.C: Brown
Company.
5. Freud, S. (1933). New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis. Penguin
Freud Library.105–6
6. Shaffer, F. (1999). The Psychology of Adjustment. Boston: Houghton Miffin
Company.
7. Allport, G. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York:
Henry Holt.
8. Ibid.
9. Mussen, P.H. Conger,J.J.; & Kagan, J. (1974). Child development and
Personality. New York : Harper & Row.
10. Ibid.
11. Eysenck, H.J. (1967). The Biological Basis of Personality. Springfield, IL:
Charles C Thomas Publisher.
12. Freud, S. (1955). ―The Metapsychology of Instincts, Repression and
Unconscious, in collected papers of Sigmund Freud‖ (ed,) Drnest Jones, New
York: American Library.
13. Erikson, E. H. (1980). Identity and the lift cycle. New York: Norton.
14. Cattell, R.B. (1945). ―The description of Personality. III: Principles and Findings in a
factor analysis‖. American Journal of Psychology. 58, 69-90.
15. Cattell, R.B. (1946). Description and measurement of Personality. Yonkers-on-
Hudson. New York: World Book.
16. Balch, R., (1977). ―The police personality: Fact or fiction‖. In D.B. Kennedy
(Ed.). The dysfunctional alliance: Emotion and Reason in Justice
Administration. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Company. 10-25.

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17. Skolnick, J., (1977). ―A Sketch of the Policeman‘s Working Personality.‖ In

D.B.Kennedy (Ed.). The Dysfunctional Alliance: Emotion and Reason in
Justice Administration. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Company.

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