Optimisation of heat

consumption
 Where does the heat go ?

Cooler exit air

Heat loss in Heat loss from shell radiation

Preheater
Exit gas

Heat loss in
product
For perpetual pyro process in a kiln the heat
required is only heat of clinker mineral formation,
ie., 380 - 400 Kcal/kg clinker. 280 – 350 Kcal/kg
clinker is wasted which is about 40 - 45 % .
The dream of design engineer is to make heat
losses to minimum and how to optimize the heat
consumption.
The preheater heat losses

Pre heater gas temperature

Design of cyclones
No of stages
Dust loss
Inlet / out let velocity ratio
Location of meal distribution boxes

Preheater( Surface) heat losses through radiation

Calciner gas retention time

Combustion effciency

Coal residue & raw meal residue

Location of firing nozzles
 Different flames
Flame at the center

Normal flame

Flame with low Flame downward

Secondary air temp
Distorted nozzle

Flame upward
Flame –poor
hood geometry
Or distorted nozzle
 Flame length

Long flame, unstable coating,

High back end temp
Low shell temperature

Short intense divergent flame

Good for burning
Low back end temperature
Poor refractory life, high
Shell temperature

Convergent flame
Good for burning
Good for refractory
Stable coating
Low shell temperature
 The Ideal Flame

"long" flame T
hot !
"short" flame
short !
stable !

Complete combustion: Homogeneous:

- CO = 0 - no temperature peaks
- SO2, NOX ↓ - no local CO on the clinker bed

Longer flame increase the back end temperature resulting in

Heat loss at kiln exit and hot meal clogging
 Burner Operation
Burning zone, Flame-profile
• Low momentum burner

~23 m Flame
! !
17m (~4xD) burning zone rings
• High momentum burner

~16 m
Rotaflam
Flame !☺!
12m (~3xD) burning zone rings
 M.A.S burner, unitherm

Duo Flex burner

 Pyrojet

Greco
Lafarge Multi Channel burner
Pillard Roto Flame
 Cement kiln flame types

Straight flame – essentially external recirculation

Type-1 flame
Weak internal recirculation & external recirculation

Type-2 flame
Strong internal recirculation & external recirculation
 Objectives

“It is desirable to operate the kiln at the

lowest fuel consumption. This must be
consistent with the highest practical output
at an acceptable market quality.”
 WHY TO DO IT

• To get a detailed view of the kiln line performance

• Evaluate exact data for heat consumption,
production,...
• Basis for comparison
– impact of investment or modifications carried
out
– comparison to other plants
• Detect weak points - Action Plan
• Detect optimization potential
• Check of sensors, weigh feeder,...
“Energy cannot be created or destroyed but may be
converted from one form to another”
Energy in = Energy out

MASS BALANCE

Σ massin = Σ massout
HEAT BALANCE

Σ heatin = Σ heatout
 Boundary selection

• Any boundary shape can be chosen.

• Every stream that crosses the envelope must be taken into
account.
• The boundary line is chosen so that the boundary points
are:
– useful for the balance goals
– easily accessible for reliable measurements
 Boundary selection

P/H
Kiln

Cooler
 Boundary selection and streams

Dust Exists System Dust Does Not Exit Boundary

Dust
Dust

Kiln Kiln Kiln

Kiln
Feed System Feed System

Clinker Clinker

Measuring
point (t/h)
 Heat balance
Cooler exhaust gas
Wall
Kiln feed losses
Return False air
dust
Primary air
Kiln exit
Fuel
gases Kiln System
Exit dust
Water cooling
spray air

Bypass gas and dust Clinker

S heatin = S heatout
Heat Transfer Mechanisms

heat
200°C 50°C

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
 Conduction
• Transfer of heat from the hotter to colder
part of a body
• By direct molecular contact
Furnace wall
Hot gas Q Cold air Th − Tc
Q = kA
1200°C 25°C L

L
 Convection
hot air
cold air hot air
cold air

natural convection forced convection

(
Q = hA Tw − Tf )
• Natural convection:
– fluid moving from difference of density due to different
temperatures
• Forced convection:
– fluid is moved by the action of an external device
 Radiation
• Energy transferred by electro-magnetic
radiation
Q
2000°C 50°C

Q = σA(T14 − T2 4 )
 HEAT TRANSFER

• Radiant heat transfer

Convection
• Free convection Radiation
(occurs by natural
thermal draft, at low
wind velocities)

• Forced convection
(occurs at high wind Air
velocities)
 Chemical Reaction

• Endothermic reaction - heat is consumed

– Calcium Carbonate breaks down to CaO (lime)
and CO2 when heated
– it takes heat in Þ the reaction is endothermic.

• Exothermic reaction - heat is released

– CaO (lime) reacts with Silica and the cement
minerals are formed
– the process gives out heat Þ the chemical
reactions is exothermic.
 Two types of heat

Sensible Heat
Absorbed or released by a
substance

Latent Heat
Linked to modification by chemical reaction,
change in state, change in structure
 Sensible heat

The heat to remove from a material to cool it down to the

reference temperature (usually 0ºC).

Q = M × Cp (T) × (T - T0)

M = specific mass
Cp (T) = specific heat of a material at temperature T
T = temperature of M
 Heat from fuel

Qf = mf × ( LHVf + Cpmean f (Tf) × Tf )

Qf : heat from fuel (kcal/h)
mf : fuel flow rate (kg/h)
LHVf : fuel low heat value (kcal/kg)
Cpmean f : mean specific heat of fuel (kcal/kg.ºC)
Tf : fuel temperature (ºC)
OR
h = m • CV
h : heat from fuel (kcal/kg clk)
m : specific fuel consumption (kg/kg clk)
CV : calorific value of fuel (kcal/kg fuel)
 Incomplete combustion
• The kiln exit gases might contain some un burnt gases (CO,
H2, CH4)
• The combustion heat from those fuels must be included as a
out stream

Qic = mCO ×LHVCO + mH2 × LHVH2 + mCH4 ×LHVCH4

The heat loss through the gas can be calculated to:

h= m•(CO%•12640+H2%•10800+ CH4% • 35 840)

m = specific gas quantity (Nm3/kg clk)
 Heat of Reaction

• Heat of reaction is the difference between the heat

absorbed in decarbonating the limestone and the heat
released in forming the clinker minerals

• It should be noted that raw meal chemistry affects the

reaction heat, the heat absorbed by the process gets
bigger as the LSF of the materials rises

• 420 kcals/kg clinker is used if little else is known

 Clinker theoretical heat of formation

• The heat required to form clinker from dry raw mix

• ZKG formula (German formula):

Qt = 4.11 Al2O3 + 6.47 MgO + 7.64 CaO - 5.11 SiO2 - 0.60 Fe2O3

• If no clinker analysis: assume Qt = 420 kcal/kg ck

• Must be added to the clinker heat content as latent heat or as a separate
output heat stream.

CaF2 addition reduce the heat of reaction considerably but

It has the other implications.
 Heat of formation

• Heat of dehydration of clay (endothermic)

• Heat of decarbonation of CaCO3 + MgCO3 (endothermic)

• Heat of formation of clinker (exothermic!)

• General assumption for the three: 1750 kJ / kg clk 0r

• 400 Kcal/kg cl
 Heat loss through kiln shell

Q w = α tot A( T − Ta )
Qw : heat loss through wall (W)
atot : total heat transfer coefficient (W/m².C)
A : shell area (m²)
T : shell temperature (ºC)
Ta : ambient temperature (ºC)
 Global heat transfer coefficient

65

Radiation and convection 60

heat transfer coeffcient 55

( Total) 50

45 v = 14 m/s wind

Radiation and Convection W/M2C

40
13
12
11
35 10
9
30
8
7
25 6
5
20
4
3
15 )
2 c tion
o n ve
1 ec
fre
10 s(
0 m/
SS = 0.9
v=
Ambient T° - 20°C
5

0
100 200 300 400 500 600
T - T° (C)
 Shell Losses vs Shell Temperatures
25

22

5
Kcal/(m2.min)

20

0 Wind Velocity 1.5 m/S

17

5
Wind Velocity 0 m/s
15

12
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
5
SHELL TEMPERATURE ºC
10
 Surface heat losses

Radiation losses = 4*10 -8 * ( T4- Ta4) Kcal/h m2

Convection losses = 80.33*((T+Ta)/2) -0.724*(T-Ta)1.333

If wind velocity is > 3 m/s

Convection losses = 28.03*((T+Ta)/2) -0.351*V 0.805(T-Ta) *D -0.195*(T –Ta)

 Kiln Heat Consumption
Effect of Kiln Exit Oxygen

1730 1000

1720 950

kcals/kg (dry)
kcal/kg w et

900
1710
WET
850
1700 DRY
800
1690 750

1680 700
0 2 4 6 8
Exit Oxygen %
How is cooling accomplished

Heat transfer
by radiation
Heat moves and convection
to clinker edge
by conduction

Air flows over

clinker cooling
surface
 Heat Transfer in Clinker

• Convection - Surface to Air

• Conduction - Inside to Surface
• Heat transfer is driven by temperature difference
• Takes place at the clinker surface
• To maximize it:
– Increase the air/material contact time with:
• Deeper bed ( ⇒ more power)
• Slower air flow (⇒ larger cooler)
 Heat Exchanger Types
Air Air Air

Material

Material Material

Parallel flow Counterflow Cross-flow

Co-current
material
material material
air

T
T

air
 Counter current
Cross flow

Old conventional grate plates Modern cooler plates flow resistance

create sand blasting effect or fluidization branch off the air , creates
This creates poor heat exchange less fluidization , better heat exchange

Mechanical flow regulator

 Heat Exchange Between Clinker and Air
Fixed bed Air out

Bed thickness
Clinker

clinker
air

Tem perature
Air in

Fluidized bed
Air out

Bed thickness
Clinker
clinker
air

Tem perature
Air in

More efficient recovery with fixed

bed
 General Truths (All Coolers)

1. The hotter the inlet temperature the hotter the clinker

outlet temperature.

2. The hotter the cooling air temperature the hotter the

clinker outlet temperature.

3. The longer the air/material contact time the cooler the

clinker outlet temperature.
SYSTEM DATA COLLECTION

• Process
• Type of kiln
• Nominal capacity
• Supplier
• Fuel and firing system
• Type of burner nozzle
• Dust reintroduction system
• Dimensions of main equipment
• Data on fans, drives, etc.
 OPERATING DATA

• Various operating data (rpm, kW, temperature and

pressure profiles along kiln system, grate speed,
undergrate pressures, etc.)

• Electric power readings (before / after test)

• Chemical analysis of raw meal, dust(s) and clinker,

LSF, SR, AR, etc.
 Kiln Heat balance

Gas outlet

Wall losses
misc
fuel

Kiln Clinker formation

Sec.air Clinker heat

Cooler vent
misc

Tertiary air Sec.air

Tert.air
 Cooler heat losses

Optimised air flow &

air distribution & sealing Radiation losses from walls

Clinker nodules
Finer fraction &
big balls causes Exit air temperature
bad heat exchange
 Measurement Plan

• Duration of an audit ?
• What to measure? How to measure?
– Material balance
– Gas flows
– Heat Balance
• Frequency of sampling and measurements?
• Which analyses have to be carried out ?
• Which further data are to be collected ?
 INPUT DATA SUMMARY

• All referred to 1 kg clinker Production = .... t/h

• Reference temperature = 0°C Specific
• Ambient temperature = ...°C Heat cons. = .... kJ/kg clk

Specification Heat
(kg/kg clk), Temp.
(Nm3/kg clk)
(kW etc.) °C (kJ/kg clk) (%)

Fuel combustion - primary firing -

- secondary firing -
Burnable matter in kiln feed -
Raw meal: sensible heat
Fuel: sensible heat
Primary air: sensible heat
Cooler air: sensible heat -

Total of inputs -
100%
 OUTPUT DATA SUMMARY
Specification Temp. Heat
(kg/kg clk),
(Nm3/kg clk) °C (kJ/kg clk) (%)
(kW etc.)
Heat of formation
Water evaporation: - kiln feed
- water spray (s)
Exhaust gas: - sensible heat
- dust sensible heat
- dust CaO-loss
- unburnt gases (CO, etc)
Cooler: - waste air sensible heat
- middle air sensible heat
- clinker exit sensible heat
Bypass losses: - sensible heat
- dust sensible heat
- dust CaO-loss
- unburnt gases (CO, etc)
Radiation and Convection: - Preheater
- Rotary kiln
- Cooler
- Tert air duct
Rest (difference)
Total of outputs
100%
 HEAT BALANCE EXAMPLES

Wet Process Semi-Dry (Lepol) Dry Preheater (4-Stage)

kJ/kg clk % kJ/kg clk % kJ/kg clk %
1. INPUT from sensible heat 25 0.4 15 0.4 13 0.4
FUEL from combustion 5560 96.7 3343 97.6 3150 97.6

RAW MEAL from sensible heat 25 0.4 30 0.9 54 1.7

from sensible heat of water 71 0.2 17 0.5 — —

COMBUSTION AIR from sensible heat of all the 67 1.2 20 0.6 6 0.2
air supplied (prim. sec.)

Total input 5750 100 3425 100 3223 100

2. OUTPUT
Heat of formation 1750 30.4 1750 51.1 1750 54.3
Evaporation of water from raw meal 2370 41.2 506 14.8 13 0.4
Exhaust gas sensible heat 754 13.1 314 9.2 636 19.7
Dust sensible heat 25 0.4 21 0.6 18 0.6
Incomplete combustion (CO) — — — — — —
Clinker exit temperature 59 1.0 50 1.5 63 2.0
Cooler exhaust gases 100 1.7 276 8.1 423 13.1
Losses due to radiation and convection 540 9.4 452 13.2 297 9.2
Water cooling (Recupol inlet chute) — — 42 1.2 — —
Difference 152 2.6 14 0.4 23 0.7

Total output 5750 100 3425 100 3223 100

 Cooler Balance

Tertiary air Vent air

0,65 Nm³/kgck 1,14 Nm³/kgck
Secondary air 719°C 293°C
0,27 Nm³/kgck Coal mill Raw mill
1029°C 0,00 Nm³/kgck 0,00 Nm³/kgck

Clinker
95.600
1465°C

Grate surface 52,20 m²

Standard load 44,0 t/d/m²

Cooling air Clinker

2,07 Nm³/kgck 95.600
4°C 107°C
 Elements of Mass Balance
Tertiary air

mVA
Coal Raw Vent
mill air mill air air
mSA mTA mCM mRM
clinker
Secondary
air
mCK1

Comp 1 Comp 2 Comp 3 Comp 4 Comp 5 Comp 6 Comp 7 Comp 8

mF1 mF2 mF3 mF4 mF5 mF6 mF7 mF8

clinker
mCK2
 Elements of Heat Balance
Tertiary air

HVA
Coal Raw Wall Vent
mill air mill air losses air

HSA HTA HCM HRM HWL

clinker
Secondar
y
HCK1 air

Comp 1 Comp 2 Comp 3 Comp 4 Comp 5 Comp 6 Comp 7 Comp 8

HF1 HF2 HF3 HF4 HF5 HF6 HF7 HF8 clinker

HCK2
 Mass Balance
In Out
clinker (mCK1) clinker (mCK2)
cooling air (SmFi) secondary air (mSA)
tertiary air (mTA)
coal mill air (mCM)
raw mill air (mRM)
vent air (mVA)

In = Out

secondary air flow: calculated by difference

should be validated against a kiln balance
 Heat Balance
In Out
clinker (HCK1) clinker (HCK2)
cooling air (SHFi) secondary air (HSA)
tertiary air (HTA)
coal mill air (HCM)
raw mill air (HRM)
vent air (HVA)
wall losses (HWL)

In = Out

secondary air heat : calculated by difference

good to validate it against kiln heat balance
secondary air temperature: calculated from secondary air heat
Temperature Stratification of air above Clinker Bed

Secondary & Air to Vent

Tertiary air coal mill air

1400°C
200°C
1000°C
400°C 300°C 250°C 150°C
700° C
175°C 125°C
500°C 100°C
Measuring Actual Bed Depth

floor
 Cooling Efficiency
heat lost by clinker
η=
heat input in clinker

hck in − hck out hck out

η= = 1−
hck in hck in

Qualifies the cooling of the clinker but not the clinker cooler.
More cooling is possible with more air but that does not
improve the cooler efficiency.
An efficient cooler would give same cooling with less air.
 Cooler loss
cooler loss = all heat not recovered by combustion air
(secondary or tertiary)

cooler loss = heat content of clinker leaving cooler (hck out)

+ heat content of vent air
+ heat content of coal mill air
+ heat content of raw mill air
+ wall heat losses

Often a specification in supplier process performance guarantee

 Operating results cooler
85

80
Cooler efficiency [%]

75

70
coolers
ew- typ e cool ers
65 N l d -type
O

60
0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 0,95
Combustion air Nm³/kgKl.

Standard - cooler New - competition REPOL RS

 Heat saving
1.Run the plant stable , continously with consistent production
2.Minimise the false air ingress by giving efficient seals
3.Optimise the flame as per our requirement
4.Minimise the variation in airflow, meal flow and fuel flow rate
5.Reduce the radiation losses by giving proper insulation
6.Optimise the cooler operation and cooler efficiency
7.Optimise the cyclone efficiency in the preheater
8.Minimise the variation in chemistry of raw meal and ash in fuel
by efficient blending.
9. Addition of mineralisers reduce the heat of reaction by 20 – 30 Kcal/ kg.cl after
thorough study on the rheological properties of cement. CaF2, Dolomite and
slag are good mineralisers.
Natural
and acceptable
variation

Set point

high variation
Not acceptable Variation is a devil in any process
 ? Rotary disc cooler

Cross bar cooler

Pyro floor
Poly track

MMD cross bar

IKN
Walking floor
Pyro step pyrofloor

Grate cooler
With stationary
inlet
R ecu p er at io n z o n e C o o lin g z o n e
l ogy
chamber aeration
d ir ect aer atio n cham b er aer atio n

hno
ec
st at ic g r ate

grate cooler t
t in
en
e m
ov
pr
Im
rotary cooler

Satellite cooler
 Heat calculation
s.no A change in by unit Heat, kcal/kgcl Heat, kcal/kgcl
SLC ILC

1 Feed temperature 10 Deg c - 0.57 -0.5

2 Feed moisture 1 % 1.8 1.8
3 Hydrate water 1 % 5.6 5.6
4 Carbon in rawmeal 1 % -74.37 -73
5 Heat of reaction 1 Kcal/kgcl 1.11 1.1

6 Dust from kiln 0.1 Kg/kg cl 0.12 1.3

7 Dust in tertiary duct 0.1 Kg/kg cl 1 1.3
8 Moisture in coal 1 % 0.45 0.47
9 Heat content in coal 100 Kcal/kgcoal -0.17 -0.25
10 Amount of primary air 1 % 0.66 0.68
11 Temperature of primary 10 Deg C -0.17 -0.1
air
12 Excess air in kiln 1 % 0.16 0.18
13 Excess air in calciner 1 % 0.22 0.22
14 False air through hood 0.1 Kg/kgcl 15.7 16
15 False air through inlet 0.1 Kg / kg cl 18.7 19
seal
s.no A change in by unit Heat, kcal/kg cl Heat, kcal/kgcl
SLC ILC

16 False air calciner 0.1 Kg / kg cl 15.7 16

17 False air cyclone K1 0.1 Kg/ kg cl 0.82 1.1

18 False air cyclone K2 0.1 Kg/ kg cl 2.6 3.3

19 False air cyclone K3 0.1 Kg/ kg cl 5.8 6.9
20 False air cyclone K4 0.1 Kg/ kg cl 10.9 12

21 False air cyclone K5 0.1 Kg/ kg cl 18.8 19

22 False air cyclone C1 0.1 Kg/ kg cl 1.2
23 False air cyclone C2 0.1 Kg/ kg cl 3.4
24 False air cyclone C3 0.1 Kg/ kg cl 7.2
25 False air cyclone C4 0.1 Kg/ kg cl 12.4
26 False air cyclone C5 0.1 Kg/ kg cl 19.1
27 Raw meal 0.1 Kg / kg cl 1.1 1.1
28 standard Cooler loss 1 Kcal/kg cl 1.1 1.2
29 Cyclone efficiency
29 Cyclone- K1 1 % - 0.1
s.no A change in by unit Heat, kcal/kg cl Heat, kcal/kgcl
SLC ILC

30 Cyclone- K2 1 % -0.08
31 Cyclone- K3 1 % -0.10
32 Cyclone- K4 1 % -0.12
33 Cyclone- K5 1 % -0.26
34 Cyclone- C1 1 % -0.14 -0.21
34 Cyclone- C2 1 % -0.18 -0.27

35 Cyclone- C3 1 % - 0.24 -0.34

36 Cyclone- C4 1 % -0.28 -0.38
37 Cyclone- C5 1 % -0.74 0.82
38 Recarbonation, KS 1 % 0.13
39 Recarbonation, CS 1 % 0.37 0.51
40 By pass of kiln gases 1 % 1.6 1.6
41 Change from 4 to 5 stage -21.8 -23
42 Change from 5 to 6 -10.0 -11
stages
43
44
Steady Heat losses from kiln
Feed rate
With less Heat loss from shell radiation
Fluctuation Insulation effect of refractories
Of optimised coating ,300mm thk
calcination v=15 -16 m/s
Flame Shape & flame length

Hood take off

V=5 m/s

Fluctuations
In process

Exit gas velocity at kiln inlet
= 10 m/s
Parasite air ( ingress of false
air entry) at inlet , outlet hood&
preheater.
Primary air & coal transport
air are all false entry.
Ring formation shoots
the gas velocity
takes the heat farther
into the kiln, increases
the back end temperature

Well controlled air flow

Fuel flow
 5 –stage preheater
6 –stage preheater

4 –stage preheater

calciner

Conversion of 4 stage preheater Conversion of 5 stage preheater

To 5 stage preheater saves 28 Kcal/kg cl To 6 stage preheater saves 14 Kcal/kg cl
 Heat Input relative to 0 deg C
Mass flow Sp.heat capacity Temperature Heat
kg/kg clinker Kcal/kg degC deg C kcal/kg Clinker
Sensible heat of Kiln Feed 1.6 0.212 60 21.0
Heat through combustibles in raw meal 8.1
Sensible heat of Cooling air 2.4 0.247 46 27.1
Sensible Heat of PH Leak Air 0.1 0.238 46 1.3
Sensible heat of Coal 0.2 0.287 60 2.8 Specific heat
Sensible heat of Coal and Conveying Air 0.1 0.238 56 1.1 Consumption=
Total heat output –
Heat of Coal Combustion in Kiln 295.7
Total sensible heat
Heat of Coal Combustion in Calciner 412.3
769.3-61.3 = 709
Total Input 4.40 769.3
Kcal/kg cl
Heat Output relative to 0 deg C
Mass flow Sp.heat capacity Temperature Heat
kg/kg clinker Kcal/kg degC deg C Kcal/kg clinker
Heat of PH Exit Gases 2.1 0.247 336 170.8
Heat of PH Exit Dust 0.1 0.236 336 7.9
Heat of Clinkerisation 410.0
Heat Through Cooler Vent 1.2 0.252 293 91.6
Heat Through Clinker 1.0 0.188 111 20.9
Heat of Evaporation of Moisture 4.8
Radiation Loss from Preheater 37.1
Radiation Loss from Kiln 20.2
Radiation Loss from Cooler 6.0
Total Output 4.40 769.3
 NORMAL OPERATING CONDITION
HEAT INPUT reference: 0 deg C

Mass flow Temperature Specific heat Heat

kg/kg cl deg C kcal/kg oC kcal/kg clinker

Clinker 1.00 1450 0.264 382.8

Dust 0.05 1450 0.264 19.1
Cooling air 2.38 46 0.247 27.1
Fan energy 4.6
Total Heat Input 3.43 433.6

HEAT OUTPUT reference: 0 deg C

Mass flow Temperature Specific heat Heat

kg/kg cl deg C kcal/kg oC kcal/kg clinker

Secondary air 0.45 1049 0.271 127.1

Secondary air dust 0.02 1049 0.24 5.0
Tertiary air 0.69 949 0.268 176.3
Tertiary air dust 0.03 949 0.236 6.7
Excess air 1.24 293 0.252 91.6
Clinker 1.00 111 0.188 20.9
Radiation 6.0
Total Heat output 3.43 433.6
Running the kiln continuously with
consistent production is the best way to
reduce the fuel and power bills.

For consistent production we must have short ,

Convergent and intense flame, less chemistry variation
of raw meal , less variation in ash content of fuel
and stable cooler operation. Automation further helps
to run
Automation further helps to run the plant more stable
by reducing the meal, fuel flow and air flow.
Thanks for your attention