POWER SYSTEM I
EEng-3132
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INTRODUCTION
Power system engineering is a subfield of engineering that deals with the
generation, transmission and distribution of electric power.
Power system is a network of high tension wires/cables by which the
generated electrical power is transmitted and distributed throughout a
region.
Electric energy is an essential ingredient for the industrial and all-round
development of any country.
It is a converted form of energy, because
o It can be generated centrally in bulk and transmitted economically over
long distances.
o Further, it can be adapted easily and efficiently to domestic and industrial
applications, particularly for lighting purposes and mechanical work
In early days, there was a little demand for electrical energy so that small
power stations were built to supply lighting and heating loads.
However, the widespread use of electrical energy by modern civilization
has necessitated producing bulk electrical energy economically and
efficiently.
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The increased demand of electrical energy can be met by building big
power stations at favorable places where fuel (coal or gas) or water
energy is available in abundance. This has shifted the site of power
stations to places quite away from the consumers.
The electrical energy produced at the power stations has to be supplied
to the consumers. There is a large network of conductors between the
power station and the consumers. This network can be broadly divided
into two parts viz. transmission and distribution
The study of electric power systems is concerned with the generation,
transmission, distribution and utilization of electric power
An electric power system consists of three principal components:
o The generation stations
o The transmission lines
o The distribution systems
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Transmission – the bulk transfer of power by high voltage links between
main load centers
o The transmission lines are the connecting links between all the
generating stations and the distribution systems
Distribution system – the conveyance of power to the consumers by means
of low voltage networks
o A distribution system connects all the individual loads in a given area
to the transmission lines.
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Power system Generation
The generation of electric power involves the conversion of energy from a
nonelectrical form (such as thermal, hydraulic, or solar energy) to electric
energy.
Electric power is generated in the range of 11 kV to 25 kV, which is
increased by stepped up transformer to the main transmission voltage (66
kV to 400 kV or higher)
Sources of Power System Generation are:
Non conventional and
Conventional Energy sources
Conventional energy: - a source of energy that has been widely used for
many years.
Thermal (coal, oil), nuclear and hydro generations are the main conventional
sources of electric energy.
These methods of producing electricity are often referred to as conventional
energy sources. This means that they are the more traditional or more
commonly used sources of electrical energy.
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Thermal power station
A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion into
electrical energy is known as a steam/thermal power station.
In thermal-electric power plants, electrical energy is produced by
burning coal, oil, or natural gas (Coal, oil, and natural gas are
concentrated sources of chemical energy called fossil fuels)
The heat released by the combustion of coal produces steam in a boiler
at high pressure and temperature, which when passed through a steam
turbine gives off some of its internal energy as mechanical energy and is
condensed in a condenser to be fed into the boiler again.
The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical
energy of the turbine into electrical energy.
This type of power station is suitable where coal and water are available
in abundance and a large amount of electric power is to be generated.
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Advantages
i. The fuel (i.e., coal) used is quite cheap.
ii. Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
iii. It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal. The coal
can be transported to the site of the plant by rail or road easily.
iv. It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric power station.
v. The cost of generation is lesser than that of the diesel power station.
vi. It can be constructed in minimum time compared to Hydro and Nuclear
power stations .
Disadvantages
(i) It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke
and fumes.
(ii) High running cost as compared to hydroelectric plant.
(iii) The response is very low to supply the increasing in load
(iv) It has low efficiency ( 25 - 40 %)
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Hydro Electric power stations
A hydro-electric power station utilises the potential energy of water at a high level
for the generation of electrical energy.
In a hydro-electric power station, water head is created by constructing a dam
across a river or lake. From the dam, water is led to a water turbine through the
penstock.
As the water falls through a certain height, its potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy and this kinetic energy is converted to the mechanical energy by
allowing the water to flow through the hydraulic turbine runner.
The water turbine is the prime mover which captures the energy in the falling
water and changes the hydraulic energy (i.e., product of head and flow of
water) into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft.
The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
Hydro-power now accounts for about 20% of world’s electric generation. Output
depends on rainfall and the landscape.
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Case example
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Hydro-electric power stations are becoming very popular because the reserves of fuels
(i.e., coal and oil) are depleting day by day.
They have the added importance for flood control, storage of water for irrigation and
water for drinking purposes.
Advantages
a) It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of electrical energy.
b) It is quite neat and clean as no smoke or ash is produced.
c) It requires very small running charges because water is the source of energy which is
available free of cost.
d) It is comparatively simple in construction and requires less maintenance.
e) It does not require a long starting time like a steam power station. In fact, such
plants can be put into service instantly.
f) It is robust and has a longer life.
g) Such plants serve many purposes. In addition to the generation of electrical energy,
they also help in irrigation and controlling floods.
h) Although such plants require the attention of highly skilled persons at the time of
construction, yet for operation, a few experienced persons may do the job well.
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Disadvantages
i. It involves high capital cost due to construction of dam.
ii. There is uncertainty about the availability of huge amount
of water due to dependence on weather conditions.
iii. Skilled and experienced hands are required to build the
plant.
iv. It requires high cost of transmission lines as the plant is
located in hilly areas which are quite away from the
consumers.
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Nuclear Power Station
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Disadvantages
i. The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover.
ii. The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as compared to other types of
plants.
iii. The erection and commissioning of the plant requires greater technical
know-how.
iv. The fission by-products are generally radioactive and may cause a dangerous
amount of radioactive pollution.
v. Maintenance charges are high due to lack of standardization.
vi. Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying loads as the
reactor does not respond to the load fluctuations efficiently.
vii. The disposal of the by-products, which are radioactive, is a big
problem. They have either to be disposed off in a deep trench or in a
sea away from sea-shore
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Non conventional energy sources
Solar Energy
Wind Energy
Tidal &Wave Energy
Biogas Energy
Geothermal energy
1) Solar Energy
Solar energy is the main constituent of all the available energy
sources.
Solar energy refers the direct use of the energy contained in
sunlight (in the form heat and light)
The heat energy is used in solar heating devices like solar cooker,
solar water heater, solar furnaces etc. The light energy is used in
solar cells
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At present, two technologies are being developed for conversion of solar
energy to the electrical form.
i. Solar thermal power
Collectors with concentrators are employed to achieve temperatures high
enough ( 700'C) to operate a heat engine at reasonable efficiency to generate
electricity
However, there are considerable engineering difficulties in building a single
tracking bowl with a diameter exceeding 30 m to generate perhaps 200 kw.
There are three types of solar thermal power systems
Trough electric :- uses a long parabolic mirror to focus sunlight on a
cylindrical receiver
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Dish /Stirling :- systems use a parabolic dish to focus sunlight
onto a receiver.
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ii. Direct Conversion to Electricity (Photovoltaic Generation)
Solar energy is converted to the electrical form by means of silicon
wafer photoelectric cells known as "Solar Cells".
Their theoretical efficiency is about 25% but the practical value is only
about 15%.
In all solar thermal schemes storage is necessary because of the
fluctuating nature of sun's energy. This is equally true with many other
unconventional sources as well as sources like wind.
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Advantages of solar energy
It is abundant (non –exhaustible)
It is environmentally friendly (pollution free)
It is convenient to install
Free of cost
Disadvantages
Energy density per unit area is very low
It is unpredictable (it is available for only a part of the day, and
cloudy and, hazy atmospheric conditions greatly reduce the
energy received)
High initial cost
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ii) Wind energy
All moving objects contain kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of the wind can be changed into other forms of energy, either
mechanical energy or electrical energy through wind turbine generators.
How is electricity generated by wind turbine?
Wind blows over the angled blades and results in a turning force.
The force will turn the shaft gearbox and generator, which are all connected. The
gearbox increases the rotational speed, enabling the generator to produce
electricity.
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A single wind mill produces only a small amount of electricity. So a large
number of wind mills in a large area are coupled together to produce
more electricity in wind energy farms.
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Advantages of wind energy
i. It is clean and does not pollute the air, Wind turbines do not
emit greenhouse gases or contribute to global warming
ii. It is a renewable source of energy.
iii. The recurring cost is less
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Wind Energy Potential in Ethiopia
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iii) Tidal energy
The periodic rise and fall of sea level due to gravitational attraction
of the moon causes tides.
A dam (barrage) is constructed at a narrow opening between the
land and sea. The movement of water during high tide and low tide
can be used to rotate the turbines of generators to produce
electricity.
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Advantages of tidal energy
Renewable
Abundant (estimated that it could produce 16% of worlds energy.)
Pollution free (except during construction)
Relatively consistent (unlike wind that is inconsistent and is highly
concentrated in certain areas depending on the topography.)
Water is a free resource
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v) Geothermal energy
The deeper regions of the earth’s crust is very hot. This heat melts rocks and
forms magma. The magma moves up and collects below at some places called
Hot spots.
The underground water in contact with hot spot gets heated into steam at
high pressure.
By drilling holes into hot spots the steam coming out can be used to rotate
turbines of generators to produce electricity.
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Geothermal Potentials in Ethiopia
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EEP Total Inter connected Generation power
No. Power Plant Hydro Diesel Geo thermal Wind Total In-service date
(G.C)
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Now a days, 3-phase, 3- wire a.c. system is universally
adopted for generation and transmission of electric power as
an economical proposition.
However, distribution of electric power is done by 3- phase, 4-
wire a.c. system
The underground system is more expensive than the overhead
systems.
Therefore, in our country, overhead system is mostly adopted
for transmission and distribution of electric power
The electric supply system can be transmitted either by means
of d.c. or a.c. each system has its merits and demerits
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Comparison b/n d.c. and a.c. system for transmission
Transmission of electric power by high voltage d.c. system is superior to
that by high voltage a.c. system in many respects:
i. It requires only two conductors for transmission as compared to
three for a.c. transmission
ii. No inductance, capacitance and phase displacement problem in d.c.
transmission
iii. There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross
section of the line conductor is utilized
iv. A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with
communication ckts
v. For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation
is less in case of d.c. system than that in a.c. system. Therefore, a
d.c. line requires less insulation
vi. The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the dielectric losses,
particularly in the case of cables
vii. In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems and
synchronizing difficulties
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Disadvantages:
i. Electric power can not be generated at high d.c. voltage due to
commutation problems
ii. The d.c. voltage can not be stepped up for transmission of power at
high voltage
iii. The d.c. switches and ckt breakers have their own limitations
A.C. Transmission: now a days, electrical energy is almost
exclusively, generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of a.c.
Advantages:
i. The power can be generated at high voltages
ii. The maintenance of a.c. substations is easy and cheaper
iii. The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by
transformer with ease and efficiency. This permits to transmit
power at high voltages and distribute it at safe potentials
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Disadvantages:
i. An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line
ii. The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than a
d.c. transmission line
iii. Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the
line is increased
iv. An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of
power due to charging current even when the line is open
Distribution by a.c. system is undoubtedly superior to that by d.c.
system as in a.c. system voltage control is easy by means of
transformers
The best way is to employ a.c system for generation and distribution
and d.c. system for transmission
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Various systems of power transmission
It has already been pointed out that for transmission of electric power,
3- phase, 3- wire a.c. system is universally adopted.
However, other systems can also be used for transmission under special
circumstances
The different possible systems of transmission are:
1. D.c. system
i. D.c. two wire system
ii. D.c. two wire mid point earthed
iii. D.c. three wire
2. Single phase a.c. system
i. Single phase two wire
ii. Single phase two wire with mid point earthed
iii. Single phase three wire
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3.Two phase a.c. system
i.Two phase three wire
ii. Two phase four wire
4.Three phase a.c system
i. Three phase three wire system
ii. Three phase four wire system
The cost of conductor material is one of the most important
charges in a system
Obviously, the best system for transmission of power is that for
which the volume of conductor material required is minimum.
The volume of conductor material required forms the basis of
comparison b/n different systems
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In comparing the relative amount of conductor material necessary for
different systems of transmission, similar conditions will be assumed in
each case that is:
i. Same power (P watt) transmitted by each system
ii. The distance (l meters) over which power is transmitted remains
the same
iii. The line losses (W watt) are the same in each case
iv. The maximum voltage b/n any conductor and earth (Vm) is the same
in each case
1. Two wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
In the 2-wire d.c. systems, one is the outgoing or positive wire and the
other is the return or negative wire.
The load is connected b/n the two wires
Maximum voltage b/n conductors = Vm
Power to be transmitted = P
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Load current, I1 P
Vm
2
P l
W 2 I12 R1 2
Vm a1
2P2 l
Area of X sec tion, a1
WVm 2
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It is a usual practice to make this system as the basis for comparison with other
systems.
Volume of material required in this system shall be taken as the basic quantity
i.e.
4P2 l 2
2
k
WVm
2). Two- wire d.c. system with mid point earthed
The maximum voltage b/n any conductor and earth is Vm so that the
maximum voltage b/n conductors is 2 Vm
Load current,
P
I2
2Vm
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Let a2 be the area of x-section of the conductor then, R2 is
l
R2
a2
Line losses, 2
P l P 2 l
W 2 I 2 R2 2
2
2
m 2
2V a 2 a V
2 m
P2 l
Area of X sec tion, a2
2WVm 2
P2 l P2 l 2 K
2a2l 2 2
l 2
2WV m WV m 4
Hence, the volume of conductor material required in this system is one – fourth
of that required in a two –wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
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3). Three wired d.c. system: in a 3-wire d.c. system, there are two outers and a middle or
neutral wire which is earthed at the generator end.
Load current, P
I3
2Vm
Let a3 be the area of X – section of each outer wire
2
P l P 2
l
Line losses, W 2 I R 2
2
3 3 2
m 3
2V a 2 a V
3 m
P2 l
Area of X sec tion, a3
2WVm 2
Assuming the area of X-section of neutral wire to be half that of the outer wire
Volume of conductor material required:
P2 l 2.5 P 2 l 2 5K
2.5a3l 2.5 2
l 2
2WV m 2WV m 16
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4). Single phase 2- wire a.c. system with one conductor earthed
The maximum voltage b/n conductors is Vm so that r.m.s. value of voltage b/n
them is Vm
2
4P2 l
Area of X sec tion, a4
cos 2 WVm 2
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Volume of conductor material required:
4P2 l
2 a4 l 2 l
WVm cos
2 2
2 4P2 l 2 2K
x
cos 2 WVm 2 cos 2
P2 l
Area of X sec tion, a5
WVm 2 cos 2
2 P2 l 2 K
x
cos 2 WVm 2 2 cos 2
1
Hence, the volume of conductor material required in this system is times
2 cos 2
that of 2-wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
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6). Single phase, 3- wire system
The single phase 3- wire system is identical in principles with 3 wire d.c.
system
The system consists of two outers and neutral wire taken from the mid point of
the phase winding
If the load is balanced, the current pass through the neutral wire is zero
Assuming balanced load, maximum voltage b/n conductors = 2Vm
2Vm
R.m.s. value of voltage b/n conductors 2Vm
2
If the power factor is cos , then
P
Load current, I 6
2Vm cos
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Let a6 be the area of X-section of each outer conductors
The line losses,
2
P l P 2
l
W 2 I 6 2 R6 2
2Vm cos a6 a6V m
2
cos 2
P2 l
Area of X sec tion, a6
WVm 2 cos 2
Assuming the area of X- section of neutral wire to be half of the outer wires
Volume of conductor material required
P2 l
2.5a6l 2.5 l
WVm cos
2 2
2.5 P2 l 2 5K
x
cos 2 WVm 2 8 cos 2
5
Hence, the volume of conductor material required in this system is 8 cos 2
times that required in a 2- wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
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7). Two –phase, 3- wire system
The third or neutral wire is taken from the junction of two –phase windings
whose voltages are in quadrature with each other
Obviously, each phase transmits one half of the total power
V
The r.m.s voltage b/n outgoing conductor and neutral m
2
Current in each outer conductor,
P
2 P
I7
Vm
cos 2Vm cos
2
Current in neutral conductor
I12 I 2 2 2I 7
Assuming the current density to be constant, the area of X- section of the
neutral wire will be 2 times that of either of the outers
Resistance of neutral wire 7 l
R
2 2a7
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R7
2
Line losses, W 2 I 7 R7
2
2I7
2
I 7 2 R7 2 2
2
l
P
x
2Vm cos a7
2 2
P2 l
W
2a7Vm cos
2 2
2 2
P2 l
Area of X sec tion, a7
2WVm cos
2 2
2 2
Volume of conductor material required
2a7 l 2a7l a7l 2 2
P2 l 2
2
2 2
2WVm 2 cos 2
1.457 K
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cos 2 4/9/2019
Hence, the volume of conductor material required for this system is 1.457
cos 2
times that of 2-wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
8). 3- phase, 3- wire system
This system is almost universally adopted for transmission of electric power
The 3- phase, 3- wire system may be star (Y) connected or delta (∆) connected
Figure below shows 3- phase, 3- wire star connected systems, the neutral point
(N) is earthed
Vm
R.m.s. voltage per phase
2
Power transmitted per phase
P
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3
P
Load current per phase, I8 3
2P
Vm
cos 3Vm cos
2
Let a8 be the area of X- section of each conductor
Line losses, 2
2P l 2P 2 l
W 3I 8 R8 3
2
3
mV cos 8a 3 a V
8 m
2
cos 2
2P2 l
Area of X sec tion, a8
3WVm 2 cos 2
Volume of conductor material required,
2P2 l 2P 2 l 2
3a8l 3 l
3WVm
2
cos 2
WVm
2
cos 2
0.5 K
cos 2
0.5
Hence, the volume of conductor material required for this system is times
cos 2
that required for 2- wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
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9). 3- phase, 4- wire system
The area of X-section of neutral wire is generally one half that of the line
conductor
If the loads re balanced, the current through the neutral wire is zero
Assuming balanced loads and power factor of load is cos
Line losses, 2
2 P l 2 P 2
l
W 3I 9 2 R9 3
3Vm cos a9 3a 9V m
2
cos 2
2P2 l
Area of X sec tion, a9
3WVm 2 cos 2
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As the area of X-section of neutral wire is one half that of any line conductor
Volume of conductor material required
2P2 l 7 P2 l 2
3.5a9l 3.5 l
3WVm cos 3WVm 2 cos 2
2 2
7 P2 l
x
3cos WVm 2
2
7K
12 cos 2
7
Hence, the volume of conductor material required for this system is 12 cos 2
times that required for 2- wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
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Below is given the table which shows the ratio of conductor material in any
system compared with that in the corresponding 2- wire d.c. system. cos Is
the power factor in a.c. system
System Same Max. voltage to earth
1 D.C. system
(i) 2- wire 2
cos 2
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Single phase and three phase transmission
The major portion of all the electric power presently used is generated,
transmitted and distributed using balanced 3- phase voltage systems
Three phase operation is preferable to single phase b/c
Three phase power transmission has become the standard power distribution
Three phase winding makes more efficient use of generator copper & iron
(three phase generators are smaller than single phase as windings are
efficiently used)
Power flow in single phase ckts are pulsating but not in three phase
Three phase power transmission/distribution requires less amount of
copper or aluminum for transferring the same amount of power as
compared to single phase
Three phase motors start more conveniently (self starting) and, having
constant torque, run more satisfactorily than single phase motors
The size of a three phase motor is smaller than that of a singe phase motor of
the same rating
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Power in single phase a.c. system
The instantaneous power in watts absorbed by an electrical load is the
product of the instantaneous voltage across the load in volts and the
instantaneous current into the load in amperes
Assuming the load voltage is
v(t ) Vmax cos t
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The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor is
1
2
Vmax I R max 1 cos 2 t
VI R 1 cos 2 t W
1
Note : cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x
2
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Purely inductive loads
For a purely inductive load, the current lags the voltage by 90 degree,
V
IL , and
jX L
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General RLC Load
For a general load composed of RLC elements under sinusoidal-steady-
state excitation, the load current is of the form
i(t ) imax cos t A
p (t ) VI cos 1 cos 2 t VI sin sin 2 t
Letting I cos I R and I sin I X gives
p (t ) VI R 1 cos 2 t VI X sin 2 t
pR ( t ) pX (t )
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Complex Power
For circuits operating in sinusoidal-steady-state, real and reactive power
are conveniently calculated from complex power, defined below.
Let the voltage across a circuit element be V , and the current into
the element be I . Then the complex power S is the product of the
voltage and the conjugate of the current:
S VI * V I VI
*
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From these complex power expressions, the following can be
stated:
V2
A resistor absorbs (positive) real power, PR W, and zero
R
reactive power, QR 0 var.
An inductor absorbs
2
zero real power, PL 0 W, and positive reactive
power, Q VX var.
L
L
X
. C
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Structures of power system
Generation, transmission and distribution are the main components of an
electric power system
The large network of conductors between the power station and the
consumers can be broadly divided into two parts viz.,
Transmission system and
Primary transmission
Secondary transmission
Distribution system.
Primary distribution system
Secondary distribution system
Transmission lines implies the bulk transfer of power by high voltage links
b/n main load centers
Distribution system is mainly responsible for the conveyance of this power
to the consumers by means of lower voltage networks
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Power Generation system:
electric power (11 kV- 25 kV) is produced by
3-phase alternators
operating in parallel
Conventional energy conversions and
Renewable resources
The generation voltage is stepped up to the
main transmission voltage
Power transmission system
Primary and secondary transmission
AC/DC and HV/EHV
Long, medium, short lines (sub transmission
systems )
Double/single circuits
On grid and off grid system
In the range of 66kV to 400 kV (higher)
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Power substation
Connection b/n various components are made (e.g. lines &
transformers )
Switching of these components are carried out
Primary and secondary substations
Indoor and outdoor substations
Power distribution system
Primary and secondary distribution system (15kV/380V/220V)
Arial and cable distribution system
Radial and ring system
Pole mounted and enclosure /indoor distribution substation
Public and industrial–MV/LV distribution system
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In USA transmission is at 345kV, 500kV and 765kV and Britain, it is at
275kV and 400kV
The network formed by these very high voltage lines is sometimes called
as the super grid. This grid, in turn, feeds a sub transmission network
operating at 132 kV or less
In our country, networks operate at 400kV, 230kV, 132kV, 66kV, 45kV,
33kV or15kV and supply the final consumer feeders at 380 volt three
phase, giving 220 volt per phase
The general structure or topology of the distribution system is different
and the number of branches and sources is much higher
Most of the distribution networks operate radially for less short ckt
current and better protective coordination
A typical distribution system consists of a step down transformer ( e.g.
132/15kV or 66/15kV or 33/15kV) at a bulk supply point feeding a
number of lines with varying length from a few hundred meters to several
kilometers
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Several three phase step down transformers, e.g. 15kV/380V are spaced
along the feeders and from these, three phase- four wire networks of
consumers are supplied which gives 220 V single phase supply to houses
and similar loads
Figure below shows a typical distribution system
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Reason for interconnection
Generating stations and distribution systems are connected through
transmission lines
The transmission system of a particular area (e.g. state) is known as a
grid
Different grids are interconnected through tie-lines to form a regional
grid (also called power pools)
Different regional grids are further connected to form a national grid
Interconnected operation is always economical and reliable
Economic advantage of interconnection is to reduce the reserve generation capacity in
each area
If there is a sudden increase of load or loss of generation in one area, it is possible to
borrow power from adjoining interconnected area
To meet sudden increases in load, a certain amount of generating capacity ( in each area)
known as the “spinning reserve” is required. This consists of generators running at normal
speed and ready to supply power instantaneously
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Cooperative assistance is one of the planned benefits of interconnected
operation
Interconnected operation also gives the flexibility to meet unexpected
emergency loads
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Introduction to Power Transformers, CTs & PTs
Power transformers
A transformer is a static electrical device, involving no continuously
moving parts, used in electric power systems to transfer power between
circuits through the use of electromagnetic induction.
The term power transformer is used to refer to those transformers used between the
generator and the distribution circuits, and these are usually rated at 500
kVA and above.
Power systems typically consist of a large number of generation
locations, distribution points, and interconnections within the system or
with nearby systems, such as a neighboring utility.
The complexity of the system leads to a variety of transmission and
distribution voltages. Power transformers must be used at each of these
points where there is a transition between voltage levels.
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Power transformers are available for step-up operation, primarily used at
the generator and referred to as generator step-up (GSU) transformers,
and for step-down operation, mainly used to feed distribution circuits.
Power transformers are available as single-phase or three-phase apparatus.
Transformers intended for indoor use are primarily of the dry type but
can also be liquid immersed.
For outdoor use, transformers are usually liquid immersed.
Power transformers are very
efficient, typically 99.5% or
greater, i.e., real power
losses are usually less
than 0.5% of the kVA rating
at full load
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Instrument transformers
Instrument Transformer (IT) - A high precision transformer designed to
provide input into measurement and/or control equipment
In dc circuits for current and voltage measurement we use ammeters and
voltmeters.
For measurement of high current ,it is usual to use low range ammeter with
suitable shunt.
For measurement of high voltage, low range voltmeter are used with high
resistance connected in series.
But for measurement of high A.C. current and voltage we cannot use these
methods.
We use specially constructed instrument transformers.
Instrument transformers are primarily used
to provide isolation between the main primary circuit and the secondary control and
measuring devices. This isolation is achieved by magnetically coupling the two
circuits.
besides to isolation, levels in magnitude are reduced to safer levels
Instrument transformers are divided into two categories:
current transformers (CT) and
voltage transformers ( VT)
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Current Transformers (CTs)
These are used with low range ammeter to measure current in high
voltage alternating circuits where it is not practical to connect instrument
and meters directly to lines.
An instrument transformer used to reflect a primary current into a
secondary current through a magnetic medium.
The primary winding of the CT is connected in series with the ckt to be
monitored and the secondary windings proportionally transform the
primary levels to typical values.
Current transformer is a step up transformer ( as the voltage increases the
current decreases).
The current is step down in a known ratio called current ratio
Monitoring devices such as wattmeters, power-factor meters,
voltmeters, ammeters, and relays are often connected to the secondary
circuits.
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C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire connected in
series with the line whose current is to be measured
The secondary consist of large number of turns of fine wire, is connected
across the ammeter terminals
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If a current transformer has primary to secondary current ratio of 100:5
then it step up the voltage 20 times and step down the current 1/20
times of its actual value.
If we know the current ratio I1/I2 and the reading of a.c. ammeter, the
current can be calculated.
If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of secondary winding then the
secondary winding must be short ckted with the help of short ckt
switch s.
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If this is not done, then due to high m.m.f. will set up high flux in the
core and it will produces excessive core loss which produce heat and
high voltage across the secondary terminals
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One of the most commonly used current transformer is the one known
as clamp-on or clip-on type.
it has a laminated core which is so arranged that it can be opened out at
hinged section by merely pressing a trigger-like projection
When the core is thus opened, it permits the admission of very heavy
current- carrying bus bars or feeders whereupon the trigger is released
and the core is tightly closed by a spring.
The current carrying conductor or feeder acts as a single-turn primary
whereas the secondary is connected across the standard ammeter
conveniently mounted in the handle.
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Potential transformer
A PT is a step down transformer having many primary turns but few
secondary turns.
In step down the voltage decreases and current increases, thus voltage
can be easily measured by using low range voltmeter.
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Working
Primary terminals are connected across the line to which the voltage is
to be measured.
The voltmeter gives the transformed value of voltage at secondary.
The deflection of voltmeter when divided by transformed ratio gives
the actual voltage at primary.
Line voltage = deflection / trasf. Ratio
Where transformation ratio =V2/V1
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Precaution for P.T.
Since the secondary of p.t. is connected to relays, their ratings are
usually 40 to 100Watts.
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Types of P.T.
Some types of p.t. are
1. Shell type
2. Dry type
3. Oil type
Rating Type
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