INTEGRAL CALCULUS

TOPIC 1: ANTIDERIVATIVES AND INDEFINITE INTEGRATION

This section discusses the inverse operation of differentiation called antidifferentiation or indefinite
integration, which involve the computation of an antiderivative.

DEFINITION OF AN ANTIDERIVATIVE
A function F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I when F'  x   f  x  for all x in I.

Illustration:

Suppose a function F is defined by F  x   x 3 . Then we say that F'  x   3 x 2 .

Thus, if f is the function defined f  x   3 x 2 then f is the derivative of F and conversely, we say that F is an
antiderivative of f.

Furthermore, if G is the function defined by H  x   x 3  7 , then H is also an antiderivative of f because

H'  x   3 x 2 .

Hence, we say that any function defined by G x   x 3  C , where C is constant is the antiderivative of f.

Theorem: Representation of Antiderivatives

If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then G is the general antiderivative of f on the interval I if
and only if G is of the form G  x   F  x   C , for all x in I where C is a constant.

The operation of finding all the antiderivatives of a function is called antidifferentiation (or indefinite
integration or simply integration) and is denoted by an integral sign  . The general notation for
antidifferentiation or integration is denoted by

 f  x  dx  F  x   C , where
 f  x  is the integrand => it is the function that is to be integrated or antidifferentiated.
 dx is the variable of integration => the variable in which the integration takes place.
 F  x  => an antiderivative of the integrand f  x  .
 C => the constant of integration.

Note: The expression  f  x  dx is read as “the antiderivative of f with respect to x”. The term
antiderivative is synonymous to indefinite integral.
BASIC INTEGRATION RULES
The inverse nature of integration and differentiation can be verified by substituting F'  x  for the
integrand f  x  in the indefinite integration definition to obtain

 F'  x  dx  F  x   C “Integration is the inverse of differentiation”.

Moreover, if  f  x  dx  F  x   C , then
d
dx
 f x dx  f x “Differentiation is the inverse of integration”.
 The two equations allow us to obtain integration formulas directly from differentiation formulas.

EXERCISE 1: Verify the statement by showing that the derivative of the right side equals the integrand of the left
side.

 6  2  1  1
   x 4  dx    8 x  dx  2 x 4 
1.  C 2. 3  C

x3 2x2  2x

EXERCISE 2: Evaluate the following indefinite integrals. You may check the result by differentiation.

1.   x  7  dx 6.  4 t 
2  3 2 dt

2.  8 x 
3  9 x 2  4 dx 6.  sec y tan y  sec y  dy
3.  
4 3 
x  1  dx

7.  
2  tan 2  d 
3 cos y  1
4.  x7 dx 8.  sin 2 y
d

x6
5.  x
dx
TOPIC 2: INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
This topic introduces techniques for integrating composite functions that can be done by:
(a) pattern recognition
(b) change of variables
Both techniques mentioned above involve a u – substitution.

Theorem: Antidifferentiation of a Composite Function

Let g be a function whose range is an interval I, and let f be a function that is continuous on I. If g is
differentiable on its domain and F is an antiderivative of f on I, then

 f g x g'  x  dx  F g x   C .

Letting u  g  x  gives du  g'  x  dx and  f u dx  F u  C
Note: Because the role of substitution in integration is comparable to the role of the Chain Rule of
Differentiation, it is valid to say that the theorem above can also be called as the “Chain Rule of
Antidifferentiation”.

Example 1: Evaluate the following by pattern recognition.

1.  2 x x 
2  1 2 dx

Solution:

Let g x   x 2  1 , we get

g'  x   2 x
and
  
f  g x   f x 2  1  x 2  1 2 . 
From the results above, we can recognize that the integrand follows the f  g  x  g'  x  pattern.
Using the Power Rule of Integration and Antidifferentiation of a Composite Function

Theorem, we can write  2 x x 

2  1 2 dx 
 x  3
 
2  1 2 2 x  dx  1 x 2  1 3  C
.

2. y 25  y 2 dy

Solution:
Example 2: Evaluate the following integrals by change of variables.

1. x 2 x  1 dx

Solution:

 x 2 x  1 
1
First, rewrite the integral into 2 dx . Then, we let u be the inner function, u  2 x  1 so

that du 2dx .

u1
Now, substitute 2 x  1
1 1 du
2 u 2 , x , and dx  to the given integral to obtain
2 2
 u  1  1  du  1  3 1 
 x 2 x  1   u  2    u  1 u 2 du  1  u 2  u 2  du
1 1
x 2 x  1 dx  2 dx   
 2   2  4  4  

 5   3 
1 3 1 1 1 u 2  1u 2  1 52 1 3

4 
u 2 du 
4
u 2 du  
4 5    
 4 3
 C 
 10
u  u 2  C
6
 2   2 


1
 2 x  1 5 2  1  2 x  1  3 2  C
10 6

2.  sin
2
3 x cos 3 x dx

Solution:

EXERCISE 1: Evaluate the following integrals. You may check the result by differentiation.
3 
 1
6 1  6 x 4 dx
1
1.  5.  1 


t

 2
t
 dt



y  cos
2. 2 y  2 dy 6. 3 x sin x dx

x 2t  1
3.  
   
dx 7. dt
3 2
1  x2 3t 2  3t  4

x
 3 5 x  7 dx  tan
4. 8. 2 x sec 2 x dx
TOPIC 6: INTEGRATION INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC, EXPONENTIAL, AND OTHER
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

A. Logarithmic Functions
Properties of Logarithms
If a and b are positive real numbers, then the following properties are true:
1. log a 1  0 (Logarithm of One)

2. log a xy  log a x  log a y (Logarithm of a Product)

x
3. log a  log a x  log a y (Logarithm of a Quotient)
y

4. log a x n  n log a x , where k is any rational number (Logarithm of a Power)

Notes:
a. If the base a  10 , then log 10 x  log x is called the common logarithm.

b. If the base a  e , then log e x  ln x is called the natural logarithm, where e  2.7182818 ... .

ln x
c. The logarithmic function to base a is defined as log a x  .
ln a

THEOREM: ANTIDERIVATIVES OF THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION (LOG Rule of Integration)

Let u be a differentiable function of x.
1
1.  u du  ln u  C 4.  sec u du  ln sec u  tan u  C
2.  tan u du  ln sec u  C 5.  csc udu  ln csc u  cot u  C
3.  cot u du  ln sin u  C
EXERCISE 1: Evaluate the following integrals.

4 ln 2 3v z 3  6 z  20
    1  2 sin t dt
cos t
1. dx 3. dv 5. dz 7.
3  2x v z5

3x2 tanln y  x2  4 3y
2.  5x3  1 dx 4.  y
dy 6.  x
dx 8.  y 2  4 dy

B. Exponential Functions
 The exponential function in x is the function defined by the equation f  x   a x , where x is any real
number, a  0 and a  1 . Basically, the exponential function is the inverse function of the logarithmic function.

Notes:

1) If the base is a  e , then f  x   e x is called the natural exponential function.

2)  
log a a x  x and a loga x  x .

3) The function defined by y  a x is equivalent to x  log a y .

THEOREM: ANTIDERIVATIVES OF THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

Let u be a differentiable function of x.

au
1.  e u du  e u  C 2.  a u du 
ln a
C

EXERCISE 2: Evaluate the following integrals.

 
3
3 2t e x
5 xe  x dx
2
1.  4.  e t cos e t dt 7.  1  3 2t dt 10.  x2
dx

ez
 sin y e cos y dy  5  e z dz 2 e
sinx cos x dx
2. 5. 8. sin y cos y dy 11.

1
3. 
e x
dx 6. e  
y e y  1 2 dy 9. 0 5
1 x  3 x dx 12. 3
t
4 dt
x2

C. Inverse Trigonometric Functions

THEOREM: ANTIDERIVATIVES INVOLVING INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Let u be a differentiable function of x and let a  0 .

sin  1
du u u
1.   arcsin
a
C 
a
C
a 2  u2

tan 1  C
du 1 u 1 u
2.  a 2  u2 
a
arctan  C 
a a a
u u
sec  1
du 1 1
3.  
a
arc sec
a
C 
a a
C
u u2  a 2
EXERCISE 3: Evaluate the following integrals.
 dx t3
  t 2  1 dt  x 2  4 x  7 dx
1
x
1
1. 5. 9. 13. dx
9 x 2 2
16 x  5

12 dz
 1  9 x 2 dx 
dy
 x 2  4 x  13 
dx
2. 6. 10. 14.
e 2z  1 3y  y2

y3 1
 y 2  1 dy 
arccos t
 
3
3. 7. dy 11. dt 15. dw
y 1  ln 2 y 1 t 2 2 w 1  w 

t x2
 t 4  25 dt   x  12  4 dx x
1
4. 8. 12. dx
16 x 2  5

D. Hyperbolic Functions
Hyperbolic functions are special classes of exponential functions. They arose from the comparison of the
area of a semicircular region with the area of a region under a hyperbola. The following are the 6
hyperbolic functions:

e x  ex cosh x e x  ex

1. Hyperbolic sine: sinh x  4. Hyperbolic cotangent: coth x  
2 sinh x e x  ex

e x  ex 1 2
2. Hyperbolic cosine: cosh x  5. Hyperbolic secant: sec hx  
2 cosh x e  ex
x

sinh x e x  ex 1 2
3. Hyperbolic tangent: tanh x   6. Hyperbolic cosecant: csc hx  
cosh x e x  ex sinh x e  ex
x

HYPERBOLIC IDENTITIES:

 cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1  cosh  x  y   cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y

 csc h 2 x  coth 2 x  1  sinh 2 x  2 sinh x cosh x

 sec h 2 x  1  tanh 2 x  cosh 2 x  cosh2 x  sinh 2 x

 sinh  x  y   sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y

 sinh  x  y   sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y

THEOREM: ANTIDERIVATIVES INVOLVING HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Let u be a differentiable function of x.

 cosh u du  sinh u  C  csc h u du   coth u  C

2
1. 4.

2.  sinh u du  cosh u  C 5.  sec h u tanh u du   sec h u  C

 sec h u du  tanh u  C 6.  csc h u coth u du   csc h u  C

2
3.

EXERCISE 4: Evaluate the following integrals.

cosh z
 cosh 2 x sinh 
2
1. 2 x dx 5. dz
9  sinh z 2

sinh x x2
2.  1  sinh 2 x dx 6.  x csc h 2
2
dx

 sec h 2 x  1 dx  sinh 1  2 ydy

2
3. 7.

 x coth1 x  dx
csc h 1
4.  x 2
8.  sec h
3 x tanh x dx