CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT :-

The main consideration in the present field technologies are Automation, Power consumption
and cost effectiveness. Automation is intended to reduce man power with the help of
intelligent systems. Power saving is the main consideration forever as the source of the power
(Thermal, Hydro etc.) are getting diminished due to various reasons.

The main aim of the project is Automatic street power saving system with LDR, this is to
save the power. We want to save power automatically instead of doing manual. So it is easy
to make cost effectiveness. This saved power can be used in some other cases. So in villages,
towns etc. we can design intelligent systems for the usage of street lights.

Needs no manual operation for switching ON and OFF. When there is need of light. It detects
itself weather there is need for light or not. When darkness rises to a certain value then
automatically street light is switched. The sensitiveness of the street light can also be
adjusted. In our project we have used four L.E.D for indication of bulb but for high power
switching one can connect Relay (electromagnetic switch) at the output of pin 3 of I.C 555.
Then it will be possible to turn ON/OFF any electrical appliances connected all the way
through relay.

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CHAPTER-2
COMPONENTS OF THE PROJECT:-

The Components used in SMART STREET LIGHT SYSTEM USING LDR SENSORS
are-

 LDR
 Comparator
 Diode
 Rectifiers
 Relay
 Transformer
 Capacitor
 Transistor
 Voltage Regulator
 IR Sensor
 Block Diagram With Explanation

2.1 LDR SENSOR:

The light dependent resistor, LDR, is known by many names including the photoresistor,
photo resistor, photoconductor, photoconductive cell, or simply the photocell. It is probably
the term photocell that is most widely used in data and instruction sheets for domestic
equipment.
The photo resistor, or light dependent resistor, LDR, finds many uses as a low cost photo
sensitive element and was used for many years in photographic light meters as well as in
other applications such as flame, smoke and burglar detectors, card readers and lighting
controls for street lamps. Often within the literature the photoresistor is called the photocell
as a more generic term.

Light Dependent Resistor Symbol:

The circuit symbol used for the light dependent resistor or photoresistor combines its resistor
action while indicating that it is sensitive to light. The basic light dependent resistor symbol
has the rectangle used to indicate its resistor action, and then has two incoming arrows - the
same as those used for photodiodes and phototransistors to indicate its light sensitivity.

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 Fig-1 LED SYMBOL

Photoresistor Mechanism:
A photoresistor or photocell is a component that uses a photconductor between two contacts.
When this is exposed to light a change in resistance is noted.
Photoconductivity - the mechanism behind the photoresistor - results from the generation of
mobile carriers when photons are absorbed by the semiconductor material used for the
photoconductor. While the different types of material used for light dependent resistors are
semiconductors, when used as a photo-resistor, they are used only as a resistive element and
there are no PN junctions. Accordingly the device is purely passive.

2.2 COMPARATOR:-

The IC LM358 i.e. the operational amplifier is used as a comparator in the circuit given
above. As shown in the figure the IC LM358P is a 8 pin IC in which the pin no. 2 is known as
the inverting terminal of the IC LM358P because it is connected to the negative potential.
The pin no. 3 is known as the non inverting terminal of the IC LM358P . The pin no. 2 is
connected to the reference voltage. The reference voltage is the voltage which we set as a
standard voltage in the circuit. The pin no. 3 is connected to the input voltage. Now if we
applied the input voltage to the IC LM358 then it will compare the input voltage to the
reference voltage and if the input voltage goes low then the output of the comparator is goes
low. And if the input voltage is equal to the reference voltage then the output of the
comparator is high.

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 Fig-2 Pin Diagram Of Comparator

2.3 DIODE:-

Symbol

Fig-3 DIODE SYMBOL

Diode Function Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the
circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical
version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

Forward Voltage Drop Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode,
rather like a person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small
voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for
all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost
constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep
characteristic (current- voltage graph).

Reverse Voltage When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all
real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few µA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits
because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction.
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However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is
exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called
breakdown.

2.4 RECTIFIERS:-

Rectifiers are electronic high voltage diodes, which allow current to flow in only one
direction. Essentially, they act as one-way valves, and are used to convert AC current to DC
current.

The performance of high voltage diodes is determined by a number of voltage, current and
time coefficients:

VRRM: Maximum Reverse Voltage, which is the maximum reverse voltage of the diode.

VF: Forward Voltage, which is the voltage across the diode terminals resulting from the flow
of current in the forward direction.

IR: Reverse Current flows when reverse bias is applied to a semiconductor junction.

Trr: Reverse Recovery Time is the time required for the current to reach a specified reverse
current (IR) after instantaneous switching from a specified forward condition (IF).

IF: Forward Current is the current flowing through the diode in the direction of lower
resistance.

Tj: Junction Operating Temperature is the range of temperatures in which the high voltage
diodes are designed to operate.

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2.5 RELAY:-

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically

operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted
it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations.

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an
iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature,
and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged
to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in
place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic
circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and
the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their
function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This
ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit
track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

Operation:

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates
the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was
closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity
is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate

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quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current
application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil
to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some
automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection
network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubbercircuit) may absorb the surge.
If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading
ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which
increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.

Fig-4 A DPDT AC COIL RELAY WITH "ICE CUBE" PACKAGING

2.6 TRANSFORMER:-

A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as shown
in figure 1. There is no electrical connection between the coils, instead they are linked by a
magnetic field created in the core.

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal loss of
power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing
magnetic field to be created in their core.Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well
as reduce voltage (step- down).

Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a continually changing
magnetic field in the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary (output) coil and
the changing strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary
coil. If the secondary coil is connected to a load the induced voltage will make an induced

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current flow. The correct term for the induced voltage is 'induced electromotive force' which
is usually abbreviated to induced e.m.f.

The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core. These are currents
produced by the alternating magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the core, just like that
induced in the secondary coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating up the core
but they are reduced to a negligible amount by laminating the iron because this increases the
electrical resistance of the core without affecting its magnetic properties.

Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of changing voltage:

1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so they can be safely
used to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency (power out /
power in) of 95% or more.

Mains transformers are the most common type. They are designed to reduce the AC mains
supply voltage (230-240V in the UK or 115-120V in some countries) to a safer low voltage.
The standard mains supply voltages are officially 115V and 230V, but 120V and 240V are
the values usually quoted and the difference is of no significance in most cases.

Fig-5 STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

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2.7 CAPACITOR:-

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component

used to store energy electro statically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors
vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric
(i.e., insulator). The conductors can be thin films of metal, aluminum foil or disks, etc. The
'non-conducting' dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be
glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, mica, etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of
electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not
dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field
between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached
across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge (+Q)
to collect on one plate and negative charge (-Q) to collect on the other plate. If a battery has
been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the
capacitor. However, if an accelerating or alternating voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

The symbol for a capacitor used in schematic diagrams of electronic circuits looks very much
like a parallel-plate model.

SYMBOL

Fig-6 CAPACITOR SYMBOL

Fig-7 ELECTROLYTE CAPACITOR

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2.8 TRANSISTOR:-

The PNP transistor works essentially the same as the NPN transistor. However, since the
emitter, base, and collector in the pnp transistor are made of materials that are different from
those used in the NPN transistor, different current carriers flow in the PNP unit. The majority
current carriers in the PNP transistor are holes. This is in contrast to the NPN transistor where
the majority current carriers are electrons. To support this different type of current (hole
flow), the bias batteries are reversed for the pnp transistor.

Fig-8

2.9 VOLTAGE REGULATOR:-

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage

regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control
loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on
the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where
they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile
alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of
the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a
substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent
of how much power is drawn from the line.

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 Fig-9 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

2.10 IR Sensor:-

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the
motion.These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is
called as a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some
form of thermal radiations. These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, that can be
detected by an infrared sensor.The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and
the detector is simply an IR photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength
as that emitted by the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, The resistances and
these output voltages, change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.

Fig.10 IR SENSOR KIT

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WORKING PRINCIPLE:-

In this kit(as shown in fig.10), the transmitter section includes an IR sensor, which transmits
continuous IR rays to be received by an IR receiver module. An IR output terminal of the
receiver varies depending upon its receiving of IR rays. Since this variation cannot be
analyzed as such, therefore this output can be fed to a comparator circuit. Here an operational
amplifier (op-amp) of LM 358 is used as comparator circuit.

When the IR receiver does not receive a signal, the potential at the inverting input goes

higher than that non-inverting input of the comparator IC (LM358). Thus the output of the

comparator goes low, but the LED does not glow. When the IR receiver module receives

signal to the potential at the inverting input goes low. Thus the output of the comparator (LM

339) goes high and the LED starts glowing. Resistor R1 (100 ), R2 (10k ) and R3 (330) are

used to ensure that minimum 10 mA current passes through the IR LED Devices like

Photodiode and normal LEDs respectively. Resistor VR2 (preset=5k ) is used to adjust the

output terminals. Resistor VR1 (preset=10k ) is used to set the sensitivity of the circuit

Diagram. Read more about IR sensors.

Fig.11 IR CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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PCB (PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD) DESIGN:-

With the help of P.C.B it is easy to assemble circuit with neat and clean end products. P.C.B
is made of Bakelite with surface pasted with copper track-layout. For each components leg,
hole is made. Connection pin is passed through the hole and is soldered.

FIG 12. PCB DESIGN OF OUR PROJECT

Block Diagram :-

Fig-13 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF OPERATION

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 Block Diagram Explanation:-

In this project, we are going to switch off the street lights automatically as the day starts. The
duration of the day differs from season to season, accordingly our module works based upon
the light intensity so as to when to start or stop. For this we are using Light Dependent
Resistor (LDR) as the light sensor, which communicates with the required information to the
555 timer IC.

Here we are using micro 555 time IC, LDR, and resistors. By using the LDR we can operate
the lights, i.e when the light is available then it will be in the OFF state and when it is dark
then the light will be in ON state, it means LDR is inversely proportional to light.

COST ESTIMATION

sr.no Component Component quantity Unit Total (in

details cost(in Rs.)
Rs.)
1. LED Light 8 10.00 80.00
emitting
diode
2. Resistors 10k,470 ohm 7 5.00 35.00
3. Diode 1n4007 4 15.00 60.00
4. Voltage 7812 1 15.00 15.00
regulator
5. Transistor 1 7.00 7.00
6. Relay 3 20.00 60.00
7. Comparator Lm358p 1 17.00 17.00

8. Transformers 220kv/12v 2 60.00 120.00

9. Capacitor (1- Electrolytic 3 7.00 21.00
3) (big)1400
microF

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10 Capacitor Electrolytic 1 4.00 4.00
(small)100
microF
11 Wires simple 3 15.00 45.00
12 PCB Printed 1 15.00 15.00
circuit board
13 IC bases 8 pin 3 50.00 150.00
14 IR Sensor 8 Pin 2 60.00 120.00
Total Amt: 761.00

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CHAPTER-3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig-14 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF LDR SENSOR CIRCUIT

CIRCUIT EXPLANATION

This circuit uses a popular timer I.C 555. I.C 555 is connected as comparator with pin-6
connected with positive rail, the output goes high(1) when the trigger pin 2 is at lower then
1/3rd level of the supply voltage. Conversely the output goes low (0) when it is above 1/3rd
level. So

small change in the voltage of pin-2 is enough to change the level of output (pin-3) from 1 to
0 and 0 to 1. The output has only two states high and low and can not remain in any
intermediate stage. It is powered by a 6V battery for portable use. The circuit is economic in

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power consumption. Pin 4, 6 and 8 is connected to the positive supply and pin 1 is grounded.
To detect the present of an object we have used LDR and a source of light. LDR is a special
type of resistance whose value depends on the brightness of the light which is falling on it. It
has resistance of about 1 mega ohm when in total darkness, but a resistance of only about 5k
ohms when brightness illuminated. It responds to a large part of light spectrum. We have
made a potential divider circuit with LDR and 100K variable resistance connected in series.
We know that voltage is directly proportional to conductance so more voltage we will get
from this divider when LDR is getting light and low voltage in darkness. This divided voltage
is given to pin 2 of IC 555. Variable resistance is so adjusted that it crosses potential of 1/3rd
in brightness and fall below 1/3rd in darkness.
Sensitiveness can be adjusted by this variable resistance. As soon as LDR gets dark the
voltage of pin 2 drops 1/3rd of the supply voltage and pin 3 gets high and LED or buzzer
which is connected to the output gets activated.

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CHAPTER 4

WORKING PRINCIPLE:-

Our project SMART STREET LIGHT SYSTEM USING LDR SENSOR is based on light
dependent resistor such that in daylight due to high resistance offered by LDR circuit the
project does not work.

When night occurs same LDR offers low resistance to the circuit hence
current starts flowing and project starts to work.

Fig-15 WHEN DAY LIGHT IS COMING LEDs DOES NOT WORK

During night half of the LEDs starts working and rest of the LEDs are in OFF positions.But
there are IR SENSORS used for the vehicle detection so that if any of the car or vehicle
passes through the sensor make turn on the rest 50% of the LEDs of that side ,similarly the
same process occurs on the other side.

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 Fig-16 (WHEN NIGHT OCCURS-50% LEDs TURN ON)

Fig-17 (WHEN A OBSTACLE IS DETECTED BY AN IR SENSOR)

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 CHAPTER-5

CONCLUSION

The project “SMART STREET LIGHT SYSTEM USING LDR SENOR” has been
successfully designed and tested.

Here we are saving lot of power without any wastage, by these advanced technologies we can
design many more systems which can be done by solar lights and through these solar lights
we have a vast usage at the same time we can do automatic systems instead of doing it
manually like with ldr’s.

Secondly, using highly advanced IC’s and with the help of growing technology the project
has been successfully implemented.

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CHAPTER-6

FUTURE ENHANCEMENT AND CONCLUSION BASED ON

RESEARCH

The project “Automatic Street Light Controlling System” has been designed and tested. The
future Enhancement based on this project could be

ALCOHOL SENSOR

The Alcohol Detection Systems for Safety would keep impaired drivers off the road by
detecting their alcohol content. If alcohol is consumed, it is metabolized and diffuses
throughout the body. This alcohol is present in various bodily substances such as breath,
blood, and perspiration. Some percentage of consumed alcohol is metabolized through the
skin. The sensor measures the specific characteristics that are chemically emitted
transversally from the body.

By using the alcohol sensor the probability of accidents are reduced because using the alcohol
sensor will eliminate the people who generally mix drink and drives. So the main purpose of
using the alcohol sensor is to reduce the accidents.

ADVANTAGES

 Human effort will be reduced.

 Less power consumption.
 Easily reproducibility.

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References on the Web:

 www.electronicscomponents.com
 www.projectworld.com
 www.slideshare.net
 "the smart lighting concept", future internet lab anhalt. retrieved 2017-10-10
 https://static1.squarespace.com/static/53d2cdffe4b069e965155fc8/t/5693fc26dc5cb4e
20e40b151/1452538926885/20160111_NetSense-Cities.pdf

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