Akam CH 2 2 PDF

ENGO 667: Chapter 2
Photogrammetric Triangulation
Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

1
Overview
• Objective: Investigate the possibility of object

space reconstruction from imagery using:
– Single image.
– Stereo-pair.
– Single flight lines (Strip Triangulation).
– Image blocks:
• Block Adjustment of Independent Models (BAIM).
• Bundle Block Adjustment.
– Special cases (resection, intersection, and stereo-pair
orientation).

2
1
Photogrammetry: The Reconstruction Process
• The main objective of photogrammetry is to

derive ground coordinates of object points from
imagery.
• We would like to investigate the feasibility of
performing this task using single image, stereo
image pair, or more.
• The mathematical model we are going to use is the
collinearity equations.

3
Input Imagery
Perspective Center y
xa a
ya
x

4
2
Collinearity Equations
(Perspective Center)
zi yi
ZG
a (xa, ya)
c pp
+ xi
+
R(ω , φ ,κ ) Oi
A
ZO
YG ZA
XA
XO YA
YO XG
OG

5
Collinearity Equations
r11 ( X A − X O )+r21 (YA −YO )+r31 (Z A −ZO )

xa =x p − c + ∆x
ya = y p − c + ∆y

6
3
Single Photograph
• An image point is defined by its coordinates

relative to the image coordinate system.
• We have two equations (collinearity equations) in
three unknowns (ground coordinates of the
corresponding object point - Best Case Scenario).
– IOP & EOP are available.
• Consequently, this problem is under determined.
• Conceptually: an image point will define a single
(infinite) light ray.
– The object point can be anywhere along this light ray.
7
Single Photograph
a (image point)
Perspective Center
(Single Light Ray)

8
4
Stereo-Photogrammetry
• We have the same point appearing in two images.
– Four equations (two collinearity equations in each image).
– Three unknowns (ground coordinates of the corresponding
object points - Best Case Scenario).
• IOP & EOP are available.
• Thus, we have a redundancy of one (which will
contribute towards the computation of the ROP).
• Conceptually: the two image points define two light
rays.
– The object point is the intersection of these light rays.

9

10
5
a a´
PC PC
Object Point (A)

11
From Images to Object Space
• For a stereo-pair, we can derive a 3-D
representation of the object space covered by the
overlap area as follows:
– Perform RO of the stereo-pair under consideration
(using at least five conjugate points) → stereo-model.
– Using some GCP, we can rotate, scale, and shift the
stereo-model (AO) until it fits at the location of the
ground control points (i.e., the residuals at the GCP are
as small as possible).
– For the absolute orientation, we need at least three
ground control points (those points should not be
collinear).
12
6
From Images to Object Space (RO)
Model Space
Model Space
Model Space
13
From Images to Object Space (AO)
Stereo Model
Object Space
14
7
Photogrammetric Triangulation
• Objective:
– How can we reconstruct the object space from imagery
without the need for three ground control points in each
stereo-model?
• Alternatives:
– Strip Triangulation.
– Block Adjustment of Independent Models (BAIM).
– Bundle Block Adjustment.

15
Strip Triangulation

16
8
Strip Triangulation
• Strip triangulation is used for mapping linear features (such
as road and rail road network and pipelines).
• Given: imagery along one strip with 60% overlap between
successive imagery.

17
Strip Triangulation
• Procedure:
– Perform RO of the first stereo-model (DRO or IRO).
– Perform AO of the first stereo-model using 3GCP.
– Perform RO for the second model using only DRO (we
do not want to disturb the orientation parameters for the
second image).
– Only scale is required to establish the AO for the
second model.
– Adjust the base until a point in the overlap area
between the first and second model has the same
elevation.
– For the remaining models, repeat the above three steps.
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9
Strip Triangulation

19
Strip Triangulation
• Error Propagation:
– Similar to an open traverse, errors will increase as the
length of the strip increases.
• Solution:
– Implement GCP every three or four models.
– Apply corrections polynomials.
• Correction Polynomials:
– They are used to reduce the difference between the
photogrammetric and geodetic coordinates of the
control points.
20
10
Correction Polynomials
Photogrammetric Points
Geodetic Points

21
• Separate polynomials are used for the X, Y, and Z

coordinates.
• For example:
Z g − Z p = ao + a1 X + a2 Y + a3 XY
• Zg ≡ Geodetic ground coordinates.
• Zp ≡ Photogrammetric ground coordinates.
• ao ≡ Constant shift in elevation.
• a1X ≡ Pitch along the flight line.
• a2Y ≡ Roll across the flight line.
• a3XY ≡ Torsion of the strip.
22
11
• Using Ground Control Points (GCP), we can solve

for the polynomial coefficients.
• Precaution:
• Make sure that you have enough GCP to recover the
polynomial coefficients.
• Use low order polynomials to avoid undulations/over
parameterization.
• For long strips, separate them into shorter strips with
low order polynomials and use constraints to ensure
smooth transition between strips.

23
Accuracy of Strip Triangulation
• The accuracy of points measured in the strip after

applying the correction polynomial depends on the
number of models bridged together without
ground control points.
• As a rule of thumb:
– A group of ground control points should be used every
four models.
• 12 models: 3 groups of ground control points.
• 16 models: 4 groups of ground control points.

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12
Accuracy of Strip Triangulation
σsZ/σM (max)
σsXY/σM (max)
σsZ/σM (mean)
σsXY/σM (mean)
1
i
1
• i number of models bridged together.
• Maximum (worst) accuracy takes place at the center
between the control points.
25
Block Adjustment of Independent Models

(BAIM)

26
13
Block Adjustment

27
Block Adjustment

28
14
Block Adjustment

29
• Given: A block of photographs with:

– 60% overlap between successive images along the
flight direction.
– 20% side lap between adjacent strips (across the flight
direction).
• Block Adjustment of Independent Models (BAIM)
starts with model coordinate measurements after
relative orientation.
• Dependent or independent relative orientation can
be used.
30
15

31
• Procedure:
– Perform RO (DRO or IRO) for all the stereo-models in
the project.
– The models are simultaneously rotated, scaled, and
shifted until:
• The tie points fit together as well as possible.
• The residuals at the location of the ground control points are as
small as possible.

32
16
BAIM: Concept
1 2 3
6 5 4

33
BAIM: Concept
Tie Point
YG
Control Point
2 2 3 3
1 2
1 Y
Y I II
x x
I II
5 5 6 5 6
4
4
4
5 5 6 III IV
Y
Y
III IV 8
7 9
x x
7 9
8 8
XG
Before BAIM After BAIM
34
17
• BAIM can be carried out in either 2-D or 3-D.
• Planimetric BAIM:
– Given: 2-D model coordinates (X, Y) measured in
relatively oriented and leveled models.
– Required: 2-D ground coordinates of these points as
well as the transformation parameters associated with
the involved models.
• Spatial BAIM:
– Given: 3-D model coordinates (X, Y, Z) measured in
relatively oriented models.
– Required: 3-D ground coordinates of these points as
well as the transformation parameters associated with
the involved models.
35
Planimetric BAIM
• We start by measuring (X, Y) model coordinates

in relatively oriented and leveled models.
• For leveled models, the Z-axes of the model and
ground coordinate systems are parallel.
• For leveled models, the relationship between
planimetric model and ground coordinates is
represented by 2-D similarity transformation.
• Question: how can we obtain relatively oriented
and leveled models?

36
18
Leveling Relatively Oriented Models
• Without leveling, the mathematical relationship

between 3-D model and ground coordinates is
represented by 3-D similarity transformation.
⎡ XG ⎤ ⎡ XT ⎤ ⎡XM ⎤
⎢ Y ⎥ = ⎢ Y ⎥ + S R(Ω,Φ,Κ) ⎢Y ⎥
⎢ G⎥ ⎢ T⎥ ⎢ M⎥
⎢⎣ ZG ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ZT ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ZM ⎥⎦
• For leveled models, (Ω and Φ) should be zeros.
• Let’s look at the third equation:
37

Z G = ZT + S (r31 X M + r32 YM + r33 Z M )
Z G = ZT + S [(sin Ω sin Κ − cos Ω sin Φ cos Κ ) X M
+ (sin Ω cos Κ + cos Ω sin Φ sin Κ ) YM
+ cos Ω cos Φ ) Z M ]
• For leveling, we are only interested in recovering
the Ω and Φ rotation angles. Therefore, we can set
the Κ rotation angle to zero.
Z G = ZT + S (− cos Ω sin Φ X M + sin Ω YM + cos Ω cos Φ Z M )
• Having four vertical control points, we can solve

for ZT, Ω, Φ, and the scale factor.
38
19
• Leveling can be established in another way as

follows:
– Perform relative and absolute orientation for the first
model using three ground control points.
– Bridge other models using dependent relative
orientation.
• The leveling should be good enough such that the
effect of the tilted height differences on the XY-
coordinates is less than the photogrammetric
accuracy of the planimetric accuracy.

39
Effect of Leveling Errors
• If we have leveling errors, then Ω and Φ are not

exactly zero.
– We still have residual angles (dΩ and dΦ).
– Sin(dΩ) ≈ dΩ (in radians) cos(dΩ) ≈ 1.
– Sin(dΦ) ≈ dΦ (in radians) cos(dΦ) ≈ 1.
– dΩ dΦ ≈ 0.0.
⎡XG ⎤ ⎡XT ⎤ ⎡ cos Κ − sin Κ dΦ ⎤ ⎡XM ⎤
⎢Y ⎥ = ⎢Y ⎥ + S ⎢ sin Κ cos Κ − dΩ ⎥⎥ ⎢Y ⎥
⎢ G⎥ ⎢ T⎥ ⎢ ⎢ M ⎥
⎢⎣ Z G ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z T ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣dΩ sin Κ − dΦ cos Κ dΩ cos Κ + dΦ sin Κ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z M ⎥⎦
• Let’s look into the effect of leveling errors on the

planimetric coordinates.
40
20
X G = X T + S [cos Κ X M − sin Κ YM ] + S dΦ Z M
YG = YT + S [sin Κ X M + cos Κ YM ] − S dΩ Z M
• For a constant height ZM: dΦ ZM and dΩ ZM will be constant

and their effect can be compensated for by XT and YT.
• In other words, the mathematical relationship between
the model and ground coordinates can still be represented
by 2-D similarity transformation.
• If ZM is varying, height differences will have an effect on the
planimetric coordinates:
• dXG = S dΦ dZM.
• dYG = - S dΩ dZM.
• This effect should be less than the planimetric accuracy.
41
t Height differences
within the model
Planimetric Error
t
Leveling error
Planimetric error should be less than the planimetric accuracy.

42
21
Planimetric BAIM
• Given:
– Planimetric model coordinates of tie points (XM, YM).
• Tie points: Points that appear in more than one model.
– Planimetric ground coordinates of control points.
• Adjustment procedure:
– The models are displaced (XT, YT), rotated (Κ), and
scaled (S) until:
• The tie points fit together as well as possible.
• The residuals at the ground control points are as small as
possible.

43
Planimetric BAIM
• Mathematical model: 2-D similarity transformation.

⎡XG ⎤ ⎡XT ⎤ ⎡cos Κ − sin Κ ⎤ ⎡X M ⎤
⎢ Y ⎥ = ⎢ Y ⎥ + S ⎢ sin Κ cos Κ ⎥⎦ ⎢Y ⎥
⎣ G⎦ ⎣ T⎦ ⎣ ⎣ M ⎦
Non Linear Model
⎡ X G ⎤ ⎡ X T ⎤ ⎡a − b ⎤ ⎡ X M ⎤
⎢ Y ⎥ = ⎢ Y ⎥ + ⎢b a ⎥ ⎢ Y ⎥
⎣ G⎦ ⎣ T⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ M ⎦
a = S cos Κ
b = S sin Κ Linear Model
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22
Planimetric BAIM
• Unknowns:
– Transformation parameters (XT, YT, a, and b) for each
model.
– Ground coordinates of tie points, which appear in more
than one model.
• Observable quantities:
– Ground coordinates of control points.
– Model coordinates of tie points.

45
Planimetric BAIM
1 2 3
6 5 4

46
23
Planimetric BAIM: Example
Tie Point
YG
Control Point
2 2 3 3
1 2
1 Y
Y I II
x x
I II
5 5 6 5 6
4
4
4
5 5 6 III IV
Y
Y
III IV 8
7 9
x x
7 9
8 8
XG
47
Planimetric BAIM: Example

• Balance between observation equations and
unknowns:
– Unknowns:
• 4x4=16 transformation parameters for four models.
• 5x2=10 ground coordinates of tie points.
– Observation equations:
• 4x4x2= 32 equations derived from the 2-D similarity
transformations.
– Redundancy:
• 32 – 26 = 6.
• We would like to investigate the observation
equations associated with control and tie points.
48
24
Planimetric BAIM: Ground Control Points
X G − e X G = X T + a ( X M − e X M ) − b (YM − eYM )
YG − eYG = YT + b ( X M − e X M ) + a (YM − eYM )
X G = X T + a X M − b YM + e X G − a e X M + b eYM
YG = YT + b X M + a YM + eYG − b e X M − a eYM
X G = X T + a X M − b YM + v X • Underlined terms:
• Unknown quantities.
YG = YT + b X M + a YM + vY
where :
v X = e X G − a e X M + b eYM
vY = eYG − b e X M − a eYM
49
Planimetric BAIM: Tie Points

X G = X T + a ( X M − e X M ) − b (YM − eYM )
YG = YT + b ( X M − e X M ) + a (YM − eYM )
~
0 = X T + a X M − b YM − X G − a e X M + b eYM
~
0 = YT + b X M + a YM − YG − b e X M − a eYM
~
0 = X T + a X M − b YM − X G + v X • Underlined terms:
• Unknown quantities.
~
0 = YT + b X M + a YM − YG + vY
where :
v X = − a e X M + b eYM
vY = − b e X M − a eYM
50
25
Planimetric BAIM
• Adding the observation equations from ground
control and tie points, we get:
⎡ y1 ⎤ ⎡ A11 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ e1 ⎤ ⎧Observation equations arising from GCP
⎢~ ⎥=⎢ A22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ x ⎥ + ⎢e ⎥ ⎨
⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ A21 ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2⎦ ⎩ Observation equations from tie points
• x1 Unknown transformation parameters.

• 4 x # of models.
• x2 Unknown ground coordinates of tie points.
• 2 x # of tie points.
• Note: (A12) the partial derivatives of the observations arising
from GCP w.r.t. the unknown ground coordinates of tie points
= 0.
51
Planimetric BAIM
⎡ e1 ⎤ ⎛⎜ ⎡0⎤ 2 ⎡ P1
−1
0 ⎤⎞
⎢e ⎥ ~ ⎜ ⎢0⎥ , σ o ⎢ ⎥⎟
⎣ 2⎦ ⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 0 P2−1 ⎦ ⎟⎠
⎡ A11T T
A21 ⎤ ⎡ P1 0 ⎤ ⎡ A11 0 ⎤ ⎡ xˆ1 ⎤ ⎡ A11T T
A21 ⎤ ⎡ P1 0 ⎤ ⎡ y1 ⎤
⎢ T ⎥ ⎢
P2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ A21 A22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ xˆ ⎥ = ⎢ T ⎥ ⎢ ~
P2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎣0 A22 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 0 A22 ⎦ ⎣ 0
⎡ A11T P1 A11 + A21T

P2 A21 T
A21 P2 A22 ⎤ ⎡ xˆ1 ⎤ ⎡ A11T Py1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ xˆ ⎥ = ⎢ ~ ⎥
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
T T
⎣ A22 P2 A21 A22 P2 A22 ⎦
⎡ N11 N12 ⎤ ⎡ xˆ1 ⎤ ⎡C1 ⎤

⎢N T N 22 ⎥⎦ ⎢ xˆ ⎥ = ⎢ ~ ⎥
⎣ 12 ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦

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26
Planimetric BAIM
N11 xˆ1 + N12 xˆ 2 = C1
~
N12T xˆ1 + N 22 xˆ 2 = 0
• N11 is a block diagonal matrix with 4x4 sub-
blocks along the diagonal.
• We can start by solving for x2 first as follows:
xˆ1 = N11−1 C1 − N11−1 N12 xˆ2
(N 22 − N12T N11−1 N12 ) 2np × 2np
(N 22 −N T
12 N −1
11 N12 ) xˆ2 = − N T
12 N −1
11 C1 where :
(
xˆ 2 = − N 22 − N12T N11−1 N12 )
−1
N12T N11−1 C1 np ≡ number of tie points
53
Planimetric BAIM
• Sequential solution of the parameters:
• Option # 1: Solving for x2 first.
(
xˆ2 = − N 22 − N12T N11−1 N12 )−1
N12T N11−1 C1
xˆ1 = N11−1 C1 − N11−1 N12 xˆ 2
• Option # 2: Solving for x1 first.
(
xˆ1 = N11 − N12 N 22−1 N12T ) −1
C1 (N 11 − N12 N 22−1 N12T )
4nm × 4nm
where :
xˆ2 = − N 22−1 N12T xˆ1
nm ≡ number of models
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27
Planimetric BAIM
• Sequential solution of parameters:
– Option # 1 is useful whenever 2np < 4nm.
– Option # 2 is useful whenever 4nm < 2np.
– Where:
• np ≡ number of tie points.
• nm ≡ number of models.
• Remarks:
– Refer the coordinates within each stereo-model to its
centroid.
• Whenever we have ΣXM or ΣYM, they would reduce to zero
(improve the sparsity of the normal equation matrix).
– A point that appears in one model is not useful
(eliminate it from the adjustment).
55
Planimetric BAIM
• Remarks: Instead of dealing with control points
and tie points in different ways, we can do the
following:
– Treat all the points as tie points.
– Add pseudo observations for the ground control points.
• This approach is more general/flexible.
X G = X T + a ( X M − e X M ) − b (YM − eYM ) ⎡e X M ⎤
⎢ e ⎥ ~ (0, Σ M )
YG = YT + b ( X M − e X M ) + a (YM − eYM ) ⎣ YM ⎦
⎡ X Go ⎤ ⎡ X G ⎤ ⎡e X ⎤ ⎡e X Go ⎤
⎢Y ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ Go ⎥ ⎢ e ⎥ ~ (0, Σ G )
⎣ Go ⎦ Observed ground coordinates ⎣ YG ⎦ ⎢⎣ eYGo ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ YGo ⎥⎦
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28
Spatial BAIM
• Given:
– 3-D model coordinates (XM, YM, ZM) of tie and control
points in relatively oriented models.
– 3-D ground coordinates of control points.
• Required:
– 3-D ground coordinates of tie points (3 np).
• Where np is the number of tie points.
– The transformation parameters associated with each
model (7 nm).
• Where nm is the number of models.

57
Spatial BAIM
• During the adjustment procedure the models are

rotated (Ω, Φ, Κ), scaled (S) and Shifted (XT, YT,
ZT) until:
– The tie points fit together as well as possible.
– The residuals at the ground control points are as small
as possible.
• The mathematical relationship between
corresponding model and ground coordinates is
defined by 3-D similarity transformation.

58
29
Spatial BAIM: Mathematical Model
ZM YM
ZG XM
R( Ω, Φ, Κ)
S OM
YG
ZT
XT
YT
OG XG

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⎡ XG ⎤ ⎡ XT ⎤ ⎡XM ⎤
⎢ Y ⎥ = ⎢ Y ⎥ + S R(Ω,Φ,Κ) ⎢Y ⎥
⎢ G⎥ ⎢ T⎥ ⎢ M⎥
⎢⎣ ZG ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ZT ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ZM ⎥⎦

60
30
⎡XM ⎤ ⎡ X G − XT ⎤
⎢ Y ⎥ = 1/ S RT (Ω,Φ,Κ) ⎢ Y −Y ⎥
⎢ M⎥ ⎢ G T ⎥
⎢⎣ ZM ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ZG − ZT ⎥⎦
⎡XM ⎤ ⎡ X G − XT ⎤
⎢ Y ⎥ = S′ M (Ω,Φ,Κ) ⎢ Y −Y ⎥
⎢ M⎥ ⎢ G T ⎥
⎢⎣ ZM ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ZG − ZT ⎥⎦

61
Example (BAIM)
1 2 3
6 5 4

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31
Example (Spatial BAIM)
2 2 3
1 Tie points
II GCP
I
5
4 5 6
5
5 6
4
III IV
8 8 9
7
63

Tie Point
YG
Control Point
2 2 3 3
1 2
1 Y
Y I II
x x
I II
5 5 6 5 6
4
4
4
5 5 6 III IV
Y
Y
III IV 8
7 9
x x
7 9
8 8
XG
64
32
• What is the balance between the observations and
unknowns?
– Unknowns:
• 4 * 7 AO parameters.
• 5 * 3 GC of tie points.
• Total of 43.
– Equations:
• 4 (models) x 4 (points/model) x 3 (equations/point) = 48.
– Redundancy:
• 5.
• This is a non-linear system: approximations and
partial derivatives are required.
65
The Structure of the Observation Equations
• Y = a(X) + e e ~ (0, σ2 P-1).
• Using approximate values for the unknown

parameters (Xo) and partial derivatives, the above
equations can be linearized leading to the
following equations:
• y48x1 = A48x43 x43x1 + e48x1 e ~ (0, σ2 P-1).

66
33
The Structure of the Observation Equations
I II III IV 24568
A= y=

67
Structure of the Normal Matrix

I II III IV 2 4 5 6 8
⎡ N11 N12 ⎤
⎢N T =
⎣ 12 N 22 ⎥⎦

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34
Spatial BAIM: Final Remarks
• To stabilize the heights along the strip, we should use the
projection centers as tie points.
• To stabilize the heights across the strip, we can do one of
the following:
– Implement a side lap of 60%.
– Apply a chain of vertical control points across the strip.
– Use GPS observations at the projection centers.
• We can sequentially solve for the parameters.
– Solve for the ground coordinates of tie points first whenever 3np <
7nm.
– Solve for the transformation parameters for the models first
whenever 7nm < 3np.
– Where: (np ≡ number of tie points) and (nm ≡ number of models).

69
Accuracy of BAIM
• Due to the reduction in the involved GCP, we
should expect a degradation in the accuracy when
compared with this associated with a single model.
• Planimetric accuracy is not affected by the
accuracy of the measured model heights or by the
layout/distribution of vertical control points.
• In a similar way, height accuracy is not affected
by the accuracy of measured model planimetric
coordinates or the the distribution of horizontal
control points.
• Planimetric and height accuracies can be treated
separately.
70
35
Accuracy of BAIM
• We can derive the accuracy of the derived
parameters after the adjustment as follows:
D{xˆ} = σ o2 Q{xˆ}
where :
Q{xˆ} = N −1
σ o2 ≡ Variance of observation of unit weight (variance componenet)
• Question: what numerical value should we expect

for the variance component?

71
BAIM: Variance Component

~
0 = X T + a X M − b YM − X G + v X
~
0 = YT + b X M + a YM − YG + vY
where :
v X = − a e X M + b eYM
vY = − b e X M − a eYM
⎧v x ⎫ ⎡ − a b ⎤ 2 ⎡− a − b ⎤
D⎨ ⎬ = ⎢ ⎥ σ M I2 ⎢ ⎥
⎩v y ⎭ ⎣ − b − a ⎦ ⎣ b − a⎦
where :
σ M2 Accuracy of model coordinate measurements
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36
Accuracy of BAIM
⎧v x ⎫ ⎡a 2 + b 2 0 ⎤
D ⎨ ⎬ = σ M2 ⎢ ⎥
⎩v y ⎭ ⎣ 0 a + b2 ⎦
2
a = S cos Κ
b = S sin Κ
a2 + b2 = S 2
⎧v x ⎫
D ⎨ ⎬ = S 2σ M2 I 2
⎩v y ⎭
• If we assigned a weight of unity for the observations, then the
estimated variance component σo ≈ S σM.
• Variance component: accuracy of model coordinate
measurements expressed in ground units.
73
Planimetric Accuracy of BAIM

• Assume that we have:
– Four ground control points at the corners of the block.
– The worst accuracy within the block is represented by
σmax.
– The mean accuracy within the block is represented by
σmean.
• Then:
– The accuracy deteriorates as the size of the block
increases.
– The worst accuracy occurs at the center of the edges of
the block.
• Following are some examples of expected
accuracies.
74
37
• 2 Strips x 4 Models: σ = 1.44 σ o
σ = 1.2 σ o
σ = 1.40 σ o σ = 1.40 σ o
σ = 1.44 σ o
• 4 Strips x 8 Models:
σ = 2.28 σ o
σ = 1.66σ o
σ = 2.25 σ o σ = 2.25 σ o
σ = 2.28 σ o
75

σ = 3.16 σ o
σ = 2.17 σ o
σ = 3.14 σ o σ = 3.14 σ o
σ = 3.16 σ o
σ = 4.08 σ o
σ = 2.71σ o
σ = 4.06 σ o σ = 4.06 σ o
σ = 4.08 σ o
76
38
• Now, let’s investigate the effect of adding a dense
pattern of ground control points at the boundaries
of the block:
– Ground control point every model across the strips of
the block.
– Ground control point every other model along the strips
of the block.
σ mean = 0.94 σ o
σ max = 1.01 σ o

77

σ mean = 0.95 σ o
σ max = 1.01 σ o
σ mean = 1.00 σ o
σ max = 1.10 σ o
σ mean = 1.03 σ o
σ max = 1.15 σ o

78
39
• By adding a dense pattern of ground control points

along the boundaries of the block:
– The accuracy is almost independent of the size of the
block (i.e., it does not deteriorate as the size of the
block increases).
– The accuracy is almost equal to that of a single model.
• Having a dense pattern of ground control points at
the boundary as well as additional point at the
center of the block do not significantly improve
the planimetric accuracy.

79
Empirical Formulas for Square Blocks

• P1: Dense chain of control points along the
boundaries of the block:
– Number of ground control points is proportional to the
size of the block.
σ mean = (0.7 + 0.29 log10 ns ) σ o

Where : ns ≡ number of strips
• P2: 16 control points along the boundaries of the

block (regardless of the size of the block).
σ mean = (0.83 + 0.02 ns ) σ o
80
40
Empirical Formulas for Square Blocks
σ mean = (0.83 + 0.05 ns ) σ o

σ mean = (0.47 + 0.25 ns ) σ o

81
Vertical Accuracy of BAIM
• Height accuracy is weak across the strips.

• Therefore, chains of vertical control points across
the strips are recommended.
• We use chains of vertical control points every i-
models.
• To improve the height accuracy along the upper
and lower edges of the block, we implement a
vertical control point every i/2 models.

82
41
Vertical Accuracy of BAIM
i
σZ mean
= (0.34 + 0.22 i ) σ Z o
σZ maax
= (0.27 + 0.31 i ) σ Z o

83
Bundle Block Adjustment

84
42
• Direct relationship between image and ground
coordinates.
• We measure the image coordinates in the images
of the block.
• Using the collinearity equations, we can relate the
image coordinates, the corresponding ground
coordinates, the IOP, and the EOP.
• Using a simultaneous least squares adjustment, we
can solve for the:
– The ground coordinates of the tie points.
– The EOP.
85

• The image coordinate measurements and the IOP
define a bundle of light rays.
• The EOP define the position and the attitude of the
bundles in space.
• During the adjustment: The bundles are rotated
(ω, φ, κ) and shifted (Xo, Yo, Zo) until:
– Conjugate light rays intersect as well as possible at the
locations of object space tie points.
– Light rays corresponding to ground control points pass
through the object points as close as possible.

86
43
Ground Control Points.

Tie Points.
87
Least Squares Adjustment in

Photogrammetry
• Prior to the adjustment, we need to identify:
– The unknown parameters.
– Observable quantities.
– The mathematical relationship between the unknown
parameters and the observable quantities.
• Linearize the mathematical relationship (if it is not
linear).
• Apply least squares adjustment formulas.

88
44
Unknown Parameters
• Unknown parameters might include:

– Ground coordinates of tie points (points that
appear in more than one image).
– Exterior orientation parameters of the involved
imagery.
– Interior orientation parameters of the involved
cameras (for camera calibration purposes).

89
Observable Quantities
• Observable quantities might include:

– The ground coordinates of control points.
– Image coordinates of tie as well as control
points.
– Interior orientation parameters of the involved
cameras.
– Exterior orientation parameters of the involved
imagery (from a GPS/INS unit onboard).

90
45
Mathematical Model
r11( X A −XO )+r21(YA −YO )+r31(ZA −ZO )

xa =xp − c + ∆x + ex
r13 ( X A −XO )+r23 (YA −YO )+r33 (ZA −ZO )
ya =yp − c + ∆y + ey
⎡ex ⎤
⎢e ⎥ ~ (0, σo P )
2 −1
⎣ y⎦

91
Least Squares Adjustment

Gauss Markov Model
Observation Equations
y= Ax+e e ~ (0, σ o2 P −1 )
y n × 1 observatio n vector
A n × m design matrix
x m × 1 vector of unknowns
e n × 1 noise contaminat ing the observatio n vector
σ P 2
o
−1
n × n variance covariance matrix of the noise vector

92
46
Least Squares Adjustment
xˆ = ( AT PA) −1 AT Py
D{xˆ}= σ o2 ( AT PA) −1
e~ = y − Axˆ
σˆ o2 = (e~ T Pe~ ) / (n − m)

93
Y = a( X ) + e
Non Linear System
a ( X ) is the non − linear function
We use Taylor Series Expansion
∂a
Y ≈ a( X o ) + (X − Xo)+ e (We ignore higher order terms)
∂X Xo
Where :
X o is approximat e values for the unknown parameters
∂a
Y − a( X o ) = (X − Xo)+ e
∂X Xo
y= Ax+e
Where :
y = Y − a( X o )
∂a
A=
∂X Xo
• Iterative solution for the unknown parameters.

• When should we stop the iterations?
94
47
Example (4 Images in Two Strips)
1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4
Control Point
5 6 5 6 Tie Point
I II
3 4 3 4
5 6 5 6
7 8 7 8
III IV

95
Balance Between Observations & Unknowns
• Number of observations:
– 4 x 6 x 2 = 48 observations (collinearity equations).
• Number of unknowns:
– 4 x 6 + 3 x 4 = 36 unknowns
• Redundancy:
– 12.
• Assumptions:
– IOP are known.

96
48
Structure of the Design Matrix (BA)
• Y = a(X) + e e ~ (0, σ2 P-1).
• Using approximate values for the unknown

parameters (Xo) and partial derivatives, the above
equations can be linearized leading to the
following equations:
• y48x1 = A48x36 x36x1 + e36x1 e ~ (0, σ2 P-1).

97
Structure of the Design Matrix (BA)

I II III IV 3456
A= y=

98
49
Structure of the Normal Matrix
I II III IV
⎡ N11 N12 ⎤
⎢N T ⎥ =
⎣ 12 N 22 ⎦
3 4 5 6

99
Sample Data:
• 2 cameras.
• 4 images.
• 16 points.
• All the points appear in all the images.

• Two images were captured by each camera.
100
50
Structure of the Normal Matrix: Example

101
Observation Equations
yn×1 = An×m xm×1 + en×1 e ~ (0, σ o2 P −1 )
yn×1 = A1n×6 m1 x16 m1×1 + A2n×3 m2 x23 m2×1 + en×1
[
yn×1 = A1n×6 m1 A2n×3 m2 ] ⎡ x16 m1×1 ⎤
⎢x ⎥ + en×1
⎢⎣ 23 m2×1 ⎥⎦
• n ≡ Number of observations (image coordinate measurements).
• m ≡ Number of unknowns:
• m1 ≡ Number of images ⇒ 6 m1 (EOP of the images).
• m2 ≡ Number of tie points ⇒ 3 m2 (ground coordinates of tie points).
• m = 6 m1 + 3 m2.

102
51
Normal Equation Matrix
⎡ A1T ⎤
N ( 6 m1 +3m2 )×( 6 m1 +3m2 ) = ⎢ T ⎥ P [ A1 A2 ]
⎣ A2 ⎦
⎡ N116 m1×6 m1 N126 m1×3 m2 ⎤
N =⎢ T ⎥
⎢⎣ N123 m2×6 m1 N 223 m2×3 m2 ⎥⎦
⎡ A1T ⎤ ⎡ A1T Py ⎤ ⎡ C16 m1×1 ⎤
C( 6 m1 +3m2 )×1 = ⎢ T⎥ P y = ⎢ T ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
A A Py ⎢C
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 3 m2×1 ⎥⎦
2

103

⎡ N116 m1×6 m1 N126 m1×3 m2 ⎤ ⎡ xˆ16 m1×1 ⎤ ⎡ C16 m1×1 ⎤

⎢ T ⎥ ⎢ xˆ ⎥= ⎢C ⎥
⎢⎣ N123 m2×6 m1 N 223 m ×3 m ⎥
2 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 23 m2×1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 23 m2×1 ⎥⎦

104
52
Reduction of the Normal Equation Matrix
N116 m1×6 m1 xˆ16 m1×1 + N126 m1×3 m2 xˆ 23 m2×1 = C16 m1×1
N12T 3 m ×6 m xˆ16 m ×1 + N 223 m ×3 m xˆ23 m ×1 = C23 m ×1
2 1 1 2 2 2 2
• Solving for x2 first:

( )
N12T 3 m2×6 m1 N11−16 m1×6 m1 C16 m1×1 − N11−16 m1×6 m1 N126 m1×3 m2 xˆ23 m2×1 + N 223 m2×3 m2 xˆ23 m2×1 = C23 m2×1
= (N ) (C )
−1
xˆ23 m ×1 223 m2×3 m2 − N12T 3 m ×6 m N11−16 m ×6 m N126 m ×3 m 23 m2×1 − N12T 3 m ×6 m N11−16 m ×6 m C16 m ×1
= (N )
2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1
−1 −1
xˆ16 m ×1 116 m1×6 m1 C16 m ×1 − N 116 m1×6 m1 N126 m ×3 m xˆ23 m ×1
1 1 1 2 2
• 3m2 < 6m1.

• Remember: N11 is a block diagonal matrix with 6x6 sub-blocks
along the diagonal
105

N116 m1×6 m1 xˆ16 m1×1 + N126 m1×3 m2 xˆ 23 m2×1 = C16 m1×1
N12T 3 m ×6 m xˆ16 m ×1 + N 223 m ×3 m xˆ23 m ×1 = C23 m ×1
2 1 1 2 2 2 2
• Solving for x1 first:

(
N116 m1×6 m1 xˆ16 m1×1 + N123 m2×3 m2 N 22−13 m2×3 m2 C23 m2×1 − N 22−13 m2×3 m2 N12T 3 m2×6 m1 xˆ16 m1×1 = C16 m1×1 )
(
xˆ16 m ×1 = N116 m1×6 m1 − N126 m ×3 m N 22−13 m ×3 m N12T 3 m ×6 m ) (C
−1
16 m1×1 − N126 m ×3 m N 22−13 m ×2 m C23 m ×1 )
= (N xˆ )
1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2
−1 −1
xˆ23 m ×1 223 m2×3 m2 C23 m ×1 − N 223 m2×3 m2 N T
12 3 m2×6 m1 16 m1×1
2 2
• 6m1 < 3m2.

• Remember: N22 is a block diagonal matrix with 3x3 sub-blocks
along the diagonal
106
53
• Variance covariance matrix of the estimated parameters:
(
D{xˆ16 m1×1 } = σ o2 N116 m1×6 m1 − N126 m1×3 m2 N 22−13 m2×3 m2 N12T 3 m2×6 m1 )
−1
(
D{xˆ23 m ×1 } = σ o2 N 223 m ×3 m − N12T 3 m ×6 m N11−16 m ×6 m N126 m ×3 m
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2
)
−1

107
Building the Normal Equation Matrix
• We would like to investigate the possibility of

sequentially building up the normal equation
matrix without fully building the design matrix.
• (xij, yij) image coordinates of the ith point in the jth
image.
y2×1ij = A12×6ij x16×1 j + A22×3ij x23×1i + e2×1ij
[
y2×1ij = A12×6ij A22×3ij ] ⎡ x16×1 j ⎤
⎢ x ⎥ + e2×1ij
⎢⎣ 23×1i ⎥⎦
108
54
[
y2×1ij = A12×6
ij
]
⎡ x1 ⎤
A22×3 ⎢ 6×1 j ⎥ + e2×1ij
ij
⎢⎣ x23×1i ⎥⎦
⎡ A1T6×2 ⎤
[ ]
⎡ x16×1 j ⎤ ⎡ A16×2ij ⎤
T
⎢ T ⎥ Pij A12×6 A22×3 ⎢

ij
⎥ = ⎢ T ⎥ Pij y2×1ij
⎢⎣ A23×2ij ⎥⎦ ij ij
⎣⎢ 3×1i ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ A23×2ij ⎥⎦
x 2
⎡ A1T6×2 Pij A12×6 A1T6×2 Pij A22×3 ⎤ ⎡ x16×1 ⎤ ⎡ A1T6×2 Pij y2×1ij ⎤
⎢ T ij ij
T
ij ij
⎥ ⎢ j ⎥ = ⎢ T ij ⎥
⎢⎣ 23×2ij ij 12×6ij
A P A A 23×2ij ij 2 2×3ij ⎥ ⎣
P A
⎦ ⎢ 3×1i ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ 23×2ij ij 2×1ij ⎥⎦
x 2 A P y

109
⎡ A1T6×2 Pij A12×6 A1T6×2 Pij A22×3 ⎤ ⎡ x16×1 ⎤ ⎡ A1T6×2 Pij y2×1ij ⎤
⎢ T ij ij
T
ij ij
⎥ ⎢ j⎥ = ⎢ T ij ⎥
⎢⎣ A23×2ij Pij A12×6ij A23×2ij Pij A22×3ij ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x23×1i ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ A23×2ij Pij y2×1ij ⎥⎦
⎡ N11ij N12ij ⎤ ⎡ x16×1 j ⎤ ⎡ C1ij ⎤
⎢ T ⎥ ⎢x ⎥ = ⎢C ⎥
⎣⎢ N12ij N 22ij ⎦⎥ 9×9 ⎣⎢ 23×1i ⎦⎥ 9×1 ⎣⎢ 2ij ⎦⎥ 9×1
• Note: We cannot solve this matrix for the:

• The Exterior Orientation Parameters of the jth image.
• The ground coordinates of the ith point.

110
55
⎡ N116 m1×6 m1 N126 m1×3 m2 ⎤ ⎡ xˆ16 m1×1 ⎤ ⎡ C16 m1×1 ⎤

⎢ T ⎥ ⎢ xˆ ⎥= ⎢C ⎥
⎢⎣ N123 m2×6 m1 N 223 m ×3 m ⎥
2 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 23 m2×1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 23 m2×1 ⎥⎦
• Question: How can we sequentially build the above matrices?

• Assumption: All the points are common to all the images.

111
N11 - Matrix
⎡ m2 ⎤
⎢∑ N11i1 0 0 L L 0⎥
⎢i = 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
m2
⎢ 0 ∑N 11i 2 0 L L 0 ⎥
⎢ i =1
⎥
=⎢ 0 0 ⎥⎥
m2
N11( 6 m1×6 m1 )
⎢ 0 ∑N
i =1
11i 3 L L
⎢ ⎥
⎢ M M M M M M ⎥
⎢ M M M M M M ⎥
⎢ m2 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 L L ∑ N11im1 ⎥
⎢⎣ i =1 ⎥⎦
• If all the points are not common to all the images:
• The summation should be carried over all the points
that appear in the image under consideration.
112
56
N22 - Matrix
⎡ m1 ⎤
⎢ ∑ N 221 j 0 0 L L 0⎥
⎢ j =1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
m1
⎢ 0 ∑N 22 2 j 0 L L 0 ⎥
⎢ j =1
⎥
=⎢ 0 ⎥
m1
N 22( 3 m2×3 m2 )
⎢ 0 ∑N
j =1
223 j L L 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ M M M M M M ⎥
⎢ M M M M M M ⎥
⎢ m1 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 L L ∑ N 22m2 j ⎥
⎢⎣ j =1 ⎥⎦
• If all the points are not common to all the images:
• The summation should be carried over all the images
within which the point under consideration appears.
113
N12 - Matrix
⎡ N1211 N1221 N1231 L L N12m 1 ⎤

⎢N L N12m 2 ⎥⎥
2
⎢ 1212 N1222 N1232 L

2
⎢ N12 N1223 N1223 L L N12m 3 ⎥

N12( 6 m ×3 m ) = ⎢ 13 2
⎥
1 2
⎢ M M M M M M ⎥
⎢ M M M M M M ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ N121m1 N122 m N123 m L L N12m m ⎥
1 1 2 1 ⎦
• If point “i” does not appear in image “j”:

• (N12)ij = 0.

114
57
C - Matrix
⎡ m2 ⎤ ⎡ m1 ⎤
⎢ ∑ C1i1 ⎥ ⎢ ∑ C21 j ⎥
⎢ im= 1 ⎥ ⎢ jm= 1 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ ∑ C1i 2 ⎥ ⎢ ∑ C2 2 j ⎥
⎢ im=21 ⎥ ⎢ jm=11 ⎥
⎢
= ∑ C1 ⎥ C23 m ×1 = ⎢ ∑ C2 ⎥
C16 m1×1
⎢ i = 1 i3 ⎥
2 ⎢ j =1 3j ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ M ⎥
⎢ M ⎥ ⎢ M ⎥
⎢ M ⎥ ⎢ m1 ⎥
⎢ m2 ⎥ ⎢ ∑ C2m2 j ⎥
⎢∑ C1im1 ⎥ ⎣⎢ j = 1 ⎦⎥
⎢⎣ i = 1 ⎥⎦
• Once again, we assumed that all the points are common to all
the images.
115
Accuracy of Bundle Block Adjustment
• The accuracy of the estimated EOP as well as the

ground coordinates of tie points can be obtained
by the product of:
– The estimated variance component, and
– The inverse of the normal equation matrix (cofactor
matrix).
• For planning purposes, we can use the same rules
applied for BAIM.
• However, the accuracy of a single model has to be
modified.

116
58
Accuracy of Bundle Block Adjustment
• Accuracy of a single model: If we have

– Bundle block adjustment with additional parameters
that compensate for various distortions.
– Regular blocks with 60%overlap and 20% side lap.
– Signalized targets.
σ XY = ± 3µ m
σ Z = ± 0.003% of the camera principal distance (NA and WA cameras)
σ Z = ± 0.004% of the camera principal distance (SWA cameras)
These accuracies are given in the image space

117
Camera Classification
• α < 75° Normal angle camera (NA).

• 100° > α > 75° Wide angle camera (WA).
• α > 100° Super wide angle camera (SWA).
α

118
59
Advantages of Bundle Block Adjustment
• Most accurate triangulation technique since we have direct

transformation between image and ground coordinates.
• Straight forward to include parameters that compensate for
various deviations from the collinearity model.
• Straight forward to include additional observations:
– GPS observations at the exposure stations.
– Object space distances.
• Can be used for normal, convergent, aerial, and close range
imagery.
• After the adjustment, the EOP can be set on analogue and
analytical plotters for compilation purposes.
119
Disadvantages of Bundle Block Adjustment
• Model is non linear: approximations as well as

partial derivatives are needed.
• Requires computer intensive computations.
• Analogue instruments can not be used (they
cannot measure image coordinate measurements).
• The adjustment cannot be separated into
planimetric and vertical adjustment.

120
60
Strip Triangulation: Final Remarks
• Elementary Unit: Stereo models after absolute

orientation.
• Measurements: Photogrammetric ground
coordinates.
• Mathematical model: Polynomial corrections.
• Instruments: Analogue and analytical plotters as
well as Digital Photogrammetric Workstations
(DPW).
• Required computer power: Low.
• Expected accuracy: Low.
121
BAIM: Final Remarks
• Elementary Unit: Stereo models after relative

orientation.
• Measurements: Model coordinates.
• Mathematical model: 2-D/3-D similarity
transformation.
• Instruments: Analogue and analytical plotters as
well as Digital Photogrammetric Workstations
(DPW).
• Required computer power: Large.
• Expected accuracy: Medium.
122
61
Bundle Adjustment: Final Remarks
• Elementary Unit: Images.

• Measurements: Image coordinates.
• Mathematical model: Collinearity equations.
• Instruments: Comparators, analytical plotters, and
Digital Photogrammetric Workstations (DPW).
• Required computer power: Very large.
• Expected accuracy: High.

123
Special Cases
• Resection.
• Intersection.
• Stereo-pair orientation.
• Relative orientation.
– Discussed in chapter 1.

124
62
Resection
• We are dealing with one image.
• We would like to determine the EOP of this image
using GCP.
• Q: What is the minimum GCP requirements?
– At least 3 non-collinear GCP are required to estimate
the 6 EOP.
– At least 5 non-collinear (well distributed in 3-D) GCP
are required to estimate the 6 EOP and the 3 IOP (xp,
yp, c).
• Critical surface:
– The GCP and the perspective center lie on a common
cylinder.
125
Resection
exterior orientation
interior orientation

126
63
Resection - Critical Surface

127
Intersection
• We are dealing with two images.
• The EOP of these images are available.
• The IOP of the involved camera(s) are also
available.
• We want to estimate the ground coordinates of
points in the overlap area.
• For each tie point, we have:
– 4 Observation equations.
– 3 Unknowns.
– Redundancy = 1.
• Non-linear model: approximations are needed.
128
64
Intersection
a a´
PC PC
Object Point (A)

129
Intersection: Linear Model

Ol B Or
Vl Vr
⎡X ⎤
⎢Y ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ Z ⎦⎥
130
65
⎡ X − X Ol ⎤
r ⎢ Or ⎥
B = ⎢ YOr − YOl ⎥ • These vectors are given w.r.t.the
ground coordinate system.
⎢ ZO − ZO ⎥
⎣ r l ⎦
⎡ xl − x p ⎤
r
Vl = λ R(ωl , φl , κ l ) ⎢⎢ yl − y p ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ − c ⎥⎦
⎡ xr − x p ⎤
r
Vr = µ R(ωr , φr , κ r ) ⎢⎢ yr − y p ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ − c ⎥⎦
131

r r r
Vl = B + Vr
⎡ X or − X ol ⎤ ⎡ xl − x p ⎤ ⎡ xr − x p ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢y − y ⎥ − µ R ⎢y − y ⎥
⎢ Yor − Yol ⎥ = λ R(ωl , φl , κl ) ⎢ l p⎥ ( ω r , φr , κ r ) ⎢ r p⎥
⎢ Zo − Zo ⎥ ⎢⎣ − c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − c ⎥⎦
⎣ r l ⎦
• Three equations in two unknowns (λ, µ).

• They are linear equations.

132
66
⎡ X ⎤ ⎡ X Ol ⎤ ⎡ xl − x p ⎤
⎢Y ⎥ = ⎢ Y ⎥ + λ R ⎢y − y ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ Ol ⎥ (ωl ,φl , κ l ) ⎢ l p⎥
⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z Ol ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − c ⎥⎦
Or:
⎡ X ⎤ ⎡ X Or ⎤ ⎡ xr − x p ⎤
⎢Y ⎥ = ⎢ Y ⎥ + µ R ⎢y − y ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ Or ⎥ ( ω r , φr , κ r ) ⎢ r p⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦ ⎣ Z Or ⎦ ⎢⎣ − c ⎥⎦

133
Stereo-pair Orientation
• Given:
– Stereo-pair: two images with at least 50% overlap.
– Image coordinates of some tie points.
– Image and ground coordinates of control points.
• Required:
– The ground coordinates of the tie points.
– The EOP of the involved images.
• Mini-Bundle Adjustment Procedure.

134
67
Stereo-pair Orientation
• Example:
– Given:
• 1 Stereo-pair.
• 20 tie points.
• No ground control points.
– Question:
• Can we estimate the ground coordinates of the tie points as
well as the exterior orientation parameters of that stereo-pair?
– Answer:
• NO.

135
68

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ENGO 667: Chapter 2

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

• Objective: Investigate the possibility of object

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

• The main objective of photogrammetry is to

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

r11 ( X A − X O )+r21 (YA −YO )+r31 (Z A −ZO )

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

• An image point is defined by its coordinates

(Single Light Ray)

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Object Point (A)

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

From Images to Object Space (AO)

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

• Separate polynomials are used for the X, Y, and Z

• Using Ground Control Points (GCP), we can solve

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Accuracy of Strip Triangulation

• The accuracy of points measured in the strip after

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Block Adjustment of Independent Models

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Block Adjustment of Independent Models

• Given: A block of photographs with:

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Block Adjustment of Independent Models

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

• We start by measuring (X, Y) model coordinates

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

• Without leveling, the mathematical relationship

Leveling Relatively Oriented Models

• Having four vertical control points, we can solve

• Leveling can be established in another way as

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Effect of Leveling Errors

• If we have leveling errors, then Ω and Φ are not

• Let’s look into the effect of leveling errors on the

• For a constant height ZM: dΦ ZM and dΩ ZM will be constant

Effect of Leveling Errors

Planimetric error should be less than the planimetric accuracy.

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

• Mathematical model: 2-D similarity transformation.

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Advanced Topics in Photogrammetry Ayman F. Habib

Planimetric BAIM: Example

Planimetric BAIM: Tie Points

• x1 Unknown transformation parameters.

⎡ A11T P1 A11 + A21T

⎡ N11 N12 ⎤ ⎡ xˆ1 ⎤ ⎡C1 ⎤