1

Chapter 1 – Introduction

1-a. Scope of Fluid Mechanics:

Fluid mechanics – the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics) and the
subsequent effects of the fluid upon the boundaries, which may be either solid surfaces or interfaces with
other fluids.

1-b. Divisions of Fluid Mechanics:

Hydrodynamics – the study of the motion of fluids that are practically incompressible such as water and other
gases at low speeds.
Hydraulics – a subcategory of hydrodynamics which deals with the liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Aerodynamics – deals with the flow of gases, especially air, over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles
at high speeds.
Hydrology – deals with naturally occurring flows.

1-c. States of Matter:

Fluid – a state of matter which tends to flow when we interact with them and it cannot sustain a shear stress when
at rest.
Solid – a state of matter which tend to deform or bend and can resist a shear stress by a static deformation.

1-d. Forms or phases of fluids:

Liquid – being composed of relatively closed-packed molecules with strong cohesive forces, a liquid tends to
retain its volume and will form a free surface in a gravitational field if unconfined from above.
Gas or vapor – since its molecules are widely spaced with negligible cohesive forces, it is free to expand until it
encounters confining walls. It has no definite volume and when left to itself without confinement, it forms
an atmosphere which is essentially hydrostatic. A gas cannot form a free surface, thus, gas flows are
rarely concerned with gravitational effects other than buoyancy. The vapor phase of a substance is called
a gas when it is above the critical temperature which implies that it is not far from a state of condensation.

1-e. Primary Dimensions:

In fluid mechanics there are only four primary dimensions from which all other dimensions can be
derived: mass, length, time, and temperature.
Primary dimension SI unit BG unit
Mass (M) Kilogram (kg) Slug
Length (L) Meter (m) Foot (ft)
Time (t) Second (s) Second (s)
Temperature (T) Kelvin (K) Rankine (°R)
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Chapter 2 –Fluid Properties

2-a. Terminologies

System – a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. It is a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass; the
system boundaries separate the system from the surroundings. The boundaries of the system may be fixed
or movable; however, no mass crosses the system boundaries.
Closed system (control mass) – a fixed amount of mass and no mass can cross its boundary
Open system (control volume) – a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow
Surroundings – the mass or region outside the system
Boundary – the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings. The boundary of a
system can be fixed or movable
Stress – force per unit area upon which the force acts
Normal stress – in a fluid at rest, the normal stress is called pressure
Shear stress – the tangential component of stress which exists only when the fluid is in motion
Property – any characteristic of a system
Intensive properties – those that are independent of the size of the system
Extensive properties – those whose values depend on the size or extent of the system
Specific properties – extensive properties per unit mass
State of a system – it is a measured or calculated set of properties at a point where this system not undergoing any
change
Steady state – all of the system’s properties are constant as a function of time.
Unsteady state – the system’s properties change with time. Also known as a transient process.

2-b. Fluid as a Continuum

A fluid, or any other substance for that matter, is composed of a large number of molecules in constant
motion and undergoing collisions with each other. It is made up of atoms that are widely spaced in the gas phase.
It is thus possible to ignore the discrete molecular structure of matter and replace it by a continuous distribution,
called a continuum. The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and to assume that
the properties vary continually in space with no jump discontinuities.

2-c. Properties of Fluids:

Density or mass density (ρ) – mass per unit volume of substance
m

V
where: ρ = density, kg/m3 (slug/ft3)
m = mass, kg (slug)
V = volume, m3 (ft3)
For liquids, variations in pressure and temperature have only a small effect on the value of the
density; therefore, the densities of liquids are essentially constant and they can often be approximated as
being incompressible substances during most processes without sacrificing much in accuracy.
For most gases, the density is proportional to P and inversely proportional to T. For ideal gases, this
relation is given by the equation of state (Perfect gas law).
P
P  RT or 
RT
where: R is a gas constant, J/(kg·K)
P is the absolute pressure, Pa
T is the absolute temperature, K
 3

Specific volume (υ) – the volume per unit mass and is therefore the reciprocal of the density
1
υ
ρ
where: υ = specific volume, m3/kg (ft3/slug)
ρ = density, kg/m3 (slug/ft3)

Specific Weight (γ) – the force exerted by the earth's gravity upon a unit volume of the substance; i.e., its weight
per unit volume
W mg
 
V V
 g
where: γ = specific weight, N/m3 (lb/ft3)
ρ = density, kg/m3 (slug/ft3)
g is the local acceleration of gravity (standard value of g = 9.81 m/s2 or
32.2 ft/s2)

Specific Gravity (SG) or Relative density (RD) – it is the ratio of the density of the fluid (or any other substance)
to the density of water at some specified temperature (at 4°C or 39.2°F, where the density of water is
1000 kg/m3 or 1.94 slugs/ft3)
ρ
SG 
ρwater

Pressure – normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area on any real or imaginary surface
F
P
A
where: P = pressure, Pa (lb/ft2, lb/in2)
F = normal force, N (lb)
A = area, m2 (ft2 or in2)
Other units of pressure that are commonly used in practice are the pascal, bar, standard atmosphere, and
kilogram per square centimeter.
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 bar = 105 Pa
1 atm = 101325 Pa
1 kg/cm2 = 9.81 × 104 Pa
1 atm = 760 mmHg
1 atm = 14.7 psi
1 atm = 2116 lb/ft2

Graphical representation of gage and absolute pressure:

 4

Absolute pressure (Pa) – the actual pressure at a given position and it is measured relative to absolute zero
pressure (i.e., absolute vacuum.)
Gage pressure (Pg) – it is measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure (Patm). Most pressure-measuring
devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference between the
absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. Gage pressure may be positive or negative
(vacuum).
Pa = Pg + Patm
Vacuum pressures – pressures below that of the atmosphere.
Vapor pressure – the pressure at which a liquid will boil (vaporize). Vapor pressure rises as temperature rises.

Viscosity (μ) – also known as coefficient of viscosity, absolute viscosity, or dynamic viscosity, is the
proportionality constant that relates shear stress and the velocity profile (velocity gradient) of a fluid
under that stress. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation.
V
F

dv
Shear stress:   Newton’s law of viscosity
dy
where: τ = shear stress
μ = viscosity, kg/(m-s), N-s/m2 = Pa-s, poise (1 poise = 0.1 Pa-s)
dv
= velocity gradient
dy
Fluids that follow the above relation are called Newtonian fluids. The fluid is non-Newtonian if the
relation between shear stress and shear strain rate is non-linear. Typically, as temperature increases, the
viscosity will decrease for a liquid, but will increase for a gas.
Ideal fluid – is one with no viscosity; hence frictionless, and incompressible. It doesn’t exist, but it can be
a good approximation.

Kinematic viscosity (ν) – the viscosity divided by density




where: v = kinematic viscosity, m2/s, stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s)
Temperature (T) – a measure of the internal energy level of a fluid. Many applications in fluid mechanics require
absolute (Kelvin or Rankine) temperature scales:
K = °C + 273.15
°R = °F + 459.67
Surface Tension (σ) – a property of liquids which is felt at the interface between the liquid and another fluid
(typically a gas). Forces develop in the liquid surface which cause the surface to behave as if it were a
“skin” or “membrane” stretched over the fluid mass.
For a given liquid the surface tension depends on temperature (σ decreases as T increases) and the
other fluid it is in contact with at the surface.
 5

The force developed around the edge of a spherical drop due to surface tension is 2πRσ. This
force must be balanced by the pressure difference, Δp, between the internal pressure, pi, and the external
pressure, pe, acting over the circular area, πR2. Thus,

2R  R 2 p
2
p  pi  pe   pi  pe
R
where: σ = surface tension, N/m

Compressibility
All fluids are compressible under the application of external forces. The compressibility of a fluid
is expressed by its bulk modulus of elasticity E, which is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the
corresponding volume change per unit volume.
P P
E 
 V / V  / 
where: E = bulk modulus, N/m2
For most practical purposes liquids may be regarded as incompressible (in general, a fluid with
constant density is called incompressible fluid); i.e., an ideal fluid is an incompressible fluid.

Capillarity
Among common phenomena associated with surface tension is the rise (or fall) of a liquid in a
capillary tube. If a small open tube is inserted into water, the water level in the tube will rise above the
water level outside the tube. The height, h, is governed by the value of σ, R, γ, and θ between the fluid and
the tube. It can be found by summing all forces acting on the water column as a free body diagram. The
downward force is due to gravity, i.e. the weight of the water column. The only upward force available to
balance the weight is that caused by surface tension (pressure forces all cancel out). Column height h can
be determined as follows:
weight of fluid column = surface tension pulling force
2R cos  R 2 h
2 cos
h
R

The contact angle is defined as the angle between the liquid and solid surface. Contact angle
depends on both the liquid and the solid. If θ is less than 90°, the liquid is said to "wet" the solid.
However, if θ is greater than 90°, the liquid is repelled by the solid, and tries not to "wet" it. For example,
water wets glass, but not wax. Mercury on the other hand does not wet glass.
 6

PROBLEMS:

1. A tank contains 500 kg of a liquid whose specific gravity is 2. Determine the volume of the liquid in the tank.
Ans. 0.25 m3

2. A certain object weighs 300 N at the earth’s surface. Determine the mass of the object (in kilograms) and its
weight (in newtons) when located on a planet with an acceleration of gravity equal to 4.0 ft/s 2. Ans. m = 30.6
kg, W = 37.3 N

3. A hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity of liquids. For a certain liquid, a hydrometer reading
indicates a specific gravity of 1.15. What is the liquid’s density and specific weight? Express your answer in
SI units. Ans. ρ = 1150 kg/m3, γ = 11.3 kN/m3

4. A mountain climber’s oxygen tank contains 1 lb of oxygen when he begins his trip at sea level where the
acceleration of gravity is 32.174 ft/s2. What is the weight of the oxygen in the tank when he reaches the top of
Mt. Everest where the acceleration of gravity is 32.082 ft/s2? Assume that no oxygen has been removed from
the tank; it will be used on the descent portion of the climb. Ans. 0.4971 lb

5. The information on a can of pop indicates that the can contains 355 ml. The mass of a full can of pop is 0.369
kg while an empty can weighs 0.153 N. Determine the specific weight, density, and specific gravity of the
pop and compare your results with the corresponding values for water at 20°C. Express your results in SI
units. Ans. γ = 97.7 N/m3, ρ = 996 kg/m3, SG = 0.996

6. If a certain liquid weighs 8600 N/m3, what are the values of its density, specific volume, and specific gravity
relative to water at 15°C? Ans. ρ = 877 kg/m3, υ = 0.001141 m3/kg, SG = 0.877

7. Determine the mass of air in a 2 m3 tank if the air is at room temperature 20°C, and the absolute pressure
within the tank is 200 kPa abs. Ans. 4.76 kg

8. Nitrogen is compressed to a density of 4 kg/m3 under an absolute pressure of 400 kPa. Determine the
temperature in degrees Celsius. Ans. 64°C

9. A closed tank having a volume of 2 ft3 is filled with 0.30 lb of gas. A pressure gage attached to the tank reads
12 psi when the gas temperature is 80 F. There is some question as to whether the gas in the tank is oxygen or
helium. Which do you think it is? Explain how you arrived at your answer.

10. A compressed air tank contains 5 kg of air at a temperature of 80°C. A gage on the tank reads 300 kPa.
Determine the volume of the tank. Ans. 1.26 m3

11. A rigid tank contains air at a pressure of 90 psia and a temperature of 60°F. By how much will the pressure
increase as the temperature is increased to 110°F? Ans. 98.7 psia

12. A thin plate of dimensions 0.4 m by 0.6 m is supported horizontally by a thin oil film of thickness 5.5 mm. if
the oil has a viscosity of 0.29 kg/m-s, what force is required to pull that plate at a constant velocity of 0.34
m/s assuming a linear variation of velocity within the oil? Ans. 4.303 N

13. A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 1 L (1000 cm 3) at 1 MN/m2 and a volume of 995 cm3 at 2
MN/m2. What is its bulk modulus of elasticity? Ans. 200 MPa
 7

14. The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two wide parallel plates is given by the
equation
3V   y  
2

u 
   
1
2   h  
where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 0.04 lb-s/ft2. Also, V = 2 ft/s and h = 0.2 in.
Determine a) the shearing stress acting on the bottom wall, and b) the shearing stress acting on a plane
parallel to the walls and passing through the centreline. Ans. a) 14.4 lb/ft2, b) 0

15. Pressures are sometimes determined by measuring the height of a column of liquid in a vertical tube. What
diameter of clean glass tubing is required so that the rise of water at 20°C in a tube due to capillary action (as
opposed to pressure in the tube) is less than h = 1.0 mm? Ans. 29.8 mm

16. An infinite plate is moved over a second plate on a layer of liquid as shown. For small gap width, d, we
assume a linear velocity distribution in the liquid. The liquid viscosity is 0.65 centipoise and its specific
gravity is 0.88. Determine a) The absolute viscosity of the liquid, in lb-s/ft2. b) The kinematic viscosity of the
liquid, in m2/s. c) The shear stress on the upper plate, in lb/ft2. d) The shear stress on the lower plate, in Pa. e)
The direction of each shear stress calculated in parts c) and d).

17. A pressure is measured to be a vacuum of 23 kPa at a location in Wyoming where the elevation is 3000 m.
What is the absolute pressure? Ans. 47.6 kPa

18. A vessel contains 5.0 ft3 of water at 40°F and atmospheric pressure. If the water is heated to 80°F, what will
be the percentage change in its volume? What weight of water must be removed to maintain the volume at its
original value? Ans. 1.050 lb

19. A gas at 60°C under a pressure of 10,000 mb abs has a specific weight of 99 N/m3. What is the value of R for
the gas? What gas might this be? Ans. 298 m2/(s2-K)
 8

Chapter 3 – Fluid Statics

3-a. Introduction
Fluid Statics – the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with fluids at rest. The only forces acting on the fluid are
gravity and pressure.
Hydrostatics – the study of pressures throughout a fluid at rest and the pressure forces on finite surfaces.

3-b. Pressure at a Point

Pascal's law
The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent of direction as long as there are no
shear stresses present. Therefore, pressure at a point has the same magnitude in all directions, and is called
isotropic.
From Pascal’s law, ps = py = pz

3-c. Pressure Variation with Depth

Fundamental equation:
Consider a small vertical cylinder of fluid in equilibrium, where positive z is pointing vertically upward.
Suppose the origin z = 0 is set at the free surface of the fluid. Then the pressure variation at a depth z = –h below
the free surface is governed by
pA  ( p  p) A  W
pA  gAz  0
p   gz
As Δz approaches zero,
dp
  g
dz
dp
or  
dz
Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with depth at the rate of the specific weight γ = ρg of the
fluid (or the negative sign indicates that the pressure decreases as we move upward in a fluid at rest). This
equation can be used to determine how pressure changes with elevation. It is subject to the following restrictions:
static fluid, gravity is the only body force, and the z axis is vertical and upward.
 9

Pressure variation
To determine the pressure variation, we must integrate
and apply appropriate boundary conditions.
p2 z2
p
1
dp    dz
z1

p2  p1   z 2  z1 
p1  p2   z 2  z1 
p1  p2  h
p1  p2  h
This type of pressure distribution is commonly called a hydrostatic distribution,
where: p1 = pressure at z1
p2 = pressure at z 2
h = the depth of fluid measured downward from the location p2
The pressure difference between two points in a fluid at rest can be specified by the distance h
p  p2
h 1

When one works with liquids there is often a free surface. It is convenient to use this surface as a
reference plane. The reference pressure po would correspond to the pressure acting on the free surface. This
pressure would frequently be atmospheric pressure. If we measure the pressure relative to the atmospheric
pressure (gauge pressure), then po = 0. Hence, from the equation p1  p2  h , p2 = po, letting p1 = p, it follows
that the pressure p at any depth h below the surface is given by the equation
p
h

This quantity is a length called the pressure head of the fluid. Pressure head is interpreted as the height of a
column of fluid of specific weight γ required to give a pressure p.
The pressure in a homogenous, incompressible fluid at rest depends on the depth of the fluid relative to
some reference plane, and it is not influenced by the size or shape of the tank or container in which the fluid is
held. Consequently, the distribution of pressure acting on a submerged flat surface is always trapezoidal (or
triangular if the surface pierces through the free surface of the liquid and the pressure is gauge pressure).
In the figure below, the pressure is the same at all points along the line AB even though the container may
have the very irregular shape as shown.

3-d. Measurement of Pressure

Barometer – a device for measuring atmospheric pressure.
Mercury barometer – a tube with a reservoir of mercury at one
end used in measuring atmospheric pressure. Under
average sea level conditions, the atmosphere exerts
enough pressure to push a column of mercury up to the
height of 760 mm.
 10

Manometer – a pressure-measuring device which consists of vertical or bent tubes containing one or more liquids
of different specific gravities. The fluid in the manometer is called the gage fluid.

Piezometer U-tube manometer Differential manometer

Inclined-tube manometer
Piezometer – the simplest type of manometer designed to measure static pressures
U-tube manometers – used to directly measure the pressure at a point in a fluid in a container
Differential manometer is used to determine the difference in pressure between two points in a liquid
Inclined-tube manometer – used to measure small pressure changes

Bourdon gage – a mechanical pressure measuring device where the essential mechanical element is the hollow,
elastic curved tube (Bourdon tube) which is connected to the pressure source. The external pressure is
guided into the tube and causes it to flex, resulting in a change in curvature of the tube. These curvature
changes are linked to the dial indicator for a number readout. Since it is the difference in pressure
between the outside of the tube (atmospheric pressure) and the inside of the tube that causes the
movement of the tube, the indicated pressure is gage pressure.

PROBLEMS:

1. a) What is the pressure difference of 7-m-tall column of water? b) For the same pressure difference as a),
what would the height of mercury column be? c) What is the ratio of water column to mercury column? What
does the value of this ratio represent? d) What would be the masses of both columns if the cross sectional area
for both columns is kept constant?

2. Neglecting the pressure on the surface and the compressibility of water, what is the pressure in pounds per
square inch on the ocean floor at a depth of 15,500 ft? The specific weight of ocean water under ordinary
conditions is 64.0 lb/ft3. Ans. 6890 psi
 11

3. A pressure gage at elevation 18.0 ft on the side of an industrial tank containing a liquid reads 11.4 psi.
Another gage at elevation 12.0 ft reads 13.7 psi. Compute the specific weight, density, and specific gravity of
the liquid. Ans. SG = 0.885

4. A water tank filled with water to a depth of 16 ft has in inspection cover (1 in. × 1 in.) at its base, held in place
by a plastic bracket. The bracket can hold a load of 9 lb. Is the bracket strong enough? If it is, what would the
water depth have to be to cause the bracket to break? Ans. 20.7 ft

5. An open tank contains 5.0 m of water covered with 2 m of oil (γ = 8.0 kN/m 3). Find the gage pressure at the
interface between the liquids and at the bottom of the tank. Ans. 65.1 kPa

6. For an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa (abs), determine the heights of the fluid column in barometers
containing one of the following liquids: a) mercury; b) water; and c) ethyl alcohol. Calculate the heights
including the effect of vapor pressure, and compare the results with those obtained neglecting vapor pressure.
Do these results support the widespread use of mercury for barometers? Why? Ans. c) including vapor
pressure, 12.3 m; w/o vapor pressure, 13.0 m

7. A closed tank contains compressed air and oil (SG = 0.90). A U-tube manometer using mercury (SG = 13.6) is
connected to the tank as shown in the figure. The column heights are h1 = 36 in, h2 = 6 in, and h3 = 9 in.
Determine the pressure reading (in psi) of the gage. Ans. 3.06 psi

8. In the figure, originally the manometer reading Rm = 4 in when h = 5 ft. Atmospheric pressure is 14.70 psia. If
the absolute pressure at A is doubled, what will be the manometer reading? Ans. 34.7 in.

9. In the figure, the tank contains water and immiscible oil at 20°C. What is h in cm if the density of the oil is
898 kg/m3? Ans. 8.0 cm
 12

10. A U-tube manometer is connected to a closed tank containing air and water as shown in the figure. At the
closed end of the manometer the air pressure is 16 psia. Determine the reading on the pressure gage for a
differential reading of 4 ft on the manometer. Express your answer in psi. Assume standard atmospheric
pressure and neglect the weight of the air column in the manometer. Ans. 4.67 psi

11. Two pipes are connected by a manometer as shown in the figure. Determine the pressure difference pA – pB
between the pipes. Ans. –3.32 kPa

12. A mercury manometer is connected to a pipeline carrying water at 150°F. If the elevation of point B is 6 ft
above A and the mercury manometer reading is 48 in, what is the pressure in the pipe in psi? Ans. 26.1 psi
 13

13. In the figure shown, the manometer fluid is mercury;  A = 8.4 kN/m3, and  B = 12.4 kN/m3. What would be
the manometer reading if p B – p A = 145 kPa? Ans. 0.807 mHg

14. Two vessels are connected to a differential manometer using mercury (SG = 13.56), the connecting tubing
being filled with water. The higher-pressure vessel is 5 ft lower in elevation than the other. Room temperature
prevails. If the mercury reading is 4.0 in, what is the pressure difference in feet of water and in psi? If carbon
tetrachloride (SG = 1.59) were used instead of mercury, what would the manometer reading be for the same
pressure difference? Ans. 9.19 ft of water

15. A piston having a cross-sectional area of 0.07 m2 is located in a cylinder containing water as shown in the
figure. An open U-tube manometer is connected to the cylinder as shown. For h1 = 60 mm and h = 100 mm,
what is the value of the applied force, P, acting on the piston? The weight of the piston is negligible.
Ans. 889 N
 14

3-e. Hydrostatic force acting on submerged surfaces

When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to the fluid. The determination
of these forces is important in the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and other hydraulic structures. Engineers
must calculate forces exerted by fluids in order to design these structures satisfactorily.

3-e.1. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

Horizontal Surface

FR = pA = γhA
where: FR = resultant force acting through the centroid of
the area
p = the uniform pressure at the bottom
γ = unit weight of fluid
h = height of liquid from the free surface
A = area of the bottom

Inclined Surface
In the figure, assume that the fluid
surface is open to the atmosphere. Let the
plane in which the surface lies intersect
the free surface at O and make an angle θ
with this surface. The x–y coordinate
system is defined so that O is the origin
and y = 0 (i.e., the x-axis) is directed along
the surface as shown. The area can have
an arbitrary shape as shown. The
direction, location, and magnitude of the
resultant force acting on one side of this
area due to the liquid in contact with the
area is to be determined. At any given
depth, h, the force acting on dA is dF = γh
dA and is perpendicular to the surface.
Thus, the magnitude of the resultant force
can be found by summing these
differential forces over the entire surface.
In equation form
FR    hdA    y sin dA
A A
where h = y sin θ. For constant γ and θ,
FR   sin   y dA
A

The integral appearing in the last equation is the first moment of the area with respect to the x-axis, so we can
write
 y dA  yc A
A
where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of area A measured from the x axis which passes through O.
Therefore, FR   A yc sin
or FR   hc A
where hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the area.
 15

Note that the magnitude of the force is independent of the angle θ. It depends only on the specific weight
of the fluid, the total area, and the depth of the centroid of the area below the surface. In effect, the above equation
indicates that the magnitude of the resultant force is equal to the pressure at the centroid of the area multiplied by
the total area. Since all the differential forces that were summed to obtain FR are perpendicular to the surface, the
resultant FR must also be perpendicular to the surface.
The y coordinate, yR, of the point of application of the resultant force can be determined by summation of
moments around the x axis. That is, the moment of the resultant force must equal the moment of the distributed
pressure force, or
FR y R   ydF    y 2 sin dA
A A
but FR = γ A yc sin θ, then
 y dA
2

yR  A
yc A
From calculus, y dA  I x, which is the second moment of the area (moment of inertia), with respect to an axis
2
A
formed by the intersection of the plane containing the surface and the free surface (x axis). Thus,
Ix
yR 
yc A
We can use the parallel axis theorem to express Ix as
I x  I c  Ay c2
Note that Ic is the second moment of the area with respect to an axis passing through its centroid and parallel to
the x axis. Thus,
I
y R  c  yc
yc A
This equation shows that the resultant force does not pass through the centroid but, for nonhorizontal surfaces, is
always below it.
Following similar steps, we can find the x coordinate, xR, of the point of application of the resultant force.
Thus,
FR x R   xdF    xysin dA
A A
and, therefore,
xR 
A xydA  I xy
yc A yc A
where Ixy is the product of inertia with respect to the x and y axes. Again, using the parallel axis theorem, we can
write
I xyc
xR   xc
yc A
where Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal coordinate system passing through the centroid of
the area formed by a translation of the x-y coordinate system. If the submerged area is symmetrical with respect to
an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to either the x or y axes, the resultant force must lie along the line
x = xc, since Ixyc is identically zero in this case. The point through which the resultant force acts is called the center
of pressure.
 16

Centroidal coordinates and moments of inertia for some common areas

Pressure Prism
Consider the pressure distribution along a vertical wall of a tank of constant width b, which contains a
liquid having a specific weight γ. Since the pressure must vary linearly with depth, we can represent the variation
as is shown in the figure, where the pressure is equal to zero at the upper surface and equal to γh at the bottom. It
is apparent from this diagram that the average pressure occurs at the depth h/2 and therefore the resultant force
acting on the rectangular area A = bh is
h
FR  pave A     A
2
The pressure distribution shown applies
across the vertical surface so we can draw
the three-dimensional representation of the
pressure distribution as shown. The base of
this “volume” in pressure-area space is the
plane surface of interest, and its altitude at
each point is the pressure.
This volume is called the pressure prism, and it is clear that the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the
rectangular surface is equal to the volume of the pressure prism. The resultant force must pass through the
centroid of the pressure prism.
 17

EXERCISES:

1. A submersible has a viewing window that is 60 cm in diameter. Determine the pressure force of the water on
the window if the center of the window is 30 m below the surface and the window is (a) horizontal,
(b) vertical, and (c) on a 45° angle.

2. A vertical rectangular gate is 8 ft wide and 10 ft long and weighs 6000 lb. The gate slides in vertical slots in
the side of a reservoir containing water. The coefficient of friction between the slots and the gate is 0.03.
Determine the minimum vertical force required to lift the gate when the water level is 4 ft above the top edge
of the gate. Ans. 7,200 lb

3. A horizontal 2-m-diameter conduit is half filled with a liquid (SG = 1.6) and is capped at both ends with plane
vertical surfaces. The air pressure in the conduit above the liquid surface is 200 kPa. Determine the resultant
force of the fluid acting on one of the end caps, and locate this force relative to the bottom of the conduit.
Ans. 639 kN; 0.99 m

4. A structure is attached to the ocean floor as shown in the figure. A 2-m-diameter hatch is located in an
inclined wall and hinged on one edge. Determine the minimum air pressure, p1, within the container that will
open the hatch. Neglect the weight of the hatch and friction in the hinge. Ans. 107 kPa

5. A homogeneous 4-ft wide, 8-ft long rectangular gate weighing 800 lb is held in place by a horizontal flexible
cable as shown in the figure. Water acts against the gate which is hinged at point A. Friction in the hinge is
negligible. Determine the tension in the cable. Ans. 1,350 lb

6. An area in the form of an isosceles triangle with a base width of 6 ft and an altitude of 8 ft lies in the plane
forming one wall of a tank which contains a liquid having a specific weight of 79.8 lb/ft3. The side slopes
upward, making an angle of 60° with the horizontal. The base of the triangle is horizontal and the vertex is
above the base. Determine the resultant force the fluid exerts on the area when the fluid depth is 20 ft above
the base of the triangular area. Locate the center of pressure. Ans. 33,900 lb acting at 2.49 ft above the base of
the triangle
 18

7. A gate having the cross section shown in the figure closes an opening 5 ft wide and 4 ft high in a water
reservoir. The gate weighs 500 lb and its center of gravity is 1 ft to the left of AC and 2 ft above BC.
Determine the horizontal reaction that is developed on the gate at C. Ans. 6,330 lb

8. An open tank has a vertical partition and on one side contains gasoline with density 700 kg/m 3 at a depth of
4 m, as shown. A rectangular gate that is 4 m high and 2 m wide and hinged at one end is located in the
partition. Water is slowly added to the empty side of the tank. At what depth, h, will the gate start to open?
Ans. 3.55 m

9. The gate shown is hinged at H. The gate is 3 m wide normal to the plane of the diagram. Calculate the force
required at A to hold the gate closed. Ans. 111 kN

10. As water rises on the left side of the rectangular gate, the gate will open automatically. At what depth above
the hinge will this occur? Neglect the mass of the gate. Ans. 8.66 ft
 19

3-e.2. Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

Liquid is above the surface

Hydrostatic force acting on the upper side of the curved surface AC:

Horizontal component:
FH = resultant force of liquid acting on vertically projected
projected area, BC, and acting through the center of
pressure of F.
Vertical component:
FV = weight of liquid vertically above the surface (ADEC) and
through the center of gravity of the liquid mass.
Resultant force:

√𝐹𝐻 2 + 𝐹𝑉 2 ; pointing downward at an angle of

𝐹𝑉
𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛 from the horizontal
𝐹𝐻

Liquid is below the surface

Hydrostatic force acting on the underside of the curved surface AB:

Horizontal component:
FH = resultant force of liquid acting on vertically projected
projected area, AB, and acting through the center of
pressure of F.
Vertical component:
FV = weight of imaginary liquid vertically above the surface
(ADCB) and through the center of gravity of the liquid
mass.
Resultant force:

√𝐹𝐻 2 + 𝐹𝑉 2 ; pointing upward at an angle of

𝐹𝑉
𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛 from the horizontal
𝐹𝐻
 20

EXERCISES:

1. The gate shown is 3 m wide and considered massless. For what depth of water will this rectangular gate be in
equilibrium as shown? Ans. 2.66 m

2. Liquid concrete (SG = 2.5) is poured into the form (R = 2 ft). The form is 15 ft wide normal to the diagram.
Compute the magnitude of the vertical force exerted on the form by the concrete and specify its line of action.
Ans. 2011 lb at 1.553 ft from point O

3. A gate in the shape of a quarter-cylinder, hinged at A and sealed at B, is 3 m wide. The bottom of the gate is
4.5 m below the water surface. Determine the force on the stop at B if the gate is made of concrete (SG = 2.4)
and R = 3 m. Ans. 278 kN

4. Consider the cylindrical weir of diameter 3 m and length 6 m. If the fluid on the left has a specific gravity of
1.6, and on the right has a specific gravity of 0.8, find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Ans. 557 kN

5. A Tainter gate used to control water flow from the Uniontown Dam on the Ohio River is shown in the figure.
The gate width is 35 m. Determine the magnitude, direction, and line of action of the force from the water
acing on the gate. Ans. 1.824 ×104 kN passing through the pivot at 19.9° from the horizontal
 21

6. a 3-m diameter open cylindrical tank contains water and has a hemispherical bottom as shown. Determine the
magnitude, line of action, and direction of the force of the water on the curved bottom. Ans. 4485 kN

7. The gate shown is hinged at H. The gate is 3 m wide normal to the plane of the diagram. Calculate the force
required at A to hold the gate closed. Ans. 111 kN

8. A 2-ft-diameter sphere weighing 400 lb closes a 1-ft-diameter hole in the bottom of the tank. Compute the
force F required to dislodge the sphere from the hole.

3-e.3. Dams
Dams – a structure built for impounding water; hence subjected to hydrostatic forces which tend to
a. slide the dam horizontally on its foundation, which is resisted by the friction force at the base of the dam
b. overturn the dam about its downstream edge or toe, resisted by the gravitational forces which produce
moment opposite in direction to the overturning moment
The dam is also subjected to a hydrostatic uplift caused by seepage under the dam which
a. reduces the stability against sliding
b. reduces the stability against overturning
c. reduces the total earth or rock pressure on the base

EXERCISES:
 22

1. A masonry dam of trapezoidal cross section, with one face vertical, has a thickness of 2 ft at the top and 10 ft
at the bottom. It is 22 ft high and has a horizontal base. The inclined face is subjected to water pressure, the
water standing to a depth of 15 ft above the base. The weight of the masonry is 150 lb/ft 3. If there is no
hydrostatic uplift, where will the resultant pressure intersect the base? Ans. 2.41 ft from the toe

2. Water backs up behind a concrete dam as shown in the figure. Leakage under the foundation gives a pressure
distribution under the dam as indicated. If the water depth, h, is too great, the dam will topple over about its
toe. For the dimensions given, determine the maximum water depth if the width of the dam is 50 ft. The
specific weight of concrete is 150 lb/ft3. Ans. 81.1 ft

3. A concrete dam retaining 6 m of water is shown in the figure. The unit weight of the concrete is 23.5 kN/m 3.
The foundation soil is impermeable. Determine a) the factor of safety against sliding; b) the factor of safety
against overturning; and c) the pressure intensity on the base of the dam. The coefficient of friction between
the base of the dam and the foundation soil is 0.48. Ans. a) 1.34; b) 3.42; c) pA = 173.4 kPa, pB = 73.4 kPa

4. The concrete seawall (γ = 150 lb/ft3) has a curved surface and restrains seawater at a depth of 24 ft. The trace
of the surface is a parabola as illustrated. Determine the moment of the fluid force (per unit length with
respect to an axis through the toe (point A). Ans. 25,200 lb-ft
 23

3-f. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability

3-f.1. Archimedes’ Principle

Buoyant force
When a stationary body is completely submerged in a fluid, or floating so that it is only partially
submerged, the resultant fluid force acting on the body is called buoyant force. This is a net upward vertical
force, which results because pressure increases with depth and the pressure forces acting from below are larger
than the pressure forces acting from above.
In general, any body immersed in a fluid is subjected to a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced and is directed vertically downward. This is commonly known as the Archimedes’ Principle.

𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝑉 (2) − 𝐹𝑉 (1)
𝐹𝐵 = 𝛾𝑉 ; where FB = buoyant force
γ = specific weight of fluid
V = volume of the body

When only a portion of the body is submerged with the remainder out of the free surface; hence the body
is floating, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the floating body. That is, a floating body displaces its own
weight in the fluid in which it floats.

FB = γ (displaced volume)
= weight of the floating body

Not only does the buoyant force equal the body weight, but also they are collinear since there can be no
net moments for static equilibrium.

EXERCISES:

1. A block of concrete weighs 100 lb in air and weighs only 60 lb when immersed in fresh water. What is the
average specific weight of the block? Ans. 156 lb/ft3

2. A freshly cut log floats with one fourth of its volume protruding above the water surface. Determine the
specific weight of the log. Ans. 46.8 lb/ft3

3. An irregularly shaped piece of a solid material weighs 8.05 lb in air and 5.26 lb when completely submerged
in water. Determine the density of the material. Ans. 5.60 slugs/ft3

4. A river barge, whose cross section is approximately rectangular, carries a load of grain. The barge is 28 ft
wide and 90 ft. When unloaded, its draft is 5 ft, and with the load of grain, the draft is 7 ft. Determine the
unloaded weight of the barge and the weight of the grain. Ans. 786,000 lb; 315,000 lb
 24

5. Two spheres, each of 1.5 m diameter, weigh 8 kN and 24 kN respectively. They are connected with a short
rope and placed in water. a) What is the tension in the rope and what portion of the lighter sphere’s volume
protrudes from the water? b) What should be the weight of the heavier sphere in order for the lighter sphere to
float halfway out of the water? Assume that the sphere volumes remain constant. Ans. a) 6.66 kN; b) 18 kN

6. A hydrometer is a specific gravity indicator, the value being indicated by the level at which the free surface
intersects the stem when floating in a liquid. The 1.0 mark is the level when in distilled water. For the unit
shown, the immersed volume in distilled water is 15 cm3. The stem is 6mmin diameter. Find the distance, h,
from the 1.0 mark to the surface when the hydrometer is placed in a nitric acid solution of specific gravity 1.5.
Ans. h = 177⋅mm

7. A 1-m diameter cylindrical mass M is connected to a 2-m wide rectangular gate as shown in the figure. The
gate is to open when the water level, h, drops below 2.5 m. Determine the required value for M. Neglect
friction at the gate hinge and the pulley. Ans. 2480 kg

8. A 2-ft thick block constructed of wood (SG = 0.6) is submerged in oil (SG = 0.8) and has a 2-ft thick
aluminum plate (γ = 168 lb/ft3) attached to the bottom as indicated in the figure. Determine completely the
force required to hold the block in the position shown. Locate the force with respect to point A. Ans. 6.22 ft

9. A bowl is inverted symmetrically and held in a dense fluid, SG = 15.6, to a depth of 200 mm measured along
the centerline of the bowl from the bowl rim. The bowl height is 80 mm, and the fluid rises 20 mm inside the
bowl. The bowl is 100 mm inside diameter, and it is made from an old clay recipe, SG = 6.1. The volume of
the bowl itself is about 0.9 liters. What is the force required to hold it in place? Ans. 159.4 N
 25

10. An 8 in. diameter solid cylinder 3 in. high weighing 3.4 lb is immersed in liquid (γ = 52 lb/ft3) contained in a
tall, upright metal cylinder of 9 in. diameter. Before immersion, the liquid was 3 in deep (x + z). At what level
will the solid cylinder float? Find the distance z between the bottoms of the two cylinders. Ans. 2.53 in.

3-f.2. Stability
A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium position if, when displaced
(even slightly), it returns to its equilibrium. Conversely, it is in an unstable
position if, when displaced (even slightly), it moves to a new equilibrium position.
Stability considerations are particularly important for submerged or floating bodies
since the centers of buoyancy and gravity do not necessarily coincide. A small
rotation can result in either a restoring or overturning couple.

Stability of completely submerged bodies

 If CG (center of gravity of the body) is below c (center of buoyancy):

A rotation from its equilibrium position will create a restoring couple formed by the weight W,
and the buoyant force FB, which causes the body to rotate back to its original position; hence, the body is
in a stable equilibrium position with respect to small rotations.
 If CG is above c:
The resulting couple formed by the weight and the buoyant force will cause the body to overturn
and move to a new equilibrium position; hence, the body is unstable.
Stability of floating bodies
For floating bodies, the stability problem is more complicated, since as body rotates the location of the
center of buoyancy (which passes through the centroid of the displaced volume) may change. A floating body
- If CG is above c
such as a barge that rides low in the water can be stable even CG lies above the center of buoyancy. This is true
since as the body rotates the buoyancy force FB, shifts to pass through the centroid of the newly displaced volume,
- The resulting couple form
combines with the weight, to form a couple which will cause the body to turn to its original equilibrium position.

by the weight and

buoyant force will cause
body to overturn and m
to a new equilibr
 26

However, for the case of a relatively tall, slender body, a small rotational displacement can cause the
buoyant force and the weight to form an overturning couple as shown in the figure below.

The center of the buoyancy (C, the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid) of a floating body depends
on the shape of the body and on the position in which it is floating. If the body is disturbed by a small angle of
heel, the center of buoyancy changes because the shape of the submerged volume is changed. The point of
intersection of the lines of action of the buoyancy force before and after heel is called the metacenter (M) and the
distance between the center of gravity (G) and M, is called the metacentric height (GM).
If the metacentre, M, lies above the centre of gravity, G, then the body is stable (GM is positive. If the
metacenter lies below the centre of gravity, then the body is unstable (GM is negative).

The expression for the metacentric height GM is

I o o
GM   CG
V
where: Io-o is the moment of inertia of the waterline area about the axis of disturbance
V is volume of the displaced liquid

EXERCISES:

1. The figure shows a flatboat hull, and the top, front, and side views of the boat. When fully loaded, it weighs
150 kN. Determine whether the boat is stable in fresh water.
 27

2. A solid cylinder is 0.91 m in diameter, is 1.83 m high, and weighs 6.90 kN. If the cylinder is placed in oil
(SG = 0.1) with its axis vertical, would it be stable?

3. A solid, half-cylinder shaped log, of 1.50 ft radius and 10 ft long, floats in water with the flat face up. a) If the
draft is 0.90 ft, what is the uniform specific weight of the log? b) The log tilts about its axis by less than 23°.
Is it in stable equilibrium? c) If the log tilts by 20°, what is the magnitude and sense of any moment that
results?