A T E C H N I C A L H I S TO RY O F

IMAGE PROCESSING

LENSES

VOL. 2
In order to achieve stable image processing, it is essential to have the right selection of lenses
best suited for the application based on the knowledge of lens characteristics. There are
many different types of lenses, each of which provides different effects, and are categorized
according to their shape and material characteristics. This booklet introduces the history of the
lens from its early origins to today.

1. Creation of Concave and Convex Lenses

The word lens comes from the Latin name lentil, native to the Mediterranean area. It is an example of an imported
word that was called ‘tokyo (transparent mirror)’ by Japan during World War II. Its origin can be traced back to the
crystal or glass balls used as fire-making tools at religious ceremonies or as accessories in ancient civilizations. It is
generally accepted that the origin of the lens can be traced back to the ancient Roman philosopher, Seneca, who
described, “letters could be magnified by a ball of crystal” about 2000 years ago.
The lens works using a principle known as light “refraction”: the light bends and changes its direction of travel. The
convex lens, which is spherically-shaped with a thicker middle part, converges rays of light; while the concave lens,
which has a hour glass shape with a thicker periphery, diverges rays of light.

When a nearby When a distant

Traveling light rays
object is seen object is seen

A A
Function of the
convex lens
A
A

Converging light rays on one point

A A
Function of the
concave lens
A A

Diverging light rays

Fig. 1 Mechanism of refraction and functions of concave and convex lenses

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2. Uses of Concave and Convex Lenses
The lens has been evolving through two fields: the eyeglasses we wear daily in our lives, and tool applications such
as lenses used for microscopes, telescopes, and cameras. The first eyeglasses, put into practical use in the 13th
Century, were actually a reading glass (simple magnifier) using the convex lens. In the beginning, it was called the
“devil’s tool”. Meanwhile, eyeglasses with two lenses appeared, and eyeglasses for myopia (nearsightedness) using
concave lenses were invented in the 16th Century.
Which was invented first, the microscope or the telescope?
The correct answer is the microscope, it was invented at the end of the 16th Century. Subsequently an Englishman,
Hooke, developed a compound microscope using two convex lenses (objective lens and ocular), and in almost the
same period, a single lens microscope was first developed in the Netherlands. The telescope was invented by a
Dutchman, Lippershey, who used a convex lens as an objective lens and a concave lens as an ocular lens. It was
Galileo who immediately refined this invention and used it for astronomical observations; he was able to use this
device to discover the rings of Saturn. Also, a German astronomer, Kepler, devised the Keplerian telescope that used
convex lenses as both objective and ocular lens.

(a) Mechanism of myopia (b) When corrected with a concave lens

An image of a distant object is formed in front of An image of a distant object is formed on the
the retina. retina after divergence with a concave lens.

Eyeball
Concave lens

Crystalline lens Retina Retina

An image is formed here. An image is formed here.

Longer than 25 cm
several meters Far point Near point

Range of clear vision

Fig. 2 Mechanisms of myopia and eyeglasses with concave lens

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 (a) Mechanism of presbyopia (b) When corrected with a convex lens
An image of a nearby object is formed behind An image is formed on the retina by preventing
the retina. a near point from becoming more distant with a
convex lens.

Convex lens

An image is formed here. An image is formed here.

25 cm
Near point

Range of clear vision

Fig. 3 Mechanisms of presbyopia (farsightedness) and eyeglasses with convex lens

3. Types of lenses
The concave and convex lenses are subdivided into many different types including: the spherical lens with a
rounded surface, aspherical lens with curved surface profiles that are not spherical, cylindrical lens with a hog-
backed profile, a toroidal lens that is shaped like a part of a donut, and the Fresnel lens with a washboard-like
surface. On these lenses the light is refracted on the surface of the lens. While there are other types of lenses
including the GRIN lens (gradient index lens) that produces optical effects by providing a gradual variation of the
refraction index to the lens material and not by refraction on the lens surface or the diffractive lens that utilizes the
phenomenon of the spreading out the light waves. The GRIN lens is often used for endoscopies and the diffractive
lens for CD and DVD players.

Spherical lens
Aspherical lens
Lens utilizing refraction
Cylindrical lens
on the surface
Toroidal lens
Fresnel lens

Lens using a mechanism other than GRIN lens (gradient index lens)
refraction on the surface Diffractive lens

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 All lenses shown below utilize refraction on the lens surface.

Optical axis

(a) Convex lens (b) Concave lens

Focal point
Focal point

Optical axis Optical axis

Aspherical lens Fresnel lens

The thin lens on the right is formed by finely chopping the

thick lens on the left. The effect of both lenses is equivalent
to each other.

Focal point This lens is used for

lighthouses since it can cast
a strong parallel light into far
off distances.

t1 t2 t1 > t 2

Toroidal surface Cylindrical lens

This cutout becomes A-B surface: lens

a lens. C-D surface: no lens effect

Enlarged view D
A
Large
curvature
(part of a donut-shaped lens)
C B

Small Hog-backed shape

curvature Toroidal
surface
A lens with a cylindrical face is often used where fine scale
marks must be read.

Fig. 4 Types of lens shapes

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4. Change in Lens Materials: from Glass to Plastics
Early lenses and crystal were luxury items that were not easy to obtain. The production of glass lenses started to
increase due to the improvement of glass-making techniques in the 12th Century; then in the 19th Century the
high transparency optical glass lens was invented. The optical lens played the key role in the 20th Century, and
now there are over 200 types of them. They can be roughly divided into two types: the crown glass type with low
refraction index which contains soda lime and the flint glass type with a higher refraction index which contains lead.
The optical plastic lens appeared in the early 20th Century, but the light transmission rate and refraction index were
low on the early models. It spread rapidly after thermosetting plastic was developed in the 1940s. Following this new
development, thermoplastic lenses were made to have transparency comparable to optical glass, but only weighed
half as much. This plastic lens contributed to the development of contact lenses and instant cameras because it is
easy to mold, hard to break, and inexpensive to make. Recently these lenses have been used in eyeglasses and
cell phone cameras. Other lens materials include quartz, fluorite, optically transparent ceramics, infrared-transparent
halite, silicones and germanium.

Fig. 5 Optical lens (Crown glass, Flint glass)

Refraction index Abbe’s number (Dispersion) Properties of materials

Crown glass Small Large (Small) Hard and light

Flint glass Large Small (Large) Soft and heavy

5. Change in Camera Lenses: from Single Focus to Zoom

When a lens consists of a single optical element, it is called a “simple lens”; a lens made up of a number of optical
elements is called a “compound lens”. After 1839 when the first silver halide camera, a daguerreotype, was
invented, the compound lens technology improved tremendously, spurring the development of new types of lenses.
These lens types include the Davidson type in which two joined meniscus lenses were placed symmetrically, the
Petzval type which shortened the time required for photographing, the Triplet type with three separable lenses
that succeeded the Petzval type, the Tessar type and the Sonnar type. In the 20th Century, the zoom lens was
invented. The arrival of the zoom lens that can change focal lengths within one lens marked a breakthrough in the
development of high performance lenses. These lenses cover a wide field of view using standard, wide angle, and
telephoto focal lengths as well as high magnification. Subsequently, many types of variants were developed due
to further enhanced magnification, weight reduction, and downsizing. The lens world has also entered a period of
systemization.

Imaging plane

Distance between these two Lens barrel Lens barrel Distance between these two Lens barrel
lenses is short. lenses is short.

(a) Wide-angle lens Wide angle of view (b) Standard lens (c) Telephoto lens Narrow angle of view

Fig. 6 Mechanisms of various camera lenses and zoom lens

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6. Latest Lens Technology
Lenses are used in just about every electronic device: for example, the collimating lens in a CD-ROM drive that
reads red LED laser beams, the scanning lens in laser printers, and the lens in the optical fiber scope that is used
for barcode readers and endoscopes. Another example is the projection lens of a cutting-edge stepper (Step-and-
Repeat projection exposure system) that enables semiconductor processing in micron scale is a precision lens
made of layers of top-quality vitreous silica. It is known as the “king of lenses”.

In summary, one might ask, “What is the best camera lens in human history?” The answer is “a human eye
(crystalline lens)”, which freely adjusts its thickness to gain an appropriate focal length. In fact, the state-of-the-art
lens, modeled on the crystalline lens, is now under development. It is called a liquid lens. This lens made from two
kinds of fluid of different conductivity, insulation property, and refraction index can freely change the focal length
by adjusting the thickness and form of the lens using surface tension effects. Since it requires neither a focusing
mechanism nor a drive unit, it is expected to be used in an array of applications through a wide range of industries
from home electronics and medical equipment to the security field.

When no voltage is applied When voltage is applied

Insulant Hydrophobic Incident light

membrane Insulating fluid

Electrode Conducting
fluid
Glass

Light diverges. Light converges.

Fig. 7 Mechanisms of Liquid Lens Technology

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The information in this publication is based on KEYENCE’s internal research/evaluation at the time of release and is subject to change without notice.
Copyright (c) 2012 KEYENCE CORPORATION. All rights reserved. TechHistory2-KA-EN0717-US 1082-2 611674 Printed in Japan
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