CLASSIFICATION OF HEART SOUNDS — Heart sounds are broadly classified into high-
and low-frequency sounds.
High-frequency sounds arise from closing or opening valves, including mitral and
tricuspid valve closing sounds (M1 and T1), non-ejection sounds, opening snaps,
aortic and pulmonary valve closure sounds (A2 and P2), and early valvular ejection
sounds. Prosthetic valve sounds are also high frequency. (See 'First heart sound (S1)'
below and 'Second heart sound (S2)' below and 'Ejection sounds' below and 'Non-
ejection systolic sounds' below and 'Early diastolic high-frequency sounds' below
and 'Prosthetic valve sounds' below.)
Low-frequency sounds include the third heart sound (S3, which may be physiologic
or pathologic), associated with early ventricular filling, and the fourth heart sound
(S4), associated with the atrial contribution to ventricular filling in late diastole. (See
'Third (S3) and fourth (S4) heart sounds' below.)
Genesis, timing, and location of S1 — The classic hypothesis for the genesis of the
first heart sound (S1), for which there is much support, relates the high-frequency
components of S1 to mitral and tricuspid valve closure. The first component of S1 is
attributed to mitral valve closure (M1) and the second to closure of the tricuspid
valve (T1) [7-10]. More detailed examination of closure sounds also suggest that the
peak tension on the chordae tendineae and leaflets themselves appear to
contribute to the production of M1 and T1 [11,12]. A second hypothesis suggests
that the principal high-frequency elements of S1 are related to movement and
acceleration of blood in early systole, and are influenced by the peak rate of rise of
left ventricular (LV) systolic pressure (dP/dt), which is a measure of contractility and
ejection of blood into the root of the aorta [13].
S1 occurs just before or is coincident with the upstroke of the carotid pulse. M1
precedes the upstroke of the carotid pulse because it occurs before LV ejection
begins. However, the delay between M1 and the upstroke of the carotid pulse
normally is too short to be appreciated at the bedside. T1 normally coincides with
the upstroke of the carotid pulse.
S1 normally is louder than the second heart sound (S2) over the apex and along the
lower left sternal border; intensity is reduced if S1 is softer than S2 over these areas.
S1 intensity is likely to be accentuated if S1 is much louder than S2 over the left or
right second interspace. The M1 sound is much louder than the T1 sound due to
higher pressures in the left side of the heart; thus, M1 radiates to all precordial areas
(loudest at the apex), and T1 is usually only heard at the left lower sternal border.
This makes the M1 sound the main component of S1, and is best heard with the
diaphragm of the stethoscope.
●Mitral valve position at the onset of systole (wide versus partially open).
●Mobility and structural integrity of the atrioventricular (AV) valves (eg, fibrosis,
commissural fusion of the leaflets, tethering of the posterior mitral leaflet, etc).
Some of these factors, such as the rate of M1 and the strength of ventricular systole,
are interrelated; more than one factor may contribute to altered S1 intensity.
The relative contribution of the distance of travel and the velocity of M1 to increased
S1 intensity is difficult to determine; both factors are likely to play a role. When M1
occurs on the steeper part of the LV pressure development, the intensity of S1
increases; this phenomenon may also contribute to an accentuated S1 observed in
patients with extremely short PR intervals, mitral stenosis, and left atrial myxoma
(figure 1)[14].
Similarly, S1 is normal or even accentuated in patients with mitral valve prolapse with
late systolic regurgitation. Increased intensity of S1 in some patients with mitral valve
prolapse syndrome may be caused by an increased strength of ventricular systole
(hyperkinetic).
The increased intensity of T1 in atrial septal defect and tricuspid valve obstruction
(eg, tricuspid stenosis, right atrial myxoma) can also be explained by the same
phenomenon. The tricuspid valve is held open by increased transvalvular flow and
the transvalvular gradient until final closure with increased velocity occurs with right
ventricular (RV) systole.
•S1 is very soft or absent when mitral regurgitation (MR) results from fibrosis and
destruction of the valve leaflets (as in patients with rheumatic valve disease), which
prevent effective M1. In contrast, MR due to perforation of the valve leaflets from
bacterial endocarditis may not be associated with a reduced intensity of S1.
•Reduced S1 intensity occurs when the mitral valve remains in the semi-closed
position before the onset of ventricular systole, and the velocity of valve closure is
decreased. S1 is usually soft when the PR interval is prolonged (exceeding 0.2
seconds) since semi-closure of the mitral valve occurs following atrial systole and
before ventricular systole begins. Premature closure of the mitral valve can occur in
patients with severe acute aortic regurgitation due to a rapid rise in LV diastolic
pressure; the mitral valve may be virtually closed at the onset of systole, resulting in
a markedly decreased intensity of or even absent S1 [15]. (See "Acute aortic
regurgitation in adults", section on 'Cardiac auscultation'.)
•S1 is soft in some patients with left bundle branch block without any other obvious
abnormality; the mechanism is unclear. Decreased valve closure velocity due to
myocardial dysfunction is possible.
•Hemodynamically significant aortic stenosis may be associated with a soft S1; this
can occur in the absence of spreading calcification to the mitral valve and in the
presence of a normal PR interval [14]. Semi-closure of the mitral valve due to a
powerful atrial contraction and an abnormally elevated LV diastolic pressure before
the onset of ventricular systole is the most likely explanation.
•S1 is frequently soft in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy, even in the absence
of a prolonged PR interval or bundle branch block. The decreased S1 is almost
invariably associated with a significantly reduced LV ejection fraction (LVEF) and
elevated pulmonary capillary wedge pressure. The mechanism for a soft S1 in these
patients remains unclear; semi-closure of the mitral valve due to an elevated LV
diastolic pressure and decreased velocity of valve closure due to myocardial
dysfunction may contribute.
•Decreased conduction of sounds through the chest wall reduces the intensity of
S1 in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, obesity, and pericardial
effusion.
•Auscultatory alternans, in which S1 is soft and loud with alternate beats, is a rare
finding in severe cardiac tamponade; it is almost always associated with electrical
alternans and pulsus paradoxus. Although the pulse is regular, changes in the
intensity of S1 occur regularly with the alternate beats and not randomly as in AV
dissociation.
Splitting of S1 — There are normally two components of S1: The mitral component
precedes the carotid pulse upstroke, and the tricuspid component occurs later. The
interval between M1 and T1 is 0.02 to 0.03 seconds, and can be appreciated with
the diaphragm of the stethoscope along the lower left sternal border [7]. The mitral
component is much louder than the tricuspid component and is normally heard
more widely across the precordium; the tricuspid component is of low intensity and
is best heard over the left third and fourth interspaces close to the sternal border.
Abnormal splitting of S1 can result from conduction disturbances (eg, complete right
bundle branch block), and/or hemodynamiccauses (eg, atrial septal defect with
large left to right shunt).
The onset of A2 occurs with the dicrotic notch of the aortic root pressure pulse
[19,20]. S2 occurs after the peak of the carotid pulse and coincides with its
downslope.
The two components of S2 are best heard with the diaphragm of the stethoscope
and over the left second interspace, close to the sternal border. A2 is widely
transmitted to the right second interspace, along the left and right sternal border,
and to the cardiac apex. P2 is normally best heard and recorded over the upper
left sternal border and is poorly transmitted. S2 is best heard when patients are semi-
recumbent (30 to 40 degrees upright) with quiet inspiration.
•Systemic hypertension.
•When the aortic root is relatively anterior and closer to the anterior chest wall, as in
tetralogy of Fallot and transposition of the great arteries.
•Atrial septal defect (ASD); P2 is increased considerably and frequently greater than
A2 over the left second interspace.
•Conditions that affect the mobility and integrity of the aortic valve
•Hypotension
•Conditions that affect the mobility and integrity of the pulmonary valve.
•Significant RV outflow obstruction associated with a soft and delayed P2. The low
pulmonary artery pressures also play a role in attenuating P2.
•Hemodynamic causes:
-Isolated reduction of the LV ejection time may also cause wide splitting of S2, due
to the early occurrence of A2. Examples of this hemodynamic abnormality include
severe MR when forward stroke volume decreases with increases in regurgitant
volume [24]. In constrictive pericarditis, differential filling of the ventricles occurs
during inspiration, resulting in a lower LV stroke volume [25].
●Wide and fixed splitting of S2 – Fixed splitting of S2 has been defined as ≤20 ms of
variation in the A2-P2 interval between the inspiratory and expiratory phases of
respiration [26]. However, such limitation in variation of splitting may be difficult to
discern clinically, so wide and variable splitting may be difficult to distinguish from
wide and fixed splitting.
The mechanism of wide expiratory splitting of S2 in ASD appears to result from two
physiological mechanisms. First, P2 is delayed due to a marked increase in RV stroke
volume (left-to-right shunt), which prolongs right-sided ejection. Second, when the
right and left atria become a near common chamber, differential filling that
normally occurs between the RV and LV during inspiration no longer exists (table 2)
[26,27].
The other cause of fixed splitting of S2 is RV failure, when the RV is unable to vary its
stroke volume during inspiration, and inspiratory prolongation of its ejection time and
delay of P2 does not occur. Therefore, any condition that induces severe RV failure,
such as RV outflow obstruction, PH, and primary RV dysfunction, can be associated
with fixed splitting (table 2).
•Hemodynamic factors:
Single S2 — A single S2 may result from the absence of either of the two components
of S2 or from the fusion of A2 and P2 without inspiratory splitting (table 2).
●Absence of A2 is occasionally observed in severe calcific aortic stenosis with an
immobile aortic valve. A2 may be absent in some patients with severe AR due to
destruction of the valve leaflets. (See "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of aortic
stenosis in adults", section on 'Cardiac auscultation' and "Clinical manifestations and
diagnosis of chronic aortic regurgitation in adults", section on 'Cardiac
auscultation'.)
●P2 is absent with congenital absence of the pulmonary valve, pulmonary atresia,
or truncus arteriosus. In severe pulmonary valve stenosis or in tetralogy of Fallot, P2
may be markedly attenuated and escape recognition by auscultation. (See
"Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of pulmonic stenosis in adults", section on
'Clinical manifestations' and "Pathophysiology, clinical features, and diagnosis of
tetralogy of Fallot", section on 'Cardiac auscultation'.)
●A2 is delayed and may be fused with P2 with aortic stenosis (movie 6). Fusion of A2
and P2 without inspiratory splitting occurs in Eisenmenger syndrome with VSD and in
patients with a single ventricle. (See "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of aortic
stenosis in adults", section on 'Cardiac auscultation' and "Evaluation and prognosis
of Eisenmenger syndrome", section on 'Physical examination'.)
However, a truly single S2 is rare. An apparently single S2 usually results from the
inability to hear or record P2 due to emphysema, obesity, or pericardial effusion.
●S3 occurs as the rapid filling phase of diastole is completed [31]. It appears to be
related to a sudden limitation of the movement during ventricular filling along its
long axis [32], and it coincides with the y descent of the atrial pressure pulse,
occurring usually 0.14 to 0.16 seconds after the second heart sound (S2).
●S4 occurs during the atrial filling phase after the P wave on the electrocardiogram
(ECG) and coincides with atrial systole and a waves of the atrial pressure pulse, and
with the apical impulse.
S3 and S4 are best heard with the bell of the stethoscope. Auscultation over the
cardiac apex in the left lateral decubitus position is preferable for identification of
LV S3 and S4. RV S3 and S4 are best heard along the lower left sternal border;
occasionally, right-sided filling sounds are also heard over the lower right sternal
border and over the epigastrium. The intensity of S3 and S4 of RV origin usually
increases during inspiration, while that of LV origin remains unchanged. S3 is closer
to S2, and S4 occurs prior to the first heart sound (S1).
LV gallops
The presence of an S3 gallop also has prognostic significance, being associated with
a higher risk of progression to symptomatic HF in those with asymptomatic LV
dysfunction, and a higher risk of hospitalization for HF or death from pump failure in
patients with overt HF [41,42]. One limitation to these observations is the operator
dependence for the detection of this physical finding.
S4 can be heard in many healthy older adults without any other cardiac
abnormality, due to decreased ventricular compliance with age. An S4 is always
abnormal when it is palpable, regardless of patient age.
An S4 is heard in the vast majority of patients during the acute phase of myocardial
infarction (MI) [47]. Although pulmonary venous pressure may also be elevated,
there is a poor correlation between the presence and absence of an S4 and
hemodynamic abnormalities. Thus, S4 is a poor guide to assess the severity of LV
dysfunction in patients with acute MI.
Audible and/or palpable atrial gallops are a frequent finding in chronic LV aneurysm
and are usually found with LV dyskinesia associated with elevated end-diastolic
pressures. In patients with chronic CAD, the transient appearance of an S4,
particularly during chest pain, is a strong indication of transient myocardial ischemia.
A loud S4 that is also usually palpable is a frequent finding in patients with acute and
severe MR or AR. It is almost always associated with an increased LV end-diastolic
pressure (>15 mmHg) [48]. The predictive value is increased in the presence of both
S3 and S4 gallops [35]. (See "Examination of the precordial pulsation".)
Differential diagnosis — An S3 and S4 may be confused with a split S2 and split S1,
respectively. When split, the two parts of S1 or S2 typically have a similar pitch, while
S3 and S4 are lower pitched sounds than S2 and S1.
This difference in pitch can be brought out by listening with the bell and the
diaphragm of the stethoscope. The lower-pitched S3 and S4 will be more
pronounced when listening gently with the bell, while the higher-pitched split S1 and
S2 will be more pronounced when listening with the diaphragm or when applying
the bell more firmly to the skin. (See 'Stethoscopes' above.)
Aortic ejection sounds are heard frequently in patients with mild to moderate aortic
valve stenosis; they may be absent in severe calcific aortic stenosis, presumably due
to the loss of valve mobility [51]. Since ejection sounds are usually absent in
subvalvular and supravalvular aortic stenosis, the presence of an ejection sound
helps to identify the site of obstruction at the level of the aortic valve. An ejection
sound also does not favor the diagnosis of HCM.
Identification of the aortic ejection sound is the most important and consistent
bedside clue for the diagnosis of an uncomplicated bicuspid aortic valve [52]. In
patients with coarctation of the aorta, an aortic ejection sound usually signifies the
presence of an associated bicuspid aortic valve.
The tricuspid closure sound should not be confused with the pulmonary ejection
sound. The intensity of tricuspid closure sound tends to increase rather than
decrease during inspiration.
NON-EJECTION SYSTOLIC SOUNDS — The non-ejection systolic sounds are also high-
frequency sounds that occur much later after the first heart sound (S1) and are best
heard with the diaphragm of the stethoscope. These sounds are not widely
transmitted and not usually heard over the right or left second interspace.
Midsystolic click — Prolapse of the mitral valve is the most common cause for a non-
ejection midsystolic click; the timing coincides with maximal prolapse of the mitral
valve into the left atrium. It may or may not be associated with a late systolic murmur
(movie 10 and movie 11) [57-60]. (See "Definition and diagnosis of mitral valve
prolapse".)
When the click occurs early in systole, it can be confused with the ejection sound or
the second component of a widely split S1. A number of bedside maneuvers can
be performed to confirm the presence of a midsystolic click. These maneuvers are
based upon the fact that the systolic dimension or volume at which mitral valve
prolapse and the click occur tend to remain fixed in the same patient [61]. Thus,
whenever the "click" volume or dimension is reached following the onset of
ventricular ejection (corresponding roughly to the S1), a midsystolic click occurs. The
S1-click interval, then, can vary according to the preejection (end-diastolic)
ventricular volume and the rate of ejection.
●The S1-click interval will increase, producing a late mid-systolic click whenever
there is an increase in end-diastolic volume (eg, supine position, squatting, hand
grip) (movie 11).
●The S1-click interval usually shortens, and the click tends to occur earlier when there
is a reduction in end-diastolic volume (eg, standing, phase 2 Valsalva maneuver,
amyl nitrite) or when there is an increased rate of ejection, as occurs after an
ectopic beat as a result of post-ectopic potentiation (movie 10).
Precordial honk — The systolic "whoop" or "precordial honk" are short musical systolic
murmurs often preceded by a click and occurring in mid or late systole. These
sounds can be transient, occur only in certain positions, or may be precipitated by
exercise. Mitral valve prolapse is the cause for the "whoop" or "honk" in most cases
[62,63].
EARLY DIASTOLIC HIGH-FREQUENCY SOUNDS — The most common causes for sounds
occurring in diastole include the opening snap of the mitral or tricuspid valve or a
tumor plop associated with an atrial myxoma (table 3).
The opening snap results from rapid opening of the mitral valve to its maximal open
position; thus, mobility of the valve contributes to its genesis. It is absent when the
mitral valve is heavily calcified and immobile. However, the opening snap is heard
in the vast majority of patients with mitral stenosis, and along with an accentuated
first heart sound (S1), frequently provides the first clue to the diagnosis.
Mitral valve — Mitral stenosis is the most frequent and important cause of an opening
snap. It can occur rarely in patients with pure mitral regurgitation (MR) [48,65].
The opening snap is best heard with the diaphragm of the stethoscope, medial to
the cardiac apex. It is usually widely transmitted and can be easily heard over the
left second interspace and along the left sternal border. The opening snap
coincides with the full opening of the mitral valve and occurs 0.04 to 0.12 seconds
after the second heart sound (S2) (movie 1) [66].
The opening snap can easily be confused with a split S2 since it is frequently
transmitted to the left second interspace. However, careful auscultation over the
left second interspace in the supine position and during both phases of respiration
reveals three high-frequency sounds in close proximity to each other during
inspiration; the initial two are the two components of S2, and the third is the opening
snap. The recognition of these three sounds during inspiration helps to differentiate
mitral stenosis, as seen in mitral valve obstruction, from atrial septal defect (ASD),
which may also be associated with a mid-diastolic rumble. In ASD, only the two
components of the S2 are heard during expiration and inspiration.
The severity of mitral stenosis can be assessed at the bedside by noting the interval
between the aortic component of S2 and the opening snap. The S2-opening snap
interval is related to the difference in pressures at the time of aortic valve closure
and the opening of the mitral valve, which occurs during the isovolumic relaxation
phase when the LV pressure falls below the left atrial pressure. When mitral stenosis
is severe, left atrial pressure is higher, and the pressure crossover point between the
LV and left atrium is closer to S2, which reduces the S2-opening snap interval. At the
bedside, the shorter S2-opening snap interval sounds like a widely split S2. However,
the S2-opening snap interval is not only related to the height of the left atrial
pressure, but also to aortic valve closing pressure. Thus, with a higher aortic valve
closing pressure (systemic hypertension) and earlier closure of the aortic valve, the
S2-opening snap interval may be longer with the same degree of elevation of left
atrial pressure. Similarly, when the aortic valve closing pressure is lower (aortic
regurgitation and aortic stenosis), aortic valve closure is later, and the S2-opening
snap interval becomes shorter with the same degree of mitral stenosis. The S2-
opening snap interval also becomes shorter when mitral stenosis is associated with
MR with a large V wave. Furthermore, tachycardia decreases the S2-opening snap
interval as the left atrial pressure increases with increasing heart rate in mitral stenosis.
Thus, assessment of the severity of mitral stenosis by estimating the S2-opening snap
interval alone should be done with caution in the presence of tachycardia,
hypertension, MR, and aortic valve disease. (See "Clinical manifestations and
diagnosis of rheumatic mitral stenosis".)
Tricuspid valve — Tricuspid valve stenosis may be associated with a tricuspid valve
opening snap that is not widely transmitted and is heard best over the lower left
sternal border. The tricuspid opening snap can also be heard in some patients with
an ASD and a large left-to-right shunt [26].
Tumor plop — Early diastolic sounds (tumor "plop") are occasionally heard in atrial
myxoma. These sounds appear to occur when tumors move into the ventricle and
come to a sudden halt [67]. (See "Cardiac tumors".)
●In some patients with mitral valve prolapse, a high-frequency sound is heard in
early diastole that appears to be related to the rapid inward movement of the
prolapsed mitral valve toward the LV cavity before the opening of the mitral valve
[69]. This early diastolic sound should not be confused with an opening snap due to
mitral stenosis.
●In some patients with HCM who have a small LV cavity size, early diastolic high-
frequency sounds are heard coinciding with the time of contact of the anterior
leaflet of the mitral valve to the interventricular septum [70].
●High-frequency early diastolic sounds, similar to the opening snap, can be heard
in some patients with severe MR due to ruptured chordae.
PROSTHETIC VALVE SOUNDS — The various types of prosthetic and tissue valves that
are in use for valve replacement may produce both opening and closing sounds.
The relative intensity of the opening and closing sounds vary according to the type
and design of the prosthetic valve used (table 4). The artificial valve sounds are of
high frequency, are much louder than normal valve sounds, and are of a "clicky"
character. The opening or closing sound may consist of multiple clicks, which do not
necessarily indicate valve malfunction.
●The closing sound is generally louder than the opening sound with a disk valve
●Both the opening and closing sounds are loud with the ball-and-cage type of valve
●The closing sounds of the porcine valve are much louder than the opening sounds
●The closing sound is usually louder than the opening sound, regardless of the type
of prosthetic valve used. A decreased intensity of the closing sound should raise the
possibility of malfunction of the artificial valve.
●The absence of an opening click has been found in dehiscence of a mitral valve
prosthesis [71].
●Obstruction of a prosthetic valve in the mitral position may be associated with a
markedly decreased S2-opening sound interval. A marked variation in the S2-mitral
prosthesis opening sound may indicate malfunction of a mechanical mitral
prosthesis. The variation in this interval usually does not exceed 25 ms with a normally
functioning prosthesis [72].
Ball variance — "Ball variance" is a term used to describe certain physical changes
in a ball-and-cage valve and is associated with changes in the intensity of opening
and closing sounds [73]. Ball variance is related to a specific model of the caged
ball type of prosthetic valve, which is rarely used at the present time.
Pericardial rubs are of scratching or grating quality and appear superficial. They are
best heard with the diaphragm of the stethoscope. The intensity frequently increases
after application of firm pressure with the diaphragm, during held inspiration, and
with the patient leaning forward. The rub may be localized or widespread, but
usually is heard over the left sternal border. (See "Acute pericarditis: Clinical
presentation and diagnostic evaluation".)
Pericardial rubs should be distinguished from the other superficial "scratchy" sounds.
●In patients with thyrotoxicosis, a to-and-fro, high-pitched sound may be heard over
the left second interspace, known as a Means-Lerman scratch; it may simulate a
pericardial friction rub. (See "Overview of the clinical manifestations of
hyperthyroidism in adults".)
●In patients with Ebstein anomaly, the sail sound may be of a scratchy quality and
simulate a pericardial friction rub.
●Inadvertent entry of air into the RV cavity via the systemic venous system may
occur during placement of catheters or pacemakers in the right side of the heart or
as a complication of needle aspiration biopsy of the lungs. The movement of air in
the right ventricular cavity with systole and diastole may produce a peculiar
"slushing" or crunching sound ("mill wheel" murmur) over the entire precordium,
which can occasionally resemble pericardial friction rub [75].
●Swallowing sounds – These sounds are produced during swallowing and can be
confused with heart sounds. It is postulated that these sounds are produced by
vibrations of the vocal cords during swallowing [76].
●Heart sounds are broadly classified into high- and low-frequency sounds. (See
'Classification of heart sounds' above.)
•High-frequency sounds arise from closing or opening valves including mitral and
tricuspid valve closing sounds (M1 and T1), and aortic and pulmonary valve closure
sounds (A2 and P2).
•Low-frequency sounds include the third heart sound (S3, which may be physiologic
or pathologic), associated with early ventricular filling and the fourth heart sound
(S4), associated with the atrial contribution to ventricular filling in late diastole. (See
'Classification of heart sounds' above.)
●The intensity of the first heart sound (S1) can be helpful in assessing left ventricular
(LV) function and hemodynamics. (See 'Intensity of S1' above.)
•A loud S1 in the absence of a short PR interval indicates increased peak rate of rise
of LV systolic pressure (dP/dt), as seen in patients with increased transatrioventricular
valve gradients (mitral or tricuspid stenosis).
●Fixed wide splitting of the second heart sound (S2) is highly suggestive of an atrial
septal defect. (See 'Splitting of S2' above.)
●Paradoxical splitting of S2 in the absence of left bundle branch block suggests LV
outflow obstruction or impaired contractile function. (See 'Splitting of S2' above.)
●Other early diastolic high-frequency sounds include an opening snap of the mitral
or tricuspid valve (appreciated in mitral or tricuspid stenosis) or a tumor plop
associated with an atrial myxoma. (See 'Early diastolic high-frequency sounds'
above.)