Chapter 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

 Function: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two non-empty sets then, 𝑓 is said to be a function from set 𝐴 to set
𝐵 written as: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and defined as;
 (i) 𝐷𝑓 = 𝐴 (ii) For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 there exists only one 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵such that (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓
 Domain: The set of all possible inputs of a function is called domain.
 *The domain of every function 𝑓(𝑥) is set of all real numbers for which 𝑓(𝑥) is defined. *The
values at which 𝑓(𝑥) becomes undefined or complex valued will be excluded from real numbers.
Domain is also known as Pre-images.
 Range: The set of all possible out puts of a function is called range. Range is also known as
Images.
Types of functions
 Algebraic function: Any function generated by algebraic operations is known as algebraic
function. Algebraic functions are classified below:
 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A mathematical expression that is a sum of terms , each term being a
product of a constant and a variable raised to non-negative integer. E.g., 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 1 +
𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ … . . + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 … . 𝑎𝑛 ∈ 𝑅
 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: If the degree of polynomial function is 1, then it is called linear function
 𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: If the degree of polynomial function is 2, then it is called quadratic
function
 𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A function for which 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 is called identity function. It is
denoted by 𝐼
 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A function for which 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 or 𝑦 = 𝑏 is called constant function.
𝑃(𝑥)
 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: The quotient of two polynomials such as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) where 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0 is
called rational function.
 𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A function in which the variable appears as exponent of a constant is
called an exponential function. E.g., 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
general and natural logarithmic functions
 𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒄𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: If 𝑦 is easily expressed in terms of 𝑥, then 𝑦 is called explicit function
Symbolically 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: If the two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are so mixed up such that 𝑦 cannot be
expressed in terms of 𝑥 then this type of function is called implicit function. Symbolically
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are expressed in terms of third variable (say 𝑡 )
such as 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) then these equations are called parametric equations
 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be an even function if for all
𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 , 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
 𝑶𝒅𝒅 𝒇𝒖𝒄𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be an odd function if for all
𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 , 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
 Composition of function: If 𝑓 is a function from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵 and 𝑔 is a function from
set 𝐵 to set 𝐶 then composition of 𝑓 and 𝑔 is denoted by (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
 Inverse of a function: Let 𝑓 be a Bijective (1-1 and onto) function from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵 i.e.,
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 then its inverse is 𝑓 −1 which is surjective (onto) function from 𝐵 to 𝐴. i.e., 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴.
In this case 𝐷𝑓−1 = 𝑅𝑓 and 𝑅𝑓−1 = 𝐷𝑓
 Limit of a function: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function then a number 𝐿 is said to be limit of 𝑓(𝑥)
when 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 (from both left and right hand side of 𝑎) , symbolically it is written as
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and read as “Limit of 𝑓 of 𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 is equal to 𝐿
 Left hand limit: If lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 it means 𝑓(𝑥) takes value 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 from
the left side (𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 − ∞ 𝑡𝑜 𝑎) then lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 is called left hand limit.
 Right hand limit: If lim𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 it means 𝑓(𝑥) takes value 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎
from the right side (𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 + ∞ 𝑡𝑜 𝑎) then lim𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 is called right hand limit.
 Continuous function: A function is said to be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if
(i) 𝑓(𝑎) is defined (ii) lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)exits (iii) lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
 Discontinuous function: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎) *If 𝑓(𝑥) is not defined at 𝑥 = 𝑎 then 𝑓(𝑥) is also called discontinuous
*Any function which does not satisfy at least one of three conditions of continuity is
called discontinuous

MUHAMMAD SALMAN SHERAZI (03337727666) www.facebook.com/salmansherazi6

Chapter 2 DIFFERENTIATION
 Differentiation: The process of finding derivatives is called differentiation
 Derivative: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function, then its derivative is denoted by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and defined as
𝑓(𝑥+𝛿𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim𝛿𝑥→𝑎
𝛿𝑥
 The chain rule: If 𝑦 = (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) let 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) then 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) Now we find
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
and 𝑑𝑥 then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 . 𝑑𝑥 is called Chain rule.
𝑑𝑢
 Successive or higher derivatives: Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a function then its successive or
higher derivatives are given as: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥), 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥), … … , 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥)
 Increasing function: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be increasing function in an open interval
(𝑎, 𝑏) if for every 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ) when 𝑥1 < 𝑥2
OR A function 𝑓 is said to be increasing function if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
 Decreasing function: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be decreasing function in an open interval
(𝑎, 𝑏) if for every 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 ) when 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 OR A
function 𝑓 is said to be decreasing function if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
 Constant function: A function 𝑓(𝑥)is said to be constant function in an open interval
(𝑎, 𝑏) if for every 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) where 𝑥1 < 𝑥2
OR A function 𝑓 is said to be constant function if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
 Relative maxima: A function 𝑓(𝑥) has relative maxima 𝑓(𝑐) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) if
(i) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐 − 𝜖) > 0 (ii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 (iii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐 + 𝜖) < 0
 Relative minima: A function 𝑓(𝑥) has relative maxima 𝑓(𝑐) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) if
(i) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐 − 𝜖) < 0 (ii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 (iii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐 + 𝜖) > 0
 Relative extrema: Both relative maxima and relative minima are called relative extrema or
relative extreme values
 Point of inflexion: A point at which the function has neither or maximum nor minimum
value is called the point of inflexion.
 1st derivative test: (a) A function 𝑓(𝑥) has relative maxima 𝑓(𝑐) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) if
(i) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐 − 𝜖) > 0 (ii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 (iii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐 + 𝜖) < 0 (b) A
function 𝑓(𝑥) has relative maxima 𝑓(𝑐) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) if (i) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐 − 𝜖) < 0
(ii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 (iii) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐 + 𝜖) > 0
 2nd derivative test: Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) be a function 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) exist at each 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
also 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 for any 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) then (a) 𝑓(𝑥) has maxima 𝑓(𝑐) if 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) < 0 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) has
minima 𝑓(𝑐) if 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) > 0

CHAPTER 3 INTEGRATION
 Integration: The reverse process of differentiation is called integration or anti-derivative.
* The symbol ∫ is called integral or sign of integration * The function which is
to be integrated is called integrand of the integral. * The anti-derivatives of a function is also
called indefinite integral.
𝑏
 Definite integral: The symbol ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is read as the definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑎 is
lower limit and 𝑏 is called upper limit.
 Fundamental law of integral calculus: If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] and
𝑏
𝜑′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝜑(𝑏) − 𝜑(𝑎) is called fundamental law of integral calculus.
 Area under the curve: (a) If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 then curve lies above 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 so
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 where 𝑎 < 𝑏 (b) If 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 then curve lies below 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑏
so 𝐴= − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 where 𝑎 < 𝑏
 Differential equation: An equation which contains derivatives or differentials is called
differential equation.
 Order of differential equation: In a differential equation the highest derivative is called
its order.
 Degree of differential equation: The highest power of highest ordered derivative is
called degree of differential equation.
 Separable equation: A differential equation which is solved by separating variables is
called separable equation

MUHAMMAD SALMAN SHERAZI (03337727666) www.facebook.com/salmansherazi6

CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
 Analytic geometry: In analytic geometry , points could be represented by numbers. Lines
and curves represented by equations.
 Median: Line segment joining one vertex of triangle to the mid-point of an opposite side of
the triangle is called median.
 Centroid: A point that divides each median in ratio 2: 1 is called centroid
 Concurrent: When two or more than two lines meet at a point, then they are said to be
concurrent
 Bisector: A line that divides an angle into two equal parts is called bisector.
 Isosceles triagle:- A triangle having two sides equal in length(but not equall to the third
side) is called isosceles triangle.
 Translation of axes: The process in which the origin of a coordinate system is moved to
another position but new axes are parallel to old axes is called translation of axes.
 Rotation of axes: A process in which xy-axes are rotated through an angle 𝜃(where
0 < 𝜃 < 90°) about the origin is called rotation of axes.
 Inclination of a line:- The angle made by a line with positive 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 in anti-clockwise
direction is called inclination of line.
 Declination of a line:- The angle made by a line with the positive 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 in clockwise
direction is called declination of line.
 Slope of a line:- Let 𝛼 be inclination of line , then slope of a line is denoted 𝑚and define as;
𝑚 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝛼 or The measure of steepness (ratio of rise to the run) is called slope or gradient.
 Trapezium:- A quadrilateral having two sides parallel and two non-parallel is called
trapezium.

CHAPTER 5 LINEAR INEQUALITIES AND LINEAR

PROGRAMMING
 Linear inequalities in two variables:- The inequalities of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 < 𝑐 ,
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 > 𝑐 , 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐 , 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ≥ 𝑐 are called linear inequalities in two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦
whera 𝑎 , 𝑏 and 𝑐 are constants.
 Corresponding equation / Associated equation:- The corresponding equation to
any inequality is an equation formed by replacing the inequality symbol with an equal sign.
 Solution set of linear inequalies:- The orderd pair (𝑎, 𝑏) which satisfy the linear
inequality in two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 form of solution.
 Solution region:- Solution region of system of inequalities is the common region that
satistfies all given inequalities in the system.
 Corner Point:- A point of the solution region where two of its boundry lines intersect is
called the corner point or vertex of the solution region.
 Feasible region:- The solution region which is restricted to the first quadrant is called
feasible region.It may also called Allowable region.
 Feasible solution:- Each point of feasible region is called feasible solution of the system
 Feasible solution set:- A set consisting of all the feasible solution of the system is called
feasible solution set.
 Objective function:- A function which is to be maximized or minimized is called objective
function.
 Optimal solution:- The feasible solution which maximizes or minimizes the objective
function is called optimal solution.

CHAPTER 6 CONIC SECTION

 Cone:- A solid figure genrated by a straight line passing through a fixed point and revolving
about a fixed line is called cone.
 Axis of cone:- The fixed line passing through vertex and perpendicular to the centre of base
is called axis of cone.
 Apex / vertex:- The fixed point of cone is called apex or vertex of cone.
 Napes of cone:- Thecone has two parts called napes. The part above is upper nape. The
part below the vetex is lower nape.

MUHAMMAD SALMAN SHERAZI (03337727666) www.facebook.com/salmansherazi6

  Right circular cone:- A cone having its axis perpendicular circular base(having circular as
its base) is called right circular cone.
 circle.The fixed point is called centre and fixed distance is called radius of the circle
 Point circle:- A circle having radius zero is called point circle.The equation of point circle is
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 0
 Ellipse:- A set of all points in a plane such that disctance of each point from a fixed point
bears a constant ratio (less than 1) to a distance from a fixed line. Fixed point is called
focus.Fixed line is called directrix. Contant ratio is called eccentricity , denoted by 𝑒 , In ellips
𝑒 < 1.
 Parabola:- Set of all points in a plane which are equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed
line. In Parabola , 𝑒 = 1
 Hyperbola:- A set of all points in a plane such that distance of each point from a fixed point
bears a constant ratio (greater than 1) to a distance from a fixed line. In hyperbola , 𝑒 > 1
 Tangent line:- A line which touches the circle without cutting it , is called tangent line.
 Normal line:- A line perpendicular to the tangent line at point of tangency , is called normal
line.

CHAPTER 7 VECTORS
 Scalar:- A quantity which has magnitude only is called scalar. E.g., Time and length , area ,
volume , temperature etc.
 Vector:- A quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called vector. E.g., velocity ,
displacement , acceleration etc. A vector (say 𝑣) is denoted by 𝑣⃑.
 Magnitude of a vector:- The magnitude of a vector is a non-negative number. It is also
⃑⃑⃑⃑
called norm or length of vector. Let 𝑣 be a vector , then its magnitude is denoted by |𝑣|
 Unit vector:- A vector having magnitude 1 is called unit vector. If 𝑣⃑ is vector then its unit
⃑⃑
𝑣
vector is denoted by 𝑣̂ and is defined as 𝑣̂ = |𝑣⃑⃑|
 Null vector:- A vector having magnitude zero but no specific direction is called null or zero
vector. It is denoted by 𝑜⃑
 Equal vectors:- Two vectors 𝑎⃑ and 𝑏⃑⃑ are said to be equal if both have same magnitude and
both have same direction.
 Parallel vectors:- Two vectors 𝑎⃑ and 𝑏⃑⃑ are said to be parallel if 𝑎⃑ = 𝑘𝑏⃑⃑ or 𝑏⃑⃑ = 𝑘𝑎⃑
 Position vector:- The vector whose initial point is at origin O and terminal point is at point
P is called position vector.
 Direction angles and direction cosines of a vector:- Let 𝑢 ⃑⃑ = [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧] be a
vector such that it makes angles 𝛼 , 𝛽 , 𝛾 along the coordinate axis then 𝛼 , 𝛽 , 𝛾 are called
direction angles of vector 𝑢 ⃑⃑, While 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 are called direction cosine of 𝑢 ⃑⃑
 Scalar product/ Dot product:- When product of two vectors 𝑢 ⃑⃑ and 𝑣⃑ results a scalar
quantity , this is called scalar product. The scalar product of two vectors 𝑢 ⃑⃑ and 𝑣⃑ is denoted by
𝑢
⃑⃑. 𝑣⃑
 Perpendicular (Orthogonal vectors):- For two non-zero vectors 𝑢 ⃑⃑ and 𝑣⃑ , 𝑢⃑⃑. 𝑣⃑ =
0 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑢⃑⃑ ⊥ 𝑣⃑
 Vector product/ Cross product:- The vector product of two vectors 𝑢 ⃑⃑ and 𝑣⃑ is
denoted by 𝑢 ⃑⃑ × 𝑣⃑ and defined as 𝑢
⃑⃑ × 𝑣⃑ = 𝑢𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛̂ where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑢 ⃑⃑ and 𝑣⃑ and 𝑛̂
is unit vector.
 Scalar triple product:- The product 𝑢̂. (𝑣⃑ × 𝑤 ⃑⃑⃑ ) is called scalar triple product.
 Vector triple product:- The product 𝑢̂ × (𝑣⃑ × 𝑤 ⃑⃑⃑ ) is called scalar triple product.

MUHAMMAD SALMAN SHERAZI

03337727666/03067856232

MUHAMMAD SALMAN SHERAZI (03337727666) www.facebook.com/salmansherazi6