Artificial Radioactivity and Its Applications

The unstable radioactive elements show nuclear decay which is a spontaneous cleavage of an atomic
nucleus with the formation of some other nucleus and release a certain amount of energy

This process of transformation of one unstable nucleus to stable nuclei by the emission of energy in
the form of radiation is called as transmutation. The nuclear decay and transmutation process will
continue until a new formed element also called as daughter nuclei has a stable nucleus and not
radioactive in nature.

The radioactive decay or transmutation can occur naturally or by artificial means. On this basis,
transmutation classified as two types.

 Natural radioactivity
 Artificial radioactivity

Natural Radioactivity
The atoms of radioactive elements on the emission of alpha particles and beta particles would change into
atoms of another element. This change is spontaneous and occurs due to instability of heavy nuclei. Such
type of radioactive decay termed as natural radioactive decay and phenomenon called as natural
radioactivity.

Rutherford was first to observed the decay of unstable nuclei by the loss of alpha and beta particles by
the preceding elements.

Atoms become unstable due to large neutron to proton ratio. Such unstable nucleus emitted some
radiations and convert in to some other stable nucleus and known as radioactive elements.
These radiations are termed as radioactive rays. Generally these radiations consist some particles like
alpha and beta particle in some time charge less gamma rays emitted.
  For convenience, Rutherford called the three types of radiation alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ)
rays. The alpha-rays were deflected in a direction opposite to that of beta-rays.
 This showed that the α-rays carried a positive charge, β-rays carried a negative charge and those
which passed undeviated were neutral or uncharged were γ-rays.

For example:

Uranium-238 disintegrated in to Thorium-234 by the emission of alpha particle which further changes in
Protactinium-234 by the loss of a beta particle and anti-neutrino.
238 →→ Th234 + He4
92U 90 2
90Th
234 →→ 91Pa + -1e0+ Ï…
234

Group displacement law:

The emission of an alpha particle results in the formation of an element which lie two place to the left in
periodic table and the emission of beta particle results in the formation of an element which lies one place
to the right. This is called as group displacement law.

Natural radioactivity series:

The series of continued disintegration of radioactive elements is known as radioactive series. There are
total four successive radioactive series on the basis of starting element name.

 The Uranium series (4n+2 series).

 The Thorium series (4n series).
 The Actinium series ((4n+3 series).
 The Neptunium series (4n+1 series).

The uranium series starts from uranium-23 and finally converts to lead-206 by the emission of eight
alpha particles and six beta particles.

92U
238 →→ 82Pb206 + 8 2He4 + 6 -1e0

 All first three series; Uranium, Thorium and actinium series end with an isotope of lead that is Pb-
206, Pb-208, Pb-207.
 The neptunium series end with an isotope of bismuth-209.

Artificial Radioactivity:
Induced radioactivity, also called artificial radioactivity or man-made radioactivity, is the process of
using radiation to cause a previously stable material to become radioactive.

Experiment:

The husband and wife team of Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot-Curie discovered induced
radioactivity in 1934, and they shared the 1935 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discovery.

Irène and Pierre Joliot-Curie Irene branched off from the Curies to study turning stable isotopes into
radioactive isotopes by bombarding the stable material with alpha particles (denoted α).
 The Joliot-Curies showed that when lighter elements, such as boron and aluminium, were bombarded
with α-particles, the lighter elements continued to emit radiation even after the α−source was removed.
They showed that this radiation consisted of particles carrying one unit positive charge with mass equal
to that of an electron, now knowns as a beta particle.

13Al
27 + 2He4 → 15P30 + 0n1

15P
30 → 14Si
30 + 1β 0

Types of artificial radioactivity:

Sometimes radioactivity created artificially in elements that are called as artificial radioactivity. Artificial
radioactivity can be created in two ways.

 Artificial transmutation
 Induced transmutation

Artificial transmutation

The conversion of one element into another by artificial means is known as artificial transmutation. It is
changing one element completely by bombarding it with some fundamental particles such as alpha
particles, neutrons, deuterons etc. Artificial transmutation is formation of new element by artificial
means.

Work of Rutherford:

It first observed in 1919 by Rutherford during the bombardment of alpha particles on the nucleus of
nitrogen to form oxygen isotope and proton.

7N
14 +2He4 → 8O17 +1H1

Work of James Chadwick:

Later in 1932 the discovery of neutrons by James Chadwick was also an application of artificial
transmutation in which he used the bombardment of alpha particles on the nucleus of beryllium to form
neutron and carbon nucleus.

4Be
9 + 2He4 → 6C12 + 0n1

Main Projectiles:

The fundamental particles which have been used in the bombardment of different elements are,

 alpha (α) -particle, 2He4

 Proton: 1H1
 Deuterium 1H2 or 1D2
 Neutron: 0n1

 Since a-particles, protons and deuteriums carry positive charge, they are repelled by the positively
charged nucleus and hence these are not good projectiles.
 On the other hand, neutrons, which carry no charge at all, are the best projectiles. Cyclotron is the most
commonly used instrument for accelerating these particles.

Effect of speed of neutron:

When a target element is bombarded with neutrons, product depends upon the speed of neutrons.

 Slow neutrons penetrate the nucleus

92U
238 + n1
0 → 92U239

 while a high-speed neutron passes through the nucleus.

92U
238 + n1
0 → 92U237 + 20n1

Thus slow neutrons, also called thermal neutrons are more effective in producing nuclear reactions than
high-speed neutrons.

Example of Induced transmutation:

Artificial transmutation can be done by using several particles like; alpha particles, neutrons, deuteron
and protons.

(i) Transmutation by a-particles

(a) α, n type

4Be
0 (α, n) 6C12 i.e. 0
4Be + 2He
4 → 6C12 + 0n1

94Pu
239 (α, n) 94Cm242 i.e. 94Pu
239 + 2He4 → 94Cm242 + 0n1

(b) α, p type
9F (α, p) 10Ne22 i.e + 2He4 → 10Ne22 + 1H1
19 19
9F

7N
14 (α, p) 8O17 i.e. 7N
14 + 2He4 → 8O17 + 1H1
(c) (α, β) type

26Fe (α, β) 29Cu63 + 2He4 → 29Cu63 + –1e0

59 i.e. 59
26Fe

(ii) Transmutation by protons

(a) p, n type

15P
31 (p, n) 16S31 i.e. 15P
31 + 1H1→ 16S31 + 0n1

(b) p, γ type

6C
12 (p, γ) 7N13 i.e. 6C
12 + 1H1 → 7N13 + γ

(c) p, d type

4Be
9 (p, d) 4Be8 i.e. 4Be
9 + 1H1 → 4Be8 + 1H2
 (d) p, α type

8O
16 (p, α) 7N13 i.e. 8O
16 + 1H1 → 7N13 + 2He4

(iii) Transmutation by neutrons

(a) n ,p type

13Al
27 (n, p) 12Mg27 i.e. 13Al
27 + 0n1 → 12Mg27 + 1H1

(b) n, α type

8O
16 (n, α) 6C13 i.e. 8O
16 + 0n1 → 6C13 + 2He4

(c) n, γ type

92U
238 (n ,γ ) 92U238 i.e. 92 U
238 + 0n1 → 92U238 + γ

(d) n, β type

8O (n, β) 9F19 + 0n1 → 9F19 + –1e0

18 i.e. 18
8O

(iv) Transmutation by deuterium:

(a) d, p type

3Li + 1H →
6 p) 3Li7 6 2 3Li7 + 1H1
3Li (d, i.e.

32As
75 (d, p) 32As76 i.e. 32As
75 + 1H2 → 32As76 + 1H1

(v) Transmutation by γ -radiations

(a) γ, n type

4Be
9 (γ, n) 4Be8 i.e. 4Be
9 + γ → 4Be8 + 0n1

Artificial Transmutation of Elements:

Artificial transmutation of elements occurs when nucleus of one atom is changed to other nucleus. The
change occurs in the nucleus which is made up of protons and neutrons. Identity of an atom of element is
changed when the number of protons is changed. It occurs when a nucleus of an atom is bombarded with
some fundamental particles which can alpha particles, neutrons or deuterons.

The artificial transmutation has led to discovery of not only many new elements but also some unstable
and unknown isotopes.

For example, Cobalt -59 when bombarded with neutron is changed into Cobalt - 60.
 1+ 59Co 60Co
0n

The 60-Co isotope is unstable (half life of 5.272 years) and disintegrates into 60-Ni via the emission
of beta particle and gamma radiation.

Artificial Transmutation Equation

The conversion of one element to another is represented with an equation. In artificial transmutation
change of the element is shown with the number of protons.
Three important points about the artificial transmutations are:

 The total mass on both sides must be equal.

 The charge is conserved.
 The total number of nucleons in nuclear reaction is equal on both sides.

The element which is to be converted is kept on left side along with the bombarding fundamental
particles, while the final element is written in right side along with any subatomic particles.

For example, Uranium -238 is bombarded with a neutron, is converted to Uranium – 239, which is very
unstable, therefore decays to Neptunium emitting beta particle.

92U
238 +10n → 92U239 → 93Np239 + −1e0

Examples of Artificial Transmutation

Beryllium can be transformed to Carbon by bombardment with alpha particles.

9
4Be + 2He
4 → 6C12 + 0n1

Nitrogen can also be changed into an isotope of Oxygen-17 by alpha particle bombardment.

7N
14 + 2He4 → 8O17 + 1H1

Aluminium can be transformed to Phosphorous-30 by bombarding alpha particle. A neutron is also

produced.

13Al
27 + 2He4→ 15P30 + 0n1
 There are also few examples of transmutation bought by using high speed deuterons and neutrons.
Lithium – 6 is transformed to Lithium -7 by bombarding with high speed deuterons.

3Li + 1H →
6 2 3Li7 + 1H1

Nitrogen can be changed into Boron -11 by hitting it with a neutron.

7N
14 + + 0n1→ 5B11 + 2He4

Applications of Artificial Radioactivity:

The radioactive elements used in many different fields. Like; in atomic energy, agriculture, in different
industries and in rock dating process.

 Discovery of new elements particles:

The study of radioactivity has led to the discovery of new fundamental particles like neutrons,
positrons, deuterons, alpha particles etc. These particles are highly useful in causing artificial
transmutation of elements and adding to our knowledge of atomic structure.
 Discovery of isotopes and isobars:
The isotopes and isobars were first discovered in radioactive series and were afterwards looked for
amongst non-radioactive elements.
 Discovery of new elements:
The discovery of trans uranic elements of atomic numbers higher than 92 i.e. the elements beyond
uranium in the periodic table are not known to exist in nature. All these elements are prepared by
artificial transmutation technique and are therefore known as transuranic synthetic elements.
A large number of different radioactive isotopes of known elements have been discovered by
artificial means.

Synthesis of Some of the Transuranium Elements

Uranium is the heaviest natural element. In 1940, neptunium was produced by neutron
bombardment of uranium-238. The process initially give uranium-239, which decays to neptunium-
239 by the production of a beta particle.

Neutron neptunium (Z
Bombardment = 93)
americium (Z
= 95)
Positive-ion curium (Z =
Bombardment 96)
 californium
OR
(Z = 98)

rutherfordium
(Z = 104)
dubnium (Z =
105)
seaborgium
(Z = 106)

 Release of atomic energy:

Nuclear reactions like nuclear fusion and nuclear fission release enormous amount of energy which
can be used for different purpose.

 Rock dating and carbon dating:

Radioactive isotope of carbon(C-14) is used to estimate the age of earth and for the estimation of
age of fossils. The half life for C-14 is around 5568 years.

6C → 7N
14 14 +beta particles

14
7N +0n
1 → 6C14 +1H1

Because of these two reactions, the quantity of C-14 and carbon dioxide (12CO2) present in the
atmosphere has been constant over long periods of years. This C-14 has been consumed by plants as
well as by other living organism and remains constant for a long time, hence can be detected easily.

 Work of alchemy:
Historically, part of Alchemy was the study of methods of creating gold from base metals, such lead.
Where the Alchemists failed in this quest, we can now succeed.
Thus, bombardment of platinum-198 with a neutron creates an unstable isotope of platinum that
undergoes beta decay to gold-199.
Limitation:
Unfortunately, while we may succeed in making gold, the platinum we make it from is actually
worth more than the gold making this particular transmutation economically non-viable!
 78 Pt
198 1
+ n0 → 78 Pt199 → 78 Au199 + −1e0

 Activation Analysis
The activation of certain materials by neutron irradiation is an elegant analytical method for
identifying chemical species. When a compound is irradiated with neutrons, many elements are
activated and become radioactive. The radioactivity can be measured easily and the properties of the
radiation can be used to identify an element.
Thus, it is possible to observe with excellent sensitivity about 70 elements. In some cases, multi-
element analysis at the ppm level for up to 30 elements can be accomplished with a sample weighing
less than a gram. It is a type of analysis which do not destroy the sample and it is used by
 archaeologists to obtain important information about old coins, pieces of ceramic pots, and other
relics.

 Napoleon
Criminologists use activation analyses in the solution of criminal cases. One example that has been
heavily debated is the activation analysis which showed that the hair of Napoleon contained arsenic
(work in the 1960-ties). This suggested the possibility that Napoleon was murdered. However, it is
possible that the arsenic could have come from his environment. At that time, arsenic was used in
wall coverings and could have been picked up by touch or given off into the atmosphere.
 New experiments carried out in 2007 seem to prove that more than 97% of the arsenic found in the
hair of Napoleon is in inorganic form, which is consistent with a chronic intoxication by the most
toxic inorganic arsenic species.

 Rocks from the moon

It is also of interest to mention that when the composition of the moon was determined, the analysis
was assisted by neutron activation. Rocks, brought back to Earth by the astronauts, were bombarded
by neutrons, forming radioactive products. The subsequent radioactive emissions were then used to
identify elements in the moon rocks.

 Discovery of radioisotopes:
Radioactive isotope, also called radioisotope, radionuclide, or radioactive nuclide, any of several
species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are unstable and dissipate
excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma rays.

Applications of Radioactive isotopes:

Radioactive isotopes have many useful applications.
 In medicine:
 Cobalt-60 is extensively employed as a radiation source to arrest the development of cancer.
 Other radioactive isotopes are used as tracers for diagnostic purposes as well as in research on
metabolic processes
 Iodine-131 has proved effective in treating hyperthyroidism.
 Carbon-14 is used in a breath test to detect the ulcer-causing bacteria Heliobacter pylori.
 In industry:
 Radioactive isotopes of various kinds are used for measuring the thickness of metal or plastic sheets;
their precise thickness is indicated by the strength of the radiations that penetrate the material being
inspected.
 They also may be employed in place of large X-ray machines to examine manufactured metal parts
for structural defects.
 Other significant applications include the use of radioactive isotopes as compact sources of electrical
power—e.g., plutonium-238 in spacecraft.
 In such cases, the heat produced in the decay of the radioactive isotope is converted
into electricity by means of thermoelectric junction circuits or related devices.

 Radioactive tracer:
 In tracer technique a radioactive isotope or its compound is introduced at one point of a system and
its movement is then trace by measuring radioactivity in different parts of the system. Such isotopes
are known as radioactive tracers.
 Principle
The chemical properties of a radioactive isotope are identical to those of a stable isotope.
The only difference is that the radioisotope is unstable. This instability causes disintegration, which
translates into the emission of radiation.
All we need are suitable detection tools to track these radioisotopes.
 For example:
Potassium- 40, which is mixed with stable potassium in our food, follows exactly the same path
within our bodies as its stable isotopes. By detecting the radiation emitted by potassium-40, we can
track the movements of all potassium. A radioisotope can therefore be used as a tracer with the help
of suitable detection tools.
 Particular molecules can also be located using the same principle. The molecules are tagged by a
radioisotope, which serves as a label.
 Tagging can be performed in two ways: either by replacing an atom of the molecule with one of its
radioactive isotopes, or by attaching a radioactive atom to the molecule. The tagged molecule then
becomes a tracer.
 Many radioactive isotopes are used in tracing various processes in surgery, medicine, biology,
agriculture, industry and chemistry.
For example:
 Phosphate containing radioactive isotope of phosphorus is used for patients suffering from
bone fracture to check of the phosphorus is being absorbed by the bone or not.
 Similarly the injection of radioactive iodine Uptake is a test of thyroid function.
 This method is used in medicine to monitor the action of a drug, for example, and for
studying the movement of products in the environment.
 In these particular cases, tracers can be used in tiny quantities because radiation detection
equipment is very sensitive. The effect of the radiation is not dangerous at these very low
doses. In addition, these isotopes have a short half-life (anything from a few minutes to a few
days) so they quickly vanish from our bodies or the environment.
 Thallium-201 can be used for direct observation of the operation of the heart, to see whether
it is showing signs of failure.
 Other types of test can detect the presence of tumors in the bones

References:

 https://chemistry.tutorvista.com/nuclear-chemistry/radioactivity.html
 https://www.britannica.com/science/radioactive-isotope