Yoash Levron Juri Belikov

½ The Andrew and Erna Viterbi Faculty of Electrical ½ Department of Software Science, Tallinn Uni-
Engineering, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, versity of Technology, Akadeemia tee 15a, 12618
Haifa 3200003, Israel Tallinn, Estonia
R yoashl@ee.technion.ac.il R juri.belikov@taltech.ee

Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine

This lecture presents a dynamic model of the synchronous machine. We demonstrate how
to use this model in power system simulations, and explain the relations between the ma-
chine’s dq0 model and time-varying phasor model.
Synchronous machines are often operated as generators, and are a major source of energy in
electric power systems. In several applications synchronous machines are also operated as
motors. A basic diagram of the machine is shown in Fig. 1. The key mechanical components
of the machine are the rotor and stator. There are also two key electric parts: the field wind-
ing on the rotor, and the three-phase armature winding on the stator. The field winding is
typically connected to a DC source, which creates a magnetic field with alternating north
and south polarities, as illustrated in Fig. 1. As the rotor rotates AC voltages are induced in
the armature windings. In addition, the interaction between magnetic fields and currents in
the machine produces a torque that acts to decelerate the rotor. These two processes result
in energy conversion, from mechanical energy to electromagnetic energy as a generator, or
vice-versa as a motor.
The machine is named “synchronous” since at steady-state the rotor speed is proportional
to the frequency of currents and voltages in the stator. This is not necessarily the case in
other machines. For instance in induction motors the frequency of the rotor must be slightly
lower than the frequency of the AC current.

Magnetic field line

Stator windings Stator

Air gap

b0

if a N c

Rotor

c0 S a0

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a three-phase synchronous machine with two poles.

Remark 1: Synchronous machines have complex dynamics and control mechanisms that can-
not be fully addressed in a short lecture. Therefore several topics such as the accurate prime
mover dynamics or the structure of excitation systems are not fully explained. Additional
information may be found in [1, 2].
Remark 2: This lecture includes many different symbols. For the convenience of the reader
these are summarized in Appendix A.

Series of lectures on power system dynamics. The lectures are freely available on
https://a-lab.ee/projects/dq0-dynamics
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 2

Mechanical model
Synchronous machines often have more than two magnetic poles on the rotor. Since quanti-
ties associated with any pair of poles are identical, it is usually convenient to define electrical
quantities which are related to a single pair of poles. For this reason the rotor angle is often
expressed in electrical degrees or electrical radians rather than in mechanical units.
One pair of poles is mapped to 360 electrical degrees or 2π electrical radians. Since there are
poles/2 electrical cycles in one mechanical cycle it follows that
pf
θ= θm , (1)
2
where

3 θ denotes the rotor electrical angle;

3 θm denotes the rotor mechanical angle, with respect to a fixed point on the stator;
3 pf denotes the number of magnetic poles on the rotor (an even integer).

In addition we consider the following frequencies:

3 ω = dθ/dt denotes the rotor electrical frequency;

3 ωm = dθm /dt denotes the rotor mechanical frequency;
3 ωs denotes the nominal grid frequency, for instance ωs = 2π50 or 2π60 rad/s.

Following (1) we have

pf
ω= ωm . (2)
2
Both frequencies are typically measured in rad/s.
Next we describe the rotor dynamics. The angular acceleration of the rotor is given by

d 1
ωm = (Tm − Te ), (3)
dt J
where

3 J denotes the rotor moment of inertia.

3 Tm denotes the mechanical torque, accelerating the rotor.
3 Te denotes the electromagnetic torque, decelerating the rotor.

In addition we define
2
pm = Tm ωm = Tm ω,
pf
(4)
2
pe = Te ωm = Te ω,
pf
where

3 pm denotes the mechanical power accelerating the rotor,

3 pe denotes the electromagnetic power decelerating the rotor.
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 3

Equations (2) and (3) yield

d pf
ω= (Tm − Te ), (5)
dt 2J
and following (4) and (5) we have

d  p 2 1
f ωs
ω= (pm − pe ) = K (pm − pe ), (6)
dt 2 Jω ω
p
2
where K = 2f Jω1 s .
Under the approximation ω ≈ ωs this is the classic swing equation. However in this lecture
we do not use this approximation, and work directly with the exact expressions in (5) and
(6). It is also assumed that the mechanical torque is governed by a droop mechanism which
is described as  
pf 1
Tm = 3Pref − (ω − ωs ) , (7)
2ωs D
where

3 D denotes the damping coefficient.

3 Pref denotes the reference power.

As we have seen in Lecture 1 this type of control is crucial for regulating the frequency and
maintaining stability.

Remark 1: The linear relationship in (7) ignores the complex dynamics of the prime-mover,
and holds only for slow transients. A more accurate model may be found in [2].
Remark 2: The droop mechanism in (7) is defined with respect to torque instead of with
respect to power, as done in Lecture 1. This form is chosen to simplify the dynamic equations
without using the approximation ω ≈ ωs .

Substituting (7) into (5) yields

 
d 2 1
ω = K 3Pref − ωs Te − (ω − ωs ) . (8)
dt pf D

This equation defines the dynamics of the frequency ω with respect to the electromagnetic
torque Te . Recall that in Lecture 1 we have used a time-varying phasor model and defined
the swing equation as  
d 1
ω = K 3Pref − 3P − (ω − ωs ) . (9)
dt D
2
Equations (8) and (9) are similar except for the more accurate term ωT
pf s e
that replaces the
active power 3P .

Electrical model
In this section we develop the electrical model of the machine based on the dq0 transforma-
tion. This model is an extension of the time-varying phasor model presented in Lecture 1,
and may be used to describe fast transients. However, as all models, the model presented
here is an approximation. Specifically, it is assumed that

3 The machine is a magneto-quasi-static device,

Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 4

3 Saturation of the magnetic materials and other sources of imbalance and harmonic
distortion are ignored,
3 Self- and mutual inductances are composed of a constant term, in addition to a sinu-
soidal term varying with 2θ.

Although these assumptions may seem restrictive, they form the basis of the classic dq0
model, and have been found to give excellent results in a wide variety of applications [1].
The machine is described as a system of coupled inductors,
    
λa `aa `ab `ac `af −ia
 λb   `ba `bb `bc `bf   −ib 
 =
 λc   `ca `cb `cc `cf   −ic  ,
  (10)
λf `f a `f b `f c `f f if
where

3 λa , λb , λc denote the stator flux linkages;

3 ia , ib , ic denote the stator currents (generator output currents). The negative signs have
been added since currents are positive when flowing out of the generator;
3 λf denotes the field winding flux linkage;
3 if denotes the field winding current.

Following these definitions we have

d
va = −Ra ia + λa ,
dt
d
vb = −Rb ib + λb ,
dt (11)
d
vc = −Rc ic + λc ,
dt
d
vf = Rf if + λf ,
dt
where

3 va , vb , vc denote the stator terminal voltages (generator output voltages);

3 vf denotes the field winding voltage;
3 Ra denotes the armature resistance;
3 Rf denotes the field winding resistance.

The self- and mutual inductances in (10) depend on the rotor position. The stator self-
inductances are given by
`aa = Laa + Lg2 cos(2θ),
`bb = Laa + Lg2 cos(2θ + 120◦ ), (12)
◦
`cc = Laa + Lg2 cos(2θ − 120 ),
and the stator-to-stator mutual inductances are
`ab = `ba = Lab + Lg2 cos(2θ − 120◦ ),
`bc = `cb = Lab + Lg2 cos(2θ), (13)
`ac = `ca = Lab + Lg2 cos(2θ + 120◦ ),
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 5

where Laa is a positive constant and Lab is a negative constant. These inductances are com-
posed of a constant term, in addition to a sinusoidal term varying with 2θ. This additional
term is required in case the rotor is not perfectly round (which causes “saliency effects”).
In addition, the stator-to-rotor mutual inductances vary according to the rotor position and
are given by
`af = `f a = Laf cos(θ),
`bf = `f b = Laf cos(θ − 120◦ ), (14)
◦
`cf = `f c = Laf cos(θ + 120 ),
and the field winding self-inductance is

`f f = Lf f = constant. (15)

The model defined by the above equations does not have an equilibrium point since the
inductances depend on the rotor angle θ and thus vary with time. For this reason we will
now present an equivalent model which is based on dq0 quantities. Such a model may be
obtained by applying the dq0 transformation to the equations above. Omitting the algebraic
details, the resulting dq0-based model is given by

λd = −Ld id + Laf if ,
λq = −Lq iq ,
λ0 = −L0 i0 , (16)
3
λf = − Laf id + Lf f if ,
2
and
d
vd = −Ra id + λd − ωλq ,
dt
d
vq = −Ra iq + λq + ωλd ,
dt (17)
d
v0 = −Ra i0 + λ0 ,
dt
d
vf = Rf if + λf ,
dt
where

3 vd , vq , v0 are the dq0 transformation of va , vb , vc (stator terminal voltages).

3 λd , λq , λ0 are the dq0 transformation of λa , λb , λc (stator flux linkages).
3 Ld denotes the direct-axis synchronous inductance.
3 Lq denotes the quadrature-axis synchronous inductance.
3 L0 denotes the zero-sequence inductance.

Notes:

1. The reference angle for the dq0 transformation is the rotor electrical angle θ.
2. The dq0 variables do not depend directly on θ.
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 6

The inductances in (16) are given by

3
Ld = Laa − Lab + Lg2 ,
2
3 (18)
Lq = Laa − Lab − Lg2 ,
2
L0 = Laa + 2Lab .

Throughout this lecture we will work directly with these inductances.

We also define
1
Ls = (Ld + Lq ). (19)
2
For a perfectly round rotor with Lg2 = 0 (no "saliency effects") the synchronous inductances
are equal:
Ls = Ld = Lq . (20)
In this case we denote the synchronous inductance as Ls , as in Lecture 1.
To complete the basic model, the machine’s output power (flowing from the stator terminals
into the grid) is
3
ps = (vd id + vq iq + 2v0 i0 ), (21)
2
and the electromagnetic power decelerating the rotor is
3
pe = ω(λd iq − λq id ). (22)
2
Following (22) and using (2) the electromagnetic torque is given by
pe 3 pf
Te = = (λd iq − λq id ). (23)
ωm 2 2

A complete state-space model of the synchronous machine is obtained by merging the equa-
tions above. Using equations (8), (16), (17) and (23) and again omitting the algebraic details
we obtain
d
θ = ω,
dt    
d 1 3βωs − 6Lf f Lq ωs 3Laf ωs
ω = K 3Pref − (ω − ωs ) + λd λq + λq λf ,
dt D 2βLq β
d 2Ra Lf f 2Ra Laf
λd =− λd + ωλq + λf + v d ,
dt β β
(24)
d Ra
λq = −ωλd − λq + vq ,
dt Lq
d Ra
λ0 = − λ0 + v0 ,
dt L0
d 3Rf Laf 2Rf Ld
λf = λd − λf + vf ,
dt β β
The inputs of this model are vd , vq , v0 , vf , Pref , and the constants are defined as
 p 2 1
f
K= ,
2 Jωs (25)
β = 2Ld Lf f − 3L2af .
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 7

Several optional outputs (in addition to the state variables) are

2Laf 2Lf f 1 1
id = λf − λd , iq = − λq , i0 = − λ0 ,
β β Lq L0
2Ld 3Laf
if = λf − λd ,
β β
3 pf 3
Te = (λd iq − λq id ), pe = ω(λd iq − λq id ), (26)
2 2  2  
pf 1 ω 1
Tm = 3Pref − (ω − ωs ) , pm = 3Pref − (ω − ωs ) ,
2ωs D ωs D
3
ps = (vd id + vq iq + 2v0 i0 ).
2

Following are several examples demonstrating how to use the model described above in
simulation. Consider first a synchronous generator feeding a symmetrically configured re-
sistive load RL . The objective here is to simulate the transient that follows a sudden 3-phase
short circuit at the stator terminals. A possible signal flow diagram is shown in Fig. 2. Under
normal operating conditions the ratio between the voltages and currents is RL . When the
short occurs the voltages vd , vq , v0 are zeroed, and a transient takes place.

idq0
Pref sync. RL
normal
machine operation
vdq0
Vf model
short-
0 circuit
switch
if ps

Figure 2: Simulating a sudden 3-phase short circuit at the stator terminals.

As a second example, consider the system shown in Fig. 3. A signal flow diagram is shown
in Fig. 4.

medium length transmission line

∼
(a) One-line diagram

load
i v i0 v 0 i00
R L
C C
sync. 2 2 RL
machine

(b) Single-phase diagram

Figure 3: Example: synchronous machine connected to a medium length transmission line and load.
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 8

i0dq0 i00dq0
+ − + −
Pref sync. idq0
R-L
1
machine capacitor dq0 model capacitor RL
dq0 model dq0 model
Vf model + − 0
vdq0 vdq0

ω ps

Figure 4: Signal flow diagram for a synchronous machine connected to a medium length transmission
line and load.

The capacitors, inductor and resistor are modeled as discussed in Lecture 3. The left capaci-
tor is modeled as
d 1
vd = ωvq + (id − i0d ),
dt C/2
d 1
vq = −ωvd + (iq − i0q ), (27)
dt C/2
d 1
v0 = (i0 − i00 ),
dt C/2
the right capacitor is modeled as
d 0 1 0
vd = ωvq0 + (i − i00d ),
dt C/2 d
d 0 1 0
vq = −ωvd0 + (i − i00q ), (28)
dt C/2 q
d 0 1 0
v0 = (i − i000 ),
dt C/2 0
and the series resistor and inductor are modeled as
 0  R  0
vd − vd0
 
id −L ω 0 id
d  0  1
iq = −ω − R L
0  i0q  + vq − vq0  . (29)
dt 0 L
i0 0 0 −R L
i00 v0 − v00

Note that these equations depend on ω, which is an output of the machine’s model. It is also
possible to use the approximation ω ≈ ωs to eliminate this dependency.

Simplified machine model

This section presents a simplified dynamic model of the machine. The model is based on the
following assumptions:

3 Round rotor: Lg2 = 0, or equivalently Ld = Lq = Ls .

3 Constant field current: if = If = const.
3 Balanced voltages and currents: v0 = 0, i0 = 0.

We will now show that under these assumptions

3 The machine may be described as an internal voltage source behind a series impedance;
3 The induced EMF is proportional to the frequency ω;
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 9

3 The electromagnetic torque is proportional to the current iq .

Based on (16) and (17) and using Ld = Lq = Ls , if = If , v0 = 0, i0 = 0 we have
λd = −Ls id + Laf If ,
λq = −Ls iq , (30)
3
λf = − Laf id + Lf f If ,
2
and
d
vd = −Ra id + λd − ωλq ,
dt
d
vq = −Ra iq + λq + ωλd , (31)
dt
d
vf = Rf If + λf .
dt
Substituting (30) in (31) yields
d
vd = −Ra id − Ls
id + ωLs iq ,
dt
d
vq = −Ra iq − Ls iq − ωLs id + ωLaf If , (32)
dt
3 d
vf = Rf If − Laf id .
2 dt
Note that vf does not affect the other quantities, and may be considered an output of the
model. We now define the constant voltage
VE = ωs Laf If = const. (33)
Using this constant the resulting equations are
d
vd = −Ra id − Ls id + ωLs iq ,
dt (34)
d ω
vq = −Ra iq − Ls iq − ωLs id + VE ,
dt ωs
and these may be written as
 
d
vd = 0 −Ra id − Ls id − ωLs iq ,
 dt 
ω d
vq = VE −Ra iq − Ls iq + ωLs id . (35)
|{z} ωs | {z } dt
stator | {z } voltage drop | {z }
voltages induced EMF on series resistance voltage drop
on series inductance

Based on these expressions the machine’s simplified model may be compactly described as
an internal voltage source (induced EMF) behind a series impedance, as shown in Fig. 5.

ea Ra Ls
−+ va
eb Ra Ls
−+ vb
ec Ra Ls
−+ vc

Figure 5: The simplified machine model: an internal voltage source behind a series impedance.
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 10

In this equivalent circuit the internal voltage source is given by

   
ed 0
eq  =  ω VE  , (36)
ωs
e0 0

where [ed , eq , e0 ]T is the dq0 transformation of [ea , eb , ec ]T . We see that the internal voltage is
proportional to the frequency, where at steady-state and at nominal frequency the induced
EMF (peak value) is VE = ωs Laf If .
In addition, using (23), (30) and (33), the electromagnetic torque acting on the rotor (in the
simplified model) is
3 pf 3 pf 3 pf
Te = (λd iq − λq id ) = Laf If iq = VE iq . (37)
2 2 2 2 2 2ωs
We see that the electromagnetic torque is proportional to the stator current iq .
Based on these results, a simplified model of the machine may be obtained by separating
the internal voltage source from the series impedance (Ra and Ls ). This series impedance,
although physically a part of the machine, can be modeled as if it is a part of the transmission
network. The equations describing the dynamics of the internal voltage source are
 
d 2ωs 1
ω = K 3Pref − Te − (ω − ωs ) ,
dt pf D
(38)
3 pf
Te = VE iq ,
2 2ωs
and direct substitution of Te provides the simplified dynamic model
d
θ = ω,
dt   (39)
d 1 3
ω = K 3Pref − (ω − ωs ) − VE iq .
dt D 2
Here the inputs are Pref and iq , and several outputs (in addition to the state variables) are
ω
ed = 0, eq =
VE , e0 = 0,
ωs
3 pf 3ω
Te = VE iq , pe = VE iq , (40)
2 2ωs 2 ωs
   
pf 1 ω 1
Tm = 3Pref − (ω − ωs ) , pm = 3Pref − (ω − ωs ) .
2ωs D ωs D
All the dq0 quantities are defined with respect to the rotor electrical angle θ.

Energy conversion in the machine

We will now use the simplified machine model presented above to demonstrate energy con-
version processes in the machine. The total energy stored in the machine is composed of
two parts:
 2
3 The kinetic energy of the rotor: Erot = 21 Jωm
2
= 21 J 2
pf
ω2,
3 The magnetic energy, represented by the energy stored in the synchronous inductance:
3 2 2


EL = 4 Ls id + iq .
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 11

The kinetic energy derivative is

 
d d 1 2 dωm
Erot = Jω = Jωm , (41)
dt dt 2 m dt
dωm
and using dt
= J1 (Tm − Te ) we obtain

d
Erot = ωm Tm − ωm Te = pm − pe . (42)
dt
This is an intuitive result: the change in kinetic energy is equal to the difference between the
mechanical and electromagnetic powers. In addition, the magnetic energy derivative is
 
d 3 did diq
EL = Ls id + iq , (43)
dt 2 dt dt

and using (35) we have

  
d 3 ω
EL = id (−Ra id + ωLs iq − vd ) + iq −Ra iq − ωLs id + VE − vq
dt 2 ωs
3ω 3 3
VE iq − (vd id + vq iq ) − Ra i2d + i2q


=
2ω 2 (44)
| s{z } | {z } |2 {z }
pe ps ohmic loss
3
= pe − ps − Ra i2d + iq . 2


2

The flow of power in the machine is summarized in Fig. 6.

ploss
pe pe − ploss
⇒ ⇑ ⇒
ea Ra Ls
rotor
−+

pm pe eb ps
Ra Ls
mechanical
power
⇒ ⇒ −+ ⇒ electromagnetic
to grid
power

ec Ra Ls
−+

energy storage Erot pure energy energy energy storage EL

dErot conversion loss dEL
dt
= pm − pe dt
= pe − ploss − ps
(no storage, no loss)

Figure 6: Energy conversion in the machine, based on the simplified model.

The central energy conversion process is described by the internal voltage source, which
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy (or vice-versa).

From a mechanical perspective, based on (4): pe = Te ωm .

Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 12

From an electrical perspective, based on (40):

3
pe = (ed id + eq iq + 2e0 i0 )
2 
3 ω
= 0 · id + VE · iq + 2 · 0 · 0
2 ωs
3ω (45)
= VE iq
2 ωs
2
= Te ω
pf
= Te ωm .
Note that both these forms of pe are identical, and therefore the internal voltage source is an
ideal converter of mechanical energy to electromagnetic energy.

Transformation from one reference frame to another

The dynamic models presented in the previous sections were defined in the rotor reference
frame, with respect to the angle θ. A typical question is how to construct a dynamic model
which describes a system with more than one natural reference frame. Such a need arises
when the system includes more than one machine, or when a machine is connected to an
infinite bus.
A typical solution is to transform the dq0 variables from one reference frame to another.
Assume a system with two sets of signals:

3 xdq0 are defined with respect to a reference angle θr .

3 x̃dq0 are defined with respect to a reference angle θ.

The relations between these signals can be found by transforming the signals to the abc
reference frame and back, which may be written as xdq0 = Tθr Tθ−1 x̃dq0 or x̃dq0 = Tθ Tθ−1
r
xdq0 .
Using the dq0 identities in Lecture 2 we have
 
cos(θ − θr ) − sin(θ − θr ) 0
θ → θr : xdq0 =  sin(θ − θr ) cos(θ − θr ) 0 x̃dq0 , (46)
0 0 1
 
cos(θ − θr ) sin(θ − θr ) 0
θ ← θr : x̃dq0 = − sin(θ − θr ) cos(θ − θr ) 0 xdq0 . (47)
0 0 1
Consider now a general unit, which dq0 model is described with respect to the angle θ. This
model can be linked to a system with a reference angle θr as described in Fig. 7.
As an important special case, consider the internal voltage source ẽd = 0, ẽq = ωωs VE , ẽ0 = 0,
with a reference angle θ. Direct transformation from θ to θr yields
      
ed cos(θ − θr ) − sin(θ − θr ) 0 0 − sin(θ − θr )
eq  =  sin(θ − θr ) cos(θ − θr ) 0  ω VE  = ω VE  cos(θ − θr )  (48)
ωs
ωs
e0 0 0 1 0 0
or    
ed cos(δ)
eq  = ω VE  sin(δ)  with δ = θ − θr +
π
, (49)
ωs 2
e0 0
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 13

ĩdq0 idq0
θ → θr System
Unit
reference θ − θr reference
angle ṽdq0 vdq0 angle
θ θ ← θr θr
θ − θr
θ θr
+ −

Figure 7: Transformation from one reference frame to another.

where ed , eq , e0 are defined with respect to θr . The reader may recognize δ as the power
angle of the machine, as discussed in Lecture 1.
We will now use this result to show that the simplified machine model of Section 3 leads
to the time-varying phasor model of Lecture 1. Consider a slow transient for which time-
varying phasors may be used instead of dq0 quantities. In this case the internal voltage source
may be described by a phasor:
1 ωVE
E = √ (ed + jeq ) = √ (cos(δ) + j sin(δ)) . (50)
2 2ωs
Let |E| denote the amplitude of this phasor,
ωVE √
|E| = √ = ωLaf If / 2, (51)
2ωs
and substitute (51) in (50) to obtain
E = |E|∠δ. (52)
Note that |E| depends on ω, however in a time-varying phasor model it is typically assumed
that ω ≈ ωs , and therefore |E| is constant.
Also recall that in a time-varying phasor model pe = 3P . This relation holds since
 
∗ 1 1 ∗
3P = 3 Re{EIa } = 3 Re √ (ed + jeq ) √ (id + jiq )
2 2 (53)
3
= Re{ed id + eq iq } = pe .
2
An equivalent circuit based on time-varying phasors is shown in Fig. 8. Recall that this is
the same circuit presented in Lecture 1. The circuit is valid only under the assumptions
mentioned above, which are
3 Round rotor: Lg2 = 0, or equivalently Ld = Lq = Ls ;
3 Constant field current: if = If = const;
3 Balanced voltages and currents: v0 = 0, i0 = 0;
3 Slow transients: voltages and currents are nearly sinusoidal over a single line cycle, so
time-varying phasors may be used instead of dq0 quantities.

Ra jXs = jωLs Ia

P
E = |E|ejδ +
− =⇒

Figure 8: A time-varying phasor model of the synchronous machine, single-phase diagram.

Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 14

Example: machine connected to an infinite bus

Consider a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus. The machine is described by
the simplified model presented in Section 3, and the infinite bus is modeled as
√
vd,∞ = 2Vg = const,
vq,∞ = 0, (54)
v0,∞ = 0,

with respect to a reference angle θr = ωs t. A signal flow diagram is shown in Fig. 9.

reference reference
angle θ angle ωs t

ẽdq0 edq0
θ → ωs t vdq0,∞

θ − ωs t + −
internal
voltage
Pref R-L
source
dq0 model

ĩdq0 idq0
θ ← ωs t

θ − ωs t
θ
+ − ωs t

Figure 9: Signal-flow diagram: synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus.

The internal voltage source is modeled as

   
ed cos(δ)
eq  = ω VE  sin(δ)  (55)
ωs
e0 0

with δ = θ − θr + π2 . In addition, using (39) we obtain

d
θ = ω,
dt   (56)
d 1 3
ω = K 3Pref − (ω − ωs ) − VE ĩq ,
dt D 2

where ĩq is referenced to θ. Based on (47) this variable may be expressed in terms of the
reference angle ωs t as
    
ĩd cos(θ − ωs t) sin(θ − ωs t) 0 id
ĩq  = − sin(θ − ωs t) cos(θ − ωs t) 0 iq  , (57)
ĩ0 0 0 1 i0

π
and the equality δ = θ − ωs t + 2
leads to

ĩq = cos(δ)id + sin(δ)iq . (58)

Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 15

Moreover, the machine’s series impedance is modeled (with respect to ωs t) as

   Ra  √ 
− Ls ωs
   
id 0 id cos(δ) 2Vg
d    Ra 1 ω
iq = −ωs − Ls 0   iq +
 VE sin(δ) −
   0  . (59)
dt Ra Ls ωs
i0 0 0 − Ls i0 0 0

Combining these equations, the resulting state-space model is

d
δ = ω − ωs ,
dt  
d 1 3 3
ω = K 3Pref − (ω − ωs ) − VE id cos(δ) − VE iq sin(δ) ,
dt D 2 2
√
 
d Ra 1 ω
id = − id + ωs iq + VE cos(δ) − 2Vg , (60)
dt Ls Ls ωs
d Ra 1 ω
iq = −ωs id − iq + VE sin(δ),
dt Ls Ls ωs
d Ra
i0 = − i0 .
dt Ls
Note that δ is used instead of θ as a state variable.

Example: two machines connected to each other, and feeding a resistive load
Consider two synchronous machines connected to each other, and feeding a resistive load
RL . The machines are described using the detailed model in (24). The reference angle of
the first machine is θ1 , and the reference angle of the second machine is θ2 . A signal flow
diagram is shown in Fig. 10.

idq0,1 idq0,2
Pref,1 θ1 ← θ2 Pref,2

Vf,1 + + θ2 − θ1 Vf,2
machine 1

machine 2

RL

vdq0,1 vdq0,2
θ1 → θ2

θ2 − θ1
θ1 θ2
− +

Figure 10: Signal-flow diagram: two machines connected to each other, and feeding a resistive load.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)

The Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is a synchronous machine in which
permanent magnets are embedded in the rotor to create a constant magnetic field. As in
all synchronous machines, at steady state the rotor speed is proportional to the frequency
of currents and voltages in the stator. For this reason such motors are especially useful in
applications that require precise speed or position control. This section presents a dq0 model
of a PMSM with sinusoidal EMF (as opposed to motors with trapezoidal EMF).
PMSMs are modeled like synchronous generators, with three key modifications:
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 16

3 The term Laf if is replaced with λ, which is the amplitude of the flux induced in the
stator by the permanent magnets on the rotor.
3 The stator currents are defined positive when flowing into the machine.
3 The electromagnetic torque accelerates the rotor, and the mechanical torque deceler-
d
ates the rotor. The angular acceleration is defined as dt ωm = J1 (Te − Tm ).

Based on these assumptions the resulting model is

d pf
θ = ωm ,
dt 2
d 1
ωm = (Te − Tm ) ,
dt J
d 1 Ra L q pf
id = vd − id + ωm iq , (61)
dt Ld Ld Ld 2
d 1 Ra L d pf λpf ωm
iq = vq − iq − ωm id − ,
dt Lq Lq Lq 2 2Lq
d 1 Ra
i0 = v0 − i0 .
dt L0 L0
The reference angle for the dq0 transformation is the electrical angle θ.
In this model:

3 θ denotes the rotor electrical angle;

3 pf denotes the number of magnetic poles on the rotor (even integer);
3 Ld , Lq , L0 denote the direct axis, quadrature axis, and zero sequence inductances;
3 Ra denotes the resistance of the stator windings;
3 id , iq , i0 denote the stator currents (positive when flowing into the machine);
3 vd , vq , v0 denote the stator terminal voltages;
3 ωm denotes the angular velocity of the rotor;
3 λ denotes the amplitude of the flux induced in the stator phases by the permanent
magnets on the rotor;
3 J denotes the rotor moment of inertia;
3 Tm , Te denote the mechanical and electromagnetic torques;
3 pm , pe denote the mechanical and electromagnetic powers.

The inputs of the model are vd , vq , v0 , Tm , and several outputs are

3pf
Te = (λiq + (Ld − Lq ) id iq ) ,
4 (62)
pm = Tm ωm , pe = Te ωm .

Similar to synchronous generators, this model may be simplified by assuming a round rotor
such that Ld = Lq = Ls . In this case the motor may be described by the equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 11. In this model the internal voltage source is described as
   
ed 0
eq  = λ pf ωm  , (63)
2
e0 0
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 17

ia +
ea −
va ∼

ib +
eb −
vb ∼

ic +
ec −
vc ∼

Ls Ra
energy energy energy
storage losses conversion

Figure 11: Equivalent circuit for a permanent magnet synchronous motor with a round rotor (assum-
ing Ld = Lq = Ls ).

 T  T
where ed eq e0 is the dq0 transformation of ea eb ec . In addition for Ld = Lq = Ls
the electromagnetic torque is given by

3
Te = pf λiq . (64)
4
As we have seen before, the magnitude of the internal voltage is proportional to the angular
velocity, and the electromagnetic torque is proportional to the quadrature axis current.
The heart of the energy conversion process is described by the internal voltage source, which
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. From a mechanical perspective, the electro-
magnetic power is
3
pe = Te ωm = pf λωm iq , (65)
4
and from an electrical perspective,

3
pe = (ed id + eq iq + 2e0 i0 )
2
3 pf 
= 0 · id + λ ωm · iq + 2 · 0 · 0 (66)
2 2
3
= pf λωm iq .
4
Both expressions are identical.
A basic control scheme for the PMSM is shown in Fig. 12. The design consists of two loops:
an inner current loop and an outer speed loop. The inner loop regulates the currents such that
id ≈ i∗d and iq ≈ i∗q , by adjusting the inverter duty cycles. The objective of the outer loop is to
∗
regulate the speed, such that in steady state ωm ≈ ωm . This is implemented by controlling i∗q
based on the approximated relation between torque and current Te = 34 pf λiq . If the speed ωm
is too low then i∗q increases to produce more torque, and if ωm is too high then i∗q decreases
to produce less torque. Two sensors are placed on the motor to measure the speed ωm and
the electrical angle θ. The latter is used as a reference angle for the dq0 transformation.
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 18

Vdc

dd da
dq0
dq db 3-phase
& PWM
d0 dc inverter
0 abc

θ c b a

current idq abc iabc current

&
controller dq0 sensors

i∗d i∗q θ
0
motor

∗
ωm
speed + ωm speed θ position
−
controller sensor sensor

Figure 12: A basic control scheme for a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM).
Lecture 3: The Synchronous Machine 19

Appendix A: summary of symbols

pf - number of θ - rotor electrical angle VE = ωs Laf Lf - induced

magnetic poles on the EMF at nominal
rotor (even integer) frequency, peak value
√
J - rotor moment of ω = dθ/dt - rotor electrical |E| = √ωV2ωE = ωLaf If / 2
s
inertia frequency - induced EMF at rotor
frequency, RMS value
D - damping coefficient ωm = p2f ω - rotor mechanical id , iq , i0 - stator currents
frequency
Ld , Lq - direct axis and ωs - nominal grid frequency vd , vq , v0 - stator terminal
quadrature axis 2π50 or 2π60 rad/sec voltages
synchronous
inductances
p
2
L0 - zero sequence Tm - mechanical torque K = 2f Jω1 s - swing
inductance (accelerating the rotor for equation constant
generator)
Ls = 12 (Ld + Lq ) Te - electromagnetic torque ed , eq , e0 - induced EMF
synchronous (decelerating the rotor for in the simplified machine
inductance in the generator) model
simplified model
Laf - stator to rotor Pref - reference power for the vf - field winding voltage
mutual inductance droop controller
(maximum value)
Lf f - field winding pm = Tm ωm - mechanical if - field winding current
self-inductance power
Ra - armature resistance pe = Te ωm - electromagnetic λd , λq , λ0 - stator flux
power linkages
Rf - field winding ps - output power λf - field winding flux
resistance linkage

All dq0 quantities are defined in the rotor reference frame (with respect to θ).

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