e P Controller m
Error Controller
output
e Kp m
R1 R3
R2
e _ -m R3 _
m
+ +
Inverter
1 t de
m = K p e + 0 edt + TD
Ti dt
where Ti = integral time constant
TD = derivative time constant
Kp de
m = K p e + edt + K pTD
t
Or,
0
Ti dt
Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions,
K p E (s )
M (s ) = K p E (s ) + + sK pTD E (s )
sTi
M (s ) Kp
= Kp + + sK pTD
E (s )
Or,
sTi
M (s ) 1
= K p 1 + + sTD
E (s )
Or,
sTi
the transfer function of PID controller
Parallel Realization of PID Controller
Kp
proportional term
integral term
s Kp TD
derivative term
Circuit realization
R1
R2
_ v1 R3
+ R3
proportional term
CI
_
e m
RI +
_ v2 R3
+
integral term
Inverting adder
RD
CD
_ v3 R3
+
derivative term
M (s ) = −(V1 (s ) + V2 (s ) + V3 (s ))
R1 1
Or, M (s ) = E (s ) + + sRD CD
R2 sRI CI
Circuit realization
M (s ) R1 1
= + + sRD CD
E (s ) R2 sRI CI
Here,
R1
Kp =
R2
Kp 1
=
Ti RI C I
K pTD = RD C D
Circuit realization
R1 CI
R3
R2
e _ v1 R3 _
0V + m
+
From Derivative R3
ckt.
E (s ) V1 (s )
+ =0
R2 1
R1 +
sC I
E (s ) V1 (s ) V1 (s )sC I
Or, =− =−
R2 R1 +
1 1 + sR1C I
sC I
Circuit realization
V1 (s ) 1 + sR1C I
=−
E (s )
Or,
sR2 C I
R1 1
= −
R + sR C
2 2 I
R1 1
=−
1+
R2 sR1C I
1
= −K p
1 + sT
i
Where
R1
Kp = and Ti = R1CI
R2
A simple PID Controller with two op-amps
e +
_ m
e e +
R1 _ m
equivalent
e
CI circuit CI
RD _ RD
m
CD m +
CD +
RI Unity R2 RI m
_
gain
buffer
R2
Here, =
RI + R2
A simple PID Controller with two op-amps
e +
_ m
e e +
R1 _ m
equivalent
e
CI circuit CI
RD _ RD
m
CD m +
CD +
RI Unity R2 RI m
_
gain
buffer
R2
Here, =
RI + R2
The unity gain buffer amplifier is required to avoid the loading effect of
the feedback network
Circuit solution
1
M (s ) = I1 RI +
e +
e _ m Loop equations: − I 2 RI
RD CI sC I
CD
RI
+
_ m 1
I2 I1 0 = − I1 RI + I 2 RI + RD +
sC D
In matrix form:
1
R +
I sC − RI I1 M ( s )
I
1 =
− RI RI + RD + I 2 0
sC D
Circuit solution
1
e + RI + M (s)
e _ m By Cramer’s rule: sCI
CI − RI 0
RD
I2 =
+1
CD + R
sC − R
_ m
RI I I
I2 I1
I
1
−
I R R + R +
sCD
I D
M ( s ) RI
Or, I2 =
1 1
I
R + I
R + RD + − RI
2
sC I sC D
M ( s ) RI
E (s) =
I2
=
( sCD )
sCD 1 1 2
I
R + I
R + RD + − RI
sCI sCD
Circuit solution
Then, the T.F. becomes:
e +
_ m
e
1 1 2
RD CI
RI + RI + RD + − RI sCD
M ( s ) 1 sCI sCD
CD + =
RI _ m E (s) RI
I2 I1
1 1 + s (T1 + T2 + RI CD ) + s TT
2
Simplifying, = 1 2
1 1 sT 1 2
RI + RI + RD + − RI sCD
M ( s ) 1 1 T1 + TsC+I RI CD 1 sCD
= = 2
+
R + sT2
E (s) T sT
1 I 1
where T1 = RICI and T2 = RDCD
Circuit solution
e + T1 + T2 + RI C D
e _ m By substituting A=
RD CI T1
CD +
RI _ m CD T2
I2 I1 Or, A = 1+ +
CI T1
e + T1 + T2 + RI C D
e _ m By substituting A=
RD CI T1
CD +
RI _ m CD T2
I2 I1 Or, A = 1+ +
CI T1
e +
_ m
e e +
R1 _ m
equivalent
e
CI circuit CI
RD _ RD
Original circuit with two op-amps
m
CD m +
CD +
RI Unity R2 RI m
_
gain
buffer
The unity gain buffer amplifier may be omitted if the resistances are chosen such that
(R I
|| RD ) (R1 || R2 )
e +
_ m
CI R1 + R 2
TD
adjust Final circuit with one op-amp
CD RD m adjust
RI
Ti
adjust
Desirable features of a Process Controller
1 t de
The controller output is m = K p e + 0 edt + TD + bias
Ti dt
Bias may be properly adjusted for zero steady state error with P and PD
controllers, when load is constant. Proper bias can also ensure efficient
operation under start-up condition.
1 t de
The controller output is m = K p e + 0 edt + TD + bias
Ti dt
Bias may be properly adjusted for zero steady state error with P and PD
controllers, when load is constant. Proper bias can also ensure efficient
operation under start-up condition.
Manual command
MAN
Final
Error Controller control Actuating signal
AUTO element
Change-over
switch
Provision for Local/Remote modes of operation
A provision is made for the set point input, such that, the set point may
be changed either locally or from a remote link.
Electronic Process Controllers
Advantages
Disadvantages
Fulcrum
+ +
Cm (joint)
Measured
variable
e = (r - C m)/2
Power source
Set point +
Output
Measured
variable
-
Pneumatic Baffle-Nozzle or Flapper-Nozzle amplifier
Ps
Typical
values
A typical curve relating nozzle back pressure M to Baffle-Nozzle separation X
Pneumatic Baffle-Nozzle or Flapper-Nozzle amplifier
Fulcrum
+ +
Cm (joint)
Measured
variable
e = (r - C m)/2
Under steady state condition, change in output pressure may be expressed as:
set point
(Screw)
e
Bellows
pneumatic
measured
variable C m
Bellows
Relay valve or pilot valve
The output pressure from the pneumatic amplifier is not suitable for driving the final
control element due to the presence of restriction in the air supply.
For this reason, a buffer stage, known as relay valve or pilot valve, is added at the
output to allow sufficient air flow at pressure ‘m’.
x Restriction
m Air supply (P s)
Vent
m
m = - K n.x
As the nozzle back pressure m increases, the relay output pressure also increases
Direct-acting relays
As the nozzle back pressure increases, the ball valve is forced towards the lower seat, thereby
decreasing the output pressure
Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows
m m (Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a
air supply (P s)
b Restriction (20 psi)
x
e
Error
a b
− ( x) = e − Kb m
a+b a+b
where Kb is the bellows stiffness factor and m is the change in output pressure.
Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows
a b
m m (Controller
− ( x) = e − Kb m
a+b a+b
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a
air supply (P s)
Now m = – Kn .x, where Kn is the nozzle
b
x Restriction (20 psi) gain.
e
Error
a ++ -X(s)
E(s) Kn M(s)
a+b -
b
Kb
a+b
Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows
a b
m m (Controller
− ( x) = e − Kb m
a+b a+b
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a
air supply (P s)
Now m = – Kn .x, where Kn is the nozzle
b
x Restriction (20 psi) gain.
e
Error
Thus, a b
m = e−
K n a + b a + b b
Km
1 b a
or m + Kb = e
Kn a +b a +b
1
if Kn is very high, then 0,
Kn
Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows
m m (Controller
output pressure)
(3 - 15 psi)
a
air supply (P s)
b Restriction (20 psi)
x
e
Error
This gives
a
a
a+b
m= e= e = K p .e
b bK b
Kb
a+b
a
where Kp = proportional gain =
bK b
Pneumatic Proportional Controller
Feedback bellows
a
m m (Controller
a
+
output pressure)
a b
m= e= e = K p .e
(3 - 15 psi)
a
b bKb
air supply (P s)
b
K
b
x Restriction (20 psi)
a+b
e a
Error where Kp = proportional gain =
bK b
E(s) Kp M(s)
Pneumatic proportional controller with a direct-acting relay
Feedback bellows
Controller output
m m
(3 - 15 psi)
a
m Relay valve (gain = 1)
CD m
(output pressure)
a Baffle
a b Kb
−X (s) = E (s) − M (s) (assuming RD >> R)
a+b a + b 1 + sTD
where Kb = Bellows stiffness factor,
TD = Derivative time
= RDCD, (assuming RD >> R),
CD = Capacity of the bellows.
Pneumatic Proportional-Derivative Controller
Derivative time
Feedback bellows
Restriction R D (Needle valve)
a b Kb
CD m −X (s) = ( )
E s − M (s)
a+b a + b 1 + sTD
(output pressure)
a Baffle
M (s ) = − K n X (s )
Restriction (orifice)
Nozzle
air supply (P s)
Now
b R
e
x
where Kn is the nozzle gain.
Error
M (s) a b Kb
Thus = E (s) − M (s)
Kn a + b a + b 1 + sTD
1 b Kb a 1
or, M (s) + = E (s) Now, K n 1, 0,
K n a + b 1 + sTD a + b Kn
M (s) a
(1 + sTD )
E (s) bK b
a
= K p (1 + sTD ) where Kp = proportional gain =
bK b
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller
Integral time
Restriction (Needle valve)
RI proportional
bellows
(output
CI m m
pressure)
a
Integral negative
positive bellows feedback
feedback Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
e b x R
Error
Integral time
Restriction (Needle valve)
RI proportional
bellows
a b b Kb
−X (s) = ( ) ( ) M (s)
(output
CI m m
pressure)
E s − K M s +
+ + + +
b
Integral
a
negative
a b a b a b 1 sTi
positive bellows feedback
feedback Restriction (orifice)
air supply (P s)
e b x R
Error
Hence,
a 1 b
−X (s) = ( )
E s − 1 − Kb M ( s )
a + b 1 + sTi a + b
a 1 b
= E (s) − Kb M ( s )
a+b 1+ 1 a + b
sT
i
Now, M ( s ) = − Kn . X ( s )
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral Controller
1 b
Integral time
a
−X (s) = ( ) Kb M ( s )
Restriction (Needle valve)
E s − 1 −
RI
a + b 1 + sTi a + b
proportional
bellows
(output
CI m m
pressure)
a 1 b
= E (s) − Kb M ( s )
a
Integral negative
positive bellows feedback
Restriction (orifice) a+b 1+ 1 a + b
sT
feedback
air supply (P s)
e b x R i
Error
and M ( s ) = − Kn . X ( s )
1
Thus, assuming Kn >> 1, i.e. 0,
Kn
M (s) a 1 1 a
= 1 + = K p 1 + , where Kp =
E ( s ) bKb sTi sTi bK b
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CI CD
Derivative time
a RD Restriction
(output pressure)
m
x
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction
Error
a b K b
− X (s ) = E (s ) − M (s )
RI
1
a +b a + b 1 + sTD
CI CD
b Kb
M (s )
+
a + b (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
Derivative time
RD
bK b
a Restriction
a 1 1
E (s ) − M (s )
(output pressure)
= −
a + b (1 + sTD ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
m
x a+b
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction
Error
Now, 1 1 1 + sTi − 1
− =
1 + sTD (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
sTi
=
1 + sTi + sTD + s 2TiTD
1
=
1 TD
1+ + + sTD
sTi Ti
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction
a b K b
− X (s ) = E (s ) − M (s )
RI
1
a +b a + b 1 + sTD
CI CD
b Kb
M (s )
+
a + b (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
Derivative time
RD
bK b
a Restriction
a 1 1
E (s ) − M (s )
(output pressure)
= −
a + b (1 + sTD ) (1 + sTi )(1 + sTD )
m
x a+b
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction
Error
Therefore,
a bK b 1 M (s )
− X (s ) = E ( s ) −
a+b a + b 1 + 1 + TD + sT
sT T D
i i
M (s ) = − K n X (s )
Now,
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
a bK b
CD
− X (s ) = E (s ) −
1 M (s )
CI
a+b
a + b 1+ 1 T
Derivative time
+ D
+ sTD
RD
a Restriction
(output pressure) sTi Ti
m
x
M (s ) = − K n X (s )
Air supply (P s)
b R
Restriction
and
e
Error
Therefore,
M (s ) a bK b 1 M (s )
= E (s ) −
Kn a+b a + b 1 + TD + 1 + sT
D
Ti sTi
1 bK
1 a
or, M (s ) + b
= E (s )
Kn a + b 1 + D +
T 1 a+b
T sT + sTD
i i
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
1 bK
CI CD
M (s ) + b
1 = a E (s )
a RD
Derivative time
K n a + b 1 + TD + 1 + sT a + b
D
Restriction
(output pressure)
m Ti sTi
x
Air supply (P s)
R 1
K n 1, 0
b
e Restriction
as
Error Kn
Therefore,
M (s ) a TD 1 TD 1
= 1 + + + sTD = K p 1 + + + sTD
E (s ) bKb Ti sTi Ti sTi
a
where Kp =
bK b
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CI CD
Derivative time
a RD Restriction
(output pressure)
m
x
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction
Error
M (s ) a TD 1 TD 1 a
= 1 + + + sTD = K p 1 + + + sTD where Kp =
E (s ) bKb Ti sTi Ti sTi bK b
Here,
TD
imposes an interaction between integral and derivative operations of the controller. If
Ti we choose Ti >> TD, the interaction reduces and the transfer function becomes
M (s ) 1
K p 1 + + sTD
E (s )
the ideal relation of a PID controller.
sTi
Pneumatic Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
Integral time
Restriction
RI
1
CI CD
Derivative time
a RD Restriction
(output pressure)
m
x
Air supply (P s)
b R
e Restriction
Error
+ e en mn m Final V C
r Digital
+ ADC Controller
DAC Control Process
Set point _ Error
Error controller Element
sequence output Controller
sequence output
ADC equivalent DAC equivalent
e en mn m
C (hold
Sampler capacitor)
Controller
Error output
sequence
time n
0 0 1 2 3
en
DAC m
Error
output
sequence
m
n time
0 1 2 3 0
Digital System
en mn m Final V C
rn Digital
+ Controller
DAC Control Process
+ Error
Set point _ Element
sequence sequence
(digital)
Cn
output
ADC
sequence
Proper selection of the sampling interval ‘’ is necessary for satisfactory operation of
the process control loop.
A large ‘’ may lead to unstable operation of the loop (because of the extra lag
introduced in the loop), whereas a very small ‘’ requires a high speed digital hardware
(hence high cost) to implement the controller.
Realization of Digital Controllers
(through discrete approximation of analog controllers)
Proportional (P) Controller
m = Kp e + b
The controller output at the nth instant is given by
mn K p en bn mn bn
where, Kp = proportional gain,
bn = fixed bias.
bn
m'n
en Kp + mn
Realization of Digital Controllers
(through discrete approximation of analog controllers)
Proportional-Integral (PI) Controller
1 t
m K p e o e.dt b
Ti
1 t
= m + b, where Ti is the integral time and m K p e o e.dt
Ti
I o e.dt
t
Let the integration term be
n
The integration term at the nth instant is I n o e.dt where is the sampling interval
n n
o e.dt n e.dt for n = 1,2,3,..
n n1
Now, o
e.dt o e.dt I n1
Then,
Pl Controller
This area may be approximated by the shaded rectangle (called the method of
rectangular integration) as
e t n
e t n1
t
n 1 n
Pl Controller
e tn
e tn1
t
n 1 n
n
Thus,
n 1 e.dt e t n
where I n I n1 en
1
mn mn 1 K p en en1 I n I n1
Ti
Pl Controller
1
mn mn 1 K p en en1 I n I n1
Ti
Substituting the value of (In – In-1 ) for rectangular integration, [(In – In-1 ) = en ]
en
mn mn 1 K p en en1
Ti
or, mn en K p 1 K p en1 mn 1
Ti
ao en a1en1 mn 1 , say
where, ao K p 1 and a1 K p
Ti
Realization of the PI Controller
mn = m’n + bn
en-1
a1
bn (bias)
delay
m'n
en ao + + mn
error Controller
sequence
delay output
m'n-1 sequence
e1 a1
b
mp m
e a0 + +
e1 a1
b
mp m
e a0 + +
e1 a1
b
mp m
e a0 + +
de
m K p e Td b where Td is the derivative time.
dt
de
Let the derivative of error ‘e’ at the nth instant be Dn
dt t n
Dn may be approximated using the backward difference algorithm as
e slope = D n
en en 1 en
Dn
en-1 approximate slope
time
(n-1) n
PD Controller
e en 1
mn K p en Td n bn
Td K pTd
or mn K p 1 en en 1 bn
ao en a1en 1 bn
Td K pTd
where ao K p 1 and a1
Realization of the PD Controller
en-1
a1
delay bn (bias)
en ao + + mn
(error) Controller
output
To avoid derivative action from a sudden change in set-point, the derivative action
is generally derived from the measured output.
Now, e = r – c
de dr dc
then, ,
dt dt dt
dc
, assuming set-point ‘r’ is constant.
dt
Thus, the controller output may be expressed as,
dc
m K p e Td b
dt
PD Controller
dc
m K p e Td b
dt
using backward difference algorithm, the controller output at the nth instant is
cn cn 1
mn K p en Td bn
K pTd K pTd
or mn K p en cn cn 1 bn ao K p
ao en po cn p1cn 1 bn where K pTd
po
K pTd
p1 po
Realization of PD Controller with anti-derivative kick
en
ao
error bn (bias)
cn po + + mn
(process (Controller output)
output) delay
cn-1 p1
1 t de
m K p e o edt Td b
Ti dt
m ' b (say)
1 t de
where m ' K p e o edt Td
Ti dt
The controller output (without bias) at the nth instant, using backward difference algorithm, is
In en en 1
mn K p en Td
Ti
PID Controller
In en en 1
mn K p en Td
Ti
Subtracting,
I n I n1 Td
mn mn 1 K p en en1 en en2 2en1
Ti
PID Controller
I n I n1 Td
mn mn 1 K p en en1 en en2 2en1
Ti
Using rectangular integration algorithm, I n I n1 en
Td
then, mn mn 1 K p en en1 en en 2en1 en2
Ti
Td 2Td K pTd
or, mn en 1 K p en1 1 K p en2 mn 1
Ti
Td
where, ao K p 1
Ti
2Td
a1 K p 1
K pTd
and a2
Realization of the PID Controller
en-2 a2
en-1 a1 bn (bias)
m'n
en ao + + mn
m'n-1
PID Controller
Problems:
Saturation
r e 100 n C
+
+ Kp + 0 100
Process
_
Multiplier
_
Kp +
X sTi
+
hard
switching Scheme
1
1/0
Stop integration if 0
saturated
r e 100 n C
+
+ Kp + 0 100
Process
_
Multiplier
_
Kp +
X sTi
+
hard
switching Scheme
1
1/0
Stop integration if 0
saturated
Saturation
r e 100 C
+
+ Kp + 0 100
Process
_
Kp _
1 +
+ +
Ti s soft
switching Scheme
G : a constant
Some anti-integral windup schemes
Clegg integrator – the integrator is set to zero (reset) when the error
crosses zero
reset control
reset
SW
R
error _ integrator output
+
Automatic/Manual modes of Operations
Man
e m Final v
Controller Process
error Auto Control element
Automatic/Manual modes of Operations
Man
e m Final v
Controller Process
error Auto Control element
If there is any difference between the controller output and the manual command, a
bump occurs in the process output when the switch position is altered.
The manual command is driven to equal the controller output when the loop is in
AUTO mode.
Automatic/Manual modes of Operations
Man
e m Final v
Controller Process
error Auto Control element
When the loop is in MANual mode, if there is a steady error existing due to any
difference between the set-point of the controller and the process output (under
manual control), integral term, in case of PI and PID controllers, may wind-up to a
large value, and consequently anti-integral wind-up is necessary for such
situations.
To provide bump-less transfer for all the operating modes, incremental or velocity
from of controller is used with an additional integrator.
Automatic/Manual modes of Operations
Man bn (bias)
The incremental controller output (without bias) at the nth instant may be expressed as
Td 2Td K pTd
en K p 1 en 1K p 1 en 2 for a PID controller
Ti
ao en a1en1 a2en2
Automatic/Manual modes of Operations
Man bn (bias)
Man bn (bias)
The presence of integrator at the output ensures a smooth output variation even
when the actual manual command is different from the actual controller output
under closed-loop control.
Realization of the incremental type PID Controller
en-2 a2
Incremental manual
Command
en-1 a1
bn
MAN
m'n m'n
mn
en ao + + +
AUTO
Incremental or
Velocity
Controller m'n-1
Integrator
Automatic tuning of PID Controllers – the Relay autotuner
This is based on a special technique for determining the critical gain K c and critical
time period Tc of the process loop.
Z-N settings
Controller Kp Ti Td
gain margin: 2
P – Controller 0.5 K c
The critical gain Kc and critical time period Tc are determined from an experiment
with relay (switching element) feedback.
D
set point + e v
r=0 + Process c
_ 0
-D
Relay
The output ‘c’ oscillates around a mean value of zero (limit-cycle oscillations).
D
set point + e v
r=0 + Process c
_ 0
-D
Relay
Assuming the process to be a low-pass system, the process output ‘c’ contains
mainly the fundamental component.
e = A sin t
Automatic tuning of PID Controllers – the Relay autotuner
D
set point + e v
r=0 + Process c
_ 0
-D
e = A sin t
Relay
D
D
e time
0 0 2
-D
-D
time
2
e
0 A
-A
Automatic tuning of PID Controllers – the Relay autotuner
v
D D
set point + e v
r=0 + Process c
_ 0
-D time
2
Relay
-D
The Fourier series of the relay output (v) may be expressed as:
4D 1 1
v
sin t sin 3 t sin 5 t .......
3 5
The process practically attenuates all higher harmonics other than the fundamental.
output amplitude A A
G
input amplitude 4 D 4D
Automatic tuning of PID Controllers – the Relay autotuner
D
set point + e v
c
Process gain at frequency ‘’:
r=0 + Process
0
A
_
output amplitude A
G
-D
Relay input amplitude 4D 4D
Thus the gain of the relay controller (i.e. the critical gain) at = c is
1 4D
Kc as K c . G c 1
G c A
D
set point + e v
r=0 + Process c
_ 0
-D
Relay
Thus by knowing the relay amplitude ‘D’ and by measuring the amplitude ‘A’ of the
4D
process output ‘c’, critical gain Kc may be determined K
c A .
2
Tc may be estimated by measuring the frequency of the output oscillation Tc
c
.
Block diagram of the Relay autotuner
(The Satt Control Autotuner by Satt Control, Sweden)
Manual
command
M
r + e PID A v
+ Controller
Process c
_
T
Mode
D switch
0
D
Relay
M Manual position
A Auto position
T Tune position
v v
Controller
D = 0.1v m ax output for
zero error
e t
0 0
Manual
setting
The relay amplitude ‘D’ is initially set to 10% of the controller output-range.
This amplitude is adjusted after one and a half period to give oscillation of 2% of the mean output.
This adjustment is done by measuring the change in output during the first one and a half period.
The modified relay amplitude is stored for the next tuning operation.
Satt Control Autotuner
Manual
command
M
r + e PID A v
+ Controller
Process c
_
T
Mode
D switch
0
D
Relay
M Manual position
A Auto position
T Tune position
The system is automatically switched to Auto mode after estimating the critical gain Kc
and critical time period Tc during first 5½ period of oscillation.
The parameters of PID controller (viz. Kp, Ti and Td ) are determined from Kc and Tc
according to Z-N rule.
Final Control Element
m Final Control v
Element manipulated
controller
output variable
(actuating signal)
m displacement v
Control
Actuator
or position 'x' valve
m displacement v
Control
Actuator
or position 'x' valve
Hydraulic
actuators
Pneumatic Actuators
Spring – Diaphragm type Actuators
input spring
pressure
m
(3-15 psi)
diaphragm
Another Variation:
Direct-Acting and Reverse-Acting
Pneumatic Spring-Diaphragm Actuators
Direct-Acting and Reverse-Acting
Pneumatic Spring-Diaphragm Actuators
Features
n
gain = 1
n
Relay
restriction
spring
Air supply
Bellow
Bellows
(Ps) Kbm
c Feedback
lever
m n 0
input pressure c y a
b
b x
n nozzle back pressure x
a
stem
K m b x
y b
2 a2
Pneumatic Actuators
Spring – Diaphragm Actuator with Positioner
n
At equilibrium, Baffle-Nozzle
gain = 1
Relay
n
separation is:
restriction
bx K m
y b
spring
Air supply
a2
Bellow
(Ps) Bellows Kbm
Feedback
2
c
lever
m n 0
input pressure c y
b
a
Kb is the bellows stiffness factor
b x
n nozzle back pressure
Nozzle back pressure: n = – Kn. y
x
a
stem
Kbm b x
y
2 a2
b
Now, K n A K ,
K
0, and y 0. Kb m x
Kn A a
Pneumatic Actuators
Spring – Diaphragm Actuator with Positioner
n
gain = 1
n
Relay
restriction
spring
Air supply
Bellow
(Ps) Bellows Kbm
c Feedback
lever
m n 0
input pressure c y a
b
b x
n nozzle back pressure x
a
stem
Kbm b x
y
2 a2
Conclusion:
Thus, change in output position is related to change in input pressure with
only feedback lever ratio and the bellows stiffness factor, and it is not dependent
(if KnA >> K) on the spring-diaphragm non-linearities.
piston
spring
They are generally used where the stroke of a diaphragm actuator would
be too short or the thrust is too small.
They are used for long strokes.
Pneumatic Actuators
Motor type Pneumatic Actuator
m
+
Air
Motor
spring
They are used for large thrust forces. Large torques are generated
from motor-gear arrangements to balance large thrusts.
Electro-pneumatic Actuators
When the controller output is electrical and a suitable air supply is available,
using an electro-pneumatic actuator, a large output power may be obtained from
a low power control signal.
cascading an electro-pneumatic
converter and a pneumatic actuator
Realization
an electro-pneumatic actuator
Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Converter
Electro- pneumatic
'i' electrical output 'm'
pneumatic
signal (3-15 psi)
input Converter
(current
4-20mA)
Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Converter
input
current
i former (support system)
pneumatic
output (m)
S
Nozzle
air supply
Voice m
(Ps)
Coil N Restriction
Motor
a
S
Feedback bellows
Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Converter
input
current
i
voice used in
former (support system)
pneumatic coil loud speakers
output (m)
S
Nozzle
air supply
Voice m
(Ps)
Coil N
Motor
Restriction
S
S
a
+ Force
voice coil motor
balance beam - linear motor
m
b
force
N
Feedback bellows = BlNi
B flux density
Effective force l mean length / turn
experienced by the N no. of turns
S
former is a linear one.
force
Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Converter
input
current
i former (support system)
At equilibrium, for a change in input current
‘i’, the change in output pressure ‘m’ is:
pneumatic
output (m)
S
Nozzle
a.B ln i bmAb
air supply
Voice m
(Ps)
Coil N Restriction
Motor
a
S
aBlN
m i
bAb
Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Actuator
gain = 1
Relay diaphragm
Air supply
(Ps)
Restriction m
input
i
current
spring
Voice S
coil
motor Nozzle
N
a
S
0
x output
b Feedback position
c lever
balance Feedback
beam d spring
(Ks)
Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro-pneumatic Actuator
Relay
gain = 1
diaphragm
At equilibrium,
Air supply
b
(Ps)
a
current
spring
Voice S
coil
motor
N
Nozzle
Ks = spring constant of the
a
feedback spring (for a small
S
0
c b Feedback
x output
position
Baffle-Nozzle separation)
lever
balance Feedback
beam d spring
(Ks)
output
position
Low inertia
servo motor low inertia servo
gear train motor - fast response
to increase torque
Electric Actuators
Motorized Linear Actuator
Servo Motor
Electric Actuators
Solenoid Actuator (for On/Off Operation)
Armature
AC or DC
Coil
A spring return type electric solenoid is used to actuate an iron cored armature.
quick/fast opening
linear
equal percentage
Control Valves
The physical shape of the plug and seat arrangement, sometimes referred to
as the valve 'trim', causes the difference in valve opening between these valves.
Manipulated
Position x variable v
(or lift) (or flow)
Control Valve
% lift x 100
xmax
Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves
Quick/Fast Opening Control Valve
Here, the valve sensitivity dv dx at any flow decreases with increasing
flow. The fast opening characteristic valve plug will give a large change in flow
rate for a small valve lift from the closed position.
The linear characteristic valve plug is shaped so that the flow rate is directly
proportional to the valve lift, at a constant differential pressure. Here the valve
sensitivity is (approximately) constant.
Flow-lift characteristic
for a linear valve
Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves
Equal Percentage Valve
These valves have a valve plug shaped so that each increment in valve lift
increases the flow rate by a certain percentage of the previous flow. The
relationship between valve lift and orifice size (and therefore flow rate) is not
linear but logarithmic.
Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves
Equal Percentage Valve
For these valves, sensitivity increases with flow. As the valve sensitivity at
any given flow rate is a constant percentage of the given flow rate, the term
equal percentage is used. dv
dv
Valve sensitivity, Kv where K is a constant. Or, dx K
dx v
i.e. sensitivity expressed as percentage of flow (= 100K %) is constant.
dv dx
v
0 vm in vm ax
working range
Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves
Rangeability of a Control Valve
v 1 1 x 1 x
1 1 R 1
vmax R R xmax R xmax
Valve
v 1 x dv R 1 vmax
1 R 1 Sensitivity
vmax R xmax dx R xmax constant
Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves
Relation between % flow, % lift and rangeability under
constant pressure drop (or head) across the valve
Equal Percentage Valve
x x
v 1
Differentiating, 1 dv 1
1
R xmax
R
xmax
.ln R.
vmax vmax dx xmax
v 1
dv .ln R.
vmax xmax
dx ln R ,
Equal Percentage
characteristic
v xmax
dv ln R
Valve Sensitivity is proportional to ‘v’ v,
dx xmax
Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves
Relation between % flow, % lift and rangeability under
constant pressure drop (or head) across the valve
Equal Percentage Valve
Therefore, ex
V Vmax can be written as,
R
v v max
or or
R v max R max
v
R
v v x
or ln ln R
x
ln R or ln ln R 1
vmax xmax vmax max
x
x x
v 1 1
ln R R
x max
v x max
or ln or
vmax v max
Classification of Control Valves
Control Valves
Stem open
x
Packing
gland position
close
v
(fluid flow)
plug
close
Plug Types
v
(fluid flow)
plug
Another
variation
A P Friction allowance F
Features
Packing
gland position
close
v
(fluid flow)
plug
Solution ?
To overcome the disadvantage, double-seat arrangements are
used, which require a small thrust force to operate.
Double-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves
x
position
v
v
Double-seat
Sliding-stem
Control Valves
Another
variation
Double-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves
x
position
Disadvantages
v
v
It
cannot be shut off completely because of the differential
temperature expansion of plug and body (when hot fluid is flowing).
If plug expandsmore than body, it may cause breakage. If body
expand more, there will be significant leakage or offset in the
system.
close
gate
v v
stem
(circular opening)
v v plug
stem 100
(circular opening)
rectangular opening
v v plug
0 x
% rotation 100
plug (shown open) 0 100 xmax
Circular
for different
plug opening V-shaped flow-rotation
(or part) characteristics
Rectangular
circular vane
rotation
x x
v v
Circular
Vane
Rectangular
% flow
Another
variation
Louver Valves
rectangular vane
linkage
v v x
x
rectangular duct
Louvers cannot provide tight shut off due to long length of seating surfaces.
Hence considerable leakage takes place.
Louver Valves
rectangular vane
linkage
v v x
x
rectangular duct
% flow
100
% rotation
0 100
Three-port Valves
requires no separate
control valve
Methods of Fluid Control
Series Throttling
Head
inflow tank
Command
head
outflow
to process
control
valve
Head
tank
head
Process
restriction
by pass
Control valve
command
Bypass is required when we cannot shut down the source, then the extra water is
bypassed. the control valve employed will have inverse gain.
By pass is not economical, as a considerable portion of fluid is wasted.
Methods of Fluid Control
Variable Delivery
Speed command
Process
Storage
tank
Variable speed
pump
Digital controller
4 – 20 mA 4 – 20 mA
Signal Controller
Sensor ADC DAC or
conditioner or 1 – 5 V software
1- 5 V
Measuring element
Final Control
Process
element
A single-loop controller
n
from sensor # n Virtual controller # n DAC
n
MUX
(Multiplexer) Software
Problems:
Sensor errors (e.g., offset, gain, non-linearity etc.) should be
taken into account by the software.
High cabling cost due to star connection/ junction at the
controller.
Alternate Solution
Utilize smart sensors, by incorporating a processor with requisite
interface along with a traditional sensor.
Smart Sensor
Digital Controller
Software
Voltage or Current
Sensor ADC Processor DAC ADC DAC
From
Transmission To final
process
control
element
Problems:
Interface inaccuracies (e.g. ADC and DAC errors).
An Improved version of the
Previous Solution
Interface inaccuracies can be minimized with a serial digital
transmission between a smart sensor and digital controller.
Digital
Actuator Sensor Sensor
Controller
#1 #1 #n
Serial bus
Sensor Actuator Actuator
#2 #2 #n
Features:
A multiplexed serial data transmission system (bus) is used to
minimize the cabling cost.
Proper communication protocol is necessary for selective
transmission of data from sensor-to-controller and controller-to-
final control element .
Serial Interface Standards
Standard Origin Type Max. Max. Number of
Length Data Drivers
Rate and
Receivers
RS – 232C EIA Single ended 50 ft 20 kb/s 1 – driver
(unbalanced)
(V24) (CCITT) (at 20 kb/s) 1 – receiver
RS-232C
Driver Receiver
(or transmitter)
data data
in out
RS - 232C
interface
Connector
Serial Interface Standards
RS-423
Receiver #2
+ data
_ out
Serial Interface Standards
RS-422
Optional
terminating resistors (100
Receiver #2
+ data
out
_
Serial Interface Standards
RS-485
R D
T
Rt Rt
120 120
T R
D
R
output
A failsafe feature
he re o utpu t w ill be in
high state under open
input condition
input
O
Serial Data Transmission in presence of Noise
A System Without Hysterisis
output
output
signal
Receiver characteristic
without hyetersis
O
input O time
time
Serial Data Transmission in presence of Noise
A System With Hysterisis
output
band
O input O
time
input signal
(noisy)
*As the line is open ended, effects of line reflections are minimized with limited slew rate
Asynchronous Serial Data Communication
O 1 O 1 O O O 1 O 1 1
start Do D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 parity
bit 2 stop
bits
number of ‘1’s 3 odd
7 bit ASCII character ‘E’ with odd parity and two stop bits
‘E’: 69 d = 45 h
O 1 O 1 O O O 1 1 1 1
start Do D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 parity
bit 2 stop
bits
number of ‘1’s 4 even
7 bit ASCII character ‘E’ with even parity and two stop bits
‘E’: 69 d = 45 h
Modulation Techniques:
AM (Amplitude Modulation)
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
….
RS-232C based Data Transmission Systems
Data Transmission Using MODEMs
Computer terminal Modem Modem Computer terminal
TxD TxD
RxD RxD
RTS RTS
Telephone
CTS line CTS
(Voice band
DTR carrier DTR
300Hz - 3kHz)
DSR DSR
GND GND
RxD RxD
RTS RTS
TxD 2 3
Telephone
CTS line CTS RxD 3 2
(Voice band
DTR carrier DTR GND 4 7
300Hz - 3kHz)
DSR DSR RTS 5 8
GND GND CTS 6 6
DTE DSR 20 4
DTE DCE DCE
7 5
RS 232C link RS 232C link DTR
DTE connector : 25 pin Male
DCE connector : 25 pin Female
DTE: Data Terminal Equipment; DCE: Data Communication Equipment
TxD: Transmitter data [ zero : + 12V, one : – 12V (typical value)] for all signal lines
RxD: Receiver data [--do--] RTS :Request to send [ --do--]
CTS :Clear-to-send [ --do--] DTR :Data terminal ready [--do--]
DSR :Data-set-ready [ --do--]
RS-232C based Data Transmission Systems
Data Transmission Without MODEMs (Null Modem)
TxD TxD
RxD RxD
RTS RTS
CTS CTS
DTR DTR
DSR DSR
GND GND
DTE DTE
Null modem
RS232C link
RS-232C based Data Transmission Systems
Data Transmission Without MODEMs and
Without Handshaking
Computer terminal Computer terminal
TxD TxD
RxD RxD
RTS RTS
CTS CTS
DTR DTR
DSR DSR
GND GND
DTE DTE
Null modem
link without handshake lines
An Example:
If a maximum of ten characters with a data format using 7 bits per
character, parity bit and 2 stop bits (i.e. 11 bit-times per character,
considering the start bit) are transmitted each second,
then baud rate:
11 bit-times per character 10 characters per second
= 110 baud
i.e. baud rate = 1/ bit-time
Note: Baud rate and Bit rate (i.e. frequency) are not same.
Transmission Rate
An Example:
Consider the following character with even parity and one stop bit
O 1 O 1 O 1 O 1 O 1
Start Do D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 even stop
bit parity bit
Bit-time
Time
period
TxD TxD
RTS RTS
DTR DTR RS232C
P Interface
Data, RxD RxD
Address,
and Control CTS CTS
DSR DSR
Receiver