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CHAPTER-2

SAFETY RULES

It’s vitally important to take safety precautions when working with electricity. Safety must not
be compromised and some ground rules need to be followed first. The basic guidelines
regarding safe handling of electricity documented below will help you while working with
electricity.

 Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any
electrical equipments or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electric
current.

 Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.

 If you working on any receptacle at your home then always turn off the mains. It is also a
good idea to put up a sign on the service panel so that nobody turns the main switch ON by
accident.

 Always use insulated tools while working.

 Electrical hazards include exposed energized parts and unguarded electrical equipment
which may become energized unexpectedly. Such equipment always carries warning signs
like “Shock Risk”. Always be observant of such signs and follow the safety rules
established by the electrical code followed by the country you’re in.

 Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while working on any branch
circuit or any other electrical circuit.

 Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-energized first by
using a tester. When an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester
lights up showing that an electrical current is flowing through the respective wire. Check
all the wires, the outer metallic covering of the service panel and any other hanging wires
with an electrical tester before proceeding with your work.

 Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in
your home. An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass
through your body. Use a bamboo, wooden or a fibreglass ladder instead.

 Always check all your GFCI’s once a month. A GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) is
a RCD (Residual Current Device). They have become very common in modern homes,

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especially damp areas like the bathroom and kitchen, as they help avoid electrical shock
hazards. It is designed to disconnect quickly enough to avoid any injury caused by over
current or short circuit faults.

 Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating. Circuit breakers
and fuses are protection devices that automatically disconnect the live wire when a
condition of short circuit or over current occurs. The selection of the appropriate fuse or
circuit breaker is essential. Normally for protection against short circuits a fuse rated of
150% of the normal circuit current is selected. In the case of a circuit with 10 amperes of
current, a 15 ampere fuse will protect against direct short circuits whereas a 9.5 amperes
fuse will blow out.

 Working outside with underground cabling can be dangerous. The damp soil around the
cable is a good conductor of electricity and ground faults are quite common in the case of
underground cabling. Using a spade to dig at the cable can damage the wiring easily so it is
better to dig at the cable by hand while wearing insulated gloves.

 Take care while removing a capacitor from a circuit. A capacitor stores energy and if it’s
not properly discharged when removed it can easily cause an electric shock. An easy way
to discharge low voltage capacitor is that after removal from the circuit is to put the tip of
two insulated screw drivers on the capacitor terminals. This will discharge it. For high
voltage ones a 12 Volts light bulb can be used. Connecting the bulb with the capacitor will
light up the bulb using up the last of the stored energy.

Lockout/Tagout Procedure

Preparation

During the preparation phase, the authorized employee must investigate and gain a complete
understanding of all types of hazardous energy that might be controlled.

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Fig.1

Shutdown

At this point, it’s time to shutdown the machine or equipment that will be serviced or
maintained.

Fig.2

Isolation

The next step is to isolate the machine or equipment from any source of energy.

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Fig.3

Lockout/Tagout

During this step, the authorized employee will attach lockout and /or tag out devices to each
energy isolation device.the point is to apply the lockout device on the energy isolation device in
a way so it says in “safe” position and cannot be moved to the unsafe position except by the
person performing the lockout.

Stored Energy Check

At this time, it’s important to look for any hazardous energy that’s been “stored” within the
machine, or any”residual”energy.During this phase, any potentially hazardous stored or
residual energy must be releived,disconnected,restrained,or made non-hazardous in some other
way.

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Fig.4

Isolation Verification

At this point, an authorized employee verifies the machine has been properly isolated and
de-energized.

Fig.5

Electrical Tools

There are many tools used in the electrical department. But the tools that are used daily by the

electricians and electrical engineers are called the “BASIC TOOLS”. These tools are

described with their uses as follows:


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LINE TESTER

The tip of the tester is touched to the conductor being tested (for instance, it can be used on a
wire in a switch, or inserted into a hole of an electric socket). A neon lamp takes very little
current to light, and thus can use the user’s body capacitance to earth ground to complete the
circuit.

Fig.6

COMBINATION PLIERS

Pliers are available in different types, shape and sizes. They are also available in both insulated
and uninsulated handles. An insulated handle should be used when working on or near hot
wires. It is also used for cutting big and small wires.

Fig.7

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SCREW DRIVER

A screwdriver comes in various sizes and should have insulated handles. Using a screwdriver
for a particular job, the width of the screwdriver tip should match the width of the screw slot.

Fig.8

ELECTRICAL KNIFE

A cutting instrument for use in electric wire distributing work and more particularly to such a
sheath type and is mainly used for stripping insulation from electric wires and cables or cutting
them.

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Fig.9

CLAMP METER

A clamp meter is an electrical device with jaws which open to allow clamping around an
electrical conductor.This allows measurement of the current in a conductor without the need to
make physical contact with conductor.

Fig.10

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PVC TAPE

Electrical tape is a type of pressure-sensitive tape used to insulate electrical wires and other
materials that conduct electricity.

Fig.11

MEGGER

Megger is a measuring instrument used for the measurement of insulation resistance of an


electrical system. An electrical system degrades its quality of insulation resistance with time
and various environmental conditions including temperature, moisture, dust particles, and
humidity.

13
Fig.12

Introduction of Single Line Diagram of 11000 volts substation of GSK


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The power supply coming in the industry is carried from PSEB GRID about 314.367 MVAsc.

Then this supply is step down to 11 kV with the help of step down transformer. There are

following steps that help us to get the knowledge about this single line diagram:

HT Metering Room

The 11 kV supply is enter in the HT metering room. In this HT

compartment there are CT/PTs (ratio of 10/5 A and 11 kV/110V). Then this supply is going to

the VCB (Vaccum Circuit Breaker). This VCB has the following ratings:

1. Rated Voltage: 12 kV.

2. Rated Frequency: 50 Hz.

3. Rated lighting impulse with stand voltage: 75 kV.

4. Rated power frequency with stand voltage: 28 kV.

5. Rated normal current (BUS-BAR): 800 A.

6. Rated normal current (Breaker): 800 A.

7. Company Name: Schneider Company.

VCB Substation

Then after the supply 11 kV is going to the Electrical department. In the department there are
four VCBs that are: VCB-2, VCB-3, VCB-4, and VCB-5. The supply is entering in the VCB-2.
From VCB-2 the supply is fed to the three other VCBs. These VCBs are connected to the three
transformers which has the different rating:

1. TRANSFORMER-1: 2500 k VA

2. TRANSFORMER-2: 1250 k VA

3. TRANSFORMER-3: 1250 k VA

Then this supply fed to the ACBs which are connected to these three transformers having
ratings:
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1. TR-1 LT ACB 4000A

2. TR-2 LT ACB 2000A

3. TR-3 LT ACB 2000A

Equipment used for the 11000 volts Substation in GSK

HT Metering Room

There are many types of equipment used in HT metering

Fig.13

Current Transformer

The CT is a type of “instrument transformer” that is designed to produce an alternating current


in its secondary winding which is proportional to the current being measured in its primary.
Current Transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and provide a
convenient way of safety monitoring the actual electrical current flowing in an AC transmission
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line using a standard ammeter. The principle of operation of basic current transformer is
slightly different from that of an ordinary voltage transformer.

Fig.14

Potential Transformer

The PT gets used in electrical power system for stepping down the system voltage to a safe
value which can be fed to low ratings meters and relays. Commercially available relays and
meters used for protection and metering, are designed for low voltage. This is a simplest form
of potential transformer definition.The secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110 V. In an
ideal PT, when rated burden gets connected across the secondary; the ratio of primary and
secondary voltages of transformer is equal to the turn ratio and furthermore, the two terminal
voltages are in precise phase opposite to each other. But in actual transformer, there must be an
error in the phase angle between primary and secondary voltages. The errors in potential
transformer can be best explained by the phasor diagram and this is the main part of potential
transformer theory.

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Fig.15

Vacuum Circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker is a device that interrupts an electric circuit to prevent unwarranted current
caused by a short circuit, typically resulting from an overload. Its basic functionality is to
interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. To know more about Circuit breakers read this
article Types of Circuit Breaker and Its Importance. A vacuum circuit breaker is a kind of
Circuit breaker where the arc quenching takes place in vacuum medium. The operation of
switching on and closing of current carrying contacts and interrelated arc interruption takes
place in a vacuum chamber in the breaker which is called vacuum interrupter. The Vacuum
interrupter technology was first introduced in the year of 1960. But still, it is a developing
technology. As time goes on, the size of the vacuum interrupter has reduced from its early
1960’s size due to different technical developments in this field of engineering.

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Fig.16

Construction of Vacuum Circuit Breaker

The vacuum circuit breaker comprises a steel arc chamber in the center- symmetrically
arranged ceramic insulators. The pressure inside the vacuum interrupter is maintained below
10^-4 torr. The material used for current carrying contacts plays an important role in the
performance of the vacuum circuit breaker. The alloys like, copper-bismuth of copper-chrome
are in the ideal material to make VCB contacts. The VCB consists of a fixed contact, a moving
contact and a vacuum interrupter. The moving contact is connected control mechanism by
stainless steel bellow. The arc shields are supported the insulating housing such that they cover
on these shields and is prevented from condensing on the insulating enclosure. The possibility
of a leak is eliminated due to permanent sealing of vacuum chamber for that a glass vessel or
ceramic vessel is used as the outer insulating body.

Application of VCB

1. The vacuum circuit breaker has a long life.

2. No fire hazard.

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3. VCBs are almost maintenance free.

4. No exhaust of gas to the atmosphere and noiseless operation.

Disadvantages of VCB

1. The main disadvantage of VCB is that it is uneconomical at voltages exceeding 38 kVolts.

2. The cost of the breaker becomes excessive at higher voltages. This is due to the fact that at

high voltages (above 38 kV) more than two numbers of the circuit breaker are required to be

connected in series.

3. Moreover, the VCBs production is uneconomical if produced in small quantities.

TRANSFORMER

A power transformer is a passive electromagnetic device that transfers energy from one circuit
to another circuit by means of inductive coupling. Power transformers differ from other
transformer types in that they are designed to comply with regulatory requirements for mains
power interfacing, working at mains voltages and relatively high currents. The most important
specification of a power transformer is its primary to secondary transformer galvanic isolation,
which is usually specified in kV. This is a fundamental safety aspect in protecting humans from
potentially lethal earth fault conditions.

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Fig.17

Transformer equivalent circuit

Transformer equivalent circuit is the essential basis for different calculations including voltage
drop or regulation under various load conditions. The magnetizing circuit is taken as a
shunt-connected impedance. The magnetizing current is rich in harmonics which must be kept
in check. This is done by keeping the flux density within specified limits. When the transformer
is being energized, the transient current inrush rich in second harmonic will result. A mentioned
effect can be uncovered using transformer protection relays in a way that they control the
existence of the second harmonic component, so that the anomalous tripping is avoided.

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Fig.18

Tap changers

A tap changer is a mechanism in transformers which allows for variable turn ratios to be
selected in discrete steps. Transformers with this mechanism obtain this variable turn ratio by
connecting to several access points known as taps along either the primary or secondary
winding. Tap changers switches may be mounted separately on the side of the tank with their
own separate oil insulation, or in the main transformer tank in order to reduce costs and result
in a compact transformer design. Tap changers may be motor driven or manually operated by a
switch.

Types of tap changers:

 Off-circuit – The condition for this type of tap change is that the transformer is not
energized. Off-circuit tap changers are usually switches which are located close to the
winding tapings and they are operated by a handle or a wheel.

 Off-load – The condition is that the circuit may be energized, but the operation is not
happening when the circuit is drawing load current.

 On-load – The tap changer may be operated under load conditions, which means they can
change tapping position with transformer load current flowing. Some of the manufacturer’s
requirements for this type of tap changer are: reliability, lowest cost, minimal maintenance,
dielectric strength, electrical and mechanical life expectancy, overload and fault current
capability.

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Fig.19

Vector groups and neutral earthing

Three configurations in which three phase windings of the transformer are usually connected
are delta, a star or an interconnected star (zig-zag). How the vectors are grouped and how the
phase relationship nomenclature is used are defined as follows:

 Capital letters for primary winding vector group designation

 Small letters for secondary winding group designation

 D or d represents a primary or a secondary delta winding

 Y or y represents a primary or secondary star winding

 Z or z represents a primary or secondary interconnected star winding

 N or n indicates primary or secondary winding with an earth connection to the star point

 Numbers represent phase relationship between the primary and the secondary windings.
The secondary to primary voltage displacement angles are given in accordance with the
position of the “hands” on a clock relative to the mid-day or twelve o’clock position (this
means: 1 is -30°, 3 is -90°, 11 is +30° and so on).

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Fig.20

THERMAL DESIGN

There are several ways of producing heat in a transformer. Most significant ones are the
heat produced in a transformer due to the flow of load current through the resistance of the
winding conductor, where load loss exists, and due to the heat production in the magnetic core,
where there is no load loss. Some other sources of heat include dielectric heating of insulating
materials, eddy current heating in conductors and support steel structures. Thermal design of a
transformer aims to remove this heat economically and effectively, in a way to avoid any
unwanted deterioration of components.

Temperature rise

The heat is produced in the windings of the conductor. Windings are insulated with a paper
type wound around them. It is saturated with oil, since the winding is located in the oil inside of
the transformer tank, so this insulation is good for protecting (insulating) from the earthed parts
and other windings. Heat from the conductor moves through the paper type insulation, then in
the bulk of oil and it is finally conducted away from the winding, which results in dissipation of
the heat into the air. To prevent damage of the conductor, the maximum temperature is
determined, which is on average 98°C.

Cooling classification

ONAN

This type of cooling requires zero to minimum maintenance, as it has no mechanical moving
parts. Numerous developing countries prefer this type of cooling because of the reliability, but
there is an increasing cost penalty as sizes increase.

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ONAF

This type has fans fitted to the radiators, and it has the rating between 15% and 33% greater
than with the fans not in operation. Therefore, the transformer has an effective dual rating
under ONAN and ONAF conditions. It can be specified as 20/25MVA ONAN/ONAF.
However, it is not always desirable to use ONAN/ONAF transformers, as in the example of
transformers working in parallel. In this case, fans would run very rarely and will produce a
loud noise, which can be a problem in environmentally sensitive areas.

OFAF

Generator transformers and power station interbus transformers often use OFAF cooling. This
cooling method is forcing the oil circulation and blowing air over the radiators. The
maintenance burden is increased owing to the oil pumps, motors and radiator fans required.
Good maintenance procedures are recommended.

ODAF/ODWF

These are special cooling categories where the oil is directed by pumps into the closest
proximity possible to the winding conductors. The external cooling medium can be air or water.
Because of the design, the operation of the oil pumps, cooling fans, or water pumps is crucial to
the rating obtainable and such transformers may have rather poor naturally cooled (ONAN)
ratings. Such directed and forced cooling results in a compact and economical design suitable
for use in well-maintained environments.

Tanks and enclosures

Oil preservation

The oil inside transformer tank acts as heat transfer medium and an insulation. The oil must be
dry and free from contaminants, to keep good insulating properties. This is done by sealing the
oil inside the tank so that there is no contact with the atmosphere. Also, there has to be left
some free area to allow expansion in volume of oil because of temperature changes. Some of
the methods to be used depending on the rating of the transformer, its location and the
particular policy of the manufacturer are: -

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Sealed rigid tank – The tank is not fully filled with oil. The free space above oil is filled with a
dry gas, which has no chemical reaction with the oil. The tank should be strong because of the
large pressure changes inside of it.

Sealed expandable tank – Not all the transformers can use this technique. The tank is fully
filled with oil, but the surfaces of the tank are flexible to allow the expansion of oil due to
temperature changes.

Positive pressure nitrogen – It is applied to the large transformers. It is similar to the sealed
rigid tanks, just that it has venting for minimizing pressure changes.

Conservator (with breather) – Applied to any size of transformers. The tank is filled with oil
and changes in volume are allowed by an expansion tank (conservator) mounted above the
main tank. A conservator has a vent to the atmosphere, in which an air-drying device is located.
Conservator (with diaphragm seal) – The expansion tank contains a flexible synthetic rubber
diaphragm which allows for oil expansion, but seals the oil from the atmosphere. It is crucial
that the quality of tank welding, gasketing, and painting is carefully specified and inspected
prior to release from the manufacturer’s works, in order to avoid oil leakage.

Dry type transformer enclosures

These types of transformers have physical protection around them to protect the core and
windings form dust, water entry, condensation and to keep personnel away from live parts.
Open steel mesh surround may be specified for indoor applications depending on the
classification required.

ACCESSORIES

Buchholz relay

Buchholz relay is a protective device mounted on some oil-filled power transformers, equipped
with an external overhead oil reservoir – conservator (Figure 14). They are mandatory for
conservator type transformers. This type of relay is designed to detect free gas being slowly
produced in the main tank, possibly as a result of partial discharging. It also detects sudden rush
movement of oil, when an internal transform fault happens. Buchholz relay also provides a
chamber for collection and later analysis of evolved gas, which can give maintenance staff and
an indication as to the cause of the fault.

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Fig.21

Pressure relief devices

Pressure relief devise is used to give a controlled release of internal pressure, in order to avoid
tank rupture resulting from the high pressure involved in an internal transformer fault. They
should be an essential accessory for all oil-immersed transformers, while very large
transformers may require even two of these devices. Transformers which are older may be
equipped with a diaphragm, where the excess pressure breaks the diaphragm and oil is
discharged. For this reason, it may be important to have pressure relief device.

Temperature monitoring

Oil and winding temperature is monitored in all but small (less than 200 kVA) distribution
transformers. If a transformer is correctly loaded and specified, it should not produce excessive
temperatures. Winding temperature indicator usually has a feature to initiate automatic
switch-on and switch-off of cooling fans and oil circulation pumps. This is how ONAN/ONAF
will automatically switch from ONAN to ONAF (and vice versa), according to the transformer
loading conditions. Temperature monitoring can also help in detecting “hot spot” winding
temperature. Oil temperature monitor is usually a capillary type thermometer with the sensor
located near the hottest oil in the tank (i.e. at the top of the tank, before hot oil enters the
radiators). Both oil and winding temperature monitors are fitted with contacts which can be set
to operate at the desired temperature. These contacts are used for alarm and trip purposes.

Breathers

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Breathers are places in the vent pipes of conservators as the volume of oil contracts on
transformer cooling. They use the moisture absorbing crystals, which are replaced when the
color of them changes (this means that they are saturated with moisture).

Air Circuit Breaker(ACB)

A circuit breaker is an device ,which can

 Make or break a circuit manually or by remote control under normal conditions

 Break a circuit automatically under fault conditions

 Make a circuit manually or by remote control under the fault conditions

A circuit breaker is used for switching mechanism and protection of the system.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The working principle of ACB is rather different from other types of circuit breaker. The main
aim of circuit breaker is to prevent reestablishment of arcing after current zero where the
contact gap will withstand the system recovery voltage.

TYPES OF ACB’s

 Plain break type air circuit breaker or cross-blast air circuit breaker

 Magnetic blowout type air break circuit breaker

 Air chute air break circuit breaker

 Air blast circuit breaker

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Fig.22

Advantages

 Air blast circuit breaker is a suitable option to use where frequent operation is required
because of lesser arc energy

 Arc quenching is much faster

 The duration of the arc is same for all values of current

 It requires less maintenance

DIESEL GENERATORS

Diesel generators –sometimes called ‘gen set’– are relied upon by many businesses and other

organizations to supply the electrical power they need during cuts, brownouts, or any other
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interruption to mains power. There are many different types and configurations of generators,

but they all work essentially the same way, and have the same core components.

Fig.23

How does a Diesel Generator create Electricity?

A diesel generator converts mechanical energy (movement) into electrical power, and channels
it through power cables. It can be helpful to imagine electricity flowing through wires in much
the same way water flows through pipes.

A generator can be thought of as a kind of ‘electrical pump’ which causes the electricity to flow

through the wires. It doesn’t actually create or destroy the electrons that flow through the wires
any more than a water pump creates new water. It just causes it to move in a useful fashion.

The main Components of a Diesel Generator

The Engine

This is typically a diesel engine, much like that in a large vehicle, the bigger the source of

mechanical energy, the more electrical power can come out ‘the other end’.

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The Alternator

This is the part which turns the mechanical energy (the rotation of the shaft) into electrical

power through induction. The ‘how’ of the alternator is one of the most fascinating parts of a

generator Faraday discovered (or at least described) the process of ‘electromagnetic induction’

in the early 1830s. The same is true if the wire is still and the magnetic field moves. Simply

moving through a magnetic field causes the electrons to flow through the wire. If the wire

moves north-south, the electrons flow one way, and if it moved back south-north, they flow

into the other. The stronger the field and the longer the wire, the greater the amount of current

induced. Modern generators work by placing several large, powerful magnets in a cluster

around a central, rotating shaft. This is called the ‘rotor’ or ‘armature’. The magnets might be

permanent magnets or electromagnets, but the point is that they produce a magnetic field,

which the engine causes to turn. The other important sub-component of the alternator is the

‘stator’, which is essentially a series of tightly bundled coils of wire, all packed closely around

the rotor. When an outside force (such as a diesel engine) turns the central shaft, the rotor

constantly moves the north and south poles of its magnetic field(s) across the bundles of wire

that surround them. This causes a great deal of electrical current to flow back and forth through

the wires –what we call ‘alternating current’ or ‘AC’ mains power.

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Fig.24

The Fuel System

This is typically the diesel fuel supply for the engine. The most obvious part is a tank holding

enough fuel for at least 6-8 hours of operation. This tank may be inside the generator housing

for smaller or portable units, or it may be a separate external structure for larger, permanently

installed units. Other parts of the fuel system involve pipe-work to get the fuel to the engine, a

fuel pump similar to the one in most vehicles, a fuel filter, and a ventilation pipe or valve for

the fuel tank, preventing overpressure or vacuum inside. There will also be an overflow

connection ensuring that if the tank is overfilled, the fuel is channeled away, and not simply

splashed over the surface of the engine or alternator.

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The Voltage Regulator

This is a fairly complex but important component. Without it, the voltage and amperage of the

AC current provided would vary according to the speed of the engine. As modern electrical

equipment relies on a very steady power supply, something is required to level it out. The

workings of a voltage regulator are quite ingenious and are beyond the scope of this article. It is

probably enough to know what it does, for now.

The Cooling System

Just like in a vehicle, the engine produces a great deal of waste heat in addition to mechanical

energy. The power flowing through the alternator also produces heat via the electrical
resistance of the wires themselves. Again, like in your car, this heat is soaked up by a coolant

fluid, often but not necessarily water, which then runs through a heat exchanger, dumping its

heat typically into the air, or sometimes into a secondary coolant fluid.

The Exhaust System

All internal combustion engines produce exhaust gases. These are toxic and must be directed

away from the engine itself and any nearby people. Exhaust gases are typically channeled

through pipes, and vented into the outside air. There are typically health and safety regulations

about how and where exhaust systems must be channeled, so consult these carefully before

installing a new generator.

The Lubrication (oil) System

Any engine requires lubrication, and this is handled by an oil pump and reservoir attached to

the engine itself.

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The Starter & Battery System

Again, just like in a car or lorry, the diesel motor relies

on a small electrical motor to start running. This electrical starter motor is powered by a

battery, which is charged by either a separate charger or the generator output itself.

The Control Panel

The control panel is where the generator is operated. Typical controls & outputs included on

most control panels are:

Start / shutdown controls (manual, automatic, or both)

Phase selector switch

Frequency switch

Engine mode switch

Engine fuel

Engine oil

Engine speed

Coolant temperature

Battery charge

Generator output voltage

Generator output current (amperage)

Generator Output in kVA

AC power frequency

The Frame/Housing

The gen set will either be contained in a weatherproof housing, an open structural frame, or a

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transportable unit. All of these function to keep the components together and solidly attached. It

also ensures that all electrical components are safely grounded.

INDUCTION MOTOR

The three phase induction motor is a preferable type of motor. It is mostly used in industrial

drives because it is very reasonable and vigorous, economical and reliable. It is also called

asynchronous motor because it does not run at a synchronous speed. The induction motor

requires very little maintenance and also it has high overloading capacity. A three

phase Induction motor mainly consists of two parts called as the Stator and the Rotor. The

stator is the stationary part of the induction motor, and the rotor is the rotating part. The

construction of the stator is similar to the three-phase synchronous motor, and the construction

of rotor is different for the different machine. The construction of the induction motor is

explained below in detail.

Fig.25

Stator
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The stator is built up of high-grade alloy steel laminations to reduce eddy current losses. It has

three main parts, namely outer frame, the stator core and a stator winding. It is the outer body

of the motor. Its main function is to support the stator core and to protect the inner parts of the

machine. For small machines, the outer frame is casted, but for the large machine, it is

fabricated.

Stator Core

The stator core is built of high-grade silicon steel stampings. Its main function is to carry the

alternating magnetic field which produces hysteresis and eddy current losses. The stampings

are fixed to the stator frame. Each stamping are insulated from the other with a thin varnish

layer. The thickness of the stamping usually varies from 0.3 to 0.5 mm.

Fig.26

Stator Winding

The core of the stator carries three phase windings which are usually supplied from a three

phase supply system. The six terminals of the windings (two of each phase) are connected in

the terminal box of the machine. The stator of the motor is wound for a definite number of

poles, depending on the speed of the motor. If the number of poles is greater, the speed of the

motor will be less and if the number of poles is less than the speed will be high.
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Construction of Rotor

The rotor is also built of thin laminations of the same material as the stator. The laminated

cylindrical core is mounted directly on the shaft. These laminations are slotted on the outer side

to receive the conductors. There are two types of rotor.

Squirrel Cage Rotor

A squirrel cage rotor consists of a laminated cylindrical core. The circular slots at the outer

periphery are semi-closed. Each slot contains un-insulated bar conductor of aluminum or

copper. At the end of the rotor the conductor is the short-circuited by a heavy ring of copper or

aluminum.

Fig.27

The rotor slots are usually not parallel to the shaft but are skewed. The skewing of the rotor

conductors has the following advantages given below.

 It reduces humming and provide smooth and noise free operation.

 It results in a uniform torque curve for different positions of the rotor.

 The locking tendency of the rotor is reduced. As the teeth of the rotor and the stator
attract each other and lock.

 It increases the rotor resistance due to the increased length of the rotor bar conductors.

Advantages of Squirrel Cage Rotor


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 The cage rotor is cheaper, and the construction is robust

 The absence of the brushes reduces the risk of sparking.

 Its Maintenance is less.

 The power factor is higher

 The efficiency of the cage rotor is higher.

Phase Wound Rotor

The Phase wound rotor is also called as Slip Ring Rotor. It consists of a cylindrical core which

is laminated. The outer periphery of the rotor has a semi-closed slot which carries a 3 phase

insulated windings. The rotor windings are connected in star.

Fig.28

The slip rings are mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them. The brushes are
connected to the variable resistor. The function of the slip rings and the brushes is to provide a
means of connecting external resistors in the rotor circuit. The resistor enables the variation of
each rotor phase resistance to serve the following purposes given below.

 It increases the starting torque and decreases the starting current.

 It is used to control the speed of the motor

MCC PANNEL

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A motor control center is an assembly to control some or all electric motors in a central
location. It consist of multiple enclosed sections having a common power bus and with section
containing a combination starter,which in turn consist of motor starter,fuses or circuit breakers,
and power disconnect. A motor control center can also include push buttons, indicator lights,
variable-frequency drives, programmable logic controllers, and metering equipment.It may be
combined with the electrical service entrance for the building.

Fig.29

Variable Frequency Drive

Variable frequency drive enables controlling of speed of induction motor by applying varying
frequency of AC voltage. By, controlling the output AC frequency, it is possible to drive the
motor at different speeds based on requirements.These are adjustable speed drive largely used

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in industrial applications such as pumps, ventilation systems, elevators, machine tool drives etc
it is essential an energy saving system.

Fig.30

Star Delta Starter

A 3 Phase Induction motor consists of a stator which contains 3 phase winding connected to the

3 phase AC supply. The arrangement of the winding is so as to produce a rotating magnetic


field. The rotor of the Induction motor contains cylindrical core with parallel slots that contain
conductors. In star delta starting, the motor is connected in STAR mode throughout the starting
period. When the motor reached the required speed, the motor is connected in DELTA mode.

40
Fig.31

Objectives of Star-Delta Starter

 Reduce high starting current and along these lines forestall motor from overheating

 Provide over-burden and no-voltage assurance

Components of a Star-Delta Starter

Contactors

The Star- Delta starter circuit comprises of three contactors: Main, star and delta contactors.
The three contactors are solicited to unite the motor windings first in star and afterward in
delta.

Fig.32
41
Timer

The contactors are regulated by a timer incorporated with the started.

Fig.33

Interlock switches

Interlock switches are connected between star and delta contactors of the control circuit as a
safety measure so one can’t activate delta contactor without deactivating star Contactor By any
chance if star and delta contactors are actuated at the same time, the motor will be damaged.

Fig.34

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Thermal overload relay

A thermal over-load relay is likewise consolidated into star-delta control circuit to ensure the
motor from intemperate heat which might expedite motor finding fire or wearing out. In the
event that the temperature goes past a preset quality, the contact is open and power supply is
cut in this manner ensuring the motor.

Fig.35

Working of Star-Delta Starter:

At first the primary contractor and the star contactors are shut. After a time interval the timer
signs to the star contactor to head off to the open position and the primary, delta contactors to
head off to the shut position, accordingly structuring delta circuit.At the time of starting when
the stator windings are star associated, every stator stage gets voltage VL/√3, where VL is the
line voltage. Hence, the line current drawn by the motor at starting is decreased to one-third as
contrasted with starting current with the windings associated in delta. Likewise, since the
torque advanced by an induction motor is corresponding to the square of the applied voltage;
star- delta starter decreases the starting torque to one- third of that possible by immediate delta
starting.The timer controls conversion from star connection to delta connection. A timer in star
delta starter for a 3-phase motor is intended to do the move from star mode, utilizing which the
motor runs on a decreased voltage and current and produces less torque – to the delta mode
indispensable for running the motor at its full power, utilizing high voltage and current to
transform a high torque.
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Advantages

 The operation of star-delta method is simple and rugged.

 Good torque/current performance.

 It draws 2 times starting current of the full load ampere of the motor connected.

Disadvantages

 Low starting torque

 It requires two set of cables from motor to starter

 It provides only 33% starting torque and if the load connected to the subjected motor
requires higher starting torque at the time of starting then very heavy transients and stresses
are produced while changing from star to delta connection,and because of these transients
and stresses many electrical and mechanical break-down occurs.

CHAPTER-3

Induction Motor and Faults

Operation

When the stator winding of an induction motor is connected to a three-phase supply, a uniform
rotating magnetic field is produced there in, which induces e.m.f. in the rotor which is free to
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rotate coaxially with the stator core with the help of ball bearings. Rotor being short circuited,
either through the end rings or an external resistance, currents are produced due to this induced
e.m.f. This current interacts with the rotating magnetic field to develop a torque on the rotor in
the direction of the rotating magnetic field. As the rotor is free to rotate, the torque will cause it
to move round in the direction of the stator field. This makes a three-phase induction motor as
self-starting.

In transforming this electrical energy into mechanical energy, in an induction motor some
losses occur which are as follows:

 Friction and windage losses, 5–15 %

 Iron or core losses, 15–25 %

 Stator losses, 25–40 %

 Rotor losses, 15–25 %

 Stray load losses, 10–20 %.

Full-load motor efficiency varies from about 85 to 97 %. Induction motors are simpler, cheaper,
and efficient. Among them squirrel-cage induction motor is more rugged and work more
efficiently compared to wound-rotor induction motor. If supply voltage and frequency are
constant, then a squirrel-cage induction motor runs at a constant speed which makes it suitable
for use in constant speed drive. Several standard designs of squirrel-cage induction motors are
available in the market to fulfill the requirements of different starting and running conditions of
various industrial applications. These are classified as class A, class B, class C, and class D.

Fig.36

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Faults: Causes and Effects

Induction motors are rugged, low cost, low maintenance, reasonably small sized, reasonably
high efficient, and operating with an easily available power supply. They are reliable in
operations but are subject to different types of undesirable faults. From the study of
construction and operation of an induction motor, it reveals that the most vulnerable parts for
fault in the induction motor are bearing, stator winding, rotor bar, and shaft. Besides due to
non-uniformity of the air gap between stator-inner surface and rotor-outer surface motor, faults
also occur. Different studies have been performed so far to study reliability of motors, their
performance, and faults occurred.

Faults in induction motors can be categorized as follows:

Electrical-related faults

Faults under this classification are unbalance supply voltageor current, single phasing,underor
over voltage of current, reverse phase sequence, earth fault, overload, inter-turn short-circuit
fault, and crawling.

Mechanical-related faults

Faults under this classification are broken rotor bar, mass unbalance, air gap eccentricity,
bearing damage, rotor winding failure, and stator winding failure.

Environmental-related faults

Ambient temperature as well as external moisture will affect the performance of induction
motor. Vibrations of machine, due to any reason such as installation defect, foundation defect,
etc., also will affect the performance.

Broken Rotor Bar Fault

The squirrel cage of an induction motor consists of rotor bars and end rings. If one or more of
the bars is partially cracked or completely broken, then the motor is said to have broken bar
fault.

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Fig.37

Causes of Broken Rotor Bar

There are a number of reasons for which rotor faults may occur in an induction motor. It has
been observed that in squirrel-cage induction motor rotor asymmetry occurs mainly due to
manufacturing defect, such as during the brazing process nonuniform metallurgical stresses
may occur in cage assembly which led to failure during rotation of the rotor. Also heavy end
rings of rotor result in large centrifugal forces which may cause extra stresses on the rotor bars.
Because of any of the reasons rotor bar may get damage which results in asymmetrical
distribution of rotor currents. Also, for such asymmetry or for long run of the motor if any of
the rotor bar gets cracked overheating will occur in the cracked position which may lead to
breaking of the bar. Now if one of the bars breaks, the side bars will carry higher currents for
which larger thermal and mechanical stresses may happen on these side bars. If the rotor
continues to rotate in this condition, the side bars may also get cracked thus damage may
spread, leading to fracture of multiple bars of the rotor. This cracking may occur at various
locations of the rotor, such as in bars, in end rings, or at the joints of bars and end rings.
Possibility is more at the joints of bars and end rings. Moreover, possibilities of crack increase
if motor start-up time is long and also if motor is subject to frequent starts and stops .

The main causes of rotor broken bar of an induction motor can be mentioned, point wise, as
follows:

 manufacturing defects

 thermal stresses

 mechanical stress caused by bearing faults

 frequent starts of the motor at rated voltage

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 due to fatigue of metal of the rotor bar.

Rotor Mass Unbalance

From the knowledge of construction of motor it is known that rotor is placed inside the stator
bore and it rotates coaxially with the stator. In a healthy motor, rotor is centrally aligned with
the stator and the axis of rotation of the rotor is the same as the geometrical axis of the stator.
This results in identical air gap between the outer surface of the rotor and the inner surface of
the stator. However, if the rotor is not centrally aligned or its axis of rotation is not the same as
the geometrical axis of the stator, then the air gap will not be identical and the situation is
referred as air-gap eccentricity. In fact air-gap eccentricity is common to rotor fault in an
induction motor. Air-gap eccentricity may occur due to any of the rotor faults like rotor mass
unbalance fault, bowed rotor fault, etc. Due to this air-gap eccentricity fault, in an induction
motor electromagnetic pull will be unbalanced. The rotor side where the air gap is minimum
will experience greater pull and the opposite side will experience lower pull and as a result
rotor will tend to move in the greater pull direction across that gap. The chance of rotor
pullover is normally greatest during the starting period when motor current is also the greatest.
In severe case rotor may rub the stator which may result in damage to the rotor and/or stator.
Air-gap eccentricity can also cause noise and/or vibration.

Fig.38

Cause of Rotor Mass Unbalance

This rotor mass unbalance occur mainly due to manufacturing defect, if not may occur even
after an extended period of operation, for non-symmetrical addition or subtraction of mass
around the center of rotation of rotor or due to internal misalignment or shaft bending due to
which the center of gravity of the rotor does not coincide with the center of rotation. In severe
case of rotor eccentricity, due to unbalanced electromagnetic pull if rotor rubs the stator then a
48
small part of material of rotor body may wear out which is being described here as subtraction
of mass, resulting in rotor mass unbalance fault.

Classification of Mass Unbalance

Static Mass Unbalanced Rotor

For this fault shaft rotational axis and weight distribution axis of rotor are parallel but offset.
Without special equipment this type of eccentricity is difficult to detect .

Fig.39

Couple Unbalance Rotor

If this fault occurs then the shaft rotational axis and weight distribution axis of rotor intersect at
the center of the rotor.

Fig.40

Dynamic Unbalance Rotor

If this fault occurs then shaft rotational axis and weight distribution axis of rotor do not
coincide. It is the combination of coupling unbalance and static unbalance.

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Fig.41

The main causes of rotor mass unbalance in an induction motor can be mentioned, point wise,
as follows:

 manufacturing defect

 internal misalignment or shaft bending

 it may occur after an extended period of operation, for non-symmetrical addition or


subtraction of mass around the center of rotation of rotor.

Bearing Fault

Two sets of bearings are placed at both the ends of the rotor of an induction motor to support
the rotating shaft. They held the rotor in place and help it to rotate freely by decreasing the
frictions. Each bearing consists of an inner and an outer ring called races and a set of rolling
elements called balls in between these two races. Normally, in case of motor, inner race is
attached to the shaft and load is transmitted through the rotating balls this decreases the friction.
Using lubricant (oil or grease) in between the races friction is further decreased. Any physical
damage of the inner race or in the outer race or on the surface of the balls is termed as bearing
fault. In terms of induction motor failure, bearing is the weakest component of an induction
motor. It is the single largest cause of fault in induction motor.

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Fig.42

Causes and effects of bearing failure

Excessive loads, tight fits, and excessive temperature rise: all of these can anneal the two races
and ball materials. They can also degrade, even destroy, the lubricant. If the load exceeds the
elastic limit of the bearing material, brinelling occurs.

Fatigue failure

This is due to long run of the bearings. It causes fracture and subsequently removal of small
discrete particles of materials from the surfaces of races or balls. This type of bearing failure is
progressive, that is, if once initiated will spread when further operation of bearings takes place.
For this bearing failure, vibration and noise level of motor will increase.

Corrosion

This results if bearings are exposed to corrosive fluids (acids, etc.) or corrosive atmosphere. If
lubricants deteriorate or the bearings are handled carelessly during installation, then also
corrosion of bearings may take place. Early fatigue failure may creep in due to corrosion.

Contamination

It is one of the leading factors of bearing failure. Lubricants get contaminated by dirt and other
foreign particles which are most often present in industrial environment. High vibration and
wear are the effects of contamination.

Lubricant failure

For restricted flow of lubricant or excessive temperature this takes place. It degrades the
property of the lubricant for which excessive wear of balls and races takes place which results
in overheating. If bearing temperature gets too high, grease (the lubricant) melts and runs out of
bearing. Discolored balls and ball tracks are the symptoms of lubricant failure.

51
Fig.43

Misalignment of bearings

For this, wear in the surfaces of balls and races takes place which results in rise in temperature
of the bearings.

Stator Fault

Stator of an induction motor is subjected to various stresses such as mechanical, electrical,


thermal, and environmental. Depending upon the severity of these stresses stator faults may
occur. If for a well-designed motor operations and maintenance are done properly, then these
stresses remain under control. The stator faults can be classified as

(i) faults in laminations and frame of stator and

(ii) faults in stator winding.

Out of these the second one is the most common stator fault.

Stator Winding Fault

This fault is due to failure of insulation of the stator winding. It is mainly termed as inter-turn
short-circuit fault. Different types of stator winding faults are

(i) short circuit between two turns of same phase—called turn-to-turn fault,

(ii) short circuit between two coils of same phase—called coil to coil fault,

(iii) short circuit between turns of two phases—called phase to phase fault,
52
(iv) short circuit between turns of all three phases,

(v) short circuit between winding conductors and the stator core— called coil to ground fault,
and

(vi) open-circuit fault when winding gets break. Different types of stator winding faults.
Short-circuit winding fault shows up when total or a partial of the stator windings get shorted.
Open-circuit fault shows up when total or a partial of the stator windings get disconnected and
no current flows in that phase/line.

Fig.44

Causes and Effects of Stator Winding Faults

Mechanical Stresses

These are due to movement of stator coil and rotor striking the stator. Coil movement which is
due to the stator current (as force is proportional to the square of the current) may loosen the
top sticks and also may cause damage to the copper conductor and its insulation. Rotor may
strike the stator due to rotor-to-stator misalignment or due to shaft deflection or due to bearing

53
failure and if strikes then the striking force will cause the stator lamination to puncture the coil
insulation resulting coil to ground fault. High mechanical vibration may disconnect the stator
winding producing the open-circuit fault.

Electrical Stresses

These are mainly due to the supply voltage transient. This transient arises due to different faults
(like line-to-line, line-to-ground, or three-phase fault), due to lightning, opening, or closing of
circuit breakers or due to variable frequency drives. This transient voltage reduces life of stator
winding and in severe case may cause turn-to-turn or turn-to-ground fault.

Thermal stresses

These are mainly due to thermal overloading and are the main reason, among the other possible
causes, for deterioration of the insulation of the stator winding. Thermal stress happens due to
over current flowing due to sustained overload or fault, higher ambient temperature, obstructed
ventilation, unbalanced supply voltage, etc. A thumb rule is there which states that winding
temperature will increase by 25 % in the phase having the highest current if there is a voltage
unbalance of 3.5 % per phase. Winding temperature will also increase if within a short span of
time a number of starts and stops are made in the motor. What may be the reason, if winding
temperature increases and the motor is operated over its temperature limit, the best insulation
may also fail quickly. The thumb rule, in this regard, states that for every 10 °C increase in
temperature above the stator winding temperature limit, the insulation life is reduced by 50 % .

Environmental stresses

These stresses may arise if the motor operates in a hostile environment with too hot or too cold
or too humid. The presence of foreign material can contaminate insulation of stator winding
and also may reduce the rate of heat dissipation from the motor, resulting reduction in
insulation life. Air flow should be free where the motor is situated, otherwise the heat generated
in the rotor and stator will increase the winding temperature which will reduce the life of
insulation.

Single Phasing Fault

This is a power supply-related electrical fault in case of an induction motor. For a three-phase
motor when one of the phases gets lost then the condition is known as single phasing.

Causes of Single Phasing Fault


54
Single phasing fault in an induction motor may be due to

 A downed line or a blown fuse of the utility system.

 Due to an equipment failure of the supply system.

 Due to short circuit in one phase of the star-connected or delta-connected motor.

Effects of Single Phasing Fault

 For single phasing fault motor winding get over heated, primarily due to flow of negative
sequence current.

 If during running condition of the motor single phasing fault occurs motor continues to
run due to the torque produced by the remaining two phases and this torque is produced as
per the demand by the load—as a result healthy phases may be over loaded and hence over
heated resulting in critical damage to the motor itself.

 A three-phase motor will not start if a single phasing fault already persists in the supply
line.

Crawling

It is an electro-mechanical fault of an induction motor. When an induction motor, though the


full-load supply is provided, does not accelerate but runs at a speed nearly one-seventh of its
synchronous speed, the phenomenon is known as crawling of the motor.

Causes of Crawling

Crawling is caused by the 7th harmonic. The 7th harmonic is introduced due to abnormal
magneto motive force. Another reason is high harmonic content in the power supply to the
motor.

Effects of Crawling

 Motor under loaded condition will not accelerate up to its normal speed.

 Motor under loaded condition will not accelerate up to its normal speed.

 There will be much higher stator current.

 Motor vibration and noise will be high.

Over Voltage, Under Voltage, Overload, and Blocked Rotor


55
Over and under voltages occur due to change of voltage level at supply end. Over voltage
causes stress on insulation, whereas under voltage causes excessive line current increasing
temperature of the winding. These faults are normally detected by over/under voltage relays.
Overload occurs due to increase of mechanical load above the rating of the motor. At excessive
mechanical load, rotor fails to rotate and gets blocked. This situation is equivalent to short
circuit. Normally, overload and blocked rotor are protected by over current relay or simply
fuse.

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