sensors

Review
Fibre Bragg Grating Based Strain Sensors: Review of
Technology and Applications
Carlo Edoardo Campanella 1,2, * , Antonello Cuccovillo 2 , Clarissa Campanella 2 ,
Abdulkadir Yurt 2 and Vittorio M. N. Passaro 1, *
1 Photonics Research Group, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica e dell’Informazione, Politecnico di Bari,
via E. Orabona n., 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
2 QOpSyS SRL, Via Matteotti 23, Gioia del Colle, 70023 Bari, Italy; an.cuccovillo@gmail.com (A.C.);
clary.campanella@gmail.com (C.C.); Kdryrt@gmail.com (A.Y.)
* Correspondence: ce.campanella@qopsys.com (C.E.C.); vittorio.passaro@poliba.it (V.M.N.P.);
Tel.: +39-080-5963850 (C.E.C. & V.M.N.P.)




Received: 20 August 2018; Accepted: 12 September 2018; Published: 15 September 2018


Abstract: Fibre Bragg grating (FBG) strain sensors are not only a very well-established research field,
but they are also acquiring a bigger market share due to their sensitivity and low costs. In this paper
we review FBG strain sensors with high focus on the underlying physical principles, the interrogation,
and the read-out techniques. Particular emphasis is given to recent advances in highly-performing,
single head FBG, a category FBG strain sensors belong to. Different sensing schemes are described,
including FBG strain sensors based on mode splitting. Their operation principle and performance
are reported and compared with the conventional architectures. In conclusion, some advanced
applications and key sectors the global fibre-optic strain sensors market are envisaged, as well as the
main market players acting in this field.

Keywords: optical devices; fibre Bragg grating; optical sensors

1. Introduction
The fibre optics communication industry has revolutionized the telecommunication industry
through providing more reliable telecommunication links, higher performance, and constantly
decreasing bandwidth cost. The technological progress of fibre optic communication has stimulated
the development of the fibre optic sensors [1]. Fibre-optic sensors offer advantages over other existing
sensing technologies such as increased sensitivity and form factor versatility [2]. The functional
peculiarities of fibre optic sensors have been exploited to replace traditional sensors in a wide range of
applications including strain, vibration, electric, acoustic and magnetic fields, acceleration, rotation,
pressure, temperature, linear and angular position, humidity, viscosity, chemical measurements,
and many others. Due to their dielectric property, fibre-optic sensors can be used in harsh environments
such as high temperature, high voltage, or in the presence of corrosive materials; in addition,
these sensors are compatible with communication systems and are able to perform remote sensing.
A simplified architecture of fiber optic sensor is reported in Figure 1. It consists of an optical source
that excites the transducer (i.e., the sensitive optical element) through a fiber optic cable (FO). Due to a
variation of the measurand, the transducer converts the initial signal of the optical source in another
signal having different features. The modificed signal is detected from a detector and, then, processed
by the actuation circuity. The actuation circuitry derives the informations about the measurand through
a comparison between the initial signal, usually called reference signal, and the signal modified by
the transducer.

Sensors 2018, 18, 3115; doi:10.3390/s18093115 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

 Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 2 of 27
Sensors 2018, 18 x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 27

Figure
Figure 1. 1. Fiber
Fiber optic
optic sensor
sensor simplifiedarchitecture.
simplified architecture.

TheThemain
mainadvantages
advantages of of fibre-optic
fibre-opticsensors
sensorsincludeincludetheir theirability
abilityto be
to lightweight,
be lightweight, veryvery
small sized,
small
passive, and immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Additionally, they require low power and
sized, passive, and immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Additionally, they require low
they induce
power and they low attenuation
induce as well as as
low attenuation theywellareascharacterized by high sensitivity,
they are characterized wide bandwidth,
by high sensitivity, wide
and environmental ruggedness. Their main disadvantages are high cost and unfamiliarity to the end
bandwidth, and environmental ruggedness. Their main disadvantages are high cost and
user [3–5]. to the end user [3–5].
unfamiliarity
Opticalsensors
Optical sensorsbased basedon onFibre
FibreBragg
BraggGratings
Gratings (FBGs)(FBGs) havehave acquired
acquired aa large
large market
marketshareshareduedueto
a number of advantages: small form factor, lightweight, no need
to a number of advantages: small form factor, lightweight, no need for electrical connections, and the for electrical connections, and the
compatibility
compatibility forfornon-invasive
non-invasive remotesensing.
remote sensing.The The FBGspeculiarities
FBGs peculiarities ofofshowing
showinghigh highsensitivity,
sensitivity,
high resolution, and wide dynamic range, as well as their
high resolution, and wide dynamic range, as well as their intrinsic immunity to radio frequency intrinsic immunity to radio frequency
interference(RFI)
interference (RFI)and andelectromagnetic
electromagneticinterference
interference(EMI), (EMI),and andtheir
theircapability
capabilityofofbeing
beinginterfaced
interfacedwithwith
data communication systems, contributed to their
data communication systems, contributed to their widespread employing in many widespread employing in many sensing applications.
sensingDue to FBGs’ high sensitivity to multiple environmental parameters, including physical, chemical,
applications.
biomedical,
Due to FBGs’ and electrical parameters,
high sensitivity they areenvironmental
to multiple used for structural parameters,healthincluding
monitoring in civil
physical,
infrastructures, aerospace, energy, and maritime areas, where the
chemical, biomedical, and electrical parameters, they are used for structural health monitoring in information associated to measurands
are usually
civil encodedaerospace,
infrastructures, by the Bragg wavelength
energy, shift of FBGs.
and maritime areas, where the information associated to
In this are
measurands paper, a general
usually encodedreviewby theof the
BraggFBGwavelength
strain sensors, shiftinterrogation
of FBGs. techniques, performance,
andIntheir application fields are presented. The investigation
this paper, a general review of the FBG strain sensors, interrogation begins with the analysis of the measurand
techniques,
(i.e., strain). and
performance, Strain is aapplication
their normalizedfields measure of the deformation,
are presented. which represents
The investigation begins with the displacement
the analysis
between particles in the matter with respect to a reference length.
of the measurand (i.e., strain). Strain is a normalized measure of the deformation, which represents
The strain isbetween
the displacement related to the motions
particles in the ofmatter
a rigid withbody,respect
such asto translations
a referenceand rotations, and variation
length.
of the
Theshape/size of the matter
strain is related to the [6].motions of a rigid body, such as translations and rotations, and
variation of the shape/size of of
From a physical point theview,
matter the[6].
strain is described through a tensor quantity, which can be
decomposed into a normal and shear component.
From a physical point of view, the strain is described The normal component
through a tensortakes into account
quantity, which thecanstretch
be
or compression
decomposed intoalong
a normalthe material
and shear linecomponent.
elements or fibres, The normalwhile the shear component
component takes intois account
related tothethe
sliding of layers composing the body over each other. If the length
stretch or compression along the material line elements or fibres, while the shear component is of body increases, the normal strain
is called
related to tensile
the sliding strain,of if it reduces,
layers composingthe strain is called
the body overcompressive
each other. strain
If the [7].
length of body increases,
The engineering strain (or engineering extensional strain
the normal strain is called tensile strain, if it reduces, the strain is called compressive or nominal strain) is strain
expressed
[7]. as the
ratio
The engineering strain (or engineering extensional strain or nominal strain) is expressed as theis
between the total deformation and the initial state. The strain is tensile if the total deformation
positive,
ratio betweenwhile theit total
is compressive
deformation if the
andtotal
the deformation
initial state. The is negative.
strain isThe strain
tensile unittotal
if the is a deformation
dimensionless
value and it is given by:
is positive, while it is compressive if the total deformation is negative. The strain unit is a
l−L ∆L
dimensionless value and it is given by: ε= = (1)
L L
𝑙−𝐿 ∆𝐿
where ε is the engineering normal strain, 𝜀 = l is the= final length, and L is the initial one. The true shear(1)
strain is the change of the angle between two𝐿material𝐿line elements which are perpendicular into the
where ε is the engineering
unperturbed normal
state, while the strain, l shear
engineering is the strain
final length, and L isofthe
is the tangent initial
that angle.one. The true shear
strain isInthe
thechange
case ofoffibre-optics
the angle between two material
strain sensors, line applied
the strain elementstowhich are perpendicular
the fibre can be seen asinto the
the ratio
unperturbed state, while the engineering shear strain is the tangent of that angle.
between the total wavelength shift ∆λ and the initial wavelength λ. Due to the photo-elastic coefficient
thatInlinks
the ∆λ/λ
case ofwith
fibre-optics strain the
∆L/L through sensors,
relationthe∆λ/λ
strain= applied
0.79 ∆L/Lto the
[8], fibre can be seen as
for a conventional the ratio
single mode
between
fibre SMF28,the total
we canwavelength
write: shift  and the initial wavelength . Due to the photo-elastic
coefficient that links / with L/L through∆λ the relation / = 0.79 L/L [8], for a conventional
= 0.79 ε (2)
single mode fibre SMF28, we can write: λ
It is important to clarify that the cause of the strain is the stress. Differently from the strain,
= 0.79
the stress expresses the internal forces that particles exert𝜀on each other in a continuous material, while
(2)

the strain is the consequence of these forces. If the stress exceeds a certain strength limit of the
material, it will be permanently deformed or it will change its crystal structure and chemical
composition, otherwise the stress is reversible. The stress is defined as the average force per unit area
that some particle of the object applies on the adjacent one, across an imaginary surface that
Sensors 2018,them.
separates 18, 3115Such as for the strain, the stress can be classified as normal stress whether related 3 of 27
to
compression and tension, and shear stress whether related to stress parallel to the surface. The stress
unit is that of pressure.
the strain is the consequence of these forces. If the stress exceeds a certain strength limit of the material,
After briefly covering the concepts of strain and stress, the main categories of fibre optics strain
it will be permanently deformed or it will change its crystal structure and chemical composition,
sensors are presented in the following section, where the FBGs are emphasised for their fundamental
otherwise the stress is reversible. The stress is defined as the average force per unit area that some
role as single-point sensors in which the sensing head is obtained through a periodic modulation of
particle of the object applies on the adjacent one, across an imaginary surface that separates them.
the refractive index.
Such as for the strain, the stress can be classified as normal stress whether related to compression
and tension, and shear stress whether related to stress parallel to the surface. The stress unit is that
2. Optical Fibre Devices for Strain Sensing
of pressure.
Fibre optic strain
After briefly covering sensors can be ofclassified
the concepts strain andinto three
stress, thecategories: single-point
main categories sensors
of fibre optics [9],
strain
quasi-distributed
sensors are presented (multiplexed), and distributed
in the following sensors
section, where (see Figure
the FBGs 2) [10]. Single-point
are emphasised sensors are
for their fundamental
small,
role as durable,
single-pointand sensors
highly accurate
in whichsensor units,head
the sensing usually attachedthrough
is obtained to a high-bandwidth fibre-optic
a periodic modulation of
cable. These single-point
the refractive index. sensors can be multiplexed and placed at strategic locations along the fibre
to construct a quasi-distributed measurement. Distributed sensing uses the fibre-optical cable to
2. Optical
monitor Fibre
strain Devices
across for Strain
the entire Sensing
length of the structure under investigation [11–15].
The
FibreFBG strain
optic sensors
strain belong
sensors cantobe
theclassified
category ofintosingle-point sensors and
three categories: preserve the
single-point features
sensors [9],
of small size, durability, and high accuracy. For completeness, other geometries
quasi-distributed (multiplexed), and distributed sensors (see Figure 2) [10]. Single-point sensors of single-point
sensors
are small,aredurable,
reported andin highly
Figure 3. The Bragg
accurate gratings
sensor units, can be realized
usually attached using micro-fabricationfibre-optic
to a high-bandwidth methods
creating refractive
cable. These index sensors
single-point modulation
can bealong the beamand
multiplexed propagation direction.
placed at strategic Besidesalong
locations the FBGs based
the fibre to
on refractive index modulation, they can be also realized using hetero-core fibre
construct a quasi-distributed measurement. Distributed sensing uses the fibre-optical cable to monitor structures, taper
structures,
strain across cladding
the entireremoval,
length micro-bending
of the structure structure, and macro-bending
under investigation [11–15]. structure.

Figure 2. Fibre-optic strain sensing categories: single-point sensors, including (a) FBG sensors, (b) quasi
Figure 2. Fibre-optic strain sensing categories: single-point sensors, including (a) FBG sensors,
distribute (multiplexed), and (c) distributed sensors.
(b) quasi distribute (multiplexed), and (c) distributed sensors.

The FBG strain sensors belong to the category of single-point sensors and preserve the features
of small size, durability, and high accuracy. For completeness, other geometries of single-point
sensors are reported in Figure 3. The Bragg gratings can be realized using micro-fabrication methods
creating refractive index modulation along the beam propagation direction. Besides the FBGs based
on refractive index modulation, they can be also realized using hetero-core fibre structures, taper
structures, cladding removal, micro-bending structure, and macro-bending structure.
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Figure 3. Sensors
Figure 3. Sensors geometries: (a) hetero-core
geometries: (a) hetero-core fibre
fibre structure,
structure, (b)
(b) taper
taper structure,
structure, (c)
(c) FBG,
FBG, (d)
(d) cladding
cladding
removal, (e) micro-bending structure, and (f) macro-bending structure.
removal, (e) micro-bending structure, and (f) macro-bending structure.

3. Key FBG Performance Factors of the Fibre-Optic Sensors

3. Key FBG Performance Factors of the Fibre-Optic Sensors
The key performance factors of the FBG strain sensors are generally the same as the fibre-optic
The key performance factors of the FBG strain sensors are generally the same as the fibre-optic
sensors. They include the sensitivity, representing the relationship between the variation of the sensor
sensors. They include the sensitivity, representing the relationship between the variation of the
output and the corresponding variation in measurand. In an optoelectronic sensor, the sensitivity
sensor output and the corresponding variation in measurand. In an optoelectronic sensor, the
is usually defined as the variation of optical power at the receiver, produced by a unit variation of
sensitivity is usually defined as the variation of optical power at the receiver, produced by a unit
the measured magnitude. A good sensor must have a high sensitivity, i.e., small variations in the
variation of the measured magnitude. A good sensor must have a high sensitivity, i.e., small
magnitude to be measured must correspond to large variations in the output. If the sensor output
variations in the magnitude to be measured must correspond to large variations in the output. If the
varies linearly with the magnitude to be measured, then the sensitivity of the sensor can be defined as
sensor output varies linearly with the magnitude to be measured, then the sensitivity of the sensor
a “scale factor”. An additional key performance factor is the resolution. It expresses the capability of
can be defined as a “scale factor”. An additional key performance factor is the resolution. It
the sensor to detect small variations in the measurand. It is defined as “the variation in the value of
expresses the capability of the sensor to detect small variations in the measurand. It is defined as
the measurand that causes a variation in the output value equal to the uncertainty of the output itself”.
“the variation in the value of the measurand that causes a variation in the output value equal to the
Resolution can be expressed in absolute value, or relative or reduced value. Spatial resolution can be
uncertainty of the output itself”. Resolution can be expressed in absolute value, or relative or
described as the smallest length within which a significant change in the measured magnitude can be
reduced value. Spatial resolution can be described as the smallest length within which a significant
detected. Referring to the uncertainty of the output corresponds to considering the slightest variation
change in the measured magnitude can be detected. Referring to the uncertainty of the output
without any randomness from a given operative point. Often the resolution is indicated with the term
corresponds to considering the slightest variation without any randomness from a given operative
“dead band”, and sometimes, it is also incorrectly indicated as sensitivity. A particular case occurs
point. Often the resolution is indicated with the term “dead band”, and sometimes, it is also
when the sensor operates with a measurand that is in the proximity of zero: in this case, the term
incorrectly indicated as sensitivity. A particular case occurs when the sensor operates with a
“threshold” is preferred to the one resolution and it assumes the meaning of “the minimum value
measurand that is in the proximity of zero: in this case, the term “threshold” is preferred to the one
of the measurand which results in a significantly different output with respect to the one obtained
resolution and it assumes the meaning of “the minimum value of the measurand which results in a
when the measured value is null”. In terms of measurements, two key factors are taken into account
significantly different output with respect to the one obtained when the measured value is null”. In
to characterize a FBG sensor, i.e., the accuracy of the measurement and its bandwidth. The first is
terms of measurements, two key factors are taken into account to characterize a FBG sensor, i.e., the
the accuracy with which the output power can be measured at the receiver in spite of system noise
accuracy of the measurement and its bandwidth. The first is the accuracy with which the output
levels (%). The latter is the bandwidth for which the variations of the examined magnitude can
power can be measured at the receiver in spite of system noise levels (%). The latter is the bandwidth
be detected. Besides the measurement bandwidth, other figures of merit of FBGs are the system
for which the variations of the examined magnitude can be detected. Besides the measurement
bandwidth, i.e., the bandwidth that the receiver must have to analyse the system, as well as the sensor
bandwidth, other figures of merit of FBGs are the system bandwidth, i.e., the bandwidth that the
stability and dynamic range. The stability is the ability of the sensor to keep its operating characteristics
receiver must have to analyse the system, as well as the sensor stability and dynamic range. The
unaltered for a relatively long period of time (e.g., months or years). It is expressed as the maximum
stability is the ability of the sensor to keep its operating characteristics unaltered for a relatively long
variation that can occur in the output, in absolute, relative or reduced value, with same measurand,
period of time (e.g., months or years). It is expressed as the maximum variation that can occur in the
and operating conditions within a given time interval. Sometimes the term “drift” (offset or shift) is
output, in absolute, relative or reduced value, with same measurand, and operating conditions
used, with a similar meaning. The dynamic range is the ratio between the maximum and minimum
within a given time interval. Sometimes the term “drift” (offset or shift) is used, with a similar
value of the magnitude that can be measured with the required accuracy (dB).
meaning. The dynamic range is the ratio between the maximum and minimum value of the
The FBG strain sensors are also classified according to their attenuation spectrum, dispersion
magnitude that can be measured with the required accuracy (dB).
spectrum, type of modal propagation, geometric and physical properties of the guiding structure,
The FBG strain sensors are also classified according to their attenuation spectrum, dispersion
and to the properties of the mantle. The attenuation spectrum represents the attenuation on the basis of
spectrum, type of modal propagation, geometric and physical properties of the guiding structure, and
the wavelength in the operation point, while the dispersion spectrum represents the refractive index on
to the properties of the mantle. The attenuation spectrum represents the attenuation on the basis of the
the basis of the wavelength in the operation point. The type of modal propagation within the guiding
wavelength in the operation point, while the dispersion spectrum represents the refractive index on
the basis of the wavelength in the operation point. The type of modal propagation within the guiding
Sensors 2018,
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structure (optical fibre or waveguide) depends on the operating principle of the sensor and can be
structure (optical fibre or waveguide) depends on the operating principle of the sensor and can be
related to the presence of one (unimodal propagation) or multiple modes (multi-modal propagation).
related to the presence of one (unimodal propagation) or multiple modes (multi-modal propagation).
The geometric and physical properties of the guiding structure (optical fibre or waveguide)
The geometric and physical properties of the guiding structure (optical fibre or waveguide)
depend on the materials used, the core and cladding dimensions, the index refraction profile (step
depend on the materials used, the core and cladding dimensions, the index refraction profile (step
index or graded index), the index contrast between core and cladding and the cutting wavelength
index or graded index), the index contrast between core and cladding and the cutting wavelength for
for operating in unimodal or multimodal regime. The mantle’s properties are represented by the
operating in unimodal or multimodal regime. The mantle’s properties are represented by the type of
type of mantle (primary or secondary in the case of the optical fibre), breaking resistance, maximum
mantle (primary or secondary in the case of the optical fibre), breaking resistance, maximum working
working temperature, and radiation resistance in highly radioactive environments.
temperature, and radiation resistance in highly radioactive environments.
4. Physics of Fibre Bragg Grating
4. Physics of Fibre Bragg Grating
A fibre Bragg grating is an optical device obtained through introducing a modulation of the
A fibre Bragg grating is an optical device obtained through introducing a modulation of
refractive index of the fibre core. The manufacturing process of FBG (generally called inscription or
the refractive index of the fibre core. The manufacturing process of FBG (generally called
“writing”) could be realized with interferometric method, direct point-by-point method, and
inscription or “writing”) could be realized with interferometric method, direct point-by-point method,
continuous core-scanning method [9,16,17]. The interferometric technique relies on exposing a
and continuous core-scanning method [9,16,17]. The interferometric technique relies on exposing a
photo-sensible region of the fibre to an interferometric fringe pattern in order to obtain the whole
photo-sensible region of the fibre to an interferometric fringe pattern in order to obtain the whole
grating. The pattern is realised through illuminating a proper mask that defines the FBG period. The
grating. The pattern is realised through illuminating a proper mask that defines the FBG period.
same results could be obtained with mask-less techniques. Like in the direct point-by-point method,
The same results could be obtained with mask-less techniques. Like in the direct point-by-point
this method is based on the nonlinear absorption of a laser pulse; with this technique, each grating
method, this method is based on the nonlinear absorption of a laser pulse; with this technique, each
element could be obtained by controlling the laser parameter and the movement of the fibre placed
grating element could be obtained by controlling the laser parameter and the movement of the fibre
on a translational stage. Similarly, in the continuous core-scanning technique the inscription is
placed on a translational stage. Similarly, in the continuous core-scanning technique the inscription
realized by controlling only the movement parameters of the translational frame at which the fibre is
is realized by controlling only the movement parameters of the translational frame at which the
anchored. There are different kinds of index modulations; for a simple FBG, as in Figure 4, the
fibre is anchored. There are different kinds of index modulations; for a simple FBG, as in Figure 4,
perturbation is periodic, equally spaced and the modulation strength is only positive. Then, the
the perturbation is periodic, equally spaced and the modulation strength is only positive. Then,
refractive index along the grating varies as a raised square wave with a duty cycle of half period as
the refractive index along the grating varies as a raised square wave with a duty cycle of half period as
shown in the following equation:
shown in the following equation:
( nc  nc 0 0  z   / 2
nc = nc0 0 < z < Λ/2 (3)
nc n nc +
nc = 0 ∆n
n Λ/2
 / 2<z z<Λ (3)
c0

where nc0 is the refractive index of the unperturbed core, n represents the modulation strength,
where n is the refractive index of the unperturbed core, ∆n represents the modulation strength, and Λ
and  isc0the grating period.
is the grating period.

Figure 4.
Figure FBG index
4. FBG index profile.
profile. In
In insets,
insets, the
the spectrum
spectrum of
of the
the incident,
incident, reflected
reflected and
and transmitted
transmitted beams.
beams.

The light
The light propagating
propagating in in forward
forwarddirection
directionthrough
throughthe thecore
coreofofananoptical
opticalfibre is is
fibre reflected
reflected due
dueto
thethe
to discontinuity
discontinuityat the
at layer interfaces,
the layer whilewhile
interfaces, the remaining part passes
the remaining over. This
part passes over.way,
Thistheway,
beam is
the
divided in two components that travel in opposites directions. This phenomenon
is divided in two components that travel in opposites directions. This phenomenon causes the causes the coupling
of the incident
coupling of thewave with wave
incident the counter-propagating one [18]. At particular
with the counter-propagating one [18]. wavelengths
At particulardefined by the
wavelengths
grating parameters,
defined by the grating the parameters,
Bragg condition is satisfied;
the Bragg in this
condition is case, the contributions
satisfied; of the
in this case, the light reflected
contributions of
at each interface interfere constructively. The resulting backward-propagating
the light reflected at each interface interfere constructively. The resulting backward-propagating spectrum presents
a peak centred
spectrum at the
presents Bragg
a peak wavelength
centred whilewavelength
at the Bragg the transmission
while spectral responsespectral
the transmission presentsresponse
a notch
filter like atransfer
presents notch function.
filter likeFor these reasons
transfer function.is widely
For theseusedreasons
for filtering application
is widely usedorfor as reflector
filtering
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 6 of 27

in communication systems. The light components far from the Bragg wavelength, instead, will pass
almost unperturbed. The Bragg wavelength, λB is defined by the following the formula:

λ B = 2ne f f Λ (4)

where neff is the effective refractive index and Λ the grating pitch.
The reflectivity and transmittivity spectrum could be accurately calculated by using the
coupled-mode theory [19]. For a simple FBG, the transfer functions depend on the AC coupling
coefficient κ, the DC self-coupling coefficient σ and the length of the grating L defined as follow:

2π
σ= δne f f (5)
λ
π
κ= νδne f f (6)
λ
L = NΛ (7)

where δne f f is the DC index change spatially averaged over a grating period, ν is the order of the FBG
(unitary for a uniform FBG), and N number of periods. Then, the reflected amplitude and power are
given by Equations (8) and (9), respectively:
√ 
−κsinh κ 2 − σ̂2 L
ρ= √  √  √  (8)
σ̂2 sinh κ 2 − σ̂2 L + i κ 2 − σ̂2 cosh κ 2 − σ̂2 L
√ 
  sinh2 κ 2 − σ̂2 L
r = ρ2  = √ (9)
   2
cosh2 κ 2 − σ̂2 L − σ̂κ2

The bandwidth or full width half maximum (FWHM) is given by:

2 2 !1/2
∆n
 
1
FW HMλ = λ B S + (10)
2nc0 N

where S [20] is a parameter of the grating that is approximately equal to 1 for high reflectivity grating
and 0.5 for weak reflectivity gratings.
In Figure 5, the reflectivity is plotted with respect to the wavelength for two different values
of kL (i.e., 2 and 8) of a uniform FBG. Assuming neff = 1.457 and L = 1 cm, the bandwidth of the
transfer function increases for larger values of the product kL, while the drawback is that the side lobe
suppression ratio (SLSR) decreases. The length L (and the number of periods of length Λ composing
the FBG) also affects the bandwidth. Similar results could be obtained increasing δne f f . On the basis of
the above considerations, by varying the structural parameters of the grating, such as reflectivity or
Bragg wavelength, it is possible to shape the transfer function with high degrees of freedom.
To achieve particular goals, other profiles could be considered. In particular, apodized profile and
chirped and phase-shifted profiles are widely used due to their peculiar spectral responses.
The apodization consists in a non-uniform strength of the index modulation along the grating as
in the cases of the raised-cosine and the Gaussian profiles.
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Figure 5. Reflectivity of an FBG with B = 1550 nm, kL = 2 (red curve), and kL = 8 (blue curve).

To achieve particular goals, other profiles could be considered. In particular, apodized profile
and chirped and phase-shifted profiles are widely used due to their peculiar spectral responses.
The apodization consists in a non-uniform strength of the index modulation along the grating
Figure 5. Reflectivity
Figure of anofFBG
5. Reflectivity an FBG λB =1550
withwith nm,nm,
B = 1550 kL =kL2 (red curve),
= 2 (red andand
curve), kL =kL8 (blue curve).
= 8 (blue curve).
as in the cases of the raised-cosine and the Gaussian profiles.
The
The grating
grating
To achieve exhibits
exhibits a alower
particular lower index
index
goals, other modulation
modulation strength
strength
profiles could towardsthe
towards
be considered. the edgesthan
Inedges thanin
particular, inthe
thecentral
apodized central
profile
region;
and chirped and phase-shifted profiles are widely used due to their peculiar spectral responses.the
region; this
this causes
causes a a lower
lower reflection
reflection of of
the the wavelengths
wavelengths at the at
edgetheofedge
the of the
spectrum spectrum
than in than
the in
uniform
uniform
case. This case.
Theway, This way,consists
it istopossible
it is possible
apodization improve tothe
improve the
SLRS [21]
in a non-uniform SLRS
of the[21]
strength of index
the spectrum,
spectrum,
of the asmodulationas illustrated
illustrated in the the
along in
inset the
of
grating
inset
Figure of Figure 6.
6.the cases of the raised-cosine and the Gaussian profiles.
as in
The grating exhibits a lower index modulation strength towards the edges than in the central
region; this causes a lower reflection of the wavelengths at the edge of the spectrum than in the
uniform case. This way, it is possible to improve the SLRS [21] of the spectrum, as illustrated in the
inset of Figure 6.

Figure 6. Apodized FBG. Inset: reflected spectrum.

Figure 6. Apodized FBG. Inset: reflected spectrum.
A chirped FBG can be used to increase the bandwidth of the grating as its transfer function
presents
A achirped
region of
FBGhigh reflectivity
can be used to expanded
increasetothe
a wider range of
bandwidth of wavelengths.
the grating asThisits can be achieved
transfer function
through modulating
presents a region the pitch reflectivity
of high of the grating or through
expanded tovarying
a widertherange
effective refractive index
of wavelengths. along
This canthebe
direction
achievedofthrough
propagation (as in Figure
modulating 7). of the grating or through varying the effective refractive
the pitch
Figure 6. Apodized FBG. Inset: reflected spectrum.
index along the direction of propagation (as in Figure 7).
A chirped FBG can be used to increase the bandwidth of the grating as its transfer function
presents a region of high reflectivity expanded to a wider range of wavelengths. This can be
achieved through modulating the pitch of the grating or through varying the effective refractive
index along the direction of propagation (as in Figure 7).
 Sensors 2018, 18 x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 27

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Figure 7. Chirped FBG. Inset: reflected spectrum.

Figure 7. Chirped FBG. Inset: reflected spectrum.
The non-uniform pitchFigure 7. Chirped
can be FBG.as
considered Inset: reflected
a series of spectrum.
several FBGs with slightly different
The non-uniform pitch can be considered as a series of several FBGs with slightly different central
central wavelengths; thus, the total transfer function is modified because of the several wavelengths
The non-uniform
wavelengths; pitch
thus, the total can befunction
transfer considered as a series
is modified of several
because FBGs with
of the several slightly different
wavelengths able to
able to satisfy multiple Bragg conditions [22]. In this case, it is possible to redefine the Bragg
centralmultiple
satisfy wavelengths; thus, the total
Bragg conditions [22].transfer function
In this case, it is is modified
possible because the
to redefine of the several
Bragg wavelengths
wavelength as a
wavelength as a function of the axial (z) position, according to the following equation:
able to of
function satisfy multiple
the axial Bragg according
(z) position, conditionsto[22]. In this case,
the following it is possible to redefine the Bragg
equation:
wavelength as a function of the axialB(z) zposition,
  2neff according
 z    z  to the following equation: (1)
λ B (z) = 2ne f f (z)Λ(z) (1)
where both the effective index and  z  grating
B the  2neff pitch
z   are
z  functions of the axial position. For(1)a
where both
linearly the effective
chirped grating,index and thepitch
the grating grating
canpitch are functions
be expressed as: of the axial position. For a linearly
where grating,
chirped both thetheeffective
grating index andbethe
pitch can grating as:
expressed pitch are functions of the axial position. For a
linearly chirped grating, the grating pitch  canz  beexpressed
0  z
as: (12)
Λ(z) = Λ0 + αz
  z  coefficient.
(12)
in which α represents the linear proportional 0   z (12)
In aα-phase
in which shifted
represents FBG (phase
the linear FBG PSFBGs), a further -phase-shift is introduced at
shiftedcoefficient.
proportional
in which α represents the linear proportional coefficient.
the In
centre
a π-phase shifted FBG (phase shifted FBG PSFBGs),consists
of a periodic grating [23]. This configuration a further in π-phase-shift
two separate isFBGs formingata
introduced
In a -phase shifted FBG (phase shifted FBG PSFBGs), a further -phase-shift is introduced at
Fabry-Perot
the centre of (FP), wheregrating
a periodic only a resonance
[23]. This state is allowed;consists
configuration the result of adding
in two a -phase-shift
separate FBGs forming in the
a
the centre of a periodic grating [23]. This configuration consists in two separate FBGs forming a
middle of the grating leads to an extremely narrow notch in the reflection spectrum
Fabry-Perot (FP), where only a resonance state is allowed; the result of adding a π-phase-shift in the whose position
Fabry-Perot (FP), where only a resonance state is allowed; the result of adding a -phase-shift in the
is usually
middle coincident
of the with to
grating leads theanBragg wavelength,
extremely narrow as reported
notch in thein Figure 8.spectrum
reflection It can also be realized
whose positionwith
is
middle of the grating leads to an extremely narrow notch in the reflection spectrum whose position
a detuning
usually phase that
coincident withdiffers
the Braggof wavelength,
[24]. This way, it is possible
as reported to move
in Figure 8. Itthe
cannotch
also frequency
be realizedfrom
withthe
a
is usually coincident with the Bragg wavelength, as reported in Figure 8. It can also be realized with
middle of the spectrum.
detuning phase that differs of π [24]. This way, it is possible to move the notch frequency from the
a detuning phase that differs of  [24]. This way, it is possible to move the notch frequency from the
middle of the spectrum.
middle of the spectrum.

Figure 8. Phase shifted FBG. Inset: reflected spectrum.

Figure 8. Phase shifted FBG. Inset: reflected spectrum.

Figure 8. Phase shifted FBG. Inset: reflected spectrum.

Sensors 2018,
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5. Operation Principle of Strain Sensors Based on Fibre Bragg Grating

5. Operation Principle of Strain Sensors Based on Fibre Bragg Grating
According to the previous considerations, the grating properties can be engineered for
According to the previous considerations, the grating properties can be engineered for different
different applications. The FBGs can be adapted as sensing elements to measure temperature,
applications. The FBGs can be adapted as sensing elements to measure temperature, pressure,
pressure, strain, vibration, inclination, load, and displacement. A variation in the environmental
strain, vibration, inclination, load, and displacement. A variation in the environmental parameters,
parameters, for instance, temperature and strain, influence both the pitch and the refractive index of
for instance, temperature and strain, influence both the pitch and the refractive index of the grating
the grating layers perturbing the spectral properties of the FBG, as in Figure 9. Such perturbation in
layers perturbing the spectral properties of the FBG, as in Figure 9. Such perturbation in the spectrum
the spectrum is commonly utilized for sensing applications.
is commonly utilized for sensing applications.

Figure Reflectivity
9. 9.
Figure response
Reflectivity shift.
response shift.

ByBydifferentiating
differentiatingEquation
Equation(4),
(4),wewecan
canevaluate
evaluatethe
theshift
shiftofofthe
theBragg
Braggwavelength
wavelengthdue
duetotoa a
uniformly
uniformly applied strain
applied and
strain temperature
and temperature changes with
changes withthethe
following
following expression:
expression:

 Λ∂n
neffe f f ∂Λ
 neefff f
 Λ ∂n ∂Λ

   
BB 2   ∂l  neffe f f ∂l l  2   ∂T  neffe f f ∂T 
∆λ = 2 + n ∆l + 2 + n ∆T
T (13)
(13)
 l l   T T 
The first term in the above equation contains information about the applied deformation. The shift
The first term in the above equation contains information about the applied deformation. The
of the Bragg wavelength due to the strain term l is:∆
shift of the Bragg wavelength due to the strain term l is:

∆λ B = 2 Λ neff + ne f f  ∆l
 
∂ne f f ∂Λ
(14)
B  2   ∂l  neff ∂l  l (14)
 l l 
∂n
where ∂le f f𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
is the variation of the effective refractive index induced by the strain and ∂Λ
∂l isand
the change

where is the variation of the effective refractive index induced by the strain is the
of pitch. The  𝑙 shift of the Bragg wavelength could be also written as a function of the strain knowing
𝑙
change
the of pitch.
material The of
properties shift
theofgrating
the Bragg
as inwavelength
the following could be also written as a function of the strain
expression:
knowing the material properties of the grating as in the following expression:
" #
n 2
∆λ = λ  1 − [ p − ν( p + p )] ε
2f f
e
n
B B B B1  eff 2 p1212  p1111 p1212   
(15)
(15)
 2 
In which pij is the Pockel’s coefficient of the stress-optic tensor and ν the Poisson’s ratio.
In which pij is the Pockel’s coefficient of the stress-optic tensor and ν the Poisson’s ratio.
The applied strain ε can be derived through measuring the λB shift (i.e., ∆λ) according to the
The applied strain  can be derived through measuring the λB shift (i.e., ) according to the
relation [25]:
relation [25]: ∆λ B
= (1 − p e ) · ε (16)
λBB
where pe is the elasto-optic coefficient that links  
pe   with ∆L/L through the relation ∆λ/λ (16)
1  ∆λ/λ
B =
0.79 ∆L/L [8]. The second term in the Equation (13) includes the temperature dependence of the
Bragg pe is the elasto-optic coefficient thatlinks / with L/L
wavelength:
where  through the relation / = 0.79 L/L [8].
The second term in the Equation ∂ne f fincludes∂Λthe temperature dependence of the
(13)
∆λ B = 2 Λ + ne f f ∆T (17)
Bragg wavelength: ∂T ∂T
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 10 of 27

∂n
where ∂Te f f represents the thermo-optic coefficient whose contribution is larger than the one of the term
∂Λ
∂T related to the thermal expansion. As previously stated, both changes in effective index and grating
pitch, caused by an external perturbation, contribute to the wavelength shift, but their sensitivities to
strain or temperature are significantly different. Typical value for strain or temperature induced Bragg
wavelength shift is approximately of 1.2 pm/µε and 13.7 pm/◦ C, respectively. These values underline
the necessity of temperature compensation in strain sensing applications as well as the possibility to
develop proper readout techniques for simultaneous measurement of strain and temperature.

6. Operation Principle of Splitting Mode Strain Sensors Based on Bragg Grating Ring Resonators
In References [26–30], FBG gratings are inserted into ring resonators made of optical fibre
connected one end to other to create resonant FBGs strain sensors. These resonant sensor systems are
mainly built using FBGs with complex scattering sources (SCs) which couple two counter-propagating
modes (traveling wave (TW)) in a ring resonator. This mode coupling generates a spectral response
characterized by two asymmetric resonance lines (called ”mode splitting” in the scientific literature
and used for many applications, besides the strain sensing [31–38].
Each resonance line is created by the combination of two counter-propagating modes. These
particular configurations are called fibre Bragg grating ring resonators (FBGRRs) (see Figure 10b).
The mode-splitting spectral feature of FBGRRs allows one to measure the strain with a far greater
accuracy, making these sensors particularly suited for the structural health-monitoring in civil
infrastructures, aerospace, energy, and maritime operations fields. The main advantages of FBGRRs,
with respect to the conventional FBG sensors, are represented by a cavity enhanced resolution, which
leads to an improved sensing resolution [30], insensitivity to environmental perturbations [26] and
lower production costs because, differently from conventional FBG sensors, the sensing scheme is
self-referenced and there is no need of a reference signal to perform accurate measurements [26–30].
Sensors 2018, 18 x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 27

Figure10.
Figure 10.(a)(a)FBG
FBGconventional
conventionalstatic
staticstrain
strainsensor;
sensor;(b)(b)fibre
fibreBragg
Bragggrating
gratingring
ringresonators
resonators(FBGRR)
(FBGRR)
strain sensor system, consisting in a FBG inserted into a ring resonator made by an
strain sensor system, consisting in a FBG inserted into a ring resonator made by an optic fibre closed optic fibre closed
ononitself
itselfinto
intoa afeedback
feedbackloop,
loop,through
throughtwo twofibre
fibrecouplers.
couplers.

The following illustrations in Figure 11 shows different architectures based on the

mode-splitting operating principle [26–39].
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 11 of 27

This technology retains all of the advantages of the fibre-optics, such as compactness, immunity to
radio- and electromagnetic interference (RFI, EMI), rapid response for real time monitoring, and ability
to be embedded in composite materials in complex structures. Furthermore, the FBGRR based
strain sensors can be used in the sensing applications requiring ultra-high resolutions (e.g., seismic
monitoring etc.) and insensitivity to the environmental perturbation (e.g., harsh environments typical
of industrial or aerospace scenarios).
In Figure 10, two FBG sensor systems are shown: on the left, a conventional FBG static strain
sensor based on conventional optics principles (Figure 10a), and on the right, the sensor system
consisting of a FBG inserted into a ring resonator made by an optic fibre wrapped on itself into a
feedback loop based on mode-splitting principle explained previously (Figure 10b). In a conventional
FBG sensor, the strain (ε) corresponds to a change of the FBG length (L, equivalent to ε = ∆L/L),
and (Figure 10a), the information about the measurand is usually encoded by the Bragg wavelength
shiftFigure
of the10.FBG. In the
(a) FBG case of FBGRR,
conventional the information
static strain about
sensor; (b) fibre Braggmeasurand
grating ringisresonators
encoded (FBGRR)
by the mode
splitting
strainof two system,
sensor ”entangled” coupled
consisting resonant
in a FBG insertedmodes, thatresonator
into a ring are visible
madeasby
a splitting doublet
an optic fibre closedin the
spectral response
on itself (see Figure
into a feedback 10b)
loop, where
through twothefibre
mode splitting is approximately described through two
couplers.
adjacent lines with different colours).
The followingillustrations
The following illustrations in Figure
in Figure 11 shows11 different
shows architectures
different architectures
based on thebased on the
mode-splitting
mode-splitting operating
operating principle principle [26–39].
[26–39].

Figure 11. (a) FBGRR; (b) π-FBGRR; (c) extended version of FBGRR; and (d) extended version of
Figure 11. (a) FBGRR; (b) π-FBGRR; (c) extended version of FBGRR; and (d) extended version of
π-FBGRR.
π-FBGRR.
These architectures have been obtained either by introducing SCs through different kinds of
fibre Bragg grating inserted in a ring resonator (Figure 11a,b where conventional FBG and π-FBG
have been respectively sketched); or by modulating the SC’s lengths through the manipulation of the
FBG and π−FBG lengths (Figure 11c,d, representing the extended versions of FBGRR and π-FBGRR,
respectively) in order to exploit other physical effects.
The insertion of a π-shifted fibre Bragg grating into a ring resonator (Figure 11b) has been proven
to enhance sensing performance [29] for different kinds of environmental parameters/measurands.
 have been respectively sketched); or by modulating the SC’s lengths through the manipulation of the
FBG and FBG lengths (Figure 11c,d, representing the extended versions of FBGRR and -FBGRR,
respectively) in order to exploit other physical effects.
The insertion of a -shifted fibre Bragg grating into a ring resonator (Figure 11b) has been
proven to enhance sensing performance [29] for different kinds of environmental
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 12 of 27
parameters/measurands.
With the same architecture sketched in Figure 11b, excluding the experimental record over the
staticWith
strainthesensor
sameresolutions
architecturereported
sketchedinin[30], enhanced
Figure spectral features
11b, excluding of a -shifted
the experimental fibre
record Bragg
over the
grating
static in closed
strain sensorloop have been
resolutions demonstrated
reported in [36]. In
in [30], enhanced the latter,
spectral a performance
features of a π-shifted improvement
fibre Bragg
over a inconventional
grating -shifted
closed loop have fibre Braggingrating
been demonstrated haslatter,
[36]. In the beena performance
experimentally proved, over
improvement also
ademonstrating that a reduction
conventional π-shifted fibre Braggingrating
sensor’s
hasarchitecture complexity
been experimentally and manufacturing
proved, also demonstrating costs
thatis
apossible
reductionas well.
in sensor’s architecture complexity and manufacturing costs is possible as well.
basedonon
Being based mode-splitting
mode-splitting principles
principles andhybridization
and the the hybridization of technologies
of technologies already
already available
available
in in theFibre
the market, market, Fibre
Bragg Bragg Ring
Grating Grating Ring Resonators
Resonators representsrepresents a new generation
a new generation of robust,
of robust, better
better performing, and cost-effective optical sensors that can be applied to the all the main
performing, and cost-effective optical sensors that can be applied to the all the main sectors of strain sectors of
strain sensing
sensing technologies
technologies existingexisting
on the on the market
market (see Section
(see Section 9). 9).

7. FBG Strain Sensors Interrogation Techniques

Techniques
The interrogation
interrogationtechniques
techniquesallow oneone
allow to extract the information
to extract about the
the information measurand,
about encoded
the measurand,
in the spectrum
encoded in the produced
spectrum by the FBGby
produced sensors.
the FBGThesensors.
spectralThe
change, withchange,
spectral reference to the
with unperturbed
reference to the
condition, is principally associated with a Bragg wavelength shift or with a change
unperturbed condition, is principally associated with a Bragg wavelength shift or with a change in in the optical
exciting power
the optical or inpower
exciting the FWHM. A basic
or in the FWHM. set up that can
A basic set be
upused
that to
candetect these
be used to variations
detect these is illustrated
variations
in Figure 12, where a broadband optical source is connected to a circulator to feed
is illustrated in Figure 12, where a broadband optical source is connected to a circulator to feed the FBG. Then,
the
the
FBG.reflected beam
Then, the is redirected
reflected beam is to redirected
a conventional optical spectrum
to a conventional analyser
optical (OSA)
spectrum connected
analyser to
(OSA)
the circulator.
connected to the circulator.

Figure 12. Simple interrogation set up: a broadband optical source is connected to a circulator to feed
the FBG,
FBG,while
whilethetheFBG
FBG reflected
reflected beam
beam is redirected
is redirected to a to a conventional
conventional optical
optical spectrum
spectrum analyser
analyser (OSA)
(OSA) through
through a circulator.
a circulator.

Unfortunately, commercial OSAs are costly and slow and, and, thus, not suitable for dynamic
dynamic
measurements; furthermore they have a typical resolution in the range of tens of picometers picometers while
the sensitivity of the FBG strain sensors is of the order of some picometers for one microstrain;
microstrain; thus,
thus,
to improve the resolution,
resolution, particular
particular algorithms
algorithms have
have to
to be
be used
used [40–42].
[40–42].
For this reason,
reason, several demodulation
demodulation techniques have been conceived and implemented to
improve FBG interrogation technique, achievingachieving highest
highest resolutions
resolutions in
in terms
terms of spectral
spectral detection.
detection.
According to Reference [9], we can classify the interrogation techniques of FBG sensors into five
categories,
categories,
Sensors
depending
2018, 18 depending
onon
thethe
x FOR PEER REVIEW
main principle
main adopted
principle in thein
adopted detecting scheme,scheme,
the detecting as depicted
as in Figure
depicted 13.
in
13 of 27
Figure 13.

Figure 13. Classification of the interrogation techniques of FBG sensors: bulk optics, filtering,
Figure 13. Classification of the interrogation techniques of FBG sensors: bulk optics, filtering,
interferometric, laser sensing, and miscellaneous.
interferometric, laser sensing, and miscellaneous.

The most common interrogation techniques are the filtering and interferometric approaches, in
which the read-out of the FBG sensor is done by converting the wavelength shift into a change to an
electrical signal. In the following, the review will focus on the implementations of filtering and
interferometric techniques. In such settings, the OSA is replaced with a photo-diode receiving the
optical signal from the reflected spectrum of the FBG.
 Figure
Sensors 13.3115
2018, 18, Classification of the interrogation techniques of FBG sensors: bulk optics, filtering,
13 of 27
interferometric, laser sensing, and miscellaneous.

The most
The mostcommon
commoninterrogation
interrogationtechniques
techniquesare arethethe filtering
filtering and and interferometric
interferometric approaches,
approaches, in
in which the read-out of the FBG sensor is done by converting the wavelength
which the read-out of the FBG sensor is done by converting the wavelength shift into a change to an shift into a change to
an electrical
electrical signal.
signal. In the
In the following,
following, thethe review
review willfocus
will focuson onthe
theimplementations
implementationsof of filtering
filtering and
and
interferometric techniques.
interferometric techniques. In Insuch
suchsettings,
settings,the
the OSA
OSA isis replaced
replaced with
with aa photo-diode
photo-diode receiving
receiving the
the
optical signal
optical signal from from the reflected spectrum of the FBG.
Filtering techniques
Filtering techniques are are divided
divided into
into passive
passive edge
edge andand active
active bandpass types. In In aa passive
passive edge
edge
filtering, an
filtering, an optical
optical filter
filter presenting
presenting aa linear
linear attenuation
attenuation around
around the the wavelength
wavelength ofof interest,
interest, asas shown
shown
in Figure
in Figure 14 14,, is
is used
used asasthe
theinterrogation
interrogationtechnique.
technique. The
The change
change in the FBG spectrum will result in aa
change on the output power. The correlation betweenwavelength
change on the output power. The correlation between the the wavelengthand theand
output
the power
outputdepends
power
on the transmittance function of the passive edge filter.
depends on the transmittance function of the passive edge filter.

Figure
Figure 14.
14. Filter
Filter transfer
transfer function
function and
and FBG
FBG spectrum
spectrum response.
response.

The optical
The optical signal
signal received
received byby the
the photodiode
photodiode is is proportional
proportional toto the
the central
central wavelength
wavelength of of the
the
input spectrum.
input spectrum.The Theshift of the
shift sensor
of the wavelength
sensor produces
wavelength a variation
produces in the optical
a variation in thepower according
optical power
to the slope of the filter. The main drawback of this methodology is its sensitivity to source
according to the slope of the filter. The main drawback of this methodology is its sensitivity to source power
variations
power [1]. To overcome
variations this limitation,
[1]. To overcome an improved
this limitation, passive edge
an improved filtering
passive edge set-up,
filteringwhere a reference
set-up, where a
signal wassignal
reference also detected.
was also detected.
As shown in Figure 15, the input spectrum power at the receiver is divided into two branches
by a coupler; the branch for the reference purpose includes only a photodiode (PD) so it receives the
unfiltered spectrum power, while the other, which includes filter and photodiode, acts as previously
explained. The result of the ratio of the power received from the two photodiodes, as indicated by the
Equation (18), is immune to variations in the source and also proportional to the Bragg wavelength
shift [1,43].
IS
= A(λ B − λb + B) (18)
IR
where IS is the filtered intensity of the sensor spectrum, IR is the unfiltered reference intensity,
A is a constant determined by the slope of the filter and B is a constant arising from the nonzero
reflection bandwidth of the FBG. Improvements of intensity based technique are presented in [44–46];
in Reference [45] is proposed the use of ultra-short FBGs having shifted matched filters to enhance
sensitivity. In Reference [44] is shown a demodulation technique based on a reflective-matched Fibre
Bragg Grating scheme to compare the spectrum of the sensing element with its filtered version, while in
Reference [46] the reflected optical signal, outgoing from the sensing FBG, pass through two reference
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 14 of 27

FBGs. One of the reference FBGs is matched with the sensing FBG while the second one presents a
Sensors 2018, 18 The
small offset. x FORstrain
PEER could
REVIEW
retrieved after the detection, by subtracting these two signals. 14 of 27
be

Figure 15. Example of experimental set-up for passive edge filtering interrogation technique with
Figure 15. Example of experimental set-up for passive edge filtering interrogation technique with
reference signal measurement.
reference signal measurement.
Alternatively, it is possible to take advantage of a large bandwidth light source such as an
As shown
amplified in Figure
spontaneous 15, the (ASE)
emission input source
spectrum power
(with at the receiver
bandwidth is divided
around 20 into
nm) rather twoinserting
than branchesa
by a coupler;
filter thedetector.
before the branch forAnthe reference
ASE source purpose
presents includes
a power only a photodiode
spectrum where the(PD) so itofreceives
slope the
the optical
unfiltered spectrum power, while the other, which includes filter and photodiode, acts
power linearly decreases [47]. The wavelength shift of the Bragg wavelength is directly convertedas previously
explained. The result
into a variation in theofreceived
the ratiooptical
of the power.
power received from
This set-up the two
scheme canphotodiodes,
be simplifiedasinto
indicated by
a system
the Equation (18), is immune to variations in the source and also proportional to
consisting of an FBG head sensor with the Bragg wavelength lying in the linear spectral region, and ofthe Bragg
wavelength shift [1,43].
a photoreceiver.
Another passive filtering interrogation technique involves the use of a wavelength division
IS
multiplexer (WDM) coupler as depicted  in A B 16.
Figure 
b The 
 B WDM is placed at the receiver input and(18)it
splits the spectrum power according Ito R the wavelength in two output branches. A photodiode (PD)

receiving the optical power is placed in each branch. Since the WDM coupler is a wavelength sensitive
Where IS is the filtered intensity of the sensor spectrum, IR is the unfiltered reference intensity, A is a
element, the power received by two photodiodes change differently when the FBG spectrum shifts
constant
Sensors
due determined
to 2018, by
18 x FOR PEER
a perturbation the slope of the filter and B is a constant arising from the nonzero reflection
REVIEW
[48]. 15 of 27
bandwidth of the FBG. Improvements of intensity based technique are presented in [44–46]; in
Reference [45] is proposed the use of ultra-short FBGs having shifted matched filters to enhance
sensitivity. In Reference [44] is shown a demodulation technique based on a reflective-matched Fibre
Bragg Grating scheme to compare the spectrum of the sensing element with its filtered version,
while in Reference [46] the reflected optical signal, outgoing from the sensing FBG, pass through two
reference FBGs. One of the reference FBGs is matched with the sensing FBG while the second one
presents a small offset. The strain could be retrieved after the detection, by subtracting these
two signals.
Alternatively, it is possible to take advantage of a large bandwidth light source such as an
amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) source (with bandwidth around 20 nm) rather than inserting
a filter before
Figure
Figure 16.the
16. detector.
Example
Example of An
of an
an ASE sourceset-up
experimental
experimental presents
set-up for a power
for passive
passive spectrumdivision
wavelength
wavelength where multiplexer
division the slope ofcoupler
multiplexer the optical
coupler
power linearly
filtering
filtering decreasestechnique.
interrogation
interrogation [47]. The wavelength shift of the Bragg wavelength is directly converted
technique.
into a variation in the received optical power. This set-up scheme can be simplified into a system
The ratio
consisting of an between
FBG the difference of the
the Bragg
powerwavelength
received by each photodiode the linearand the total received
Differently, the head sensor with
interrogation techniques based on the lying activeinbandpass spectral
filtering region,
rely onand the
power
of can be
a photoreceiver. related to the change in the Bragg wavelength.
capability of finely tuning a filter. Whereas the FBG sensor is basically a filter, in several
Differently,
Another the interrogation
passive filtering techniquestechnique
interrogation based oninvolves
the activethe bandpass
use filtering relydivision
on the
configurations the receiver is composed by a matched tuneable filter, likeofaaFBG
wavelength
or a FP equipped
capability of (WDM)
multiplexer finely tuning a filter. Whereas inthe FBG16. sensor is basically a filter,
at in
theseveral configurations
with a stretcher. Bycoupler scanning as depicted
the spectrum Figure
with the Thestretcher,
WDM is it
placed
is possible receiver
to find input
the peakand of
it
the receiver
splits is
the spectrum composed
powercan by a matched
according tuneable filter, like a FBG or a FP equipped with a stretcher.
reflectivity. The receiver operatetoboth the wavelength
in scanninginortwo outputmode.
tracking branches. A photodiode
In Figure (PD)
17, a possible
By scanning
receiving thethe spectrum
optical power with the stretcher,eachit is branch.
possible Since
to find theWDM peak ofcoupler
reflectivity. a The receiver
implementation used to trackis theplaced
Bragg in wavelength in a closed theloop operation shift is wavelength
is shown. On the
can operate
sensitive both in scanning
element, the power or tracking mode. In Figure 17, a possible implementation usedthe to track
basis of the signal coming from received by two
the photodiode, thephotodiodes
control logicchange
behind differently
the servo scan when FBG
acts to finely
spectrum shifts due to a perturbation [48].
tune the filter through a dither signal on the servo to follow the peak. Through analysing the signal
The
acting onratio between
the tuner, the difference
it is possible of the
to retrieve thepower received by shift
Bragg wavelength eachand photodiode
to achieveand the total
an improved
received
sensitivitypower can set-up
[9]. This be related to the
is also usefulchange in the Bragg wavelength.
in quasi-distributed sensing systems where several different
FBGs are placed along the fibre. In order to interrogate each FBG with the same receiver, the scan
 Differently, the interrogation techniques based on the active bandpass filtering rely on the
capability of finely tuning a filter. Whereas the FBG sensor is basically a filter, in several
configurations the receiver is composed by a matched tuneable filter, like a FBG or a FP equipped
with a stretcher. By scanning the spectrum with the stretcher, it is possible to find the peak of
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 15 of 27
reflectivity. The receiver can operate both in scanning or tracking mode. In Figure 17, a possible
implementation used to track the Bragg wavelength in a closed loop operation shift is shown. On the
basis of thewavelength
the Bragg signal coming from the
in a closed loopphotodiode, the control
operation shift is shown.logic
Onbehind theofservo
the basis scan acts
the signal comingto finely
from
tune the filter through
the photodiode, a dither
the control signal
logic behindon the
the servo
servo to follow
scan thefinely
acts to peak.tune
Through analysing
the filter through thea signal
dither
acting
signal on the servo
on the tuner,to it follow
is possible to retrieve
the peak. the Bragg
Through wavelength
analysing the signalshift andon
acting tothe
achieve
tuner,an improved
it is possible
sensitivity [9]. This set-up is also useful in quasi-distributed sensing systems
to retrieve the Bragg wavelength shift and to achieve an improved sensitivity [9]. This set-up where several different
is also
FBGs
usefulare placed along the fibre.
in quasi-distributed sensing In systems
order to where
interrogate each
several FBG with
different FBGs the
aresame receiver,
placed along thethe fibre.
scan
mode is used to tune on the “colour” of the sensing element (as in the quasi-distributed
In order to interrogate each FBG with the same receiver, the scan mode is used to tune on the “colour” sensing
systems of Figure
of the sensing 2) and
element (astoinmatch its Bragg Wavelength.
the quasi-distributed sensingAlternatively, several
systems of Figure matched
2) and filters
to match itscan be
Bragg
used to achieve a parallel interrogation set-up where each filter at the receiver stage
Wavelength. Alternatively, several matched filters can be used to achieve a parallel interrogation set-up is a replica of the
single
where sensor configuration.
each filter at the receiver stage is a replica of the single sensor configuration.

Figure 17.
Figure Example of
17. Example of an
an experimental
experimental set-up
set-up for
for active
active bandpass
bandpass filtering
filtering interrogation
interrogation technique.
technique.

Interferometric readout techniques associate a Bragg wavelength shift to an optical phase

Interferometric readout techniques associate a Bragg wavelength shift to an optical phase
difference. Often, the receiver includes an unbalanced asymmetric Mach Zehnder interferometer
difference. Often, the receiver includes an unbalanced asymmetric Mach Zehnder interferometer
receiving the reflected spectrum of the sensing grating as the input [9], as reported in Figure 18 where
receiving the reflected spectrum of the sensing grating as the input [9], as reported in Figure 18
a phase modulator (PM) in inserted in one of two arms of the interferometer. Knowing the phase of
where a phase modulator (PM) in inserted in one of two arms of the interferometer. Knowing the
the interferometer and its intensity output, the change in the measured intensity is transduced into a
phase of the interferometer and its intensity output, the change in the measured intensity is
phase difference. The wavelength shift can be evaluated with a proper signal processing applied on
transduced into a phase difference. The wavelength shift can be evaluated with a proper signal
the photodiode voltage (e.g., phase demodulation for interferometric fibre optic sensors). By means of
processing applied on the photodiode voltage (e.g., phase demodulation
√ for interferometric fibre optic
these readout techniques, resolutions in the range of pm/ Hz can be achieved.
sensors). By means of these readout techniques, resolutions in the range of pm/√Hz can be achieved.
Sensors 2018, 18 x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 27

Figure 18. Example of an experimental set-up for interferometric interrogation technique.

Figure 18. Example of an experimental set-up for interferometric interrogation technique.
The FBG in strain sensing systems is used also to create a Fabry Perot (FP) resonator acting as the
Theelement.
sensing FBG in When
strain asensing
strain issystems
applied is
to used also
the FP, andtocomposed
create a Fabry
by twoPerot (FP) FBGs,
matched resonator acting as
the resonance
the sensing element. When a strain is applied to the FP, and composed by two matched FBGs, the
wavelength of the FP changes. Different FP-FBG strain sensors adopt the Pound-Drever-Hall (PDH)
resonance a wavelength
technique, of the FP
laser locking technique that changes. Different
allows improved FP-FBG
strain strain
resolutions sensors adopt
by suppressing the
the noise
Pound-Drever-Hall (PDH) technique, a laser locking technique that allows improved strain
sources associated to the laser intensity fluctuations.
resolutions by suppressing the noise sources associated to the laser intensity fluctuations.
Differently than the active filtering technique in which the receiver is locked to the source, PDH
readout techniques lock the laser source to the resonance frequency of FP cavity by means of a
feedback loop. The main principle of operation is based on the FP reflection intensity frequency
response that reaches a minimum at FP resonance (Figure 19a). Although the reflection coefficients
 Figure 18. Example of an experimental set-up for interferometric interrogation technique.

The FBG in strain sensing systems is used also to create a Fabry Perot (FP) resonator acting as
the sensing element. When a strain is applied to the FP, and composed by two matched FBGs, the
resonance
Sensors wavelength of the FP changes. Different FP-FBG strain sensors adopt
2018, 18, 3115 the
16 of 27
Pound-Drever-Hall (PDH) technique, a laser locking technique that allows improved strain
resolutions by suppressing the noise sources associated to the laser intensity fluctuations.
Differently
Differentlythan thanthetheactive
activefiltering
filteringtechnique
techniqueininwhich
whichthe
thereceiver
receiverisislocked
lockedtotothe
thesource,
source,PDHPDH
readout
readout techniques lock the laser source to the resonance frequency of FP cavity by meansofofaa
techniques lock the laser source to the resonance frequency of FP cavity by means
feedback
feedbackloop. loop. The
The main
main principle
principle of of operation
operation isisbased
basedononthe
theFPFPreflection
reflectionintensity
intensityfrequency
frequency
response that reaches a minimum at FP resonance (Figure 19a). Although the
response that reaches a minimum at FP resonance (Figure 19a). Although the reflection coefficients reflection coefficients
and
andthethecorresponding
correspondingreflected
reflectedpower
powerare aresymmetric
symmetricnearnearthe
theresonance
resonancewavelength,
wavelength,its itsderivative
derivative
changes
changessign sign [49].
[49].To To
recover information
recover information aboutabout
the derivative of thisof
the derivative function, the spectrum
this function, is swipedis
the spectrum
near the resonance
swiped of the cavity
near the resonance bycavity
of the a phase bymodulator.
a phase modulator.

Figure 19. (a) Cavity reflection intensity vs. frequency; (b) example of an experimental set-up for
Figure 19. (a) Cavity reflection intensity vs. frequency; (b) example of an experimental set-up for
PDH techniques.
PDH techniques.
An ideal set-up, as from Figure 19b, consists of a narrow laser source tuned by a servo that
An in
operates ideal set-up,
a closed as control
loop from Figure
feedback.19b, The
consists
beam,ofdirected
a narrow in laser
the FPsource
cavity,tuned by a servo that
is phase-modulated
operates
by in a closed
an electro-optic loop control
modulator feedback.
(EOM), The beam,
according directed in the
to the modulating FP cavity,
signal. is phase-modulated
The intensity of the light
by an electro-optic modulator (EOM), according to the modulating signal. The intensity
reflected by the FP cavity is received by a photo-detector. This signal is mixed with the modulating of the light
reflected
signal by the FP
to extract thecavity is received
error signal, i.e., by
thea derivative
photo-detector.
of theThis signal signal,
reflected is mixed with
after a the modulating
filtering stage.
signal to extract the error signal, i.e., the derivative of the reflected signal, after a
The servo actuator receives the error signal and closes the loop locking the laser on FP resonance. filtering stage.This
The
servo actuator receives the error signal and closes the loop locking the laser on FP
laser stabilization technique is convenient in sensing applications since the error signal contains alsoresonance. This
laser stabilization
information technique
about the resonanceis convenient
shift of theinFPsensing applications
cavity due since
to external noisethesources.
error signal contains also
information about the resonance shift of the FP cavity due to external noise sources.
8. Performance Evaluation of the Strain Sensors
This section discusses the state of the art of the strain sensor systems available in literature,
focusing on the type of single-point sensing elements, the interrogation techniques, the detection
limit, and/or the sensitivity. Two main research approaches are followed in literature; the first is
focused on the improvement of performance of the sensing elements, while the second one is focused
on the improvement of the read-out systems. To develop new sensing heads, researchers have used
different materials or fabrication techniques where the different figures of merit and features of strain
sensors are listed, such as sensitivity, detection limit, interrogation technique, punctual optical sensing
element and perturbation nature (some examples are summarized in Table 1). In Reference [50] the
single-point sensor consists in an all-solid FBG inscribed into an optical fibre using a near-field phase
mask and an infrared femtosecond laser. This structure has a cross-section composed of concentric
circles with alternating refractive indices. The interrogation technique consists in using a laser source
while the FBG was positioned on a mechanical stretching stage. The strain has been measured through
the FBG transmission peak shift with a sensitivity of 1.10 pm/µε and a detection limit of 26 µε.
The FBG proposed in Reference [51] is sandwiched between two different expansive materials (one
with a positive and one with a negative expansion coefficient). This sensor has shown a sensitivity of
1.5 pm/µε if the strain is measured as the Bragg wavelength shift. In another implementation [52],
an FBG is realized with a stretched polydimetilsiloxane (PDMS) micro-diffraction grating consisting in
a patterned layer of a biocompatible soft polymer, the polydimetilsiloxane (PDMS), micro-fabricated
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 17 of 27

with soft-lithography techniques. The grating has been placed between two glass plates fixed onto two
translating stages and the experiments report a resolution of 0.005 ε. In Reference [53], a passive and
active strain sensing architecture has been reported. In the passive configuration, the analysis based on
the Bragg wavelength shift and full width half maximum change due to the strain variation has shown
sensitivities of 104.1 pm/µε and 61.6 pm/µε, respectively. On the other hand, the FBG filter in a ring
laser cavity configuration achieved a resolution of 700 nε and a sensitivity of 74.5 pm/µε. The sensor
configuration of Reference [54] is based on a FBG pair (with different Bragg wavelengths): one of
them is etched while the other shows an un-etched region of polymer fibre (POF). The strain has been
applied by using a translation stage in order to measure the sensitivity. The un-etched FBG sensitivity
is 1.24 pm/µε, while the etched FBG one is 1.65 pm/µε. Careful calibration of the characterization
matrix coefficients can allow measurements of temperature and strain simultaneously.

Table 1. Figures of merit and features of some examples of static strain sensors.

Detection Interrogation Punctual Optical Sensing

Reference Sensitivity Perturbation
Limit Technique Element
Laser,
[50] 1.10 pm/µε 26 µε and mechanical All solid FBG Static
stretching
Laser, optical FBG embedded with
[51] 1.5 pm/µε Static
analyser expansive material
Stretched
polydimetilsiloxane
[52] 0.005 Laser Static
(PDMS) micro-diffraction
grating
Wavelength
shift and
A broadband
FWHM of
700 nε optical source 3 mm long FBG written in
[53] 104.1 pm/µε
(active) OSA to perform photosensitive SMF
and
readings
61.6 pm/µε
respectively
Bragg grating pair, with
Un-etched fibre
one grating in the etched
Bragg grating
Spectroscopic and the other in un-etched
[54] 1.24 pm/µε, Static
techniques OSA region of polymer fibre
Etched FBG
strain applied using a
1.65 pm/µε
translation stage setup
Wavelength shift etched and regenerated
[55] 4.5 pm/µε Static
Through OSA FBG onto stretcher
dual-FBG strain sensor in
Laser, reflectivity
[56] 0.73 pm/µε PMMA single-mode Static
spectrum shift
microstructured POF

The strain sensitivity of these sensors can be improved using an etched and regenerated fibre Bragg
grating [55]. The measurements have reported a reflectivity of 69.8% and a linear strain sensitivity of
4.5 pm/µε, stable on a large temperature range. The authors in Reference [56] succeeded to realize a
dual-FBG temperature compensated strain sensor using a stable wavelength tunable inscription of
polymer fibre. The Bragg wavelength (λB ) of the sensor can be tuned over 7 nm with the inscription
with a 325 nm HeCd CW laser. Through using one FBG as the reference and the other as the sensing
element, the system achieved a sensitivity of 0.73 pm/µε.
We summarized the interrogation methods and their important features in Table 2. The experiment
reported in Reference [57] is focused on the improving the read-out through a specific spectroscopic
technique. In the proposed method, the FBG is mounted onto a piezo (PZT) translation stage stretching
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 18 of 27

the punctual element and the source is modulated at a radio-frequency. The readout based on
high-frequency mixer demodulation was shown to be sensitive to the perturbation of FBG. This system
achieves a strain resolution below the µε and a sensitivity of 0.94 pm/µε.

Table 2. Interrogation/read-out technique.

Reference Interrogation/Read-Out Technique Features

Detected by a photodiode and visualized on a digital
[26] resolution improvement
oscilloscope to measure splitting
[30] PDH to lock the laser to the FBG to measure splitting resolution improvement
[57] Radio-frequency modulation spectroscopic techniques
Laser with post-processing sensitivity enhancement using
[58] sensitivity enhancement
FWM
resolution improvement large
[59] Dual-comb spectroscopy
dynamic range
Sideband interrogation technique (~2 MHz rf signals) to
[60] resolution improvement
measure the resonance difference between a pair of FFPI
Triangle wave driver Laser voltage, demodulation
[23] resolution improvement
algorithm based on Gauss curve fitting and peak detection
resolution improvement large
[61] PDH technique
dynamic range
simultaneous interrogation of
[62] Wavelength-swept fibre laser into unidirectional ring
quasi distributed sensor
Laser encoding Strain Signals. Read out using a H13 C14 N
[63] resolution improvement
absorption line
[64] Dual-frequency OEO, ESA thermal-insensitivity
[65] Weak value amplification based on optical attenuation sensitivity improvement
simultaneous measurement of
[66] Double-sideband interrogation scheme
strain and temperature
simultaneous measurement of
[67] Radio-frequency modulation spectroscopic techniques
strain and temperature
[68] Change in voltage measured by Photodiode1. temperature compensation
Tunable laser source controlled by the FBG modulated
[69] resolution improvement
transmitted power
Tunable laser source controlled by the FBG modulated
[70] resolution improvement
transmitted power
[8] PDH to lock the laser to the FBG resolution improvement
[71] PDH to lock the laser to the FBG resolution improvement

In Reference [58], the stretched FBG output is post-processed using a degenerated four wave
mixing (FWM) for frequency chirp magnification to enhance the strain sensitivity. The proposed system
was shown to reach strain and temperature sensitivity of 5.36 pm/µε and 54.09 pm/◦ C, respectively.
Another technique [59] shows the use of the comb spectroscopy. The read out system relies on
two comb phase locked lasers whose outputs pass through different fibre paths, one of them including
a sensitive FBG. At the end of the fibre paths, the fields are optically summed and analysed. This
system operates statically up to 1THz with a sensitivity of 34 nε.
In Reference [60], the authors describe a measurement system based on a Fabry-Perrot cavity
made of two FBGs. The setup is realized with two arms (reference and sensing), each one containing:
a modulator, a Fabry-Perot interferometer (FFPI), a photodiode and an analysing system. The laser
interrogates the first FFPI with a phase modulator whereas the second FFPI is interrogated with
sidebands using an intensity modulator. The reflected light from the FFPIs is demodulated and,
by using a cross-correlation algorithm, the resonance difference between the two FFPIs is evaluated.
A strain resolution of 0.63 nε was reported.
The interrogation system implemented in Reference [23] uses a π-phase-shifted FBG as a sensing
element. Through a laser tuning technique based on driving the voltage with a triangle wave shape,
the authors improved the wavelength scanning stability of the tuneable laser. A strain resolution of
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 19 of 27

0.83 nε in vacuum was achieved by using a static strain demodulation algorithm based on Gauss curve
fitting and peak detection.
In Reference [61], the authors proposed a sensor realized with two FFPIs, one for sensing and
the other one acting as reference. Differently from Reference [43], a Pound-Drever-Hall technique is
employed as the interrogation technique in the readout. Furthermore, a cross-correlation algorithm is
used to measure the strain with a resolution of 4.5 nε. The dynamic range can reach to hundreds of µε,
and the measuring period is a few tens of seconds.
The configuration implemented in Reference [62] enables the simultaneous interrogation of an
array of FBGs with a wavelength-swept fibre laser, for static and dynamic strain measurements.
√
The sensitivity is 1 µε in static, while the dynamic sensitivity was reported as 3.4 nε/ Hz at 500 Hz.
In Reference [63], the authors proposed a system made by a mechanically and acoustically isolated
FFPI onto PZT stretcher. The strain signals are encoded with a laser phase-locked to a H13 C14 N gas cell.
The readout is carried out by an FPGA using the H13 C14 N absorption line. The system was reported to
reach to a resolution less than 1 nε at 20 MHz.
Another solution based on the beating signals is explained in Reference [64]. The authors
developed a dual-frequency optoelectronic oscillator (OEO) as an interrogation system incorporating
two phases shifted FBGs (PSFBGs) one of which used as reference while the other is the strain sensing
element. The two PSFBGs, together with two laser diodes, a phase modulator and a photodiode,
implement two microwave photonic filters (MPF), each one having two pass-bands. This system
generates two microwave signals for which the beating is sensitive only to the strain. A sensing
resolution of 0.83 µε and a sensitivity of 119.2 MHz/µε was demonstrated.
In Reference [65], the authors used an optical attenuator to improve the sensitivity of an
FBG sensor. A slight enhancement was obtained by carefully controlling the optical attenuation.
The sensitivity to the strain and temperature was improved through optimizing the value of the
amplification factor. The strain sensitivity is 2.40 pm/ µε with an optical attenuation of 3 dB.
The Bragg frequency difference could be also retrieved in birefringence-introduced in which the
frequency difference act as discernment of strain and temperature through using a π-phase-shifted
FBG in PANDA-type fibre [66]. A double-sideband interrogation method has been implemented as a
readout technique, and a resolution of 0.018 µε has been obtained in the experiment of simultaneous
measurement of strain and temperature.
A different configuration based on OEO has been reported in Reference [67]. In particular,
a frequency-switchable OEO is used as interrogation system for a PS-FBG, inscribed in a few-mode
fibre. In this system, the two microwave signals generated by the OEO, exhibit different strain and
temperature sensitivities of 54.3 MHz/µε and 58.5 MHz/µε respectively.
To achieve a temperature compensated strain measurement, the authors in Reference [68] use
two matched pairs of chirped FBGs. For each pair of chirped FBGs, an FBG is placed in the sensing
area, so that an FBG is dedicated to measure temperature while the other is placed on a cantilever for
the strain sensing. The proposed intensity interrogation system demonstrates a strain sensitivity of
750 pW/ µε and a detection limit of 1 µε.
Being the FBG a phase sensitive element, slow light enhances a phase change due to external
perturbations: indeed, the sensor reported in Reference [69] uses the slow light principle to enhance
sensitivity. This enhancement is proportionally to the group index, or, in other words, to the reciprocal
of the group velocity. By using a slow-light configuration of FBG, with a group index of 127, a strain
√
sensor with a detection limit of 880 fε/ Hz in the 20-kHz range and a sensitivity of 3.14 × 105 ε−1
has been obtained. The same group reported [70] further improvements in FBG strain sensor using
slow light in a low loss FBG. Experimental tests have proven that this configuration is capable of
√
detecting strains with a detection limit of 280 fε/ Hz in the 20-kHz range and with a sensitivity of
2.1 × 106 ε−1 . The authors of [8] reported strain measurements with a record detection limit in the range
√
of 10−13 ε/ Hz. This result has been experimentally recorded with a fibre Bragg-grating resonator
locked to a Pound-Drever-Hall stabilized source, while the active interrogation of the sensor has been
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 20 of 27

performed through a secondary carrier. In Reference [26], the authors described the experimental
demonstration of an optical ring resonator, including a FBG. By exciting the system far from the FBG
reflectivity peak, the system acts as a common ring resonator, while a split-mode structure appears near
Bragg wavelength. This FBG-RR enhances local strain measurements and it is almost insensitive to the
environmental changes. In Reference [30], a π-shifted-FBG ring cavity is used as strain sensor and it is
interrogated with a method exploiting the physics of the mode splitting, as in Reference [18]. The mode
splitting spectral response makes this device not only extremely sensitive to environment changes,
but also to the grating refractive index. The interrogation with a locked-carrier scanning-sideband
√
technique is performed demonstrating a detection limit of 320 pε/ Hz. Another interrogation
technique is reported in Reference [71], where the polarization-spectroscopy interrogation technique
has been used for a fibre Bragg-grating Fabry-Pérot cavity, acting as sensing element. The PDH
technique has been implemented and the frequency discrimination has been generated exploiting
the fibre birefringence. This method demonstrates static and dynamic mechanical sensing below the
pico-strain level.

9. Key Sectors and Main Market Players Composing the Global FBG Strain Sensors Market
In this section we report several FBG strain sensor applications at research stage with a potential
industrial implication, as well as the key sectors in the global fibre-optic strain sensors market.
Several research groups have been involved in developing new systems to retrieve information
from the spectrum of FBG sensors as summarized in Table 3, where the sensitivity, the detection
limit, the interrogation technique, the punctual optical sensing element and the kind of perturbation
investigated are reported.

Table 3. Applications at research stage.

Detection Interrogation Punctual Optical

Reference Sensitivity Perturbation
Limit Technique Sensing Element
Spectrum ASE
RMS error generated by EDF FBG onto tensile
[72] 1.1 pm/µε static
9.5 pm and passed stage system
through the FBG
FBG onto two piers
Narrow line-width
anchored to the
[73] 10 nε tuneable laser static
rock and free FBG
line-width 100 kHz
as reference
Resonant
√ wavelength of the
[48] 0.44 µ/ Hz back-reflected FBG strain gauge quasi-static
spectrum from the
grating
Pairs of equal FBG
into two branches,
[74] 2.6 nε Tuneable laser static
one used as
reference
FBG onto
[75] 1.4 pm/µε Laser static
cantilever

A sensor for a long-distance remote system (50 km) is described in Reference [72], where the
residual Raman pump output laser (after the SMF) excites the ASE of an EDF. The light beam
coming from ASE is passed through the FBG and a dip in the reflected spectrum becomes visible.
By measuring the position of the spectral dip, the sensor can correlate the spectral information to the
strain. The system achieved a strain sensitivity of 1.1 pm/µε with a root mean square error of 9.5 pm.
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 21 of 27

The FBG based strain sensing systems have been also used in the crustal deformation
applications [73]. For the measurement, a pre-strained π-FBG was mounted between two piers
anchored to the rock, while a fibre ring was placed close to the π-FBG, strain isolated. The crustal
deformation was obtained through keeping the fibre ring and π-FBG at the same temperature and
comparing their resonance frequencies. A minimum strain of 10 nε was measured by using a narrow
line-width tuneable laser (line-width of 100 kHz).
The fibre optic strain gauge system can be used in structural monitoring and smart-structure
applications [48]. The strain gauge based on FBG and wavelength demodulation can measure the
wavelength of the narrow-band back-reflected spectrum from the grating at the sensing head. Both the
√
static and dynamic strain can be measured with a shot noise-limited resolution of 0.44 µε/ Hz,
a 27.8 dB of dynamic range and a bandwidth of 250 Hz.
A different configuration for crustal movement sensor was realized using two couples of FBGs,
with each couple incorporated into an optic fibre path [74]. One path is used as reference while the
other is stretched by a PZT stage. The tuneable laser output is split into the paths with a Y-branch
and these beams are passed through the FBG pairs. The reflected spectrum is analysed by varying
the strain. The reported resolution of the system is 2.6 nε. A harsh environment experiment was
carried out to measure the strain on a low temperature superconducting magnet [75]. Four FBGs were
attached onto the magnet, but the characterization of the FBGs was carried out by putting it onto a
cantilever. The system reached to a sensitivity of 1.4 pm/µε.
We report the key sectors composing the global fibre-optic strain sensors market with reference to
the previous strain sensing technologies in Table 4. The list is not exhaustive and includes only the key
industry sectors with the largest use of fibre-optic strain sensors today. The number of sectors in the
list is expected to grow in the coming years, due to the increasing availability and diminishing cost of
the technology, potentially allowing penetrations in other market sectors. Moreover, we report the
main market players of the fibre optics strain sensing technology in Table 5.

Table 4. Key sectors in the global fibre-optic strain sensors market.

Oil & Gas Energy Military

Pipelines [76–78] Wind turbines [82]
Hydrophones [85,86]
Seismic [79,80] Geothermal [83]
Shipboard [87]
In-well [81] Smart Grids [84]
Industrial Civil Homeland Security
Process control [88] Intrusion detection [91,92]
Landslides [90]
Machine tools [89] Chemical detection [93]
Biomedical Aerospace Transportation
Heart rate Respiratory rate [94]
Respiratory movement [95] Fuselages [96,97] Rail monitoring [98,99]
MRI [94,95]
Sensors 2018, 18, 3115 22 of 27

Table 5. The main market players.

3M Optical OEM Systems [100]

Advanced Optical Solutions GmbH [101]
AFW Technologies Pty Ltd. [102]
Alcatel Optronics [103]
Alxenses Company Ltd. [104]
Ascentta Inc. [105]
AtGrating (China) [106]
Broptics Technology Inc. [107]
DK Photonics Technology Co., Ltd. [108]
FBG TECH [109]
FBGS International NV [110]
Fibreguide Industries [111]
Gould Fibre Optic [112]
HBM FibreSensing, S.A. [113]
InPhoTech [114]
ITF Technologies Inc. [115]
iXBlue [116]
Keysight [117]
MPB Communications [118]
Optoadvance S.r.l. [119]
Optromix Co. [120]
Oxford Lasers Inc [121]
OZ Optics Limited [122]
Proximion AB [123]
Technica Optical Components, LLC [124]
TeraXion [125]
Thorlabs Inc. [126]
VFIBRE Ltd. [127]

10. Conclusions
In this review, fibre Bragg grating strain sensing technologies and their applications have
been reported. The underlying physical principles, interrogation/readout techniques, and the
main parameters for evaluating the performance of fibre Bragg strain sensors have been reviewed.
Furthermore, recent advances towards highly-sensitive FBG heads and their specific applications have
been extensively discussed. We also reviewed novel configurations including Bragg grating strain
sensors based on mode splitting. The principle of operation, performance, and benefits of FBG strain
sensors are highlighted and compared to give a perspective on the state of the art. Finally, the key
market sectors and the main market players, composing the global fibre-optic strain sensors market,
are also investigated.

Author Contributions: All authors have contributed in writing this review paper, discussing the main technology
features and performance.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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