Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 1

Air capacity of four-stroke engines

 a (F Q HV η th )
P=m (1)
where, P = power developed, Watt
 a = mass flow of dry air per sec
m
QHV = heat of combustion per unit mass of fuel, J/kg
F = fuel-air ratio (over all)
ηth = thermal efficiency, which may be indicated or brake,
depending upon whether P is defined as indicated or brake power.

For SIE:
If
• F is constant
• Compression ratio constant
• Fixed spark timing

Indicated thermal efficiency remains substantially constant

∴P ∝ m
a

IP/m2 piston
area

Air flow, kg/sec-m2 piston area

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 2

For CIE:
Power is controlled by varying F ⇒ which varies the efficiency.
For FQHVηth maximum
P∝ m
a

Definitions:
Fresh mixture: SIE → air + water vapor + fuel
CIE → air + water vapor
Subscript i → fresh mixture
a → air in the fresh mixture
r → residual gases
Charge: fresh mixture + residual gases

Volumetric efficiency:
The mass of fresh mixture which passes into the cylinder in one
suction stroke, divided by the mass of this mixture which would fill
the piston displacement at inlet density.
ρi = inlet density, kg/m3
 i = mass of fresh mixture, kg/sec
m
VD = displacement volume, m3
= LAP
2mi
ηv = (2)
NVD ρ i
60
Volumetric efficiency based on dry air:
i
120 m
ηv = (2)
NVD ρ i

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 3

Let, AP = piston area, m2

L = stroke, m
S = mean piston speed = 2LN/60 m/s
ρa = mass of dry air per unit volume of the fresh mixture, kg/m3
i m
m 
Now = a (same volume)
ρi ρa
60S 30S
N= =
2L L
a L
120 m 1 4m a
ηv = ⋅ ⋅ = (3)
ρa 30S A P L ρ a A PS

Measurement of inlet air density (ρa):

For mixtures of air, water vapor, and gaseous or evaporated fuel,
pi = pa + pf + pw
where, pi = total pressure
pa = partial pressure of air
pf = partial pressure of fuel
pw = partial pressure of water vapor

for perfect gases,

ma
pa pa Ma
= =
pi pa + pf + p w ma + mf + m w
Ma Mf M w

m→ mass, M→ molecular weight

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 4

Ma = 29, Mw = 18
ma
p Ma 1
∴ a = =
pi m a  m f M a m w M a  1 + mf ⋅ M a + m w ⋅ M a
1 + ⋅ + ⋅ 
M a  M f m a M w m a  ma Mf ma M w

mf
Fi = , mass ratio of fuel vapor to dry air in the fresh mixture
ma
mw
ω= , mass ratio of water vapor to dry air at which pi and Ti are
ma
measured.
M a 29
= = 1.6
M w 18
pa 1
∴ = (4)
p i 1 + F ⋅ M a + 1.6 ω
i
Mf
From gas law,
pa pM 29p
pa =ρaRaTi ⇒ ρ a = = ~a a = ~ a (5)
R a Ti RTi RTi
Ra = gas constant of air, J/kg.K
Ti = fresh mixture temperature
~
R = Universal gas constant = 8314.3 J/kg mole.K
 
 
29p a 29p i  1 
∴ρa = ~ = ~ (6)
RTi RTi  1 + F 29 + 1.6ω 
 i 
 Mf 
Correction factor
Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 5

 
 
pi  1 
or ρ a = (6)
R a Ti  1 + F 29 + 1.6 ω 
 i 
 Mf 
usually, ω , <0.02 kg water vapor/kg air
For CIE, Fi = 0
Usually correction factor < 0.98
Power, P = m  a (FQ HV η th )
Using Eq. (3),
1
P = η vρ a A PS(FQ HV η th ) (7)
4
Mean effective pressure = work per cycle divided by the piston
displacement
P P 4P
mep = = =
LA P N 2LNA P SA P
2 × 60 4 × 60
Using Eq. (7),
mep = ρ a η v (FQ HV η th ) (8)

#Prob 1
Measurements in inlet manifold of an engine indicate that half the
fuel is evaporated at the point of measurement. The temperature of
the gaseous portion of the manifold content is estimated as 105oC.
The manifold pressure is 93 kPa, and the atmospheric moisture
content is 0.02 kg/kg air. The overall fuel-air ratio is 0.08, gasoline
~
being used. Compute the density of air in the manifold. R = 8314.3
J/kg mole.K, Mf = 113.
Soln. 1
Ti = 105oC = 378 K, pi = 93 kPa, ω = 0.02 kg/kg air, F = 0.08, Fi =
0.08/2 = 0.04, Mf = 113, ρa = ?
 
 
29p i  1 
∴ρa = ~ (6)
RTi  1 + F 29 + 1.6 ω 
 i 
 Mf 

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 6

 
29 × 93000  1 
=   = 0.823 kg/m3
8314.3 × 378  1 + 0.04 × 29 + 1.6 × 0.02 
 
 113 

#Prob. 2
A four stroke gasoline engine has a volumetric efficiency of 0.85. It
has 12 cylinders, 152 mm bore, 203 mm stroke, and runs at 1500 rpm
with indicated thermal efficiency of 0.30. The overall fuel-air ratio is
0.08 and density of air in the manifold is 0.82 kg/m3. Compute the
indicated mep and indicated power. Heat of combustion 42000 kJ/kg.
Soln. 2
ηv = 0.85, N = 1500 rpm, ηthi = 0.3, F = 0.08, ρa = 0.82 kg/m3, imep =
?, IP = ?, QHV = 42000 kJ/kg.

π  152 
2

 × 12 = 0.218 m
2
AP = Piston area (for 12 pistons) = 
4  1000 
Mean piston speed, S = 2LN/60 = 2×203/1000×1500/60 m/s
= 10.15 m/s
4m a
Volumetric efficiency, η v = (3)
ρ a A PS
1 1
⇒m  a = η vρ a A PS = × 0.85 × 0.82 × 0.218 × 10.15 = 0.386kg/s
4 4
Indicated power, IP = m a (FQ HV η thi ) = 0.386 × 0.08 × 42000 × 0.3

= 388 kW ◄
Indicated mean effective pressure,
IP 388 × 1000
imep = = = 701405.5 N/m 2
LA P N 203 1500 1
× 0.218 × ×
2 × 60 1000 60 2
= 7.01 bar ◄
Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 7

#Prob 3
A diesel engine operating on the 4-stroke cycle is to be designed to
operate with the following characteristics at sea level where the mean
conditions are: 1 bar and 25oC; brake power = 255 kW; volumetric
efficiency = 0.78; specific fuel consumption = 0.26 kg/kW.hr; air-fuel
ratio = 17:1; speed = 1500 rpm. Calculate the required engine
capacity and the anticipated brake mean effective pressure. Heat of
combustion of diesel fuel = 42,000 kJ/kg. Ra = 287 J/kg.K.
Soln 3
1
We know, BP = η v ρ a A PS(FQ HV η thb ) (7)
4
pi = 1 bar, Ti = 25oC, BP = 255 kW, ηv = 0.78; sfc = 0.26 kg/kw.hr, F
= 1/17, N = 1700 rpm, QHV = 42000 kJ/kg, VD = ?, bmep = ?
1 2LN
BP = η vρ a A P (FQ HV η thb ) S = 2LN/60
4 60
1 2N
= η v ρ a VD (FQ HV η thb ) VD = LAP
4 60
 
 
pi  1 
ρa = (6)
R a Ti  1 + F 29 
+ 1.6 ω 
 i
 Mf 
For CIE, Fi = 0
Here, ω = 0
pi 105
⇒ ρa = = = 1.169 kg/m 3
R a Ti 287 × (25 + 273)
f
m mf
sfc = ⇒ 0.26(kg/kW.hr ) = ⇒m
 f = 66.3 kg/hr
BP 255(kW )

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 8

Brake thermal efficiency,

BP 255(kW )
η thb = = = 0.3296
f 66.3
Q HV m 42000(kJ/kg ) × (kg/s )
60 × 60
1 2 × 1500 1
BP = × 0.78 × 1.169 × VD × × × 42000 × 0.3296
4 60 17
1 2 × 1500 1
⇒ 255 = × 0.78 × 1.169 × VD × × × 42000 × 0.3296
4 60 17
⇒ VD = 0.02746887 m3 = 27468.87 cm3 ◄
BP 255 × 1000
bmep = = = 742658.82 N/m 2 = 7.43 bar ◄
VD N 1500 1
0.0274 × ×
2 × 60 60 2

Volumetric efficiency is controlled by,

1. The piston speed
2. Heat transfer from engine walls to incoming mixture
3. The pressure of inlet and exhaust processes
4. The fuel-air ratio
5. The valve timing (in particular by the intake opening and closing,
and the exhaust closing)
6. The dimensions of inlet and exhaust systems.
7. Disturbance from neighboring cylinders on the same manifold.

1,5. Piston speed/valve timing

Unit air charge: The mass of air inducted by the engine per intake
stroke.

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 9

Ram effect: The mass of air inducted into the cylinder is almost
entirely determined by the pressure level in the inlet port during the
short period before the inlet valve is closed. At higher engine speeds,
the inertia of the gas in the intake system as the intake valve is
closing, increases the pressure in the port and continues the charging
process as the piston slows down around BC and starts of the
compression stroke. This is known as ram effect. This effect becomes
progressively greater as engine speed is increased.

* Fluid friction loss increases.

* Ramming gain increases.

Speed increases * Pressure drop from atmosphere to

cylinder increases.
* Delayed charging increases (for intake
valve closes aBC).

Delayed charging:

When
Fluid friction loss increases (↑ ), unit air charge decreases (↓ ).
Pressure drop from atmosphere to cylinder increases (↑ ), unit air
charge increases (↑ ).
Delayed charging increases (↑ ), unit air charge increases (↑ ).

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 10

AB (Intake valve closes BC)

* Fluid friction loss increases (↑ ).

* Ramming gain increases (↑ ).

Speed increases
* Pressure drop from atmosphere to
cylinder increases (↑ ).

Unit air charge decreases

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 11

CDE (Intake valve closes 40o aBC)

* Fluid friction loss increases (↑ ).

* Ramming gain increases (↑ ).

Speed increases (↑ ) * Pressure drop from atmosphere to
cylinder increases (↑ ).

* Delayed charging increases (↑ ).

Unit air charge increases (↑ )

With further increase (↑↑ ) of speed, fluid friction loss increases more,
resulting unit air charge decreases (↓↓ ).

2. Heat transfer
The cylinder and combustion chamber walls are hot and because of
hot residual flows into the inlet manifold, the inlet valve and port are
heated.
The entering fresh charge is heated by walls, inlet valves and port.
Thus the volumetric efficiency is low.
Expansion of fresh charge ≈ contraction of the residual ⇒ mixing
process of cold mixture with hot residuals does not reduce the
volumetric efficiency much.
With the increase of speed,
Speed increases (↑ ) The effect of fresh mixture heating decreases (↓ )

(since the percentage heat transfer decreases ↓ )

⇓
Volumetric efficiency increases (↑ )

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 12

With further increase (↑↑ ) of speed, Friction loss increases (↑ ),

volumetric efficiency decreases (↓ ).

With the increase in load (at constant speed)

When load increases (↑ ), temperatures of the walls increase (↑ )
⇓
Volumetric efficiency decreases (↓ )

Increase in inlet air temperature

When inlet air temperature increases (↑ ), Temperature difference
between hot walls and air decreases (↓ ), Mixture heating by the engine
parts decrease (↓ )
⇓
Volumetric efficiency increases (↑ )

However, the unit air charge does not increase with increase in inlet
temperature, resulting in lower power output.
 a ∝ ρa ηv
m

When Ti increases (↑ ), volumetric efficiency increases (↑ ), density of

air decreases (↓ ), m
 a decreases (↓ ).

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 13

When inlet air temperature is increased, ηv does not increase enough

to compensate for the reduction in ρa and hence the product ρaηv has a
lower value.

Inlet air
Volumetric temperature
Efficiency(%)

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 14

3. Pressure of inlet and exhaust processes

Normally the exhaust gas at the end of exhaust stroke has a higher
pressure (and temperature) than the fresh mixture in the inlet
manifold. When the inlet valve opens, a portion of the residual enters
into the inlet manifold, and then is drawn back into the cylinder as the
piston descends on the intake stroke. So high exhaust pressure (or
high density of residual) or early-opening inlet valves reduce the unit
air charge because of this residual flow back.

Power Exhaust Suction Compression

Fig. 1: Inlet and exhaust manifold pressures, CIE (Ref: Obert).

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 15

4. Fuel-air ratio
The effect of fuel-air ratio on volumetric efficiency for a spark
ignition engine is negligible. Spark-ignition engine usually operate in
the range 0.8< φ <1.4. In this range residual gas and combustion
temperatures reach a peak at φ ≈ 1.1. The little variation of ηv with φ
is probably because in this range of fuel-air ratio, the changes in
temperature difference between wall and fresh mixture are small.
In the diesel engine operating range, both combustion temperature
and residual gas temperature increase with increasing fuel-air ratio.
So because of increase of wall temperature, volumetric efficiency
decreases with increase of fuel-air ratio.

ηv • CIE
η v,ϕ =1 Δ SIE

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 16

6.1 Inlet system

Lp = length of pipe
L = piston stroke
dp = diameter of pipe
d = bore of cylinder
Long pipes (high Lp/L) with small ratios of dp/d give high volumetric
efficiencies at low piston speeds, because high kinetic energy is build
up in the pipe toward the end of the induction process. At higher
piston speeds, the flow restriction offered by small dp/d ratios
becomes dominant and volumetric efficiency falls.
Long pipes with large dp/d show maximum volumetric efficiencies at
intermediate piston speeds due to kinetic energy build up in the pipe.
At high speeds the air mass in such pipes is slow to accelerate, and
volumetric efficiency falls off.

ηv

dp/d

15 m/s

Fig. 2: Inlet system (www.google.com.bd)

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 17

At very low lifts, the flow remains attached to the valve head and seat,
giving very high values for the discharge coefficient. At intermediate
lifts, the flow separates from the valve head at the inner edge of the
valve seat. An abrupt decrease in discharge coefficient occurs at this
point. The discharge coefficient then increases with increasing lift
since the size of the separated region remains approximately constant
while the minimum flow area is increasing. At high lifts, the flow
separates from the inner edge of the valve seat as well. Typical
maximum values of Lv/dv are 0.25. Valve curtain area = πdvLv.
Lv is valve lift, dv is valve head diameter.

dv

Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 18

6.2 Exhaust system

Exhaust pipe length has negligible effect on volumetric efficiency.
Exhaust valve size should be decided considering the work lost on
exhaust stroke, as increase of size of exhaust valve does not benefit
the volumetric efficiency.

Fig. 3: Flow pattern through exhaust valve at low and high lift (Ref:
Heywood).

References
Heywood, John B., Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, 1988, McGraw-Hill Book
Com., Singapore.
Obert, Edward F., Internal Combustion Engines, 1970, International Textbook Company,
Pennsylvania.
Taylor, C. Fayette and Taylor, Edward S., The Internal-Combustion Engine (Vol. 1), 1966,
International Textbook Company, Pennsylvania.

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Applied Thermodynamics (Air Capacity) Dr. Bodius Salam