Phil 251: Intro.

to Philosophy Test Questions:

Freedom & Determinism

True/False

1. According to determinism, all actions except for truly human (free) actions are events that have specific
causes for why they happen in the way they do.

2. The freedom-determinism question is a metaphysical issue insofar as it acknowledges that there might be a
difference between how human behavior appears and how it really is.

3. Determinists believe that human behavior can be explained only if we think of it in the same law-governed
ways in which we think of other things in nature.

4. According to the determinist, human actions are determined to occur in exactly the way they do because they
(like all other events) have specific causes.

5. In hard determinism, freedom and determinism are incompatible because freedom would require that an action
be uncaused.

6. According to hard determinists like Skinner and Freud, even though people may be responsible for their
actions, they should not be held responsible for their actions, because no one is ultimately free.

7. B. F. Skinner claims that positive reinforcement is more effective in conditioning human behavior than
negative reinforcement because human beings naturally seek happiness.

8. Hard determinism proposes that human beings cannot do what they want to do.

9. Determinists argue that while most human choices and actions are caused to occur in exactly the way they do,
the recognition that we are determined is itself uncaused and thus undetermined.

10. According to hard determinists, no human action is free, but human choices are free.

11. Even though Freud is a hard determinist, he does admit that some acts are done freely if they are caused by
unconscious drives, repressed memories, or anti-social urges.

12. In Freudian psychoanalysis, impulses, memories, desires, and fears may determine our unconscious behavior,
but on the level of consciousness (the ego) we are free to act any way we want.

13. According to the soft determinist, a "free" action is caused by one's will or choice rather than by external
forces, influences, or constraints.

14. Soft determinists claim that human actions can be free and determined at the same time.

15. Soft determinists allow for the possibility of freedom by arguing, against hard determinists, that some of our
actions (i.e., the free ones) do not have causes.

16. Because soft determinists (as opposed to hard determinists) believe that some of our actions are free, they
have to acknowledge that some of our actions are not caused or determined by anything.

17. The soft determinist claims that acting "freely" means acting as a result of choosing--that is, according to
what one wills to do.

18. According to soft determinists (or "compatibilists"), human actions are free only if nothing causes them.

19. In the Stoic, Spinozistic version of soft determinism, acknowledging that we are completely determined
"frees" us from worry that things could have been otherwise.

20. In Hume's soft determinism, freedom and determinism are compatible because they are necessarily the causes
of one another.
 21. Passive soft (or self) determinists claim that freedom means being able to do what one wants to do and to
determine what one wants.

22. Hume claims that rewarding or punishing a person requires that we accept determinism insofar as we assume
actions are caused by the person doing the act.

23. Though determinists and indeterminists disagree on how to understand freedom, they agree that the way to
study the issue is by focusing on the causes of acts rather than the reasons for which acts are done.

24. Like hard and soft determinists, indeterminists argue that truly free actions are chance or random events.

25. The indeterminist claims that insofar as nothing causes human actions, those actions are free.

26. Indeterminists argue that a "free" person does things that a causally-determined person could not do.

27. According to indeterminists, certain human acts are chance events--that is, specific causes do not determine
them: they could have occurred otherwise.

28. For libertarians real freedom consists in being able to act or choose differently in exactly the same
circumstances and with exactly the same causal influences.

29. According to the agency or person theory of freedom, since a free act cannot be caused by anything (not even
by an agent or person), there is no such thing as a free act.

30. Sartre argues that a person is ultimately free to act in the way she chooses, no matter what her personal
inclinations or how she was raised.

31. According to Sartre, to be existentially free means to be able to do or be anything, and to interpret the world
in any way, regardless of our training or upbringing.

32. According to Sartre, the choice to believe that we are not free and that we are determined by forces over
which we have no control is itself a free choice.

33. Though he says that we are "condemned to be free" and that we can "transcend" our social or personal
situation, Sartre acknowledges that we are not always responsible for what we do.

34. By saying that we are "condemned to be free," Sartre indicates how existentialism treats human beings as
determined by external forces.

35. According to Sartre, bad faith is self-contradictory because it involves the free choice by an individual to
believe that he is not free.

36. According to Camus, like Sisyphus we should commit ourselves to living in spite of life's absurdity.

37. Kierkegaard agrees with Camus that, since existence is absurd and unjust, no one should place any faith in
God.

38. Ellis' rational-emotive therapy attempts to increase freedom by showing people the irrationality of some of
their beliefs.

39. Capricious freedom is freedom based on insanity.

40. Like the existentialist, the person who embodies perverse freedom challenges religious or moral values by
acting in "bad faith."
41. To be insane is to be perversely free.

42. To be free to do something can mean either to be free from restraints that interfere with the satisfaction of a
desire or to have the ability to achieve some desired end, or perhaps both.

43. Negative freedom is the freedom to be able to act without external interference.

44. Positive freedom is the ability to do something which is made possible by someone's (e.g., society's) doing
something (rather than not doing something).

45. The positive notion of freedom--or "positive freedom"--is the ability to do something (e.g., achieve a desired
goal) due to one's abilities or with help or guidance from someone else.

46. While so-called "negative" liberty refers to the freedom to do negative or evil acts, "positive" liberty refers to
the ability to do good.

Multiple Choice

47. According to determinism, human choices and actions are like all other events in the universe, insofar as:
(a) they are determined by specific causes to occur in exactly the way they do.
(b) they have causes that are ultimately outside of nature (for example, God or fate) and therefore cannot be
affected by human behavior.
(c) we never have any idea about what causes them.
(d) there is really nothing that ultimately causes them: they just "happen."

48. Determinism differs from predestination and fatalism insofar as it explains human behavior in terms of:
(a) causes, not reasons. (c) natural events, not supernatural events.
(b) actions, not choices. (d) the past, not the future.

49. According to proponents of hard determinism (e.g., Holbach), we think we are free (though really we are not)
because:
(a) we do not know the causes of our actions and thus assume our actions have no causes.
(b) the causes of our actions are so complex that there really isn't any cause for our actions.
(c) the choices we make are themselves uncaused, though actions based on the choices are determined.
(d) everything that exists naturally is causally determined (including our thinking we are free).

50. Which IS NOT a point typically made by hard determinists to explain why we mistakenly believe we are
free?
(a) We like to believe we are different from the rest of nature.
(b) We don't know all of the determining causes of our behavior.
(c) We want to explain everything (including our behavior) in terms of laws of nature.
(d) We think that if people are not free, they cannot justifiably be held responsible for their actions.

51. According to hard determinists such as Skinner, if human behavior is determined by causes, then it makes no
sense to say that people are responsible for their actions. But this does not imply that we are unjustified in
holding someone responsible for their actions, since:
(a) it is unfair to blame or praise someone for an action that he or she could not have chosen to do otherwise.
(b) we are justifiably held responsible only for those actions for which we are responsible.
(c) by holding someone responsible for an action, we cause the person to become more free (and thus to be more
responsible) in the future.
(d) holding someone responsible for an action can fulfill a social or political purpose even if the person could not
have done otherwise.

52. Hard determinists argue that, just because people are not responsible for their actions, that does not mean that
the rest of us can't hold them responsible for their actions. They argue that by holding people responsible for their
actions (e.g., through rewards, punishments, or psychological treatment), we:
(a) are acting in an admittedly unjust and unfair manner, but that is what society dictates we must do.
(b) respect people's freedom to act in any way whatsoever and give them what they deserve.
(c) can exert other conditioning forces so that their lives are modified to be more useful and happy.
(d) recognize that eros and thanatos cannot completely overwhelm our socially-instilled conscience (the super-
ego) and the reality principle.
53. Theories of freedom and theories of punishment focus attention on the differences between being responsible
and being held responsible for our actions. In this regard, the theory of deterrence presumes a theory of hard
determinism, insofar as (in deterrence) the purpose of punishment is:
(a) to protect the society from dangerous individuals who freely choose to threaten others.
(b) to change behavior by holding someone responsible even though he or she could not have done otherwise.
(c) to hold responsible only those individuals who are responsible for their actions.
(d) to deter individuals from unacceptable acts if they are responsible, and to indicate how they can learn to hold
themselves responsible.

54. According to the hard determinist, human actions and choices, like everything else, are events that have
specific and determining causes. As to why people still believe in the "illusion" of freedom, the hard determinist
gives a number of explanations. Which of the following IS NOT one of those explanations?
(a) People think that if they are like all other (determined) things in the universe, then they will no longer be able
to claim any privileged moral or spiritual status.
(b) People insist that they sometimes act without knowing why they do what they do.
(c) People believe that while external forces (such as environment, upbringing, or genetics) can influence their
behavior, such forces do not determine it.
(d) People are ignorant of the complex influences and causes that determine their actions and choices.

55. If human beings are products of their environment and conditioning (as Skinner claims), how can they be held
responsible for their actions (if they were not "free" to have done otherwise)?
(a) It only seems that people are not free; in fact, they can change their behavior if they really want to, if they
truly set their minds to it.
(b) Even though human nature is determined genetically, we can take responsibility for our own genetic natures
by affirming them as our own and taking credit for our actions.
(c) Holding someone responsible for an action means reinforcing desirable behavior--not as a reward for past
actions but to cause someone to act in desirable ways in the future.
(d) The task of deterministic psychology is to recognize how the concepts of freedom and dignity have
contributed to an improvement in the human condition by changing behaviors.

56. Which IS NOT a typical objection raised against Skinner's behavioristic form of hard determinism?
(a) Behaviorism explains human actions and choices in terms of causes alone and ignores the possibility of
explaining them in terms of reasons.
(b) Behaviorism explains how all actions are determined but not how all human choices are free.
(c) Behaviorism interprets human actions in terms of unreflective responses to stimuli instead of thoughtful
consideration of options.
(d) Behaviorism (like determinism in general) does not permit refutation and therefore cannot be considered an
appropriate theory in the freedom-determinism debate.

57. For Stoics like Marcus Aurelius, freedom consists in realizing one's place in the universe and in conforming to
the law of nature that governs the heavens, social structure, and even the parts of one's soul. We are "free" only
when we act according to "right reason." To act in any other way would not be free because:
(a) our actions would not really be "our" actions but rather the actions of other forces in nature.
(b) the fatalism of Stoic philosophy rules out the possibility that anyone ever acts freely.
( c) right reason refers to how we think, not to how our thoughts match the world or how we act.
(d) the more we learn about ourselves, the more we free ourselves from laws of nature.

58. Stoics like Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius describe the good life in terms of a rational understanding of the
law of nature, because insofar as we understand natural law:
(a) we can change nature to accommodate our interests.
(b) we can get pleasure out of the pure act of knowing.
(c) we can limit our desires to things within our control.
(d) we can remain indifferent about what we choose to do.

59. According to the version of soft determinism adopted by St. Augustine and Hume, even though all of our
actions are caused by something, some of our acts can still be called free insofar as:
(a) they are caused by our choices. (b) God causes us to choose those actions.
(c) our choices are not determined. (d) choices form character or personality.

60. Which of the following IS NOT a version of soft determinism?

(a) Though our actions are predetermined in virtue of God's foreknowledge, they are still free because (from our
perspective) our decisions to act one way or another are up to us.
 (b) The knowledge that our acts are determined frees us from the anxiety of not being sure about whether our
choices or actions are correct.
(c) To the extent that our actions are determined by our choices, they are done freely.
(d) Not only are our actions free when they result from our choices, but our choices as well are free insofar as
they are not influenced by any other event.

61. Though both St. Augustine and Baruch Spinoza endorse the views of passive soft-determinism, they differ on
how they understand the notion of freedom, insofar as:
(a) Augustine says that freedom means being able to act as one chooses; Spinoza says that freedom consists in
affirming one's complete determination.
(b) Augustine says that since God determines us to be the persons we are, we are not free; Spinoza says that by
affirming that we are free of God's determination, we make ourselves free.
(c) Augustine says that we are free when we act contrary to the conditioning forces that form our personalities;
Spinoza says that freedom consists in acting as our personality dictates.
(d) Augustine says that freedom means being passive and not acting at all; Spinoza says that freedom means
acting contrary to our personality or character.

62. The Stoic philosopher Epictetus says, "To accuse others for one's own misfortunes is a sign of lack of
education; to accuse oneself shows that one's education has begun; to accuse neither oneself nor others shows that
one's education is complete." Accusing oneself is only the beginning, not the completion, of education, because
true freedom for the Stoic consists in recognizing how:
(a) both our actions and our feelings or emotions about our actions are ultimately determined.
(b) rational self-control is impossible, because it contradicts our human essence (and thus is an example of what
Sartre calls "bad faith").
(c) one's own pleasure should be the ultimate basis for judging the rationality of actions.
(d) we do not control events in our lives, but we can control our feelings or judgments about them.

63. Even though the compatibilist version of soft determinism acknowledges that every human action has a cause,
it still maintains that some acts are "free" insofar as:
(a) the individual doing the act feels that he or she is free and that the act is done spontaneously.
(b) nothing causes the individual to choose what she does.
(c) so-called "free" acts are due to the person's choice or decision to do them.
(d) the individual's acts could not have been predicted.

64. Like passive self- (or "soft"-) determinism, Aristotle's active self-determinism says that actions are free if they
are voluntary. However, his view differs from passive self-determinism insofar as he argues that:
(a) our choices are themselves caused by external forces (e.g., environment, upbringing) over which we
ultimately have no control.
(b) we cannot be held responsible for our actions if they are the result of past choices we have made, because we
cannot change the past.
(c) just as nothing causes us to choose to be a certain kind of person or self, so nothing can cause us to act (even
involuntarily) in ways other than we choose.
(d) through our decisions we choose the kind of personality or character we have, and we are free insofar as we
act based on what we choose.

65. According to Aristotle's active self-determinism, I am responsible for both my actions and my choices
because I can determine the kind of character, personality, or self I have. Critics object to this by noting that:
(a) in active self-determinism, "I" am responsible only for my involuntary actions.
(b) the ability to change personality is itself something over which one ultimately has no control.
(c) once I recognize how my character has been formed by past experiences, "I" can decide to reform my self by
deciding how much importance to place on such experiences.
(d) changing one's character is possible only if one makes a firm commitment to do so.

66. In response to the soft determinist claim that freedom is not illusion, hard determinists reply:
(a) even though nothing may cause an individual to choose to act in a particular way, he will act in a certain way
anyway.
(b) though a free act might be uncaused, a "free" choice is not uncaused.
(c) even though free acts do not have causes, determined acts always have causes.
(d) though a so-called "free" act might be the result of a human choice, the choice itself is the result of other
external causes.
67. In defending a soft determinist stance, Hume says that a "free" action is one we normally experience as being
preceded by (or "caused" by) an act of will or choice; and an action that is not done freely is one that is preceded
by events other than choices. In any event, Hume claims, it makes no sense to ask about the cause of choices,
because:
(a) the causes of our choices must be other choices, and those have other choices as causes, going back
infinitely.
(b) we have no experience of constant conjunctions of events prior to choices, and thus we cannot conclude that
there is a connection in which choices are effects.
(c) without external causes there could be no account of how choices are made and about how certain acts are
not done freely.
(d) the cause of a choice is an unknown event that occurs before we act, over which we have no control and is
thus irrelevant in our decision to act.

68. "Actions are, by their very nature, temporary and perishing; and where they proceed not from some cause in
the character and disposition of the person who performed them, they can neither redound to his honor, if good;
nor infamy, if evil." Here Hume is noting that:
(a) to hold someone responsible for an action requires that we trace the action to its cause in the individual's
character; the action itself cannot be held responsible.
(b) individuals are responsible for their characters but not for their actions.
(c) the character of a person is reflected in the kinds of actions he or she does; so no praise or blame of the
person reflects on the character of the act.
(d) we cannot draw inferences concerning actions based on the experienced association of those actions with
motives, inclinations, and circumstances.

69. Which of the following IS NOT an argument against determinism?

(a) It is possible that human freedom is a non-determined characteristic that has emerged out of a system of
otherwise causally determined things.
(b) Our experience of ourselves as free seems to be as good an argument for freedom as anything else.
(c) Like everything else in the universe, human actions must be caused by something; nothing justifies claiming
that we are exceptions to the rule.
(d) For practical reasons like being justified in holding people morally and legally responsible for their actions,
we need to reject determinism.

70. One of the major objections raised against determinism is that it cannot be shown to be false and therefore, as
a theory, cannot be tested. Why can't the theory be shown to be false?
(a) Because its truth cannot be questioned.
(b) Because it claims that every event has a cause.
(c) Because objections to the theory fail to explain why people do what they do.
(d) Because even attempted falsifications of the theory are explainable in terms of the theory (i.e., as
determined).

71. In reply to the soft determinist, the hard determinist points out that the choices people make and upon which
they act are functions of their personalities or characters. But (the hard determinist replies) since one's personality
or character is itself a product of environment, genetics, upbringing, etc., it still seems that people are not really
free. In order to avoid this predicament, the indeterminist proposes that truly free actions are:
(a) best explained not in terms of causes but in terms of the person or "agent" who chooses to do the action.
(b) spontaneous, chance, or random events uncaused by personality or choice.
(c) caused by motions of sub-atomic particles, which themselves have certain (though unknown) causes.
(d) actions that have specific causes, but we don't know what those causes are.

72. Though hard determinists, soft determinists, and indeterminists disagree about whether and how people can
act freely, they do agree on one thing:
(a) only actions done for reasons can count as free actions.
(b) we should focus on the presence or absence of causes in discussing freedom.
(c) because every act has some cause (even if it is unknown), there is no real freedom.
(d) we cannot hold anyone responsible for free acts if those acts have causes.

73. According to the indeterminist, if an event has a specific cause or causes, it is predictable (at least in
principle). But since quantum mechanics shows that no sub-atomic particle event is in principle absolutely
predictable (and is thus a random or chance event), we might be justified in thinking that "free" human actions are
similar types of events. Against this argument, critics of indeterminism reply:
(a) a chance or random action is not be what we normally call a "free" human action.
 (b) even if human actions were absolutely predictable, we could still say that they were uncaused.
(c) moral and religious doctrines require that we believe that people are determined, whether or not science
supports such a belief.
(d) if small-scale sub-atomic ("micro") events were predictable, that would prove that large-scale ("macro")
events such as human actions are unpredictable.

74. According to William James, the question about whether we are free or determined can best be decided on
pragmatic grounds. That is, we have to decide which makes more sense:
(a) believing that freedom is an illusion or believing that chance events (e.g., free choices) occur.
(b) hard determinism's denial of freedom or soft determinism's qualified acceptance of freedom.
(c) holding people responsible for their actions, or holding them responsible for their choices.
(d) believing that regrettable actions really could have been avoided, or believing that such actions are purely
random, chance events.

75. Critics of indeterminism claim that, if so-called "free" choices and actions are uncaused, unpredictable,
chance events, then no one who acted freely would know beforehand what he or she was about to do. This strikes
critics as being simply wrongheaded, because if that were true, no one could justly be held responsible for his or
her actions. In response, the indeterminist might agree with the hard determinist, pointing out that:
(a) since being responsible and being held responsible are different, we need to change how we understand just
treatment to accommodate our understanding of what freedom means.
(b) because there is really no difference between a free act and one that is causally determined, it makes no sense
to hold people responsible for their actions by punishing or rewarding them.
(c) uncaused, chance events do not really happen in nature or in human actions; it only seems like they are
uncaused because they are so difficult to predict.
(d) even if chance events occur in nature, that does not mean that they cannot be predicted based on natural laws;
it is simply more difficult to do it with human beings than with other things.

76. Libertarians point out that determinism violates its own claim to scientific respectability by failing to explain
what we observe. That is, the sheer fact that determinism fails to explain what we experience daily should be
enough to prove that determinism is incorrect, insofar as it proposes a theory that:
(a) is inconsistent with other scientific theories that emphasize the role of causality in explaining behavior.
(b) ignores the indeterminacy and randomness of sub-atomic particle physics.
(c) acknowledges that there is a difference between human behavior and the behavior of other things despite
evidence to the contrary.
(d) denies that we engage in free choices and acts, and recommends that we accept that theory despite our daily
experience to the contrary.

77. Human behavior can be explained in terms of either the causes of an action or the reasons for which the
action is done. This distinction between causes and reasons is concerned with the distinction between:
(a) what someone does and what kind of character or set of habits he or she has.
(b) the events prior to an action and the intended goals of an action.
(c) actions that are desired and actions that are expected to yield certain consequences.
(d) actions and choices.

78. Theories of freedom explain human behavior in terms of either the causes of an action or the reasons for
which the action is done. Which of the following theories provide rational rather than causal explanations?
(a) Hard and soft determinism and indeterminism.
(b) Indeterminism, compatibilism, and soft determinism.
(c) Compatibilism and libertarianism.
(d) Agency, person, and existentialist theories.

79. According to Sartre, the world consists of our interpretation of and response to facticity. We are "thrown"
into a situation in which everything (our selves included) must be evaluated as more or less significant. To
respond to this situation with inauthenticity or in "bad faith" is to act in a contradictory, self-refuting manner. In
this regard, bad faith is:
(a) the choice to believe that we have no choice regarding the way the world is.
(b) the exclusion of being-in-itelf in favor of being-for-itself.
(c) the belief in humanistic (this-worldly) values over God-given, religious values.
(d) the belief that our own personal choices have significance for all other people.

80. Sartre claims that, instead of saying that human beings are free, it would be more correct to say that human
beings are freedom, because to say that human beings are free:
 (a) implies that freedom is a characteristic found in a determinate human essence.
(b) ignores the fact that, for the most part, human beings are determined to act in certain definite ways because
of their upbringing.
(c) describes human beings as lacking all moral responsibility for what they become.
(d) condemns human beings to labor under the burden of freely choosing their own nature in terms of their
actions.

81. Sartre notes that, in our existential predicament, humanity can become anything it chooses. Skinner likewise
suggests that a behaviorist, deterministic, and scientific view of human beings "offers exciting possibilities. We
have not yet seen what man can make of man." Sartre, however, would reject behaviorism because, in his view:
(a) behaviorism denies human freedom in saying that we are controlled by environment.
(b) existentialism may not explain the human condition as well as behaviorism, but that does mean that it is
wrong.
(c) what it means to be human is not something that is revealed by observable behavior.
(d) behaviorism is scientific and based on observation, whereas existentialism is based on the belief that we are
determined to believe that we are free.

82. According to Sartre, the claim that human existence precedes essence requires that there be no God, because if
God exists and is the creator of everything in the world (including humans), then:
(a) humans are not free to choose the kind of beings they become and are responsible for.
(b) the cause of evil in the world is due to human action and not God's actions.
(c) existentialism precedes essentialism as an explanation of human nature.
(d) there is no limit on human actions or human nature, even if God creates us.

83. In the agency theory of freedom, a free act is caused by a person, but a person is not a thing before a choice is
made. Rather, a person is:
(a) the product of environment, upbringing, genetics, and associations with family and friends.
(b) the collection of mental states (character, habits) that cause a choice.
(c) the result of choices, the summary of acts of giving reasons for why actions are done.
(d) the openended possibility of there not being any cause or reason for why an action is done.

84. Theories of freedom and theories of punishment focus attention on the differences between being responsible
and being held responsible for our actions. In this regard, the theory of deterrence presumes a theory of hard
determinism, insofar as (in deterrence) the purpose of punishment is:
(a) to protect the society from dangerous individuals who freely choose to threaten others.
(b) to change behavior by holding someone responsible whether or not he or she could have done otherwise.
(c) to hold responsible only those individuals who are responsible for their actions.
(d) to deter individuals from unacceptable acts when they are responsible, and to suggest how they might change
their characters by teaching them to hold themselves responsible.

85. Agency, person, or existentialist theories of freedom are often invoked in support of a retributive theory of
punishment because in retribution the purpose of punishment is:
(a) to protect other members of society from someone who is perceived as a threat to society.
(b) to protect the person being punished from external forces of environment, conditioning, or acquaintances that
might affect his or her behavior.
(c) to respect the right of the person to what he or she deserves, and that assumes that the person has control in
determining his or her own choices.
(d) to change the character or personality of the person being punished so that he or she chooses not to engage in
similar objectionable behavior in the future.

86. Which of the following is an example of positive freedom?

(a) freedom to worship and assemble. (c) freedom to speak about one's beliefs.
(b) freedom from governmental intrusions. (d) freedom from fear of being attacked.

87. If freedom is understood as freedom from other people--for example, to "get away from it all" or to "find
oneself"--then that requires a concept of self that differs from one in which freedom is the ability to realize
oneself through participating in relations with others. The two concepts of self are different insofar as the first
(freedom from others) emphasizes how self-identity is essentially:
(a) social; whereas the second (freedom to realize oneself through relations with others) focuses on how self-
identity is essentially individual or private.
(b) individual or private; whereas the second (freedom to realize oneself through relations with others) focuses
on how self-identity is essentially social.
 (c) neither social nor individual but rather is a function of rational freedom; whereas the second (freedom to
realize oneself through relations with others) is based on emotional freedom.
(d) both social and individual, and therefore the idea that there are two different concepts of self underlying the
two notions of freedom simply misunderstands the distinction.

Essays:

88. How is the difference between a causal explanation and a rational explanation of freedom similar to the
difference between foundationalist and anti-foundationalist accounts of morality?

89. How is the libertarian approach to the freedom-determinism question similar to the libertarian approach to
political relations? (Hint: the key lies in their understanding of the self.)

Answers:

73. A
74. A
1. B 13. A 25. A 49. A 61. A
37. B 75. A
2. A 14. A 26. B 50. C 62. D
38. A 76. D
3. A 15. B 27. A 51. D 63. C
39. B 77. B
4. A 16. B 28. A 52. C 64. D
40. B 78. D
5. A 17. A 29. B 53. B 65. B
41. B 79. A
6. B 18. B 30. A 54. B 66. D
42. A 80. A
7. A 19. A 31. A 55. C 67. B
43. A 81. A
8. B 20. B 32. A 56. B 68. A
44. A 82. A
9. B 21. B 33. B 57. A 69. C
45. A 83. C
10. B 22. A 34. B 58. C 70. D
46. B 84. B
11. B 23. A 35. A 59. A 71. B
47. A 85. C
12. B 24. B 36. A 60. D 72. B
48. C 86. D
87. B

According to Bertrand Russell, which of the following is a major difference between philosophy and science?
Choose one answer.

a. Science has to do with mathematics, whereas philosophy does not.

b. Science focuses on knowledge that is already definite, while philosophy does not.

c. Science is about facts, while philosophy is about opinions.

d. Science is a relatively recent development, whereas philosophy is ancient.

e. Scientists make more money than philosophers.

Question2

According to John Corvino, philosophy is useful in a wide range of contexts, because it teaches us to do which of
the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Convince others of our point of view

b. Question the beliefs we take for granted

c. Write clear and persuasive papers

d. Pay attention to the world around us

e. Criticize everything we learn and experience

Question3

Bertrand Russell describes philosophy as which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Food for the mind

b. Wisdom of the heart

c. The science of ideas

d. A pastime for elites

e. A lot of nonsense

Question4

Complete the following statement. When writing a philosophy paper, a strong thesis is:

Choose one answer.

a. a statement of procedure.

b. a hypothesis to be tested.
 c. a position you will argue for.

d. the first sentence of the paper.

e. not a requirement.

Question5

In the following argument, which statements are premises? If time travel is possible, we will have lots of time-
traveling visitors from the future. However, we have no such visitors. Therefore, time travel is not possible.

Choose one answer.

a. If time travel is possible, we will have lots of time-traveling visitors from the
future.

b. However, we have no such visitors.

c. Therefore, time travel is not possible.

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question6

Philosophy is useful for developing which of the following skills?

Choose one answer.

a. Analytical skills

b. Writing skills

c. Memorization skills

d. All of the above

e. A and B only

Question7

The nature of meaning would be best categorized as a discussion in which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Metaphysics

b. Epistemology

c. Philosophy of Science

d. Philosophy of Religion
 e. Philosophy of Language

Question8

The philosophy of science is primarily concerned with which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. The philosophical views of scientists

b. Philosophical questions about science

c. Scientific proofs for philosophical positions

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question9

The term “Dao” refers to which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. The ultimate nature of reality

b. The path that human beings should adhere to

c. The innate ideas human beings possess

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question10

When Bertrand Russell says that philosophy aims at the enlargement of the “not-self,” what does he mean?

Choose one answer.

a. Philosophy tries to make people more generous.

b. Philosophy tries to understand the world as it is, not as we make it.

c. Philosophy is about denying one’s personal interests.

d. Philosophy tries to prove that the self is an illusion.

e. Philosophy takes no interest in the self.

Question11

Which of the following are Daoist philosophers?

Choose one answer.

 a. Lao Tzu

b. Zhuangzi

c. Confucius

d. A and B

e. A, B, and C

Question12

Which of the following comprises the subject matter of metaphysics?

Choose one answer.

a. The best way to live one’s life and the difference between right and wrong

b. The nature of existence and reality

c. The nature of and conditions for knowledge

d. The nature of God and the soul

e. The nature of justice and the best way to organize the state

Question13

Which of the following does Bertrand Russell mention as a reason that philosophy is valuable?

Choose one answer.

a. It removes dogmatism.

b. It removes skepticism.

c. It produces new knowledge.

d. It produces new technologies.

e. It produces revenue.

Question14

Which of the following is a characteristic of good philosophical writing?

Choose one answer.

a. Presenting ideas clearly

b. Discussing counter-arguments

c. Stating of a thesis
 d. Using examples

e. All of the above

Question15

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of arguments in philosophy?

Choose one answer.

a. Premises

b. Conclusions

c. Inference

d. Hostility

e. Reasoning

Question16

Which of the following is NOT an argument?

Choose one answer.

a. All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

b. Men are like dogs. Dogs are motivated by food. Therefore, men are motivated by
food.

c. The president should be impeached.

d. God is not a deceiver. Therefore, I am not wrong about most of my beliefs, since, if I
were, God would be a deceiver.

e. Only children cry. You are not a child, and therefore you should toughen up.

Question17

Which of the following is NOT an argument?

Choose one answer.

a. I was sick on Thursday. I had a cold. Therefore, I could not come to work.

b. Cats are docile animals. Docile animals do not bite. Therefore, cats do not bite.

c. Policemen wear helmets. Hence, John is not a policeman because he does not wear
a helmet.

d. Actions are either right or wrong. Theft is an action. Therefore, theft is either right
or wrong.
 e. Miriam was at the grocery store at two o’clock. Thus, she could not be the
murderer, because the murderer was in the bell tower at two o’clock.

Question18

Which of the following is typically NOT important when writing philosophical papers?

Choose one answer.

a. Originality

b. Clarity

c. Examples

d. Counter-arguments

e. Statistics

Question19

Which of the following questions would a student of aesthetics ask?

Choose one answer.

a. Does God really exist?

b. How do I know that my beliefs are true?

c. Which actions are right, and which ones a wrong?

d. Is this random splash of paint art, or is it just paint?

e. What is the best way to organize a state?

Question20

Which of the following questions would a student of political philosophy ask?

Choose one answer.

a. What is the best way to organize a state?

b. What are the hallmarks of good political leadership?

c. Why do human beings form political societies?

d. What are the rights and duties of citizens?

e. All of the above

Question21

Why is philosophy important, according to Bertrand Russell?

Choose one answer.

 a. Because it helps us achieve an accurate understanding of the world

b. Because it helps us to challenge beliefs we take for granted

c. Because it helps us develop new products and technologies

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question22

According to Kant, metaphysical knowledge is only possible if it is characterized as which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Analytic

b. Synthetic

c. A priori

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question23

According to Kant, which of the following would fall outside the boundaries of possible knowledge?

Choose one answer.

a. The existence of God

b. The nature of things “in themselves”

c. The nature of cause and effect

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question24

According to Locke, when human beings are born, the mind contains which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. An idea of the self

b. An idea of God

c. An idea of substance
 d. An idea of power

e. Nothing

Question25

Complete the following statement. According to Descartes, “I think, therefore I exist” is:

Choose one answer.

a. an innate idea.

b. an empirical idea.

c. a mistaken idea.

d. an egotistical idea.

e. a false idea.

Question26

Complete the following statement. According to Plato, all of the following are true of forms EXCEPT:

Choose one answer.

a. forms are accessible only to the intellect.

b. forms are nearly impossible to detect.

c. forms are real.

d. forms are what philosophers know the most about.

e. forms are eternal and unchanging.

Question27

Complete the following statement. According to Plato, forms are universal, whereas objects of sensation are:

Choose one answer.

a. unique.

b. particular.

c. multiple.

d. absolute.

e. illusory.

Question28

Complete the following statement. Daoism is similar to Kant’s philosophy, because it holds that:
Choose one answer.

a. reality is ultimately unknowable by human beings.

b. the world is constantly changing.

c. knowledge is dependent on context and perspective.

d. there can be no knowledge without experience.

e. there can be no experience without knowledge.

Question29

Complete the following statement. In Plato’s analogy of the divided line, the sensible world is related to the
intelligible world as:

Choose one answer.

a. a fire is to a flame.

b. a prisoner is to a free man.

c. the sun is to the Earth.

d. images are to material things.

e. images are to forms.

Question30

In Plato’s “Metaphysics,” which of the following is true of material things?

Choose one answer.

a. They are less real than the forms.

b. They are more real than images.

c. They are more real than the forms.

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question31

Kant argued that

Choose one answer.

a. rationalism and empiricism are not mutually exclusive.

b. knowledge has limits.

 c. knowledge and experience are mutually interdependent.

d. A and B

e. A, B, and C

Question32

The Dao De Jing says: “The partial becomes complete; the crooked, straight; the empty, full; the worn out, new.”
Which of the following captures the metaphysical view being put forward here?

Choose one answer.

a. The world is very confusing, but the Dao helps us explain it.

b. What we say about reality depends on the perspective we adopt.

c. The ultimate nature of realty is paradoxical.

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question33

The doctrine that all of our knowledge is the product of what we have deduced from primary beliefs is called
which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Utilitarianism

b. Consequentialism

c. Rationalism

d. Empiricism

e. Imperialism

Question34

What would Kant likely say about Plato’s theory of the forms?

Choose one answer.

a. The forms do not exist.

b. The forms exist.

c. It is impossible to know whether the forms exist.

d. The forms exist only in the mind.

 e. The forms exist but they cannot be known.

Question35

Which of the following comprises the subject matter of epistemology?

Choose one answer.

a. The best way to live one’s life and the difference between right and wrong

b. The nature of existence and reality

c. The nature of and conditions for knowledge

d. The nature of God and the soul

e. The nature of justice and the best way to organize the state

Question36

Which of the following is a synthetic claim?

Choose one answer.

a. The atomic weight of gold is 196.96 amu.

b. Gold is a yellow metal.

c. Pain is uncomfortable

d. All bachelors are unmarried.

e. The ocean is full of water.

Question37

Which of the following reasons does Descartes give for doubting his beliefs?

Choose one answer.

a. That he might be deceived by an evil demon

b. That he might be dreaming

c. That he might have been drugged

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question38

Who was Socrates?

Choose one answer.

 a. A fictional character invented by Plato

b. The character who speaks with Plato in The Republic

c. Plato’s teacher

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question39

Why does Descartes think it is necessary to call into doubt everything he has previously believed?

Choose one answer.

a. Many of his beliefs have come from the senses, and the senses are frequently
misleading.

b. If he starts with absolutely secure beliefs, everything he builds on it will be certain as

well.

c. He wants to find things out for himself rather than follow tradition.

d. He wants to lay the groundwork for the growing body of scientific knowledge.

e. All of the above

Question40

Zhuangzi’s parable about dreaming that he is a butterfly is intended to illustrate that reality is not fixed and
eternal, rather reality changes depending on the perspective we adopt. This view is most strongly opposed to the
view developed in which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Locke’s analogy of the empty cabinet.

b. Pascal’s wager

c. Descartes’ wax example

d. Plato’s allegory of the cave

e. Nietzsche’s parable of the madman

Question41

According to Aristotle, how can you tell if a characteristic is virtuous or not?

Choose one answer.

a. If it makes you happy

 b. If it contributes to the good life

c. If it is an intermediary between excess and defect

d. If it accords with ritual

e. If it accords with human nature

Question42

According to Kant’s categorical imperative, an action is right so long as which of the following holds true?

Choose one answer.

a. One can wish that acting that way would become a universal law.

b. One treats other human beings as ends in themselves.

c. One can anticipate that the action will result in more happiness than unhappiness.

d. A and B only

e. B and C only

Question43

According to Kant’s ethics, which of the following statements is true?

Choose one answer.

a. It is permissible to lie to someone if it was in his or her best interest.

b. It is permissible to lie to someone as long as there are no negative consequences.

c. It is permissible to lie to someone if it helps many other people.

d. It is impermissible to lie to someone unless it is to prevent them from doing something

bad.

e. It is impermissible to lie.

Question44

According to Mill, the aim of ethical behavior is to do which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Maximize happiness for everyone.

b. Maximize happiness for oneself.

c. Maximize rationality in one’s actions.

d. Maximize virtue in one’s actions.

 e. Minimize unhappiness for oneself.

Question45

According to Mill’s ethics, which of the following is true?

Choose one answer.

a. It is permissible to lie if it benefits a great number of people.

b. It is permissible to lie if nobody ever finds out.

c. It is permissible to lie if one is a virtuous person overall.

d. It is permissible to lie if it furthers one’s ends.

e. It is impermissible to lie.

Question46

Aristotle’s ethical theory tries to answer which question?

Choose one answer.

a. How do I tell the difference between right and wrong?

b. What is the difference between good and evil?

c. What do I need to do in order to go to heaven?

d. What is the best way to live one’s life?

e. What is the least amount of effort I need to exert to be good?

Question47

Complete the following statement. According to Aristotle, “the good” is different for every different type of thing.
Each thing is “good” when it:

Choose one answer.

a. is beneficial to people.

b. fulfills its function.

c. brings people happiness.

d. preserves itself.

e. makes the world a better place.

Question48

Complete the following statement. According to Aristotle, being virtuous is a matter of:

Choose one answer.

 a. habit.

b. nature.

c. nobility.

d. thoughtfulness.

e. compassion.

Question49

Complete the following statement. According to Kant, ethics is a matter of:

Choose one answer.

a. habit.

b. nature.

c. nobility.

d. rationality.

e. compassion.

Question50

Confucius’s concept of ren most closely resembles which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Rationality

b. Intellect

c. Alienation

d. Self-interest

e. Compassion

Question51

Fill in the blank. The major innovation that Nietzsche’s philosophy introduces is that it pits changeable
___________ up against unchanging sources of truth and meaning, such as science and religion.

Choose one answer.

a. skepticism

b. gambling

c. culture
 d. human nature

e. suffering

Question52

If you decided to murder one terrorist in order to save a group of hostages, which of the following philosophers
would definitely not approve of your action?

Choose one answer.

a. Kant

b. Mill

c. Aristotle

d. Buddha

e. Confucius

Question53

In Kant’s ethics, which of the following is true?

Choose one answer.

a. Persons are awarded a fundamental respect.

b. There are no “gray areas” when it comes to right and wrong.

c. There are sometimes “gray areas” when it comes to right and wrong.

d. A and B only

e. A and C only

Question54

Kant’s ethical theory tries to answer what question?

Choose one answer.

a. What is the good for human beings?

b. How can I tell if an action is right or wrong?

c. What do I need to do in order to go to heaven?

d. What is the best way to live one’s life?

e. What is the least amount of effort I need to exert to be good?

Question55
Kant’s fundamental moral principle states which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. We should act only on maxims that we wish to become universal laws.

b. We should act only when it will do no harm.

c. We should act always to maximize happiness.

d. We should act always in accordance with ritual.

e. We should act always in accordance with virtue.

Question56

Mill argues that intellectual pleasures are more valuable than sensual pleasures in order to do which of the
following?

Choose one answer.

a. Privilege philosophers and scientists in his ethics

b. Establish a hierarchy of good and bad people

c. Differentiate human morality from that of mere animals

d. Discourage debauchery

e. Demonstrate that intelligence corresponds to goodness

Question57

Mill is critical of those who think that moral behavior should be guided by which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Rationality

b. Intuition

c. Consequences

d. Virtue

e. Circumstances

Question58

Mill’s fundamental moral principle states which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. We should act only on maxims that we wish to become universal laws.

 b. We should act only when it will do no harm.

c. We should act always to maximize happiness.

d. We should act always in accordance with ritual.

e. We should act always in accordance with virtue.

Question59

Nietzsche uses the phrase “herd instinct” to explain what feature of human society?

Choose one answer.

a. Intelligence

b. Organization of the state

c. Cruelty

d. Ethics

e. Science

Question60

When is an ethical imperative considered to be categorical?

Choose one answer.

a. When the ethical imperative depends on the circumstances of the action

b. When the ethical imperative depends on the character of the person performing the
action

c. When the ethical imperative depends on the consequences of the action

d. When the ethical imperative depends on the seriousness of the action

e. When the ethical imperative holds in all cases, universally

Question61

Which of the following accurately captures the intended meaning of Nietzsche’s famous assertion that “God is
dead?”

Choose one answer.

a. The time has come to reconfirm the traditional values of our society.

b. All of the certainty traditionally associated with science and religion is an

illusion.

c. As a society, the concept of God is no longer culturally significant for us.

 d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question62

Which philosopher would require that we calculate the amount of happiness and unhappiness likely to be
produced by an action in order to decide if it is right or wrong?

Choose one answer.

a. Aristotle

b. Kant

c. Mill

d. Nietzsche

e. The Buddha

Question63

Why is courage a virtue for Aristotle?

Choose one answer.

a. Courageous people help their fellow human beings.

b. Courageous people are natural leaders.

c. Courage is something that some people are born with.

d. Courage results in positive consequences.

e. Courage is a mean between cowardice and rashness.

Question64

Why is happiness important to Aristotle’s ethical theory?

Choose one answer.

a. Happiness is the good for human beings.

b. Happiness is the absence of pain, and pain should be avoided.

c. Happiness is the result of acting from rational moral principles.

d. Every human being has the right to happiness.

e. Every human being has the duty to make others happy.

Question65
According to Confucius, a society can become virtuous if which of the following holds true?

Choose one answer.

a. Its ruler is virtuous.

b. Its members engage in productive activity.

c. Its rulers are philosophers.

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question66

According to Confucius, which of the following actions on the part of the ruler will be met with resentment?

Choose one answer.

a. Ruling in accordance with ritual

b. Ruling in accordance with de

c. Ruling by force

d. Ruling by compassion

e. Respecting the opinions of the peasants

Question67

According to Hobbes, what would life consist of without the existence of a state?

Choose one answer.

a. A utopian society with no hunger or crime

b. A war of all against all

c. A continual struggle to compete with one’s fellow human beings

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question68

According to Hobbes, why is the establishment of a state a rational act?

Choose one answer.

a. It is rational to entrust one’s fate to one’s superiors.

b. It is rational to submit to a common authority in order to escape the state of

 nature.

c. It is rational to create a society of culture.

d. It is rational to share our resources equally with one another.

e. It is rational to want to acquire power.

Question69

According to Marx, why is it that the industrial mode of production is intolerable for workers?

Choose one answer.

a. It impoverishes workers.

b. It is physically strenuous for workers.

c. It alienates workers from their nature as human beings.

d. It is emotionally distressing to workers.

e. It is not intellectually stimulating for workers.

Question70

According to Marx, why is productive activity important for human beings?

Choose one answer.

a. It helps them earn a living.

b. It is a part of their nature.

c. It keeps them from rising up against their oppressors.

d. It divides society into an orderly hierarchy.

e. It helps to quell their violent impulses.

Question71

Complete the following statement. Plato argues that philosopher kings will act in the best interests of everyone,
because:

Choose one answer.

a. only they know what justice and goodness are.

b. only they are respected by everyone in the city.

c. philosophers love their fellow men more than anything else.

d. philosophers derive their power from popular approval.

 e. philosophers are inherently just and good.

Question72

Complete the following statements. Hobbes’s social contract is an agreement between:

Choose one answer.

a. the rulers and the ruled.

b. all members of a society.

c. parents and their children.

d. human beings and God.

e. citizens and their representatives.

Question73

For Marx, alienation means which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Workers are dissociated from one another.

b. Workers are dissociated from the products of their labor.

c. Workers are dissociated from wages.

d. All of the above

e. A and B only

Question74

Hobbes described the sovereign as which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. A philosopher king

b. The agent and embodiment of the people

c. The solution to the sources of conflict in society

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question75

How did Machiavelli change the way virtuous leadership was perceived?

Choose one answer.

 a. He introduced a conception of virtue that differed greatly from the traditional
Christian version.

b. He provided an example of virtuous leadership by his own actions.

c. He misinterpreted Aristotle’s theory of virtue.

d. He introduced Aristotle’s theory of virtue to renaissance Italy.

e. He ignored all previous conceptions of virtue.

Question76

In contrast to traditional Christian political views, Machiavelli taught which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. That leaders should act only on the basis of the people’s wishes

b. That leaders should act as moral exemplars for their people

c. That leaders should act with cunning and, if need be, with cruelty

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question77

Which of the following is true of the time of Marx’s writing?

Choose one answer.

a. Most individuals owned their own farms or workshops.

b. Most individuals had a fair amount of financial security.

c. The economy was being transformed by technological advances.

d. No great divisions between social classes existed.

e. The dominant form of government was communism.

Question78

Which of the following philosophers argued that virtuous leadership consisted in getting and keeping political
power?

Choose one answer.

a. Plato

b. Machiavelli
 c. Hobbes

d. Marx

e. Confucius

Question79

Which of the following philosophers emphasizes hierarchy as an important component of a well-run state?

Choose one answer.

a. Marx

b. Hobbes

c. Confucius

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question80

Which of the following philosophers speak of the Dao as the path to be followed in life?

Choose one answer.

a. Lao Tzu

b. Zhuangzi

c. Confucius

d. All of the above

e. A and C only

Question81

Which of the following philosophers would argue that brutal punishment is a good tactic for keeping order in the
state?

Choose one answer.

a. Hobbes

b. Plato

c. Machiavelli

d. Aristotle

e. Confucius
Question82

Which of the following principles would Confucius most likely agree with?

Choose one answer.

a. Force is the only way to maintain order.

b. Deceiving one’s subject is sometimes necessary to maintain one’s image.

c. Without leadership human beings would simply compete violently with one
another.

d. Sometimes the best way to rule is through inaction.

e. Only through productive activity can human beings fulfill their nature.

Question83

Which philosopher argues that human nature is competitive and self-interested, but also rational?

Choose one answer.

a. Plato

b. Hobbes

c. Machiavelli

d. Marx

e. Confucius

Question84

According to Pascal, what do we stand to lose if we wager that God exists and we wager incorrectly?

Choose one answer.

a. Infinite error

b. Infinite happiness

c. Reason

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question85

According to Pascal, what is the most important reason to wager on whether or not God exists?

Choose one answer.

 a. Faith alone cannot prove to us that God exists.

b. Gambling is inherently exciting.

c. It is better to wager about God than about money.

d. Wagering helps us sharpen our reasoning skills.

e. We have no choice. We have to wager.

Question86

Complete the following statement. According to Plato, the soul must be immortal because death is the opposite of
life, and:

Choose one answer.

a. the soul is by its nature alive.

b. the soul is by its nature dead.

c. the soul is what unites opposites.

d. everything passes away except the soul.

e. everything comes to be from its opposite.

Question87

Complete the following statement. Plato argues that the soul must be immortal, because:

Choose one answer.

a. the soul is like the knowledge it apprehends, which is eternal.

b. the soul is like the harmony produced by a lyre.

c. the soul is a vapor that escapes the body as it dies.

d. the soul is associated with thinking, and therefore it exists.

e. the soul is like an empty cabinet, which will be refilled in the next life.

Question88

Complete the following statement. Saint Anselm’s reasons that God must exist are based on the ideas we have of
him as an infinitely great being and that:

Choose one answer.

a. existence is included in the idea of an infinitely great being.

b. our sources for this idea are very reliable.

 c. the world contains many things that we cannot understand.

d. our understanding is not infinitely great.

e. God is not a deceiver.

Question89

Descartes famously identifies his “self” with the activity of thinking. Which philosopher would deny that thinking
is an indication of self?

Choose one answer.

a. Confucius

b. Plato

c. Nietzsche

d. Buddha

e. Lao Tzu

Question90

Descartes regards his proof of the existence of God to be which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Very likely true

b. Very likely false

c. Absolute and certain

d. Unnecessary because faith does not require proof

e. A mere exercise in reasoning

Question91

Descartes’s “causal adequacy principle” states which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Everything that exists must have a cause.

b. Only material things must have causes.

c. Only immaterial things must have causes.

d. A cause must possess at least as much reality as its effect.

e. One must be inspired by a cause in order to think rationally.

Question92

In contrast to Descartes’s “I think, therefore I exist,” the Buddha took pains to point out which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. That there is no self at all

b. That many of the things we identify with our self are in fact “not self”

c. That everything in the world is part of the self

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question93

In Simmias’s objection to Plato’s argument for the immortality of the soul, he compares the body to a lyre and the
soul to which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. A string

b. A harmony

c. A note

d. A dance

e. A horn

Question94

Ontological arguments for the existence of God are typically characterized as which of the following?

Choose one answer.

a. Empirical

b. Non-empirical

c. Rational

d. Non-rational

e. Analogical

Question95

Pascal’s argument for the existence of God is best described as which of the following?

Choose one answer.

 a. Ontological

b. Causal

c. Practical

d. Analogical

e. Empirical

Question96

What is Descartes’s starting point in his causal argument for the existence of God?

Choose one answer.

a. The idea that one cannot opt out of wagering on God’s existence

b. The idea of God he possesses innately

c. The idea that the soul must exist after the body dies

d. The idea that God presents humanity with a test of faith

e. The idea that heaven is accessible through the intellect

Question97

What is Gaunilo’s criticism of Saint Anselm’s ontological argument for the existence of God?

Choose one answer.

a. Saint Anselm’s ontological argument for the existence of God relies on a mistaken
idea of what God is.

b. Saint Anselm’s ontological argument for the existence of God relies on evidence
from the senses.

c. The same form of argument can be used to prove that an infinite island exists.

d. The same form of argument can be used to prove that Saint Anselm is God.

e. Saint Anselm’s ontological argument for the existence of God fails to take into
account the empirical evidence for God’s existence.

Question98

Which of the following best captures Anselm’s thinking about God’s existence?

Choose one answer.

a. God exists, because we think he does.

b. It is not possible to think of God as nonexistent.

 c. We exist because God thinks about us.

d. Everything you can think of exists.

e. Nothing exists that cannot be thought of.

Question99

Which of the following is NOT one of the Buddha’s four noble truths?

Choose one answer.

a. Life is suffering.

b. Suffering is caused by desire.

c. Death is the end of suffering.

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C

Question100

Why is Socrates unafraid of death at the end of the Phaedo?

Choose one answer.

a. He believes that his soul is immortal.

b. He believes that the body is merely a hindrance from access to the forms.

c. He believes that God is waiting for him.

d. Both A and B

e. Both B and C