PRODUCTION

ENGINEERING
Compiled by Rabin
• Orthogonal Cutting
• The cutting angle of tool make right
angle to the direction of motion.
• The chip flow in the direction normal to
the cutting edge.
• In orthogonal cutting only two
components of force considered cutting
force and thrust force which can be
represent by 2D coordinate system.
• This tool has lesser cutting life.
• The shear force act per unit area is high
which increase the heat developed per
unit area.
• The chips flow over the tool.
• In orthogonal Surface finish is poor.
• Slotting, Parting, Grooving, Pipe Cutting • In Oblique good surface finish.
• Oblique cutting
• The cutting angle of tool does not make
right angle to the direction of motion.
• The chips make an angle with the
normal to the cutting edge.
• In oblique cutting three component of
force are considered, cutting force,
thrust force and radial force. so it is
known as 3D cutting.
• This tool has higher cutting life.
• The shear force per unit area is low,
which decreases heat develop per unit
area hence increases tool life.
• The chips flow along the
sideways
• Milling, Drilling, Grinding, Turning.
DIAGRAM
 MORE CHARACTERISTICS OF 2D CUTTING
Cutting edge is wider than depth of cut
Maximum chip thickness occurs in the middle
The cutting edge clears the width of the workpiece on the either edge.
NOTE- In 3D cutting system, the maximum chip thickness may not occur in the middle. And also in
3D cutting system, the cutting edge of the tool may not clear the width of the workpiece .
Frequently, more than one cutting edges are in action. In oblique cutting system, the tool may or
may not generate a surface parallel to the workface.

 ULTRA LEGEND
The addition of lead, sulphur and phosphorus to low carbon steels, help to reduce built up edge,
break up chips and improve machinability.
 NUMERICAL
In an orthogonal cutting, the depth of cut is halved and the feed rate is double. If the chip thickness
ratio is unaffected with the changed cutting conditions, the actual chip thickness will be double.
TYPES OF CHIPS- VERY IMPORTANT
TYPES OF CHIPS- VERY IMPORTANT
TYPES OF CHIPS- VERY IMPORTANT
TYPES OF CHIPS- VERY IMPORTANT
FURTHER
SUMMARY
 FEW REMAINDERS
In continuous chip cutting, the maximum heat is taken by chips.
 In continuous chip cutting, the maximum heat depends upon the velocity of cutting.
When the cutting edge of the tool is dull, then during machining continuous chips with built-up
edge are formed. Explanation - When the cutting edge is blunt the contact between tool and metal is
more, heat generated will be more. Due to high heat generated between tool w/p interface,
adhesion or welding takes place between tool and chip and occurs in ductile material with slow
speed.
If the cutting speed is increased, then the built-up-edge becomes smaller and finally does not form
at all.
 MCQ
Which of the following parameters govern the value of shear angle in continuous chip formation?

[A]. True feed

[B]. Chip thickness
[C]. Rake angle of the cutting tool
[D]. all of these
 SHEAR ANGLE
 The shear angle is the angle made by the shear plane with the direction of tool travel or between shear plane
and work surface.
 Higher shear angle means smaller shear plane, which means lower cutting force, shear force, power and
temperature.
 Shear plane: As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by shear deformation along a plane
called the shear plane
MCQ
ANSWER AND EXPLANATION
In metal cutting, use of low feeds and high cutting speeds is desired when the objective is high
surface finish.
Shear velocity = tool velocity + chip velocity.
Larger than 15° side cutting edge angle produces chipping and decreases tool life. The thrust force
will increase with the increase in side cutting edge angle.
Small nose radius results in excessive stress concentration and greater heat generation.

VELOCITY RELATION
 THERMAL ASPECTS OF MACHINING
Source of heat in the tool-workpiece interface :-
1. due to friction between tool and work, and
2. the plastic shearing of metal in the form of chips
Three zones are formed as a result-

In zone A (shear zone), maximum heat is generated because of the plastic deformation of metal, and
practically all of this heat is carried away by the chip as machining is rapid and continuous process.
A very minor portion of this heat (5-10%) is conducted to workpiece.
In zone B, known as friction zone, the heat is generated mainly due to friction between moving chip
and tool face and partly due to secondary deformation of the built up edge.
In zone C, known as work-tool contact zone, the heat is generated due to burnishing friction and the
heat in this zone goes on increasing with time as the wear land on the tool develops and goes on
increasing.
 CONTD.
 It will be noted that each of these three zones leads to rise of temperature at the tool chip interface.
 It is found that the maximum temperature occurs slightly away from the cutting edge, and not at the cutting
edge.
 This temperature plays a major role in the formation of crater on the tool face and leads to failure of tool by
softening and thermal stresses.
 The temperature at the chip-tool interface can be determined either by tool work thermocouple or by
calorimetric set up.
 It is found that distribution of heat in chips, workpiece and tool is in the ratio of 80: 10: 10, when cutting
with carbide cutters at speeds above 30 m.p.m.
 Shorter length of contact of chip with tool results in severe temperature rise.
 If a material has high tensile strength and hardness, more energy is required for chip formation and more
heat is generated. If thermal conductivity is high then temperature developed will be lower.
 At very high speeds the cutting fluid is not able to reach tool-chip interface and as such cutting fluid does not
affect the chip-tool interface temperature. The speed at which the cutting fluid becomes ineffective decreases
as the depth of cut is increased.
 REMEMBER ME
The cutting speed has predominant effect on the cutting temperature. Feed has little effect, and
depth of cut the least. ( V >>> f >>> d).
At high speeds, such as employed for carbides, cutting fluid has negligible effect on tool-chip
interface temperature. The fluid is carried away by the outward flowing chip more rapidly than it
could be forced between the tool and the chip.
Rake angle has only a slight influence on the temperature, it increases considerably with increase
in approach angle.
The type of tool used on lathe, shaper and planer is single point cutting tool while in milling and
broaching uses multipoint cutting tool.
Cemented carbide tools are generally poor in shear as they are brittle in nature. Cemented carbide
tool tips are produced by powder metallurgy.
The correct sequence of tool materials in increasing order of their ability to retain their hot hardness
is cermet, carbide, ceramic, borazon.
 EXTRA INFORMATION
Burnishing is the plastic deformation of a surface due to sliding contact with another object.
Visually, burnishing smoothens the texture of a rough surface and makes it shinier.
Burnishing may occur on any sliding surface if the contact stress locally exceeds the yield
strength of the material.
The phenomenon can occur both unintentionally as a failure mode, and intentionally as part of a
manufacturing process.
A DYNAMOMETER OR "DYNO" FOR SHORT, IS A DEVICE FOR
MEASURING FORCE, TORQUE, OR POWER
A dynamometer is a device used for the measurement of

[A]. chip thickness ratio

[B]. forces during metal cutting
[C]. wear of the cutting tool
[D]. deflection of the cutting tool
 TERMINOLOGY
 The part of the tool where cutting edge is formed is nose. It is provided with a radius called nose radius ( 0.4
to 1.6mm) so as to enable to have greater strength, produces fine surface and have extended tool life.
 The angle between the face and flank of the single point cutting tool is known as lip angle. The lip angle of a
single point tool is usually 60° to 80°.
 The angle between the face of the tool and a line tangent to the machined surface at the cutting point is
called cutting angle.
 The angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side cutting edge and a line
perpendicular to the base of the tool is side relief angle.
 End Relief Angle is the angle between the end flank and the line perpendicular to the base of the tool.
 Back rake angle of a single point tool is the angle by which the face of the tool is inclined towards back. Side
rake angle of a single point cutting tool is the angle the face of the tool is inclined sideways.
 Relief angles on high speed steel tools usually vary from 3° to 5° and that on carbide tipped tool varies from 3
° to 10 ° . In order to prevent tool from rubbing the work relief angle on tools are provided.
 RAKE ANGLE
The angle made by the face ( top surface of the tool b/w shank and nose; chips flows over it) of the
tool and the plane parallel to the base ( bearing surface of the tool on which it is held on the tool
holder) of cutting tool is rake angle.
The strength of the tool depends upon rake angle.
Carbide tipped tools and cemented carbide tool usually have negative rake angle.
The rake angle required to machine brass by high speed steel tool is 0°. Explanation - Brass is soft
material. For brittle materials negative rake angle required & for ductile materials positive rake
angle required for machining brass is in between of above two materials so for brass we use zero
rake angle. Good surface finish is obtained with zero rake angle
A single point thread cutting tool should ideally have 0° rake angle.
An increase in rake angle will decrease its cutting strength. Therefore, for cutting harder material,
less rake angle is used while to cut softer material high rake angle is used.
NEGATIVE RAKE ANGLE
THE CUTTING TOOLS FAIL DUE TO FOLLOWING
THREE CONDITIONS:-
1. Breakage of tool due to excessive shock and force.
2. Tool wears due to plastic deformation or change in chemical
and physical condition of tool.
3. Gradual wear like flank wear, crater wear etc.
Gradual wear can’t be totally eliminated but can be reduce.
When the tool cut the work piece, some small chips are forms which act as hard particle. These hard particle
acts as small cutting edge like grinding wheel, which cause abrasion tool wear.
Adhesion tool wear is due to sliding of chips over the tool. This wear cause due to high friction and high
temperature of chips flowing over tool face.
Diffusion wear means diffuse of hard metal into soft metal due to high temperature of contact surface between
hard material and soft material. In tool wear chips act as hard material and tool act as soft material.
Oxidation mean diffuse of oxygen particle tool face. It is also depend surface temperature of tool and tool
material.
Due to high temperature and pressure there is change in chemical composition of tool which reduces its life.
 CRATER WEAR
Crater wear generally occur in machining ductile material due to abrasion and diffusion of metal at
face of tool.
It is occur at face at a short distance from cutting edge.
This wear predominates at high speed.
Crater wear is predominant in tungsten carbide tools.
 FLANK WEAR
Flank wear is due to abrasive action of discontinuities like debris from built up edge etc.
It wears out side and end flank of the tool.
It is occur at tool work-piece interface.
This wear predominates at low speed.
 NOSE WEAR
Nose wear are consider as separate part of wear.
It wears out the tool corner. It is the matting part of flank and face which is combination effect of
crater wear and flank wear.
It is considered as separate wear because the tool corners are very important for proper cutting of
work-piece.

TYPES OF WEAR
 REMEMBER THEM
The parameter which completely defines the chip formation in a metal cutting process is shear
angle and chip-tool contact length.
When the shear angle is small, path of shear is large and chip is thick.
A better machinable metal is one which gives lower chip-tool contact area and larger shear angle
( path of shear is short and chip is thin)
If the shear angle is large and the chip-tool contact area is low, then the tool life will be more.
Stiffness of tool holder, machine and workpiece should be sufficient in order to avoid significant
deflections.
Using coolant decreases forces slightly but greatly increases tool life.
Greater the depth of cut, greater the forces in the tool.
Specific cutting energy is energy required to remove unit volume of substance. It is function of
material, workpiece , tools and process.
 ULTRA LEGENDS
For machining a mild steel workpiece using carbide tool, the maximum material will be removed at
a temperature of 100°C.
For machining a mild steel workpiece by a high speed steel tool, the average cutting speed is
30m/min.
For machining a cast iron workpiece by a high speed steel tool, the average cutting speed is 22m
/min.
The machining of titanium is difficult due to low tool-chip contact area. SAY WHAT????
In machining metals, chips break due to work hardening of work material. I AM NOT KIDDING.
The surface finish is improved by the increase in cutting speed, nose radius and true rake angle.
While increasing depth of cut and feed rates deteriorates surface finish.
 REMEMBER ME
With the same tool life, the maximum material per minute is removed by increasing the depth of
cut.
In machining soft materials, a tool with negative relief angle is used as soft material and tool
interference can be managed.
High speed steel cutting tools operate at cutting speeds 2 to 3 times higher than carbon steel tools.
Diamond tool, ceramics tool, cemented carbide can operates at 50 times, 40 times, and 10 times
faster than HSS tools.
The tool material, for faster machining, should have wear resistance, red hardness and toughness.
High speed steel tools retain their hardness up to a temperature of 900°C.
The trade name of a non-ferrous cast alloy composed of cobalt, chromium and tungsten is called
Stellite. It retains its hardness up to a temperature of 1100°C.
Ceramic tools are fixed to tool body by blazing. Ceramic tools has greater tool life than carbide
tools.
The tool made of cemented carbide wear out faster a slow speeds.
 REMEMBER ME
As the cutting speed increases, the tool cutting forces decreases. Power = velocity × force
Ceramic cutting tools are made by cold pressing of aluminium oxide powder, available in the form
of tips and brittle and have low bending strength.
The cutting fluid mostly used for machining steel and alloy steels are soluble oil and sulphurised
mineral oil. .
Why is there no cutting fluid for machining cast iron? The reason why you can machine cast iron
without using coolants is that the graphite in the cast iron acts as a lubricant in itself.
A numerical method of identification of tool is known as tool signature.
The factor which affects the tool life are tool geometry, cutting speed and feed rate.
Larger end cutting edge angle increases tool life.
 REMEMBER ME
The tool life obviously decreases with the increase in cutting velocity keeping other conditions
unaltered.
To prevent plastic deformation at the cutting edge, the tool material should possess high hot
hardness.
If the grain size is larger, the tool life is better.
The tool life is said to be over if poor surface finish is obtained, there is sudden increase in
cutting forces and power consumption and overheating and fuming due to heat of friction starts.
Tool life is measured by the number of pieces machined between tool sharpening, time the tool
is in contact with the job and volume of material removed between tool sharpening.
The tool life, in case of continuous cutting, is much better than intermittent cutting.
 VALUES OF ‘N’ IN TAYLOR'S EQUATIONS
For HSS, n = 0.1 to 0.2
For carbide tool, n = 0.2 to 0.25
For ceramic tool, n = 0.4 to 0.55

Note
In machine tools, chatter is due to self-excited vibrations.
 L@THE M@CHINE
The swing diameter over the bed is twice the height of the centre measured from the bed of the
lathe.
Hard and tough materials like cast iron should be turned at low speed.
 Tumbler gears in lathe are used to give desired direction of movement to the lathe carriage.

TUMBLER GE@R
 MORE ON L@THE M@CHINE
Half nut is used to lock the lathe carriage to the lead screw for thread cutting.
The lathe centres are provided with standard taper k/a morse taper.
A feed gear box for a screw cutting lathe is designed on the basis of geometric progression.
Slow speed of the spindle is necessary in thread cutting, turning a work of larger diameter, turning
a hard or tough material.
A lathe with four steps on the cone pulley and with back gears will have four direct and four
indirect speeds.
The taper on the lathe spindle is 1 in 20.
The lathe spindles at the nose end have external screw threads whereas the lathe spindle itself is a
hollow tube with internal thread.
The angle between the lathe centres is 60° , but in heavy machining situations an angle of 75° is
used.
H@LF NUT
H@LF NUT
LATHE SPINDLE
 TYPES OF LATHE CHUCK
1. Four-Jaw Independent Chuck - This type of chuck is particularly used in the setting up of heavy
and irregular shaped articles. For machining a casting on a lathe, it should be held in this .
2. Universal or Three Jaw Chuck (scroll or self centring chuck) - most commonly used types of
chuck in the lathe machine. The three jaws are generally made of high-quality steel and are arrogated
at an angle of 120° to each other. Chuck suitable for holding round, or hexagonal, and other similar
shaped workpieces. It has the less gripping capacity as only three jaws are used and centring
accuracy is soon lost due to wear.
3. Combination Chuck – It has both as a self-centring and an independent chuck.
4. Magnetic Chuck – For holding a very thin workpiece made of magnetic material which cannot
be held in an ordinarily chuck. It is also used where any distortion of the workpiece due to the
pressure of the jaws is undesirable. The holding power of the chuck is obtained by the magnetic flux
radiating either from the electromagnets or from the permanent magnets introduced within the chuck.
5. Collet Chuck - used for holding bar stock in production work where quick setting and accurate
centring is needed. These chucks are commonly used in capstan and turret lathes.
 CONTD.
The chuck attached to the spindle by a nut consists of a thin cylindrical bushing known as collet
having a slots cut lengthwise on its periphery. The inside bore of the collet is cylindrical,
hexagonal, square, etc.
6. Air or hydraulic operated chucks - It is used in mass production work for its fast and effective
gripping capacity.
7. Drill chuck - for holding straight skank drill, reamer or tap for drilling, reaming, or tapping
operation. The chuck is held either in headstock or tailstock spindle. It has centring jaws which have
operated by rotating a key.
 3 JAWS VS 4 JAWS
The depth of cut is relatively less in three jaw chuck. In four jaw chuck, the higher depth of cut
can be produced.
The three Jaw chuck has one hole for the chuck key to tighten or loosen the jaws’ grip. Four-Jaw
chuck has four holes for the chuck key to controlling each jaw at one time.
In three jaw chuck, the workpieces cannot be set for eccentric turning. But in four jaw chuck, the
workpieces can be set for eccentric turning.
 In three jaw chuck centring accuracy is lower. But in four jaw chuck centring accuracy better than
a three jaw chuck.
Three jaw chuck has less gripping power than four jaw chuck.
In three jaw chuck, heavier workpieces cannot be turned. In four chuck heavier workpieces can be
turned.
MANDREL IS USE TO HOLD HOLLOW W/P’S WHILE THEIR
EXTERNAL FACES ARE BEING MACHINED
 METHODS OF TAPER TURNING
1. Setting over the tailstock method – the principle here is to shift the axis of rotation of the
workpiece at an angle wrt lathe axis and feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis.
 FURTHER
The angle at which axis of rotation is shifted is half of the taper angle.
As the amount of taper is limited, the maximum taper angle is fixed (approximately 8 degree).
Therefore, it is used to create short taper on long job.
Main disadvantages- live center and dead center are not equally stressed and the wear is not
uniform. Moreover, the lathe carrier being set at an angle, the angular velocity of the work is not
constant.
FORMULA AND NUMERICAL
 USING BROAD NOSE FORM TOOL
A broad nose is a tool having straight cutting edge. It is set on the work at half of the angle of taper
and is fed straight to the work piece to generate taper surface.
In this method, the tool angle should be properly be checked before use.
The carriage should be locked before the start.
It is limited to turn short length of taper only. It is preferred in mass production of such tapered
surface.
Tool will require excessive cutting pressure, which may distort the work and spoil the surface due
to vibration.
BROAD NOSE FORM TOOL METHOD
 OTHER METHODS
3. By swiveling the compound rest – for short, steep tapers because the movement of compound
rest is limited but it can be turned around up to 45 degree.
As the movement of the tool is purely by manual method, the production capacity is lowered and
surface finish is poor.

4. Taper turning attachments - long taper, POWER feed can be used, internal tapers can be bored.
TAPER TURNING ATTACHMENT
 MCQ
Which of the following lathe operations requires that the cutting edge of a tool bit be placed exactly
on the work centre line?
A. Boring
B. Drilling
C. Facing
D. Turning
E. Chamfering
 L@THE MACHINE
The guideways are of flat, vee and dovetail type.
In case of turning, as the machining proceeds, the spindle speed must increase with the decrease in
diameter of work as in turning, cutting velocity, V= (pi×D×N)/60 and for maintaining constant
velocity as diameter decreases, spindle speed (N ) should be increased.
The different spindle speeds on a lathe form GP.
Chamfering is the operation of bevelling the extreme ends of workpiece to remove the burrs and to
protect the end of the workpiece from being damaged and to have a better look. It is done after
rough turning, boring, drilling, knurling, thread cutting. It is an essential operation after thread
cutting so that nut may pass freely on the threaded workpiece.
The lead screw of a lathe has single start ( lead = pitch) threads.
 TYPES OF LATHE
1. Bench Lathe: a very small lathe mounted on a separately prepared bench or cabinet. It is used
for small and precision work since it is very accurate. It is usually provided with all the
attachments, which a larger lathe carries, and is capable of performing almost all the
operations which a larger lathe can do.
 2. SPEED LATHES
may be of bench type or they may have the supporting legs cast and fitted to the bed.
Have most of the attachments which the other types of lathe carry but have no provision for power
feed. They have no gear box, carriage and the lead screw.
As a result, the tool is fed and actuated by hand.
Usually the tool is either mounted on a tool post or supported on a T-shaped support.
Such lathes are usually employed for wood turning, polishing, centring and metal spinning, etc.
Thus, they can be considered as merely of a theoretical value so far as the modern machine shops
are concerned.
They are named so because of the very high speed at which the spindle rotates.
SPEED LATHE
 3. ENGINE LATHE
The most widely used type of lathe.
These lathes are now made to have an individual motor drive. But the name a great historical
significance that in the very early days of its development it was driven by a steam engine
Although it practically resembles a speed lathe in most of its features, but its construction is
relatively more robust.
Its headstock is bigger in size and more robust, incorporating suitable mechanism for providing
multiple speeds to the lathe spindle.
The headstock spindle may receive power, from a lathe shaft or an individual motor, through
belts.
In that case, it will have a cone pulley with back gears in the headstock to provide different speeds
to the spindle.
It carries a combination of gears, instead of the cone pulley and back gears combination, the lathe
is known as geared head lathe and the headstock as all geared head stock.
ENGINE LATHE
 4. TOOL ROOM LATHE
It is nothing but the same engine lathe but equipped with some extra attachments to make it
suitable for a relatively more accurate angle of speeds and feeds.
The usual attachments provided on a tool room lathe are taper turning attachment, follower rest,
collets, chucks, etc.
This lathe is made to have a comparatively smaller bed length than the usual engine lathe.
The most commonly used lengths are 135 to 180 cm.
 5. CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE
They are vastly used in mass production. They are used to manufacture any number of identical
pieces in the minimum time
They are actually of semi-automatic type.
A very little skill is required of the operator while using them. Whatever skill is needed of the
operator is only in the setting of tools in the turret or capstan head, and once this setting has been
successfully accomplished further operation of these machines is more or less automatic.
They carry special mechanisms for indexing of their tool heads.
The Tail stock is replaced by an indexable multi station tool head.
 Turret head has a Hexagonal block having six faces with a bore for mounting six or more than
six tools at a time. The threaded hole on these faces are used to hold the tools.
The Parting tool is mounted in an inverted position on the rear end of the turret.
CAPSTAN VS TURRET
 6. AUTOMATIC LATHE
These lathes help a long way in enhancing the quality as well as the quantity of production.
Fully automatic operation i.e., no participation of the operator is required during the operation.
Automatic lathes are available having single or multi spindles.
They fall in the category of heavy duty, high speed lathes mainly employed in mass production.
CAPSTAN LATHE AND TURRET LATHE
 7. SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES
A large number of lathes are designed to suit a definite class of work and to perform certain
specified operations only. They prove to be more efficient and effective as compared to the
common engine lathe so far as this specified class of work is concerned.
Precision Lathe - Capable of giving a dimensional accuracy of 0.002 mm.
Frontal Lathe - Two carriages are provided, one on each end. Also, two tool heads are provided.
This enables machining of two jobs simultaneously.
Crankshaft Lathe - for turning very long parts such as turbine and engine shafts and crankshafts.
Duplicating Lathe - It carries a special tracer attachment connected to the carriage, which moves
along a template and guides the carriage. t is used for mass production of identical parts where
either a previously machined part works as a template or a separate template is prepared and used
for this purpose.
 FACING LATHE
The carriage is driven by a separate motor,
independent of the main spindle.
It carries no tailstock.
Used to machine the end faces of bulky
cylindrical jobs.
ACCORDING TO THE HEIGHT OF CENTRES (ABOVE THE BED)
LATHES CAN BE GROUPED AS
– Small Lathes: Having height of centres up to 150 mm.
– Medium Size Lathes: Having height of centres from 150 to 300 mm.
– Heavy Duty Lathes: Having height of centres above 300 mm.
 A right hand tool on a lathe cuts most efficiently when it travels from right to left end of the lathe bed while
A left hand tool on a lathe cuts most efficiently when it travels from left to right end of the lathe bed.
 The width of cutting edge of a parting-off tool varies from 3 to 12 mm.
 A round nose tool has no back rake and side rake angle. Also , round nose tool may be fed either from left
to right end or from right to left end of the lathe bed.
 The average cutting speed for turning Aluminium with a high speed steel tool is 60 to 90 m/min.
 The average cutting speed for turning Mild Steel with a high speed steel tool is 25 to 31 m/min
 The average cutting speed for turning Cast iron with a high speed steel tool is 15 to 25 m/min

 The average cutting speed for turning Copper with a high speed steel tool is 18 to 30 m/min.
 The average cutting speed for turning Brass and bronze with a high speed steel tool is 30 to 60
m/min.
 HEEL OF THE TOOL
Intersection of flank and base of the tool
 1. Portable drilling machine
• Can be carried and used anywhere in the workshop as
it is compact and small in size .
TYPES OF DRILLING • It is used for drilling holes on workpieces in any
MACHINE position, which is not possible in a standard drilling
machine.
• These machines can accommodate drills from 12mm
to 18 mm diameter.
• Portable drilling machines are operated at higher
speeds.
 2. Sensitive drilling machine
It is designed for drilling small holes at high speeds in
TYPES OF DRILLING light jobs.
High speed and hand feed are necessary for drilling
MACHINE small holes.
The base of the machine is mounted either on a bench
or on the floor by means of bolts and nuts.
It can handle drills up to 15.5mm of diameter.
The drill is fed into the work purely by hand . The
operator can sense the progress of the drill into the
work because of hand feed. The machine is named so
because of this reason.
A sensitive drilling machine consists of a base,
column, table, spindle, drill head and the driving
mechanism.
 3. Upright Drilling Machine
The upright drilling machine is designed for handling
medium sized workpieces.
Though it looks like a sensitive drilling machine, it
TYPES OF DRILLING is larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling
MACHINE machine.
Holes of diameter up to 50mm can be made with this
type of machine.
Besides, it is supplied with power feed arrangement.
For drilling different types of work, the machine is
provided with a number of spindle speeds and feed.
Two different types - Round column and Box
column section upright drilling machine.
There are separate hand wheels for quick
hand feed and sensitive hand feed in the
drill head.
TYPES OF DRILLING
MACHINE 4. Radial drilling machine
The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling on
medium to large and heavy workpieces.
It has a heavy round column mounted on a large base.
The column supports a radial arm.
The arm, which has the drill head on it, can be swung
around to any position. The drill head can be made to
slide on the radial arm.
TYPES OF DRILLING
MACHINE

5. Universal Drilling Machine

It is a machine in which the
spindle can be swivelled to any
required angle in vertical and
horizontal positions.
TYPES OF DRILLING 6. Gang drilling machine
MACHINE  It has a long common table and a base.
 Four to six drill heads are placed side by side.
 The drill heads have separate driving motors.
 This machine is used for production work.
 A series of operations like drilling, reaming,
counter-boring and tapping may be performed
on the work by simply shifting the work from
one position to the other on the work table.
Each spindle is set with different tools for
different operations.
TYPES OF DRILLING 7. Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine
MACHINE  This machine is used for drilling a number of
holes in a workpiece simultaneously and for
reproducing the same pattern of holes in a
number of identical pieces.
 A single motor using a set of gears drives
moves all the spindles.
 The distances between the spindles can be
altered according to the locations where holes
are to be drilled.
 Drill jigs are used to guide the drills.
Q. NAME THE MACHINE
TYPES OF DRILLING 8. Deep Hole Drilling Machine
MACHINE  A special machine and drills are required to drill
deeper holes in barrels of gun, spindles and
connecting rods.
 High cutting speeds and less feed are necessary to
drill deep holes.
 A non- rotating drill is fed slowly into the rotating
work at high speeds.
 Coolant should be used while drilling in this
machine.
 There are two different types of deep hole drilling
machines - Vertical type and Horizontal type
 Deep hole drilling, however, is a very
specific kind of drilling process for holes that
have a high ratio of depth to diameter.
DEEP HOLE DRILLING MACHINE
 OPERATION
Spot facing is the operation of smoothing and squaring the surface around and at the end of a
hole so as to provide a smooth seat for a nut or for the head of a cap screw. Spot facing is generally
done on castings and forgings.
Lapping is sizing and finishing a small diameter hole.
Trepanning is a drilling process that leaves a core.
DIAGRAMMATICAL UNDERSTANDING

Trepanning
 UNDERSTAND THESE CONCEPTS CAREFULLY
The hole drilled for tapping should be smaller than the tap size by twice the depth of thread or be
equal to core (minor) diameter of the thread.
Counterboring and spot facing can be performed by same tool.
Drilling is a process for removing material from a workpiece in order to create a hole.
Boring, on the other hand, is a process of enlarging a hole that has already been made by another
process (such as drilling or casting). In short, boring is a secondary finishing operation.
This manufacturing process gives the machinist much more control of the diameter of the hole,
allowing for a much tighter tolerance for diameter to be achieved. The goal of boring is to enlarge
an existing hole, create a tapered hole from an existing hole, or achieve a desired surface finish
inside an existing hole.
A 15 mm drilling machine means that it can drill a hole of maximum diameter 15 mm.
 MCQ
Which of the following operation is performed to ensure the correct location of a hole by making it
concentric with the axis of rotation?
a) parting
b) tapping
c) boring
d) none of mentioned
Explanation: This is the characteristic of boring. After the hole is made by drilling operation, boring
is carried out. It is generally done to enlarge the diameter of the hole.
 MCQ
To produce more accurate holes, which of the following operation should be performed first?
a) drilling
b) reaming
c) centring
d) Boring
Because , I was stumped at first try.
NOTE- Reaming operation should be performed last to produce more accurate holes.
 MCQ
Which of the following process requires abundant coolant?
a) drilling
b) tapping
c) boring
d) none of the mentioned
 DR!LLING
The cutting angle of a flat drill varies from 90° to 120° .
The relief or clearance angle of flat drill varies from 3° to 8° .
Flute is a deep groove that typically twists around the bit, giving the waste material a path out of
the hole. It can vary in size, shape and the number of flutes on the bit.
Straight fluted drill bits do not have a helical twist like twist drill bits do. They are used when
drilling copper or brass or other softer materials because they have less of a tendency to "dig in"
or grab the material.
 TERMINOLOGIES
Parallel shank are provided in small drill bits while tapered shanks are provided in heavy duty drill
bits.
Neck is the portion of reduced diameter between body and shank.
Margin is the part of the body that does not cut away the workpiece. It is provided as clearance
between drill and workpiece.
Dead center or chisel edge- the point where two cutting edge meet at the extreme tip. It always lies
in the axis of the drill bit.
Lip is the cutting edge formed at the intersection of flank and flute.
Flank is the surface of drill, which extends behind the lip to the flute.
NOMENCLATURE
 GEOMETRY OF DRILL
The obtuse angle included between the chisel edge and the lip as viewed from the end of the drill is
chisel edge angle. It usually ranges from 120° to 135°.
The cutting angle is the angle between two lips when it is projected on a plane parallel to the axis is
cutting or point angle. Simply it is the angle between the lips in the side view of a twist drill.
Normal of value of Point angle is 118°. Both cutting edges are sharpened at the same angle, so each
makes angle of 59° to the centre axis. For harder alloy steel, the point angle of the drill is kept
more than 118°.
 LIP CLEARANCE ANGLE
It is the angle formed by the flank and a plane perpendicular to the axis.
It is the relief given to the cutting edges that allow drill to enter into the workpiece without any
hindrance.
In general purpose drills, the clearance angle behind the cutting edge is 12 °.
Too much clearance angle cause the breaking of lip of the drill due to insufficient support.
Clearance angle should be kept minimum in order to provide enough strength and rigidity to
cutting edge.
Too little clearance results drills having little or no cutting edge.
 HELIX OR RAKE ANGLE
The angle of the flute in relation to the work surface.
The value of rake angle varies between 18° to 45°; its typical value is 30°.
The rake angle governs the tightness with which chip curls and hence the amount of space occupied
by the chip.
The higher rake angle cause tightly rolled chip while the small rake angle tends to chip curl into
more loosely rolled helix.
Large rake angle causes excessive vibration and chatter of drill.
If the helix angle of the drill is made less than 30°, then the torque required to drive the drill at a
given feed will be more. Think it in this way- when the helix angle is decrease, the flutes get
shortened . This might disrupt the flow of the chip, which increases burden in the system. Hence,
the torque rises.
Brass र प्लास्टिक्स लाई drilling गर्न कम हेलिक्स कोण ( < ३०°) भए पग्ु छ | तर अलुमिमियि लाई चाम िँ ठुलो ेमलक्स कोण
(> ३०°) चाम न्छ |
 UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT CLEARLY
The lip clearance angle should decrease towards the centre of the drill than at the circumference.
Drill velocity के न्द्रमा भन्द्दा peripheryमा ज्यादा हुन्द्छ | यार्ी periphery बाट ज्यादा भन्द्दा ज्यादा चिप्सहरु चर्स्कन्द्छ | lip
clearance angle को सम्बन्द्ध चिप्सलाई बाचहर फ्याले ठाउँ चसर्नर्ा गर्नपु र्े हुर्ाले यो के न्द्रमा भन्द्दा peripheryमा बढेको काम लाग्छ |
 मिन्दु कोण वा कटाि कोण
हल्का इस्पात (mild steel ) र चपतल ( brass) लाई ११८°
Bakelite र रे सम (fibrous ) प्लाचस्टक्स् लाई ९०°
स्टेर्लेस इस्पात (Stainless steel) लाई १३५°
र्ोट – र्रम धातु र पदार्न लाई चबन्द्दु कोण ११८° भन्द्दा काम गर्े र कठोर धातु र पदार्नलाई
चबन्द्दु कोण ११८° भन्द्दा ज्यादा गर्े
 TYPES OF TAPS
1. Taper taps - Typically, first 8 to 10 threads are tapered. Taper Taps are the most common types of
taps
2. Plug Tap – They are in between Bottoming and Taper Taps because they have 3-5 threads
tapered,
3. Bottoming tap- It has almost no taper at the end. It has full threads for the whole of its length
because it is designed to thread all the way to the bottom of its reach. Only 1 to 1.5 threads will
be tapered. Bottoming Taps are useful for threading blind holes.
It’s desirable to thread most of the hole with a Taper Tap first, and then finish the bottom of the hole
with a Plug Tap.
TAPS
Twist drills are made of HSS and Carbon steel.
A twist drill is specified by its shank, material and diameter.
In drilling, depth of cut is equal to half the diameter of the drill used.
 REAMER CONFIGURATION
Reamers are used to increase dimensional tolerance and accuracy of hole.
It must be both hard and tough.
Reaming speed is usually two-thirds of drilling speed. For close tolerance, the speed is further
reduced. But feeds are generally high in comparison to drilling.
Sharpening is restricted to starting taper or chamfer.
Straight flute reamer are general purpose reamer. They are typically cheaper than left
hand or right hand spiral reamers and work best in non-chip forming materials such as cast iron,
bronze and free cutting brass. @STRAIGHT परुु षलाई परु ा प्वाल िाचहन्द्छ !
The preferred hole condition for a straight fluted reamer is a through hole all things being equal
but they perform well in blind holes as well due to their non-aggressive geometry.
 If all the application parameters are known typically a right hand or left hand spiral reamer will
provide superior results in finish and performance then a straight fluted reamer.
 RIGHT HAND SPIRAL FLUTED REAMER
1. Right hand spiral reamers should be selected for blind holes. A right hand spiral pulls the
chips towards the back of the reamer. This helps prevent the chips from getting packed into the
bottom of the hole reducing the chance of damaging the reamer and the work-piece by
previously cut chips.
2. Additionally a right hand spiral also helps bridge interruptions such as cross-holes or keyways.
3. It may cut slightly oversized holes due to the aggressive flute geometry.
4. They perform very well in highly ductile materials.
अरु यार्ी right hand मा चवश्वास गर्े लाई बन्द्द प्वाल िाचहन्द्छ !
 LEFT HAND SPIRAL REAMERS
 It should be selected for through holes.
It pushes the chips ahead of the reamer and out the other side of the hole. This reduces the chances
of scarring the work-piece and reduces the chance of damaging the reamer by previously cut chips.
Additionally a left hand spiral helps bridge interruptions such as cross-holes or keyways.
They are excellent for reaming hard materials and typically provide the best size and finish as
compared to right hand spiral or straight flutes.
अरु यार्ी right hand मा चवश्वास गर्े लाई बन्द्द प्वाल िाचहन्द्छ
 BORING MACHINING
Vertical – w/p remains rotated while tool is held stationary.
Horizontal– w/p remains held stationary while tool is rotated.
@ मेरो लाड़ो िाचहिं W /P हो | र, मलाई डोग्गी हान्द्र् मर् पछन |
THE TIME (IN MINUTES) FOR A DRILLING A HOLE IS GIVEN
BY

Cone height
 JUST MUG THIS B!+CH
The effect of setting a boring tool above centre height leads to increase in the effective rake angle
and a decrease in the effective clearance angle.
In reaming process, high form accuracy is obtained. Dimensional accuracy is a type of
accuracy. So, go for accuracy only. This is correct answer.
In shaper machine, the first stroke ( forward) is the effective one because it has the ability to
remove from the metal but the return stroke was always non-effective because on it's way the metal
is already removed that was waste of time.
The size of a shaper is specified by the maximum length of stroke or cut it can make. Usually the
size of shaper ranges from 175 to 900 mm.
Draw cut shaper cuts in the return stroke.
Time of return stroke is less than the time of forward stroke in crank and slotted link mechanism as
the mechanism reduces the time of idle stroke.
In crank and slotted link mechanism, cutting angle is 220 degrees then return stroke angle is 140
degree since return stroke angle = 360 – cutting angle.
SHAPER VS PLANER
1. In shaper machine ,Work is held stationary 1. In a planar machine, the tool is stationary and
and the cutting tool on the ram is moved back work piece travels back and forth under the
and forth across the work. tool.
2. Shaper can be used for shaping much smaller 2. A planer is meant for larger jobs. Jobs as
jobs. large as 6 meter wide and twice as long can
3. A shaper is a light (smaller) machine. be machined.
4. Shaper can employ light cuts and finer feed. 3. A planer is a heavy duty machine.
5. Shaper uses one cutting tool at a time. 4. Planer can employ heavier cuts and coarse
feed.
6. Shaper gives slow cutting speed. It is not
suitable where productivity is prime concern. 5. Planer uses several tools to cut
simultaneously.
7. The shaper is driven using quick return
mechanism. In 6. It gives large productivity.
modern machine hydraulic drive is also used. 7. The drive on the planer table is either
8. It is less rigid and less robust. by gears or by hydraulic means.
8. Due to better rigidity of planer machine,
compared to that of a shaper, planer can give
more accuracy on machined surfaces.
 OPERATION PERFORMED ON SHAPER MACHINE
1. Machining vertical surface
2. Machining horizontal surface
3. Machining angular surface
4. Cutting slots, keyways and grooves
5. Cutting gears
Note : The top and side of table of shaper machine have tee-slot.
 BULL GEAR AND CRANK PIN IN SHAPER MACHINE
In a shaper, the length of stroke is increased by increasing the centre distance of bull gear and crank
pin.
 SNAG GRINDING
It is done to remove considerable amount of metals without regards to accuracy of the finished parts.
Examples
1. Trimming the surfaces left by sprues and risers on castings.
2. Grinding the parting lines left on castings
3. Removing flash on the forgings
INTERNAL VS EXTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
 EXTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
1. It (aka centre-type grinding to distinguish) is performed much like a turning operation.
2. The grinding machines used for these operations closely resemble a lathe in which the tool post
has been replaced by a high-speed motor to rotate the grinding wheel.
3. The cylindrical workpiece is rotated between centres to provide a surface speed of 18 to 30
m/min and the grinding wheel, rotating at 1200 to 2000 m/min is engaged to perform the cut.
4. Two types of feed motion - traverse feed and plunge-cut
5. In traverse feed, the grinding wheel is fed in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the work
part. The in-feed is set within a range typically from 0.0075 to 0.075mm.
6. A longitudinal reciprocating motion is sometimes given to either the work or the wheel to
improve surface finish.
7. In plunge-cut, the grinding wheel is fed radially into the work. Formed grinding wheels use
this type of feed motion.
8. External cylindrical grinding is used to finish parts that have been machined to approximate size
and heat treated to desired hardness.
 INTERNAL CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
1. It operates somewhat like a boring operation.
2. The workpiece is usually held in a chuck and rotated to provide surface speeds of 20 to 60m/min.
Wheel surface speeds similar to external cylindrical grinding are used.
3. The wheel is fed in either of two ways: traverse feed, or plunge feed.
4. Obviously, the wheel diameter in internal cylindrical grinding must be smaller than the original
bore hole. This often means that the wheel diameter is quite small, necessitating very high
rotational speeds in order to achieve the desired surface speed.
5. Internal cylindrical grinding is used to finish the hardened inside surfaces of bearing races and
bushing surfaces.
 MUG UP THESE B!+CHE$$
The method of grinding used to produce a straight or tapered surface on a workpiece, is external
cylindrical grinding.
The method of grinding used to produce internal cylindrical holes and tapers, is internal cylindrical
grinding.
Surface grinding surface is used to produce flat surface.
The form grinding is used to grind gear teeth, threads, splined shafts and holes.
 In transverse (तेसो) grinding, the work is reciprocated as the wheel feeds to produce cylinders
longer than the width of wheel face

 ‘यी रन्द्डी र्स्ता ज्ञार्हरु’ भाग १
In plunge grinding, the work rotates in a fixed position as the wheel feeds to produce cylinders
equal to or shorter than the width of wheel face. @ Plunge को एउटा अर्थ डुब्नहु ो जनु एक प्रकार को काम हो ;
जनु जलहिे नै लिक्स हुन्छ (a fixed position ) | यो गर्ाथ लक मररन्छ (shorter than) लक कोही कुशि पौडीवाज आएर ज्यान
बचाइ लर्न सक्छ (equal to) भइन्छ |

डुबेर पचर् आत्महत्या गर्न सचकन्द्छ | तर के साच्िै मर्न आटदा चर् एक पटक खल्ु ला चदमाग लगाएर मार्चसक तर्ाब को स्पीड कम गरे र सोच्र् पछन @
the plunge grinding requires very low speed.
The work or surface speed for cylindrical grinding is 20 to 30 m/m.
THREE PIECES OF INFORMATION ON CENTERLESS GRINDING
It is an OD grinding process.
The workpiece is not mechanically constrained during the process as there is no spindle. the
workpiece is supported in the grinding machine on its own outer diameter by a work-blade and by
the regulating wheel. The centre of the work piece is higher than the virtual line between the
centres of the regulating wheel and the grinding wheel by the work-blade.
The work piece is rotating between a high speed grinding wheel and a slower speed regulating
wheel with a smaller diameter.
Note-
1. The regulating wheel can be inclined to 0 to 8 degree. The angular adjustment cannot exceed 10
degree.
2. The actual feed is given by 𝜋 × 𝑑 × N × sin , where d = diameter of regulating wheel, N =
RPM and  is angular inclination of regulating wheel.
3. There are three types of centerless grinding viz., through-feed, end-feed and in-feed.
 THREE CENTERLESS GRINDING PROCESS
A. Through feed grinding-
1. One or both wheels of the centreless grinding machine are canted out of the horizontal plane. This imparts a horizontal
velocity component to the work piece, so that outside feed mechanisms are not necessary.
2. This auto feeding characteristic is useful for rapidly processing many parts in quick sequence.
3. Because of the axial movement, through-feed parts can only have right circular cylindrical ground surfaces. The wheel
cannot be dressed to grind more complex shapes.
4. Through-feed grinding is primarily a mass-production process because of its high throughput.
5. Extensively used for grinding long, slender shafts or bars.
B. In-feed grinding
1. The part is not fed axially so that that the ground surface does not need to be a right circular cylinder. It is similar to
plunge grinding.
2. The grinding wheel can be dressed to accommodate the part. Once the work piece part is in place, the grinding wheel is
fed in radially.
3. Because of the set up time involved for each part, in-feed grinding does not have the high throughput.
4. It is used to ground shoulders and formed surfaces.
C. End-feed grinding
1. In end-feed grinding, the part moves in axially between the grinding wheels, stops for grinding, and then moves out again.
2. The wheel can be dressed to form more complex shapes, but the part can only get progressively smaller in diameter.
DIAGRAM
A tool and cutter grinder is used to sharpen milling cutters and tool bits along with a host of other
cutting tools.
In grinding irregular, curved, tapered, convex and concave surfaces, the grinder used is surface
grinder.
The size of abrasive grain required in a grinding wheel depends upon the amount of material to be
removed, hardness of material being ground, finish desired.
 GRINDING WHEELS
Natural abrasive – diamond, corundum (mineral) and emery
Artificial abrasive - Silicon Carbide (trade name Carborundum) and aluminum oxide (trade name
- axolate)
Grinding wheel made from fine abrasive are used for surface finish and over hard material
Coarse grained are used for high MRR and over soft, ductile material
NOTE –
Soft materials can not be economically ground due to frequent wheel clogging.
The hardness of grinding wheel is denoted by alphabets (@AH, IP, Q(ui)Z  Soft, medium and
hard respectively)

 GRADE AND STRUCTURE OF GRINDING WHEEL
The grade of a grinding wheel is a measure of the strength of the bonding material holding the
individual grains in the wheel.
It is used to indicate the relative hardness of a grinding wheel.
Grade or hardness refers to the amount of bonding material used in the wheel, not to the
hardness of the abrasive.
Soft grade wheels (in which abrasive grains are easily dislodged ) are use to grind hard material
while hard grade is used to grind soft material.
The percentages of grain and bond and their spacing in the wheel determine the wheel's structure.
Higher portion of the bond ( which may be lost unlike abrasive) denoted coarse or open structure (
(9 to 15 or even higher) while lower portion of bond denotes close or dense structure ( 1 to 8) .
Open structured grinding wheel is used for soft, tough and ductile material as well as in heavy cuts,
while close structured is use for grinding hard, brittle material and finishing cuts.
The ideal abrasive has the ability to stay sharp with minimal point dulling.
When dulling begins, the abrasive fractures, creating new cutting points.
Crack in grinding wheel is developed due to high speed of wheel.
The tool life in case of a grinding wheel is the time taken between two successive wheel dressings.
 ABRASIVE
Aluminium oxide is the most common abrasive used in grinding wheels. It is usually the abrasive
chosen for grinding carbon steel, alloy steel, high speed steel, annealed malleable iron, wrought
iron, and bronzes and similar metals (high tensile strength material) .
Zirconia alumina made from a different percentage of aluminium oxide and zirconium oxide.
Silicon carbide is an abrasive used for grinding gray iron, chilled iron, brass, soft bronze and
aluminum, as well as stone, rubber , cast iron, ceramics, cemented carbide and other non-
ferrous materials (low tensile strength) .
Ceramic aluminium oxide is the newest abrasives. This is a high-purity grain manufactured in a gel
sintering process. The result is an abrasive with the ability to fracture at a controlled rate at the sub-
micron level, constantly creating thousands of new cutting points. This abrasive is exceptionally
hard and strong. It is primarily used for precision grinding in demanding applications on steels and
alloys that are the most difficult to grind
PROBLEMS IN GRINDING WHEEL
Glazing
A grinding wheel become glazed ( cutting edges take glass-like appearance) due to wear of the
abrasive grain (NOT due to breakage of the grains). A glazed wheel has decreased cutting capacity.
 Glazing in grinding wheel takes place when wheel is hard ( content of bonds is more ) and the
wheel is turned at high speed.
Loading
The wheel is loaded if the particles of the metal being ground adhere to the wheel. The openings or
pores of the wheel face are filled up with the metal.
It is caused by grinding a softer material or by using a very hard bonded wheels and running it very
slowly.
It may also take place if very deep cuts are taken by not using the right type of coolant.
Chattering
The wavy pattern of crisscross lines are visible on the ground surface some times. This condition is
known as chattering.
It takes place when the spindle bearings are not fitted correctly and because of the imbalance of the
grinding wheel.
 DRESSING AND TRUING OF THE WHEEL
 These two terms are sometimes lumped together as “conditioning”.
Inexpensive conventional abrasive wheels are relatively robust: dressing and truing can often be
performed at the same time and repeated periodically. The same is not true for CBN and
diamond grinding wheels.
 DEFINITION
WHY TRUE A GRINDING WHEEL?
No matter how precisely manufactured, once a grinding wheel is mounted on a spindle there will be
some eccentricity.
Even if it's less than 0.001”•it's going to affect the final size and finish of the workpiece, so
to produce high-quality work the wheel must be trued.
Truing creates a smooth surface on the wheel periphery, and with no exposed grit the wheel won't cut.
Dressing sharpens the wheel by removing bond material and fracturing the super abrasive grit to
expose fresh edges, so dressing always follows truing.
A superabrasive grinding wheel is largely self-sharpening.
Resin and vitrified super abrasive grinding wheels have some depth to the matrix. This allows a
wheel to be dressed and trued several times. However, plated and metal bond wheels have a much
thinner layer of grit and can only be trued to the depth available.
 LAPPING VS HONING
Lapping is a final abrasive finishing operation that produces extreme dimensional accuracy,
corrects minor imperfections of shape, refines surface finish and produces close fit between
mating surfaces. MRR is 0.005mm to 0.01mm. Most lapping is done with a tooling plate or wheel
(the lap) and fine-grained loose abrasive particles suspended in a viscous or liquid vehicle such as
soluble oil, mineral oil or grease. It is not a stock removal process.
Honing is a low-velocity abrading process. Material removal is accomplished at lower cutting
speeds than in grinding. Therefore, heat and pressure are minimized, resulting in excellent size and
geometry control. The most common application of honing is on internal cylindrical surfaces.
The cutting action is obtained using abrasive sticks mounted on a metal mandrel. Since the work is
fixed in such a way as to allow floating, without clamping or chucking, there is no distortion. It is a
stock removal process
In order to obtain a surface finish of 0.75 micon to 1.25 micron, the operation needed is called
grinding.
 MILLING MACHINE
 Multi point tool  MRR and accuracy is best High production rate even replacing the planer and shaper
machine.
Types of milling machine
1. Column and Knee type – most commonly used milling m/c . It is subdivided into Hand, Horizontal(plain) ,
Vertical , Universal and omniversal MM.
I. Horizontal MM  has an arbor parallel to the shop floor.
II. Vertical MM has a spindle perpendicular to the shop floor.
III. Universal MM The table can be swiveled (up to 45 degree) in addition to vertical motion of that
horizontal milling machine table has. Uses – Twist drill, milling cutters straight and taper works.
IV. Omniversal MM  In addition to the table movements obtained in a universal milling machine, the knee
can be tilted to a required angle. It is useful for machining helical grooves, reamer and bevel gears. It is
mostly used in tool room work. For spiral grooves in reamers and bevel gears.
V. Hand MM It simplest of all types of milling machine in which table feeding is controlled by hand. The
cutter is mounted on a horizontal arbour and is rotated by power.

NOTE - Arbour is an extension and is fitted inside spindle and it transfers the rotational motion of spindle to the
DIFFERENCE
STUDY THIS PICTURE CAREFULLY
 MOTION POSSIBLE IN PLAIN MILLING M/C
X-axis  longitudinalwhen the table is moved at right angles to the spindle.
Y-axis Verticalwhen the table is adjusted in the vertical plane.
Z-axis Crosswise motionwhen the table is moved parallel to the spindle.
 LIKE SERIOUSLY
The plain milling machine is more rigid and heavier in construction than a universal milling
machine of the same size.
All gearing mechanism including the power feed mechanism is enclosed within the knee.
The face of the spindle which lies near to the table has an internal taper machined on it.
Fixed bed machines are large, heavy and rigid in construction.
In a planer, the table moves to give the cutting speed. But in a plano-milling machine, the table
movement gives the feed. ULTRA LEGENDS
Back lash is a problem in down milling only. Flat surfaces can be milled using down
milling process.
DRAWBOLT AND JAM NUT
A jam nut is a low profile
type of nut, typically half as
tall as a standard nut. It is
commonly used as a type of
locknut, where it is
"jammed" up against a
standard nut to lock the two
in place. It is also used in
situations where a standard
nut would not fit.
2. FIXED BED (MANUFACTURING) MILLING MACHINE
The bed of the machine is fixed to the machine. The worktable is direct situated at the fixed bed.
There is no arrangement of knee and saddle cannot be moved vertically and transversally.
The spindle is mounted on a movable spindle head. It can move in vertical, horizontal and
transverse direction and perform the cutting operation. Based on number of the motion, it can be
simplex ( any 1 motion from 1 spindle head), duplex (any 2 motions) and triplex (all the three
motions)
 3. PLANAR MILLING MACHINE (PLANO-MILLER)
It has look of double column planar machine.
Long, straight surfaces of large, heavy parts can be machined .
It is a massive machine used for heavy-duty work having spindle heads adjustable in vertical and
transverse direction.
Multiple heads can be adjusted  great reduction in production time.
 MISCELLANEOUS
Rotary Table Milling Machine- The table is circular in nature and rotates about a vertical axis. Here
cutters are set at different heights. Which results in one cutter roughing the workpiece and other one
cutter finishing them.
Pantograph Milling Machine – It can duplicate a job by using a pantograph mechanism. It allows
the size of the workpiece reproduced to be smaller than, equal to or greater than the size of a
template. Also used for the different model for special purposes.
Drum Milling Machine –
Planetary Milling Machine - This machine is also adapted for milling internal and external threads.
Tracer MM – It is designed to dupirregular part geometry ( in 2D tracer, in 3D duplicator)
Profiling Milling Machine – It duplicates the full size of the template attached to the machine.
 TERMINOLOGIES
Gash is the chip space between the back of one tooth and the face of next tooth.
The portion where chip impinges is called face. It lies portion of gash adjacent to the cutting edge.
 TYPES OF MILLING OPERATION

Peripheral or Slab or plain milling –

miller axis is parallel to milling
surface Face miller- axis of the cutter
perpendicular to the surface
FACE MILLING
End milling - To produce flat surfaces, grooves, keyways, slots
Side milling – to produce flat surfaces in Horizontal MM
Slot milling – to produce different types of slots in vertical MM
Angular milling – Vee notches, grooves and serrations
Straddle milling – same types of surfaces in same work piece simultaneously
Gang milling – different types of surfaces in same work piece simultaneously
Saw milling – producing narrow grooves or slits
Helical or spiral milling – producing grooves around a cylindrical or conical w/p
Profile milling-
Pocket milling – producing shallow pockets in flat surfaces.
Surface contouring – 3D surface using ball-nose cutter.
Gears can be best produced on mass production by hobbing.
In gear shaping, tooth is cut one by one while in gear hobbing all tooth are cut simultaneously till
the completion of process. In gear shaping, accuracy is good but it is a slow process while gear
hobbing is both accurate(pretty much) and fast process.
Gear lapping is an operation after heat treatment.

 MCQ
Climb milling is chosen while machining because

[A]. the chip thickness increase gradually

[B]. it enables the cutter to dig in and start the cut @
[C]. the specific power consumption is reduced
[D]. better surface finish can be obtained
Because I am sold my soul to the devil.
 REMAINDER
Segmental chips are the discontinuous chips. During machining of hard materials like cast iron, the
chip formed doesn't have the energy (machining forces) absorbing capacity. So they immediately
transfer the energy in the form of crack to the end of the chip thickness resulting in
small/discontinuous/segmental chips.
Since the chips break up into small segments the friction between the tool and the chips reduces’
resulting in better surface finish. It also increases tool life and consumes less power.
Presence of discontinuous chips in ductile-materials results in poor-finish and excessive tool-wear.
 Sometimes, cutting of ductile metals at very low feeds with small rake angle of the cutting tool and
high speeds and high friction forces at the chip tool interface also result in the production of
discontinuous chips.
GEAR HOBBING
 INDEXING PROCESS
Milling operations sometimes, require the rotation of job correct to fractions of minutes.
for example - each groove, slots, teeth need to be cut evenly on the job surface.
The accuracy of spacing of teeth is very important particularly when the work is of precision
character e.g., gear teeth, shafts, cutter teeth etc.
The operation of rotating the job through a required angle between two successive cuts is termed as
indexing.
This is accomplished with the help of a milling attachment known as dividing head, which is an
accessory to the milling machine.
It helps to divide the job periphery into a number of equal divisions, i.e., square, hexagonal
octagonal, etc.
TO ROTATE A JOB THROUGH REQUIRED ANGLE, ONE NEEDS:

(i) A device to rotate the job index crank

(ii) A source which can ensure that the job has been rotated through the desired angle  index
plate.
The index-plate has a number of holes arranged concentrically, so that each circle has a number of
holes equally spaced.
When the index plate makes 40 revolutions, the job makes one revolution.