INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

The Dravidian Movement, wrongly called the Non-Brahmin Movement, I was

a socio-political movement of far-reaching consequences. It was an epoch-making
and path-breaking event in the history of India, with particular reference to Southern
India, particularly of the Madras Presidency. It tried to dismantle the monopolistic
socio-religious, politico-economic position enjoyed by the Brahmins, who constituted
a little more than three percent of the population. This microscopic minority. using
their knowledge, acquired through centuries of monopoly, enjoyed educational
privileges and occupied envious positions under the British raj. For this minority was
the first to realise the benefits of English education in India. Pushingdown the original
inhabitants of the erstwhile Madras Presidency to degraded positions, this minority
enjoyed coveted positions under the raj. As a consequence, the larger majority
groaned and groped under the weight of this minority and darkness of illiteracy,
ignorance and superstition, which were all blessings in disquise for the few. Even the
literate few of the Dravidian stock was relegated to the background and their psyche
very much affected. The affected few slowly realised their misfortunes and rose up
with their banner of revolt in the form of a broad-based movement to assert their
rights, occupy positions of honour, recapture their past glory, redeem the mistakes of
their predecessors and leave a conducive and healthy atmosphere for the generations
to come.

Since the movement helped to bring about much radical changes in the socio-
political and even religious and econo~nicscenario of the Madras Presidency, many
scholars, sociologists, journalists, politicians, anthropologists. and historians have colile
forward to recapture the ~ilovementin its pristine purity. They include both Indian
(South Indian-Tamilian) and foreign scholars. The first attempt towards this mas begun
by Muthuswami Pillai (1939) in Tamil and T.S. Thiruvengadam (1955) in English. It
was followed by a galaxy of eminent scholars including P.D. Devanathan ( 1 959). M.

' Wrongly called so by the native and foreign scholars who thought that this movement was directed
against the (ethnic) Brahmins alone. In fact, it was a Movement spearheaded for freeing the enslaved
majorif)/ ethnically, linguistically, culturally and even religiously. Upto 19 16. with particular reference
to the Non-Brahmin Manifesto, it was called the Dravidian Movetilent, in which the Dravidian meant
the native population, excluding the Aryan-Brahmins.
Parthasarati (1961), Robert L.Hardgrave (1965), S.N. Balasundaram (1967),
l3ugene.F. Irschick (1969), P. Spratt (1970), S. Saraswathi (1974), P.S. Ilango
(1 975), C.J. Baker (1 976), Margret Ross Barnet (1 976), P.Chakravarthy(l977),
D.A.Washbrook (1977), Kasinath K. Kavlekar (1979), K. Nambi Arooran (1980),
R. Sundaralingam (1980), N.K. Mangalamurugesan (1981), K. Sadasivan (1981),
A.N. Sattanathan (1982), V.R. Chandran (1982). Kamil V. Zvelebil (1985), Indhu
Rajagopal (1985), Guna (1986), Pon Neelan (1986), Pon Maran (1988),
I'.Rajaraman (1988), A.S. Venu (1990), Ka. Thirunavukkarasu (1991), Murasoli
Maran(199 I), M.S.S. Pandyan (1 994), A.R. Venkatachalapathy (1 994), Karthigesu
Sivathamby (1995), R. Neduncheziyan (1996). Sa. Saminathan (1998) and
K. Ponmudi (1999). These works are both in Tamil and ~ n ~ l i s h *

Among these scholars, Ka. Thirunavukkarasu alone has realised the importance
of tracing the roots of the movement. However, he too has not gone into the deep-roots,
which went into the soil many centuries back and remained active at certain times and
inactive at major times, because of the pulls and pressures exerted downwards by
various factors of time and space. Ka. Thirunavukkarasu, in fact, thus made the
beginnings of tracing the roots, which exerted an influence on the present scholar to
ponder over further and delve deep into the depths of history and trace the original roots
of the movement. The present scholar presents here a humble attempt that he has made
for the past eight years to touch the very primary roots of the movement.

The present scholar, in course of his study, has understood that the roots of the
Movenlent were deeply rooted in the history of Tamil Nadu. Therefore, he has gone
into the nlinds of the radical Tamil poets of the ancient times, who have tried to draw a
line oi' demarcation between the Aryan and Dravidian, North and South, Sanskrit and
Dravidian (TI). However. the awakening dawned on the Dravidian population of the
Madras Presidency only towards the end of the 19"' century after the publication of
Bishop Dr. Robert Caldwell's much acclai~lledand talked about book A Comparative-
Grarn~narof the Dravidian or South Indian Farnily of Languages (1856) and the
conceptualization of the Dravidian ideology by Prof. P. Sundaram Pillai (1891). But, in

The bibliographical details of the above mentioned articles and books are given in the bibliography
part of this thesis. Many more contributions of eminent persons would have missed the eyes of the
present scholar. \\tho is on the hunt of locating the left out ones. if any.
fact, the intentions of Dr. Caldwell and Prof. Sundaram Pillai did not attract the
attentions of the learned Dravidians in the 19'" century. The former two scholars just
sowed the seeds of change which began to sprout only in the beginning of the first
quarter of the 20"' century. Though the realization was late, it was not too late; once
they realised their earlier mistakes, they were the first to make amends and organise
themselves into a mighty force. This mighty force continues to work In the soil of its
origin with changes, both minor and major and exerts its influence over other areas as
well.

In fact, the 1 9 ' ~century presented a picture of socio-economic and political

inlbalance. In the 20'" century there arose the need for correcting the imbalance. The
attempt to correct the imbalance took the form of a movement, which its founder father
called the Dravidian Movement. The naming of the Movement as s ~ ~ cwas
h only to
bring about a kind of awakening and unity among the affected section of Southern India.
This n ~ o v e n ~ e served
nt as an outlet to this section to express its grievances and get them
redressed.

However, its genesis was not sudden, but out of strong roots, which are until now
not known to many. In addition, its roots are n d single but multiple. To trace the deep
roots of this movement, a study has to be attempted about the condition of the society
under the British rule. Besides, the study tries to analyse the multiple factors which
resulted in this movement. The main purpose of this study is. therefore. to unravel the
various deep roots of this movement. This, however, remained a desideratum for
long and this scholar makes a humble attempt to recapture its roots and thus tries to add
to the existing filnd of historical knowledge.

Society under the British Rule

From very early days various rulers of the Chera, Chola. P a n d ~ a .Sata\~ahana.
Vakatalta, Pallava. Chalukya, Rastrakuta, Bana. Gajapati. Reddi. Vija\
. . L~nagara-Nayak

dynasties ruled South India. Since 1800 South India came under tlic' control of the
British. For their administrative convenience. they formed a presidc.ncy called the
Madras Presidency by incorporating parts of Tamil Nadu. Andhra. 011ssa.Karnatal\a
and Malabar regions and divided it into various districts. In 1917 thc' c'11til.c' Madras
 Presidency was divided into 25 districts3. In fact, the territory of this presidency
extended from Ganjam in the North-East and Tirunelveli in the South, Chengalpet in
the East and South Canara in the West. A majority of the Tamil-speaking population
lived in twelve of the 25 districts of the Madras Presidency. Telugu-speaking population
lived in eleven districts and Kannada and Malayalam-speaking population in one district
each. The then society was broadly classified into three main layers viz, the Brahmins.
the non-Brahmins, and the Depressed-classes. Among them, there existed many castes
and sub-castes4. Amidst these distinctions and differences, there was a COIII~IIOII bond
of unity among the Brahmins, which was found wanting among other sections. The
advent of the British and the introduction of English education in India had given
enough opportunities to the Brahmins who rapidly realized the benefits of English
education and entered the administrative edifice of the presidency. Besides, the
Brahmins, there existed three other major groups in South India, which were wrongly
but collectively called the non-Brahmins. They were (i) the non-Brahmin caste-Hindus
like the Mudaliars. Naidus. Chettiars, Maravars, Pillamars. Nayars (Malabar) and so on.
(ii)The Muslims, and (iii) The Indian Christians. Apart from these, the Depressed
classes or the untouchables formed the lowest stratum of the society.

Among the non-Brahmin caste-Hindus, there were educated, influential and

wealthy few. However. the Muslims were lacking in education, occupation and
futuristic perspective. Besides, they did not allow their womenfolk to acquire
knowledge and self-earning. They were very late to realise the importance of English
education. In addition, they developed some hatred for the British for they brought
down their rule in India. The Indian Christians of the non-Brahmin section, particularly
of southern Tamilnadu, were at the mercy of their caste-Hindus and met with disabilities
of caste, religion and wealth. The untouchables suffered heavily under the weight of
tl~oseabove then1 and were ill-treated.
At this Juncture. the educated and wealthy Mudaliyars, the Pillaimars and the
Chettiars realised the incr?asing influence of the Brahmins in the society, education and

.' Adrnitiistratioti Report of the Madras Presidency for the year 1917-1918, Madras. 191S1p. 2

' For instance. the Brahmins of the erstwhile Tamilnadu had 13 sub-sects. based on gotra and kula
distinctions. Each one had its distinct caste rules and regulations, dos and donots. Generally, there was
no inter-dining. inter caste niarriages and inter-sect relizious rituals. G. Thangavelu, Tamil Nila
varalal-urn, Palipaturn (TI.). Chennai, 1976. p. 134. & N . Subrahmanian, T h e Brahmin in the
Tamil Country, Madurai 1989. pp. 176-1 80.
administration. They too developed a kind of hatred for the Brahmins and wanted the
Brahmins be eased out of their dispropoi-tionate positions. However, the emerging non-
Brahmin caste-Hindus could not match themselves with the 'elitist' and 'hegemonic'
position of the Brahmins. In addition, there arose groupisms, factionalisms and
sectioilalisms among these non-Brahmins, which very much affected their pursuits.
But, it. in fact, created a middle class elitist group in the Madras nletropolis. It was
under such a situation, some already enlightened non-Brahmin caste-Hindus of the
stature of Gajalil Lakshrni Narasu Chetty wanted to create a kind of awakening and unity
among the non-Brahmin caste-Hindus.

Meanwhile, Lakshmi Narasu Chetty, a wealthy non-Brahmin caste-Hindu

started an association namely the Madras Native Association in 1852. He published a
journal called the Crescent and appealed to the people to leave petitions with the British
administrators for the redressal of their grievances. This premier political association
objected strongly to the caste disabilities in the Hindu society. It served as a turning
point in the history of the non-Brahmins in the Madras Presidency.

Even then much could not be achieved by the non-Brahmins for the elitist
Brahninic domination of the Indian National Congress (INC). Though many non-
Brahmins joined the national mainstream their services could not receiv due recognition.
Therefore, there occurred a wide gap between the minority Brahmins and the majority
non-Brahmins. The untouchables too realised their neglect and degraded position.
Though a few of them received education under the care of the European missionaries
and sought good positions under British raj, they were not recognised by the minority of
the INC. Their demands for redressal of their grievances were not heared off, nor their
social position guaranteed. It was under such a situation Pandit C. Ayothidas, a learned
nlember of the untouchables, helped the founding of the Dravida Mahajana Sabha in
1891, \vhich also served as a turning-point in the history of the Depressed-classes in the
Madras Presidency.

Even after the founding of the Madras Native Association or the Dravida
Mahajana Sabha and their concerted attempts for social recognition. and political
positions, much could not be achieved by the non-Brahmins and the Depressed-classes.
Mean~ihile,the Brahmin hold in the INC was increasing by leaps and bounds. The
increasing demands of the non-Brahmins and Depressed-classes were not heared off nor
their petitions. The Brahmin minority, in fact, blocked their ways and prevented the
government from taking measures of rehabititation and redressal of grievances. On the
one hand, the British government was pressed for reforms and, on the other hand, it was
prevented from initiating such measures. However, such a wide gap between the natives
came in handy for them to continue their rule by invoking their policy of Divide et
Empera.

Thereupon, the non-Brahmins the particularly Natesa Mudaliar: wanted to settle

their scores with the minority and the raj by politically and socially awakening their
castemen. They resorted to found Dravidian Association, Dravidian Home and the
like in and around 1912.This ultimately resulted in the founding of the South Indian
Liberal Federation in 19 16. This was a break through in the long and checked history
of the Dravidian Movement. Starting from the Sangam age (c.BC 500 <.AD 300), the
Dravidian sentiments gained momentum through the writings of the Siddhars and
entered into a formative period during the last half of the 1 9 ' ~century, and reached its
genesis in the first quarter of the 20'" century.

The Dravidian Movement was the cumulative effect of various currents which
worked underneath many centuries back; but they made their appearance in some form
in the later half of the 191h century when Bishop Dr. Robert Caldwell gave a new
orientation to the already existing Dravidian language them and popularised and the
Dravidian idea among the learned scholars, particularly among the linguists, historians
and social scientists, and when Prof. P. Sundaram Pillai provided it a conceptual frame
work and when Natesa Mudaliar gave it a new a direction and when Dr. T.M. Nair and
Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetti finally gave it an organisational framework, though Gajalu
Lakshmi Narasu Chetti gave it unity of purpose and Pandit Ayothidas spearheaded a
change for the better. It all started with the re-interpretation of ancient Tamil classics
and researches done into the linguistic pre-history of Tamil language by the European
Dravidologists, who very much differed from the Indologists of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Bengal, who disclosed to the world the linguistic affinit! of Sanskrit with
other Indo-European languages. As a challenge to this theor!, the European
Dravidologists brought out the racial, linguistic and regional affinit) of the Dravidian
languages and the antiquity of Tamil language and literature.
Scope and Purpose
The study proposes to analyse those roots which promoted the emergence of the
Dravidian Movement in the Madras Presidency. They were both native and foreign in
their inner meaning and basic concepts. However, the inner currents and foreign forces
which gave shape to this movement have not received the adequate attention of the
scholars. The earlier researchers were under the impression that the Dravidian
Movement was purely of the Tamil origin. But, an extensive and intensive study helps
us prove that the roots of the movement were spread over a large part of the then Madras
Presidency. On a closer examination, it is learnt that the matured Dravidian linguistic
groups like the Tamils, the Telugus, the Kannadas and the Malayalese have largely
contributed to the emergence of this movement. Though limited to the erstwhile Madras
Presidency, the scope of the study is found to be vast and very much rewarding. Since a
study in this direction is found wanting, the present scholar, finding its scope and
purpose very assuring, has ventured into this study . The purpose of the study is to
unravel these inner currents and foreign forces which cumulatively helped the rise of
this movement, besides other factors which have already been laid bare by earlier
scholars. The main aim of this study is to disprove the prevailing been sent theories
about the genesis of the movement and establish that the movement sprouted in the 2oth
century as a result of the working of various factors, whose &iquity is embedded in
ancient history, language and culture.

Universe of the Study

The area coverage of this study is the erstwhile Madras Presidency of the
colonial period wherein, the Dravidian language group of the Tamil, Telugu, Kannada
and Malayalam-speaking people lived. Although some native states did not form part
of the Madras Presidency, their people were not in any way cut off from this
movement. These people too form part of this study. It was they who either
collectively or separately contributed to the emergence of the movement, for they
were liilguistically and culturally akin to one another, besides sharing some of the
burdens of Brahmin hegemony.
 Period of Study
The study focuses its attention on its formative5 as well as its most
constructive period from 1852 to 1917. This is justified because of two reasons: (i)
The Madras Native Association was founded by a non-Brahmin caste-Hindu, namely
Gajalu Lakshmi Narasu Chetty in 1852. It was the first political association in
Southern India to air its views claiming social change. It objected strongly to the
discrin~inativeprovisions of Hinduism and served to the cause of the emancipation of
the non-Brahmins. (ii) Although Natesa Mudaliar awakened the Dravidian sentiments
by his Dravidian Association and the Dravidian Home or Hostel (1912), it did not.
bring about revolutionary changes. But, the SILF, the political organ of the non-
Brahmins (Dravidians), formed in 1916 and renamed as the Justice Party in 1917 by
Sir Pitti Theagaraya Chetti and Dr. T.M. Nair and other like-mined people, really
spearheaded the revolutionary change by introducing measures for socio-political
equality at least to the educated non-Brahmins. The party began its work by
organizing several conferences throughout the Madras Presidency. It was therefore
during this period between 1852 and 1917 that intense social, educational, legal,
economic and political awakening and change took place in this presidency, although
its grounds were laid even earlier. This, with the passage of time, paved the way for
the growing consciousness among the elites of the non-Brahmins, who sought
'

separate identity and forged unity among themselves.

Hypothesi(e)s of the Study

The following assumptions and surmises made by the scholar at random need
thorough research. As said earlier the movement was not of the result of a single
cause but of multiple causes. These factors were not of recent origin but have very
deep roots in the history and culture of the people. However, some powerful remote
as well as recent forces led to the emergence of the movement in the 1920's. They
are:

( i ) Exploring India's Past and Discovering the Dravidian;

( i i ) Early Tamil Works and Discovery of the Dravidian Consciousness;

5
In fact, its formative period is not in the modern times. Its formative period has a long history, i.e.,
from the Sangam age, age of bhakti and the age o f the Tamil Siddhars.
 (iii) European Dravidologists and Re-discovery of the Dravidian;
(iv) Dravidian Awakening and the Pure-Tamil Movement;

(v) Reform and Re-activization of the Dravidian;

(vi) British Government and Sub-nationalism of the Dravidians; and

(vii) Congress Activities and Birth of the Dravidian Movement.

The historical value of these hypotheses is to be tested in the light of primary

sources; their validity ascertained; their cumulative effect analysed; and the theme
that the Dravidian Movement was born as a result of the working of the above factors
deeply rooted in the soil even before 1852, has to be verified and established.

Review of Literature
This part of the study makes a review of only the related literature. Many
scholars have contributed towards highliting the importance of the movement,
sometimes having no bearing on the subject under discussion. This scholar has
therefore attempted a critical appraisal of the works of various scholars and their
views on the subject of study. A review of previous literature helps researchers to
understand the areas that have been leftout and, in addition, the new findings of
earlier studies. They also help scholars make a critical examination and evaluation of
their merit in relation to their themes of studies. Studies about the Dravidian
Movement have begun to appear both in Tamil, and English in book and article forms
from 1939 onwards. Today we have a fairly good number of publications pertaining
to the movement. The study of previous closely related literature is commented here
in a chronoIogical order and these are both in Tamil and English.

h4uthuswami Pillai's Needi Katchi Varalaru gives a brief account of the

origin. growth and decline of the Justice Party in Tamil ~ a d u No
. ~ doubt, to the best
of the present scholar's knowledge, S. Muthuswami Pillai's historical recollection of
the Sustice party is the first study available today. However, the study has no direct
bearning on the genesis of the movement. T.S. Thiruvengadam is said to have made

6
S. Muthuswami Pillai, Neethi Katchi Varalaru,(TI.), Chennai, 1939.
 his pioneening work in 1955 i.e., The Dravidian Movement: A ~ e t r o s ~ e c t . '
Similarly, Robert L. Hardgrave Jr. has made a brief historical study of the Dravidian
Movement leading to the emergence of an effective political party in Tamil ~ a d u . '
But, he did not make any detailed study about the causes and factors responsible for
the formation of the Justice party. Meanwhile, Eugene.F. Irschick had traced the
history of the non-Brahmin Movement along with Tamil separatism in the Madras
~ r e s i d e n c ~He
. ~ treats the Self-Respect Movement as a symbol of social conflict
between the non-Brahmins and the Brahmins. He then analyses the causes for the
growth of Dravidian national politics between 1925 and 1929. However, his work
does not even pretend to study the backdrop of the emergence of the Justice Party, for
the period covered in this study is limited between 1916 and 1929. In fact, it is
perhaps one of the best earlier studies on this subject.

In the meantime, S. Saraswathi's work deals with the political role of different
caste groups in the Madras ~ r e s i d e n c ~ . "In the second chapter of her book , she has
analysed the formation of the SILF and its growth. But, she has not focused her
attention on the contribution of the British government and the Christian missionaries
for the cause of the non-Brahmins in the Madras Presidency.

Another work, an article by P. Chakravarthy h i s h e s valuable information

about the rise of the Justice party." It has a lot of very useful information, which has
influenced the present scholar to take up this for a special treatment.

Meanwhile, D.A. Washbrook critically examines some of the factors that led
to the genesis of provincialism in the Madras presidencyI2 His is really a historical

7
This scholar's hunt for this book in many libraries did not materialise. But, mention of it in the
bibliographies of various books is available. This scholar is still hunting for the book.
S
Robert L. Hardgrave, The Dravidian Movement, Bombay, 1965.
9
Eugune. F. Irschick, Politics and Social Conflict in South India, The Non-Brahmin Movement
and Tamil Separatism 1916-1929,Bombay, 1969.

lo S. Saraswathi, Minorities in Madras State: Group Interests in Modern Politics. Delhi, 1974.
II
P. Chakravarthy, "Emergence of the Justice Party", Journal of Indian History, Vol. LV, Part I
and 11, 1977, pp. 283-306.

''D.A. Washbrook, T h e Emergence of Provincial Politics, The Madras Presidency 1870-1920,

New Dell~i,1977.
analysis of the socio-economic and administrative matters of the presidency between
1870 and 1920. The study throws some light on the formative period of the Dravidian
Movement in the presidency, which is useful but not wholesome.

In the vast array of literature to find out a book of relevance is of great

pleasure like locating and oasis in the vast dessert. That kind of pleasure the scholar
derived when he began reading the article of K. Sadasivan. It was of immense value,
for it alone, of all books, articles and papers published at various times and at various
places, makes a thorough study of the various roots of the Dravidian consciousness,
which was given vent to by the poets of the classical age of Tamil literature." In fact,
it caught my imagination to ponder over further and farther into the roots of the
Dravidian consciousness deeply rooted in the works of that far off age. He has alone
understood the crux of the problem and analysed it in his paper in a critical way,
citing instances from the Tamil classics.

When K. Sadasivan discovered the idea of a 'fundamental cultural unity'

underlying the activities of the Tamils (regional, racial, linguistic, religious and
cultural), the Tamil world was not taken by surprise. It took a decade for the Tamil
world to approve of it and adopt his views in the subsequent studies, both native and
foreign. However, his views found further credence when the czeth scholar of great
standing Kamil V. Zvelebil reiterated mostly similar views in his writings . The
writings of both K. Sadasivan and Kamil Zvelebil have been of irnrnence help to this
scholar in tracing the roots of the Dravidian Movement.

In June 1985 an article of this famous Tamil Czech scholar, appeared in the
Journal of Tamil Studies [IITS,Adyar (~ararnani)].'~
The article is on "A Note on
Early History of Dravidology." It is an historical tracing of all the pioneer European
Dravidologists, beginning from St. Francis Xavier, Fr. Henri Henriques, Francis

" K. Sadasivan, "Concept of Cultural Unity in Ancient Tamilaham", Prof.T.K.Venkatraman3s

81" Birth Day Commemoration Volume. Madurai 1981. However. he has not used the well-known
term Dravidian, for the reason that the term Dravidian has become more pronounced in the linguistic
studies rather than in historical studies. Instead he has used the phrase "Concept of Cultural Unity",
perhaps because he is sure that the Tamil culture is certainly distinct from Sanskrit culture and it
embraces all features such as language and literature, region and religion, and thought and history.

Kaniil.V.Zvelebil "A Note on Early History o f Dravidolog..", J o u r n a l of Tamil Studies, [ITS, June
l4

1985, pp. 1-13.

 White Ellis, who coined the phrase 'the dialects of Southern India7, for the newly
. discovered family of languages, and Bishop Dr. Robert Caldwell, who coined the
word 'Dravidian' for this family of languages (The term 'Dravidian' is in no way a
new discovery, but its usage to the linguistic and racial family is certaing new and
that is Dr. Caldwell's own usage) and many more Dravidologists subsequent of the
age (Dr. Kamil Zvelebil's usage is 'Dravidianists'). It is one of the most invaluable
and related studies about the beginnings of European (Missionary and Secular)
interest in the studies of Tamil and her family of languages. This scholar has
profusely used Kamil Zvelebil's findings and even quoted his statements, wherever
found necessary and valuable. In addition, the same Czech scholar has written
another long article entitled "Rediscovery of Ancient Tamil Literature: The Tamil
Renaissance", which appeared in 1992 in the Companion Studies to the History of
Tamil ~iterature."The present scholar owes a lot to his usages "Rediscovery" and
"Tamil Renaissance." This scholar has, of course, received much inspiration from
his analyses and interpretations, for they speak about the present problem of
Dravidology.

Meanwhile, R. Srinivasan in his article examines the background of the

emergence of the Dravidian linguistic ideology and tells us as to how it was picked
up by the Saivite Vellalas, who changed it into a political movement.16 Srinivasan's
view clearly shows that the Dravidian ideology emerged in the later half of the
nineteenth century. His finding that the movement owes its genesis to the Saivite
Vellalas needs further examination.

I the meantime, another work appeared in Tamil Nadu. That was P.

Rajaraman's study on the Justice Party, a valuable attempt." It throws light on the
origin, growth and decline of the Justice Party. The second chapter of his work brings
out the non-Brahmin consciousness, which is, of course, not new.

I5
Kamil.V.Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, Netherlands. 1992
pp. 144-222.

l6 R. Srinivasan. "The Ideological Genesis of the Dravidian Movement", Indo-British Review,

Vol.XIII, No. I, 1987.
17
P. Rajaraman, The Justice Party - A Historical Perspective 1916-1937, Madras 1988.
 Meanwhile, Ka Thirunavukkarasu's Dravida Iyakka Verkal purports to give
a detailed account of those personalities connected with the advancement of the
~ravidians." Here and there the author touches some of the roots of the movement,
however, not in a logical way; one has to search for and locate those roots amidst a
mass of biographical sketches. To caution one should not be carried away by its title.

It was by this time that the politician Murasoli Mara'n work appeared. Maran
however gives a vivid account of the formation of the Justice party.I9 It is perhaps the
first Tamil work which describes chronologically the various factors that led to the
emergence of the Dravidan Movement. However, he has too failed to trace the very
deep roots of the movement, though he is not conversant with them.

Meanwhile, late R. Nedunchezhian, again a politician well versed in Tamil

language and culture, tried to trace the origin of the Dravidian Movement from the
Indus Valley Civilization to the anti-Hindi agitation of 1939.~'In fact, he had clearly
described the various stages in the movement: but he too has also failed to touch the
basic grounds of the movement embedded in the regional, racial, linguistic and
cultural moorings of the Tamils.

In fact, V. Ravindran's view that the ideological genesis of the Dravidian

Movement had its beginnings in the philological work of Bishop Dr. Robert
Caldwell, has direct bearing on the present study.21 He has really understood the
movement and its genesis. His view that Caldwell's linguistic and cultural identity
about the Dravidians, undoubtedly helped the later Dravidian Scholars to forge ahead
an organisation, is of immense value to this study. His arguments have helped the
present scholar to go further into the problem of the genesis of the movement,
particularly into the antiquity of the Tamil literature and the Dravidian consciousness.
In fact, such an attempt to go into the depth of the psyche of the Tamils has borne

18
Ka. Thirunavukkarasu, Dravida Iyakka Verkal, (TI.), Chennai, 1991.
I0
Murasoli Maran, Dravida Iyakka Varalaru, (TI.), Vol. 1 Chennai, 1991

'O R. Nedunchezhian, Dravida lyakka Varalaru, (TI.), Vol. I, Chennai, 1996. (formerly of the
Dravidian Movement, and later o f the DMK and very lately o f AIADMK)

'I V. Ravindran, "The Unanticipated Legacy of Robert Caldwell and the Dravidian Movement",
Soutll Indian St udies, No. I, 1996, pp. 83-1 10.
fruit. It reveals the separate identity, unity and sentiments expressed by Tamil poets
of the yore.

On a closer examination, it could be understood that most of them have failed

to trace and examine the roots of the movement, though they seem to provide some
detailed accounts about the later developments. The scholar has, of course, found
much material in the works of Murasoli Maran, Nedunchezhian, R. Srinivasan, P.
Rajaraman and V. Ravindran for their specific information in their own ways about
the beginnings of the movement. However, none of these studies is found to provide
a critical examination of the genesis of the movement, though they pretend to provide
such information. A study of its genesis therefore becomes imperative only to
understand the backdrops in which the movement had emerged in the Madras
Presidency. The value of these studies in this attempt is however not insignificant.
This scholar has drawn facts and figures from these studies wherever necessary and
critically assessed their value. On the whole, these are of immense help to the scholar
to trace the roots of the Dravidian Movement.

Sources
Sources are the bedrock of any study. Without information and evidence one
can not write history but can write fiction. In historical research every point or
finding has to be substantiated with proper evidence. A study in fact largely depends
on sources of various kinds for its reconstruction. This study has also depended on
both primary and secondary sources. In fact, there is a plethora of literature on the
subject. Besides the private collections-individual and institutional - and official
records available at the Tamil Nadu Archives, the Periyar Rationalist Library and
Research Centre, Theosophical Society Library, materials found in the corinemara
Library, Literary Society. Library Marai Malai Atikal Library, allat Chennai, some
other Libraries in Chennai and other places have also been used. Interviews were
held with some of the leaders, professing different ideologies, since they represent the
primary source of information for this study.

Much material is drawn to this study from the ancient Tamil literature,
popularly called the Sangam works , their commentaries and the outpourings of the
Siddhars. A close examination of these literatures discloses the fact that some of the
Sangam poets had developed the concept of regional, racial, linguistic and cultural
identity of the Tamils in those far off days. Their cryptic comments about the impact
of the caste system on a secular society, domination of the Sanskrit language and
Parpaniam (Brahrninism) are all points of great value. In fact, the present scholar
would like to place before the scholars his indebtedness to these poets who have
shown the way for the genesis of such a movement centuries back by their careful use
of ternlinologies and ideologies. Their ideologies and aspirations could not find a
way out for many centuries owing to political and linguistic subordination and
convulsions.

The Sangam works span over a long period of time from c.5Ih century B.C. to
~ . 3 ~ % e n t u rA.D.
~ Among the hundreds of poets, who have contributed to the
Academy of Scholars at Madurai, a few were very conscious of their living home,
their Tamil-speaking region, race and language. They refer to the north Indian
Brahmins as Vada Aryar and their language, Sanskrit, an alien language and their
culture alien to Tamil culture. Though they do not make any direct use of the term
Dravidian, they were well aware of its connotation and its use. These poets, in fact,
were the forerunners of the later concept of Dravidianism as claimed by K. Sadasivan
and Kamil V.Zvelebi1. These poets perhaps anticipated the Dravidian Movement to
emerge at a later time.

Following the path shown by some Sangam poets, the Siddhars of the late
medieval days mounted their arrows of attack on the north - Indian thoughts, systems
and values. Their vehement attacks on the caste system and the hegemony of the elite
Parpaniar (Brahmins) have added new dimension to the already existing regional,
racial, linguistic and cultural identity of the Tamils.

The Siddhars are said to have lived in various parts of Tamil Nadu and India
over a long period of time. Tamils consider even sage Agastya as a Siddhar and even
Tirunlular anlong the eighteen Siddhars. Tamil Siddhars were all secular in their
views, though to them Lord Siva was the only God. They were all medicinal men,
having command in alchemy and transfusion of soul. Among them, Sivavakkiyar,
Pampatti Siddhar. Pattinathar, Gnanavettiyan and Bhadragiriyar rose against the caste
system and the elitist hegemony of the Aryan Brahmins. They have used filthy words
to drive at home that there in no difference between a Brahmin and a Pariah in their
cohabitation and in their blood.

Of other primary sources mention may be made of some inscriptions. They

throw light on the derivation of the term Dravida. They include a few Tamili (Tamil
- B r a h i ) inscriptions, South Indian inscriptions and the Hathigumbha inscription of
Kharavela of Kalinga. These records refer to the terms Tramila, Tramida, Damila
and Dravida. These are all peculiar terms used mostly by the North Indians to refer
to the Tamila or Dravida or Tamil. Even some North Indian literary works such as
Bilhana's Vikramankadevacarita Lalitavitsara and Samavayanga Sutta refer to
the term Dravida or Tamila - Tamili. These references are of imrnence value in
reconstructing the origin of the Dravidian in the Indian context.

The other literary sources are the official archival materials. These archival or
governmental source materials throw some welcome light on the government's role
and its impact on the mission and work of the movement. Above all, the Madras
Native Newspaper Reports contain invaluable information about this since 1874.
During the early decades of the present century there was a mushrooming of
newspapers and periodicals' both in English and vernacular languages. Some of the
important papers like The Justice, The Andhra Patrika, The Arya Jana Prian,
Deshabhimani, The Dravida Varthamani, The Hindu, The Hindunesan,
Vituthalai, Kuti Arasu, The Rationalist, Andhra Prakasika, The Dravidian, The
Malayala Manorama, Malayalam Kerala Prakasika, Malayalam Kerala
Sanchari, Malayalam Kerala Patrika, The Madras Standard, The Madras Mail,
The Mysore Deshabhimani, The Mysore Star, Sudesamitran, South Indian
Mitram, and The Indian Patriot furnish information of contemporary importance.
The New India of the Theosophical Society edited by Dr. Annie Besant is a primary
source. carrying news views of national and regional importance.

In addition to this, a huge mass of official records in the form of Government

Orders, Asylum Press Almanac, History of Freedom Movement File, The
Census Reports, The District Gazetteers and Manuals, The Administration
Reports of the Madras Presidency etc provide invaluable primary information for
this study. They help the scholar cross examine their veracity and establish their
validity and credibility of the records found in the Archives. Besides the published
and unpublished books, articles and research papers, unpublished dissertations, thesis,
etc., are utilized in this study. However, it is to be noted that none of these materials
directly refers to the genesis of the Dravidian Movement. However, these are of
immense value in tracing the later history of the movement.

These reference materials are consulted in the Tamil Nadu Archives

(Egmore, Chennai), Connemara Public Library (Egmore, Chennai), Madras
University Library, Chennai, The Adyar Library and Research Centre,(Adyar,
Chennai), Maraimalai Atikal Library, Chennai, Madras Institute of Development
Studies (Adyar, Chennai), Periyar Rationalist Library and Research Centre
(Egmore, Chennai), International Institute of Tamil Studies (Taramani, Chennai),
Institute of Asian Studies (Tiruvanmiyur, Chennai), and Perasiriyar Library and
Research Centre (Thenampet, Chennai). Some useful information is collected from
Dr. T.P.M Library (Madurai Karnaraj University, Madurai), Pope's College
Library (Sawyerpuram), Gandhi Memorial Museum Library, Madurai, University
of Kerala Library (Palayam, Thiruvananthapuram), Tamil University Library,
Thanjavur and The Manonmaniam Sundaranar University Library,
(Abishekapatti, Tirunelveli).

A careful and judicious use of the these source materials helps the scholar
corroborate, substantiate and establish the hypotheses framed in this study.

Limitations
The study does not pretend to cover the areas already explored; it is also not
concerned with the work of the movement i.e. its achievements and failures; nor it is
concerned with the impact of the movement on Tamil (South Indian) politics, society,
economy and education; but it is much concerned with tracing the deep roots and
analyzing their cumulative effect. However, the scholar does not find any ground to
say that these were the only roots or causes or factors which promoted the emergence
of the movement. Further investigations may bring out new areas or avenues where
the roots of the movement could be discovered and their impact studied. He therefore
has confined himself to these seven roots only.

Methodology
The method adopted in this study is critical, analytical and interpretative. It
makes an analysis of those roots or factors that were responsible for the rise and
growth of the Dravidian Movement in the Madras Presidency from 1852 to 1917.
Views and opinions are strengthened and validated by sources and information. The
study, therefore, seeks to analyse the educational, social, economic, legal, religious
and political backdrops of the Dravidians of the Madras Presidency in the latter half
of the nineteenth and the first quarter of the twentieth century.

Chapterization
Based on the study of the available sources, the following chapterzation is
attempted. The whole thesis runs into seven chapters excluding the introduction and
the conclusion.

Introduction
The introduction introduces the main theme of the study and traces the various
phases of the genesis of the movement in the 19" century social context of the Madras
Presidency, highlights the scope and purpose of the study, demarcates the period and
universe of the study, reviews the previous literature, puts forward the hypotheses,
assesses the value of the sources and presents the chapterization.

Chapter I: Exploring India's Past and Discovering the Dravidian

This being the first chapter, an attempt has been made here to unravel the
hidden history of the Dravidian, particularly to disclose who were the Dravidians,
whether they were aboriginal to India or were they immigrants to India? and also to
lay bare their language and culture. In order to get a correct perspective of these
issues, an etymological study of the term 'Dravida' (or) '~ravidian'has been made
here. Besides, the various meanings advanced to this word both by native and
foreign linguists, anthropologists, palaeographers, sociologists and historians have
been examined. Thereafter, a close examination is made to understand who were the
Dravidians? In addition, those various theories put forward by these scholars to
locate the original home of the Dravidians are also examined. Of the two theories,
one the native origin i.e. the Lemurian theory and the other foreign origin i.e.
the Mediterranean theory advanced by these scholars, the second one i.e. the
Mediterranean as the original home of the Dravidians seems to be more plausible and
probable. Both the theories have been discussed, but more attention has been given to
the Mediterranean region as the home of the Dravidians. This has been tried to be
established. In continuation of this, a study in brevity has also been made here to
disclose the secrets of the Indus Valley Civilization, particularly its language and
script (seals), religion and trade with particular reference to the innumerable seals
located and collected from the various cites of the Indus Valley and their connecting
link with the peninsular Dravidians. This chapter, therefore, examines the Proto -

Dravidian character of the Indus Valley Culture and its uniqueness in the culture
series in making the Dravidian distinct from the Aryan.

Chapter 11: Early Tamil Works and Discovery of the Dravidian

Consciousness

The Dravidians, after having reached India from the Mediterranean region,
spread to the whole of India, later South India being their dominant pocket. Those
Dravidians who reached the Peninsular India (and not driven out from North India),
had developed a culture peculiar to this part of the land in the remote past. Evidences
of this culture are embedded in some of the megalithic culture-centres and the famous
Sangam literature. and Surface explorations and excavations conducted in some of
these megalithic culture-centres uncover the peculiar characteristics of this Tamil
culture, which is known as the culture of the Sangam Age datable from c.B.C.300-
C.A.D 300. The available evidences culled out from these megaliths and the Sangam
works reveal a pale memory of the continuation of the culture sequence from the
Indus Valley, though the latter was highly advanced in many ways. This pale
memory is explicit in the language and script and some of the peculiar cultural
features. A study of these evidences both archaeological and literary has been made
and the separate identity of the Tamils established. Poets conceived this idea based
on their knowledge of the region , race, language, religion, and culture even in that
remote past. The study further tries to unravel the Dravidian consciousness In
subterfuge for a long time, since it had not got the opportune moment to come to the
open.

Chapter 111: European Dravidologists and Re - discovery of the

Dravidian

The Dravidian consciousness, that was in subterfuge for a long time, could not
be understood by the natives. But its uniqueness was discovered by the European
Dravidologists. This chapter tries to recapture how the European Missionary scholars
took pains to unravel this hidden agenda and give wide publicity to it through their
laborious works on the Sangarn works. An attempt has been made here to record the
absence of any study on Dravidian until the arrival of these scholars, though
Indologists in North India had already opened a new chapter on the Indo- Aryan
family of languages, particularly of Sanskrit. This chapter tries to throw some light
on the services of the European Dravidologists, the European counterparts of
Indologists, in unraveling and rediscovering the Dravidian past, which in fact, led to
the awakening of the Dravidians in the south. This chapter is set in the background of
the linguistic studies made by F.W.Ellis, Bishop Dr.Robert Caldwell, and Dr. G.U.
Pope and their startling discovery of a separate family of language calIed the
Dravidian and the subsequent researches made by native and foreign scholars in
establishing this thesis.

Chapter IV: Dravidian Awakening and the Pure - Tamil Movement

It is not incomprehensible that the discovery of the Dravidian by the European

Dravidologists led to the Dravidian awakening and the emergence of the pure-Tamil
Movement. In this chapter, a study is made in continuation of the previous chapter of
how the native scholars took up the torch lit by the European Dravidologists and gave
a conceptional frame work to their idea. Native Dravidian scholars particularly Prof.
P. Sundaram Pillai and his disciples, in fact, gave a meaning and form to this, which
is until then unknown to many. A study has been made here as to how Prof. P.
Sundaram Pillai had conceived the concept of the Dravidian in his famous play
Manonrnaniarn and how did his followers, particularly MaraiMalai Arikal, takeup it
and give it the flesh and blood of a movement, the pure - Tamil Movement and the
attempt made towards de - Sanskrittization of Tamil. A discussion is made on the
consequences of this Dravidian awakening, which led to the starting of the pure -
Tamil Movement, and founding of many Tamil Sangams, introduction of printing
technology and issuing of pamphlets, bits, tracts and booklets in popularizing the
Dravidian. A study has also been made about the impact of all these on the
emergence of the Dravidian Movement.

Chapter V: Reform and Re - activization of the Dravidian

The Dravidian awakening in fact led to a conscious attempt towards the
reform of the Dravidian society. This chapter tries to locate the major areas of social
reform of the society and the means of achieving radical changes and their impact on
reactivating the Dravidian society. The study proposes to trace the roots of reform in
the conscious attempts of the Tamil Siddhars, Telugu Vemana, 'Mahatma' Jyothi
Rao Phoole, Vaikuntha Swamikal, St. Ramalinga, Chattampi Swamikal, Sri Narayana
Guru and Ayyankali. Further, it makes a study of the techniques adopted by these
reformers in challenging the established social structure of the Dravidian society and
the impact their concerted attempts had on the Dravidian Movement. It also tries to
study as to how the Brahmins reacted to these reforms and how the Dravidians
reactivated their society and modernized it with the help of the British raj.

Chapter VI: British Government and Sub-nationalism

of the Dravidians.

The Dravidian Movement, in fact, had the official support of the raj. This chapter
examines arts how the British raj introduced some measures which, in consequence,
enhanced the Sub - nationalism of the Dravidians as a bulwark against the Congress
nationalism. No doubt, the British administrators wanted a force to checkmate the
Brahmin dominated Congress activities in South India. In support of this, the British
raj and their administrators took active part in the efforts of the Dravidians getting
their grievances redressed. Here much stress has been laid as to how the British
administrator-scholars introduced their liberal thoughts, humanitarian ideas, and
linguistic studies in creating a consciously awakened group to stand by their side.
Further. it tries to study the impact of the introduction of the socio - educational,
politico - economic measures on the Dravidians and how they stood like a rock by
their side and acted as a stumbling block to the Congress activities. For achieving
this, the raj has introduced some measures which the Dravidians never dreamt of thus
part of the study tries to put the British raj .and its activities in the birth of the
Dravidian Movement in its correct perspective.

Chapter VII :Congress Activities and Birth of the Dravidian

Movement.

In fact, the above mentioned socio - economic, politico - educational

measures of the raj strengthened the hopes and aspirations of the Dravidians against
the Congress activities. In the beginnings, it is learnt that the Congress was very
constructive in its activities. But once the formative period was over, the Congress
turned violent and caste - oriented. The raj took up this as a pretext and extended its
support to another Sub - national movement only to keep the Congress at bay. In the
meantime, the Dravidians looked at the Congress activities with askance and opposed
their measures. This chapter therefore tries to study the impact of the Congress
activities on the birth of the Dravidian Movement in 1916. When the Congress
introduced the idea of Hindu revivalism, the southerners (Dravidians) with the support
of the raj introduced the concept of Dravidian revivalism. In fact, the study proposes
to tell us that the Dravidian Movement was the cumulative effect of various under -
currents and, more importantly, the direct outcome of the Congress activities in the
Madras Presidency.

Conclusion:
The conclusion sums up the foregone study. It has been understood
that the Dravidian Movement was not of a sudden outburst; but, it was the cumulative
effect of various forces, remote and immediate, and not of a single factor but of
multiple factors. working in subterfuge and in open. Though the Indus Valley Photo-
Dravidian material evidences and the Sangam works have in them the seeds of the
movement, it took a long time to sprout and spread its branches into a strong
movement. In fact, if the Dravidian Movement sprouted in the first quarter of the 2oth
century, the seeds of it were sown centuries back by the Dravidian Tamil poets,
medieval writers and Siddhars. This scholar has drawn much inspiration and
evidences from these material remains and classical writings, which stood the test of
time.