Eng5210 II

@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 177 ] ..............................................
" mwk&wemo d
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IUPAC system or Geneva System
IUPAC &JU long term u International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry jzpfw,f/
a&S;,cifu odyÜHynm&Sifrsm;onf olwdkYawGU &SdchJ Muonfh atmf*Jepf j'yfaygif;wdkif;udktrnfay;&mrSm 4if;j'yfaygif;rsm;\ ordkif;aMumif;tvdkuf
trnfay;avY &SdMuw,f/ Oyrmtm;jzifh rDodef; CH4 qdk&if CH3OH rDodkif ;t,fvudka[muae quf;oufvmwJU "mwfaiGU jzpfw,f/ opfom; rsm;udk
avrJY NzdKcGJ aygif;cHjcif; jzifh CH3OH rDodkif ;t,fvudka[mudk &&Sdw,f/tJ'gudk yJ opfuae&wJY qD ? (wood sprit) opfom;qD vdkYac:w,f/
j'yfaygif;rsm;&JU ordkif;udkvdkuf&if; trnfay;&muae j'yfaygif;awGu rsm; trnfawGomrsm; vm ayr,fh *kPfowÅd awGuawmh qifwl,dk;rSm;pGm &SdMuw,f/
'gaMumifh urmÉt&yf&yfu odyÜHynm&Si f BuD;rsm; nDvmcHudk 1892 ckESpf avmufrSm ppfrJU Zkef jzpfwJY qGZfZvef EdkifiH *sDeDAm NrdKU rSm usif;ycJY MuNyD;
atmf*Jepf j'yfaygif;wdkif;udk pepfwustrnfay;Edkifa&; twGuf wnDwnGwfwnf;qkH;jzwf twnfjyK EdkifcJU vdkY Geneva System or IUPAC System
ay:aygufvmwmjzpfw,f / yxrqkH; j'yfaygif;awGjzpfwJU methane, ethane, propane, butane ponfh umAGeftrSwfpOf(1) ? trSwfpOf(2)
?trSwfpOf (3)?umAGef trSwfpOf (4) xd onf ordkif;aMumif;t& trnfrajymif;vJayr,fh umAGeftrSwfpOf (4)jzpfwJY AsLwdef;uae zGJUpnf;ykHo@mefawG
pwifajymif;vJvmygw,f / 'gaMumifh armfvDusL; ta&twGufawG wlaeayr,fhvnf; zGJU pnf;ykH uGJjym;jcm;em;MuwmrdkY 4if;wdkYudk zGJU ykHuGJ armfvDusL;rsm;
(Isomeric compounds) vdkYac:ygw,f/ uJ yxrqkH; (paraffins) yg&mzif vdkYac:wJY jynf0 [dkufN'dKumAGefawG&JU trnf onf (-ane ) jzifh
tqkH;owf & rnf/ (-ane ) jzifh tqkH;owfxm;onfh j'yfaygif;udk awGU &Sdygu 4if;onf yg&mzif ((Alkane ) ) awG omjzpfMuonf/
umAGef trSwfpOf(5) uaepNyD; *&dbmom (Greek numbers ) jzifh udef;*Pef;rsm;udk tokH;jyK í
trnfawGay;cJYaomfvnf; armfvDusL; zGJU pnf;rIykHaoenf;udkom azmfjy EdkifwmjzpfvdkU cufjzmrsm;pGm&SdwJU j'yfaygif;rsm;twGuf tqifrajyjzpfcJY&w,f/
'gaMumifh armfvDusL; ykHaoenf;udkvJ od&r,f ? ykHo@mefudkvJ azmfjy Edkif&rnf Y pepfjzpfaom IUPAC System udk tokH;jyKMujcif;jzpfw,f/
yg&mzif j'yfaygif;awGtwGuf IUPAC system enf;twdkif; trnfay;wm bm&Sif;ov J rar;ygeJU vdkY ajym&rvdkvdkyJ/ &Sif;vGef;tm;BuD;w,f
umAGef (1) vkH; &Sd&if 'meth' ? umAGef (2) vkH; yg&if 'eth' ? umAGef (3) vkH; qdk&if 'prop' bmpnf;vJ ? wpfxyfpnf;vm; ? ESpfxyfpnf; vm; / Munfh vdkufyg/
wpfxyfpnf;qdk&if 'ane' eJY qkH; r,f ? ESpfxyfpnf; qdk&if 'ene' eJY tqkH;owfay;vdkuf,kHygyJ/okH;xyfpnf;omjzpfcJU&ifawmh'yne'aygUAsm/
General formula for Alkane(paraffins) CnH2n+2
jynfh0 [dkufN'dK umAGefrsm;&JU trnf ESifh armfvDusL; zGJU pnf;xm;ykH tcsKdU udk azmfjyay;xm;jcif;jzpfygw,f/
by history molecular formula Greek name molecular formula

1 methane CH4 11 henadecane C11H24
2 ethane C2H6 12 dodecane C12H26
3 propane C3H8 13 trideca C13H28
4 butane C4H10 14 tetradecane C14H30
Greek name 15 pentadecane C15H32
5 pentane C5H12 16 hexadecane C16H34
6 hexane C6H14 17 heptadecane
7 heptane C7H16 18 octadecane
8 octane C8H18 19 nonadecane
9 noncae C9H20 20 Eicosane C20H42
10 decane C10H22 21 henicosa C21H44
22 docosa C22H46
23 tricosa
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 178 ] .............................................." mwk&wemo d
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Chapter 14
Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry, at one time, was defined as the chemistry of carbon compounds derived from
living things, both animal and vegetable.
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Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds in which there is at least one carbon to
carbon bond or carbon to hydrogen bond.
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The elements carbon and hydrogen combine to form an unlimited number of different compounds.
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1
H = 1s1 or 1
6
C = 1s2 2s2 2p2 or 2.4 formula = CH4 dot - cross structure
H
*  * 
*C* + H = H * C * H
* *
H
Type of bond = covalent bond ( sharing electrons)
The carbon atom has four valence electrons. The total bond order of carbon is, therefore, four.
The bond order of hydrogen is one.
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electronic structure valence electron total bond

2 2 2
6
C = 1s 2s 2p 4 4
1
1
H = 1s 1 1
2 2 4
8
O = 1s 2s 2p (8-6) = 2 2
2 2 3
7
N = 1s 2s 2p (8-5) = 3 3
2 2 6 2 4
16
S = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p (8-6) = 2 2
halogen X = n s2 n p5 (8-7) = 1 1
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kbond awG v Jjzpfw, f/ aAv i fpD(1) &S&i fpn f;(1)pn f;
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Example; Write an electron dot structure for each of the following.
(a) NH3 (b) H2O
H
 * 
*
*
H O H

N H
*
*
H
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
t Jv d kazmfjyx m;wJYelectron dot-cross structure ykH
udkt v G
, fu lq kH
; t ½d
k;&S
i f;jzpfat mifgraphic line r sOf;eJY
azmfjy
x m;jci f;u d kgraphic structure (or) structural formula v d ac:w, f/ r sOf;wpfaM
kY u mif;[ mt D
v u fx &G
efwpfpkHudk
ud k, fpm;jyK w, f/
H methane
H
* 
H * C * H H C H CH4
*
H H
dot-cross structure graphic structure structural formula

H H
*
NH3


H N
*
H N
*
H H ammonia
tdkau 'Davmufqdk&if atmf*Jepfj'yfaygif;awG&JU tpjyK jzpfay:jcif;awGeJY olwdkYrSm&SdwJU pnf;awG&JU oabmobm0 awGudk odavmufygNyD/
'gaMumifh oifMum;a&;tydkif;udk qufoGm;MunfhMuwmaygU/ Ogranic Chemistry qdkwm umAGefeJY [dkufN'dK *sif awG&JU aygif;pyf yg0ifrIjzpfw,f/
wenf;tm;jzifhajym&&if Hydrocarbons awGvdkY ajymygw,f/ tJ'D Hydrocarbons udkyJ tydkif;MuD; (3) ydkif;cGJjcm;xm;ygw,f/
Hydrocarbon
1. Alkane [ R-H ] paraffins
saturated hydrocarbon
general formula - CnH2n+2
type of bond - single bond
type of reaction - substitution reaction
2. Alkene [ R-CH = CH2 ] olefins
Unsaturated hydrocarbon
general formula - CnH2n
type of bond - double bond
type of reaction - addition reaction
3. Alkyne [ R-CH CH2 ]
unsaturated hydrocarbon
general formula - CnH2n-2
type of bond - triple bond
type of reaction - addition reaction and substitution reaction
aemufqufwGJ taeeJY Alcohol tydkif;udkvJ jznfhpGufNyD; oifMum; &ygr,f/

4. Alcohol
general formula - CnH2n+2O or CnH 2n+1OH
type of bond - single bond
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
yxrqkH; tkyfpk jzpfwJY Alkane uawmh atmf*Jepf j'yfaygif;awG&JU tpjyK &m Xme BuD;qdkvJ rrSm;ygbl;/
1. Alkane [ R-H ] or paraffin compounds
Alkane uawm h saturated jynfh0wJY hydrocarbon j'yfaygif;jzpfNyD;awmh olY&JU a,bl,s ykHaoenf;udk ( CnH2n+2 ) eJU a&;om;ygw,f/
'Dae&mrSm (n) qdkwm umAGefawG&JU ta&twGufjzpfNyD; umAGefeJYaygif;pyf xm;wJY [dkufN'dK*sif ta&twGuf udk jznfhpGuf &ygw,f/
tckuaepNyD; ta&;BuD;wJY tydkif;udk a&mufvmNyDaemf/ 'Dvdkjynfh0wJY [dkufN'dKumAGefawGudk umAGeftrSwpf Of(1)uae (10)txd a&;om;Munfhyg/
yxrqkH; ykHaoenf; uae (molecular structure) udka&;r,f/NyD;&if (graphic formula) eJY azmfjyr,f?
aemufqkH; (structural formula ) udk a&;r,f/ trnf eJY j'yfaygif; oauFwawGudk rSwfom;avhusifhr,f/
molecular formula graphic formula structural formula name of compound

H
1. n = 1 H C H CH4 methane
» CH4
H
H H
2. n = 2 H C C H CH3-CH3 ethane
» C2H 6 H H
H H H
3. n = 3 H C C C H CH3-CH2-CH3 propane
» C3H 8 H H H
H H H H
4. n = 4 H C C C C H CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 butane
» C4H 10 H H H H
H H H H H
5. n = 5 H C C C C C H CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 pentane
» C5H 12 H H H H H
qufa&;zdkU tdrfpmay;vdkufr,f/
6. n = 6 » C6H 14 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 hexane

7. n = 7 » C7H 16 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 heptane
8. n = 8 » C8H 18 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 octane
9. n = 9 » C9H 20 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 nonane
10. n = 10 » C10H 22 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 decane
tck ethane uae pNyD; decane xd rif;wdkY bmxl;jcm;wm awGYrdovJ ? -CH3 eJY p NyD; -CH3 eJU jyefqkH;w,f? Mum;xJrSm -CH2 awG wpfpkNyD; wpfpk
wdk;wdk;vmwmudk jrifrdw,f r[kwfvm;? at; umAGef qufwef;awG &Snfvmavav 'Datmf*Jepf j'yfaygif;awGu wnfNrJavav ygyJ/
'Dvdk j'yfaygif;trnfawGudkrSwfrdzdkYtwGuf tenf;i,fawmh usufxm;&r,f/ b,fvdk rSwfrvJqdkawmh q&muawmh 'Dvdk rSwfw,f/ yDtD;eefwD
usufenf;u 'Dvdk- twfcsf tD;tdwfpf
tefrf tD; wD tdwfcsf meth , eth , prop, but av;vk ;
H oif &rnf / ( q,f w ef ; tqif h rS m 4 vk ;
H od xm;&r,f / ) tdwfcsf tD; yDwD
tD; wD tdwfcsf pent, hex, hept, oct, non, dec q,f v;
H k &S y
d g o nf / tdk pD wD
yD tm tdk yD trnf o &
d if oauF w j yef a&;wwf &rS m j z pf o vd k oauF w jrif &if v J trnf j y ef a &;wwf & r,f / tef tdk tef
bD ,l wD tj yef t vS e f avh u s ih f a&;om;&r,f / 'D tD; pD
av;vkH;oif&rnf/ q,fvkH; &Sdygonf/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
tck azmfjyr,fh tydkif;uawmh 'D atmf*Jepf "mwkaA' rSm rodrjzpf r&&ifrjzpfwJU Alkyl group or radical ygyJ /
Alkyl group or radical vdkyJ erlemtaeeJY od&rSmawGuawmh azmfjyxm;wJY twdkif;aygU
name of molecules derived group name of derived group
H H
*

H N


ammonia ( NH3 ) H N amino ( NH2- )
*
H N
* H
H H
trdk;eD;,m; j'yfaygif;uae uGJxGufoGm;wJU trdkifEdktkyfpk ( NH2- ) amino
H H
*
*
*
*
** º * *
*º *
water ( H2O ) H O H O O H hydroxyl ( -OH )
**
**
a&armfvDusL; j'yfaygif;uae uGJxGufoGm;wJU [dkuf aj'm qdkif; tkyfpk(tjcm;j'yfpifjzifhraygif;pyfcif) (odkY) (tjcm;j'yfpifjzifhaygif;pyftac:) [dkufaj'mqdk'f (-OH)
Alkyl group or Alkyl radical
erlemazmfjyxm;wJY tkyfpkawGvdkyJ Alkane uae cGJxGufvmwJY Alkyl group (or) radical tkyfpkawGudk rSwfom; avhusifhzdkUvdkw,f/
Alkyl group qdkwm Alkane uae (H) wpfvkH;avsmh oGm;wJY j'yfaygif; awGygyJ / trnfrSm (ane) tpm ; ( yl ) qdkNyD; ajymif;oGm;r,f/
methane ( CH4 ) uae (-H) wpfvkH;avsmh oGm;wJY tcg jzpfvmwJY (-CH3) 'D j'yfaygif;udk methyl vdkUac:w,f/
H H
methane H C H C H (-CH3) methyl
H H
ethane ( CH3-CH3 ) uae (-H) wpfvkH;avsmh oGm;wJY tcg jzpfvmwJY (-CH2-CH3) 'D j'yfaygif;udk ethyl vdkUac:w,f/
H H H H
ethane H C C H H C C (CH3-CH2-) or (-CH2-CH3) ethyl
H H H H
(-H) wpfvkH; u a&SU buf umAGefuyJ avsmh avsmh aemufbuf umAGefuyJ avsmh avsmh twlwlygyJ/ 'gaMumifh q&muawmh 'DvdkrSwfw,f/ (a&SUaemuf twlwlyJ) vdkY/
propane ( CH3-CH2-CH3 ) uae (-H) wpfvkH;avsmh oGm;wJY tcg ykHpH (2)rsKd; awGU&w,f/ a&SU buf umAGefuvJ xGuf vdkU &ovdk aemufbufumAGeu
f vJ
xGufvdkU &w,f/ a&SUaemuf twlwlyJrdkU normal propyl ( CH3-CH2-CH2- ) (omrmef ) vdkU ac:w,f/
aemufwpfrsKd;u (-H) wpfvkH; tv,fuae avsmh oGm;wJY tcg jzpfvmwJY (CH3-CH-CH3 ) udkawmh iso-propyl vdkU ac:w,f/
umAGefwpfvkH;udkyJ ab;wpfzufwpfcsuf rSaeí wlnDwJY cufjzmtkyfpk awGu wNydKifwnf; csdwfqufxm;wmjzpfvdkU ( iso )vdkUac:r,f/
H H H
propane( CH3-CH2-CH3 ) H C C C CH3-CH2-CH2- n-propyl
H H H
'Dvdk rSwfr,f
a&SUaemuftwlwl H H
tv,frwlyg/ H C C C H
CH3-CH-CH3 iso-propyl
H H H
'gaMumifh propane uae H wpfvkH; avsmhwJYtcg rwlnDwJU zGJU pnf;ykH (2 ) rsKd; &&SdvdkU aoaocsmcsm avhusifh rSwfom;&r,f/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 182 ] .............................................." mwk&wemo d ku f
butane ( CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 ) uaevJ (-H) wpfvkH;avsmh oGm;wJY tcg ykHpH (2)rsKd; awGU&w,f/
a&SU buf umAGefuvJ xGuf vdkU &ovdk aemufbufumAGefuvJ xGufvdkU &w,f/ a&SUaemuf twlwlyJrdkU normal-butyl ( CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2- )
vdkU ac:w,f/ aemufwpfrsKd;u (-H) wpfvkH; tv,fuae r[kwfyJ 'kwd,ajrmufumAGefuaeavsmh oGm;wJY tcg jzpfvmwJY
( CH3-CH-CH2-CH3 ) or ( CH3-CH2-CH-CH3 ) udkawmh secondary-butyl vdkU ac: ygw,f/
olvJ 'kwd,ajrmufumAGef tcsif;csif; a&SUaemuf zGJUpnf;ykH twlwlygyJ/
H H H H
butane CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 H C C C C CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-
H H H H H H H H n-butyl
H C C C C H
H H H H
H H H
isomeric compounds H C C C C CH3-CH-CH2-CH3
zG
JU
pnf;wnfaqm
ufykH
rwlnD
aom
j'yfaygif;rsm
; H H H H secondary-butyl
'D butane udk yJ 'DvdkykHpHrsKd; azmfjya&;om;Edkifao;w,f/ 'D vdk butane udk awmh iso-butane vdkU ac:w,f/ umAGefwpfvkH;udk wlnDpGm csdwfqufxm;w,fav/
'gaMumifh tJ'D iso-butane uae (-H) wpfvkH;avsmhoGm;vdkU jzpfvmwmu iso-butyl aygU
iso-butane CH3 iso-butyl

CH3
CH-CH3 CH-CH2-
CH3 CH3
propane vdkyJ butane rSmvJ rwlnDwJU zGJU pnf;ykH &SdwmjzpfvdkU aoaocsmcsm wdwdusus avhusifh rSwfom;&r,f/
Alkyl group or Alkyl radical ( R- ) CnH2n+1-

Alkyl groups are represented generally as R- , where R = CnH2n+1. (bond order of one)
'Dvdk Alkyl group or Alkyl radical udk ( R- ) eJU udk,fpm;jyK azmfjyxm;w,fqdkwmudk odzdkUvdkw,f/
R-H R-
alkane (CnH2n+2) alkyl (CnH2n+1-)
methane CH4 -CH3 methyl
ethane CH3-CH3 CH3-CH2- ethyl
propane CH3-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH2-CH2- n-propyl
isomeric compounds CH3-CH-CH3 iso-propyl

zG
JU
pnf;wnfaqm
ufykH
rwlnD
aom
j'yfaygif;rsm
;
butane CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2- n-butyl
CH3-CH-CH2-CH3 secondary butyl

CH3 CH3
iso-butane CH-CH3 CH-CH2- iso- butyl
CH3 CH3
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

tdkau 'gqdk&if trnfay;pepfawGudk avhvmMunfh&atmif ? yxr qkH;taeeJY alkane tkyfpktaMumif;uae p MuwmaygU
Nomenclature of alkane
Three different naming systems are currently in use.
Alkane rSm trnfay;wJY pepf (3)rsKd;awmif&Sdw,f? tJ'DpepfudkvJ tckxdokH;aeMuqJjzpfw,f/ 'gayr,fh umAGeftufwrf ta&twGuf en;f rSom
tqifajywmudk awGU&ygw,f?
The Trivial system

omref trnfay;pepf wGif ? alkane j'yfaygif;rsm;udk ordkif;aMumif;qdkif&mt& methane , ethane , propane , butane pojzifhom
trnf qufay;cJUMuw,f/ odkYaomf umAGeftrSwfpOf (4)vkH;xuf ausmfvmonfhtcg *&d ocsF m eHygwf trnfrsm;ESifhaygif;pyfí trnfay;cJUMujyefw,f/
umAGeftrSwfpOf(1) methane CH4

ordkif;aMumif;t& olYu methyl alcohol rSqif;oufvmw,f/ methyl alcohol udk awmh opfom;rsm;udk avrJY NzdKcGJ
aygif;cHjcif;rSwqifh &&Sdw,f/
umAGeftrSwfpOf(2) ethane CH3-CH3 »» ( C2H6 )
umAGeftrSwfpOf(3) propane CH3-CH2-CH3 »» ( C3H8 )
umAGeftrSwfpOf(4) butane CH3--CH2-CH2-CH3 »» ( C4H10 )
umAGeftrSwfpOf(5) uaepNyD; *&dudef;aemufquf perfix trnfrsm;jzifh umAGefta&twGufawGudk azmfjyvmw,f/
pentane CH3--CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 »» ( C5H12 )....................etc...
aemufwpfrsKd;uawmh "methane" \qifhyGm;j'yfaygif;rsm;qdkNyD; trnfay;Mujyefygw,f/

Naming as derivative of methane
'guawmh odwJY twdkif; CH4 rDodef;aygUav ? olU &JU umAGef tufwrf rSm [dkufN'dK*sif tufwrf (4)vkH;ygw,f/tJ'D [dkufN'dK *sif tufwrf awGrSm
tjcm;umAGefj'yfaygif; awGu tpm;xdk;0ifa&muf aygif;pyf Muw,fqdkNyD; trnfay;cJU Muw,f/
uJ ethane udk b,fvdkay;xm;vJ qdkwm MunfhMu&atmif .....
CH3 - CH3
H
rlvj'yfaygif; tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufonfh
ethane »» methyl methane
H C H CH4 methane methyl group
methane &JU H tufwrfae&mrSm methyl tkyfpk u 0ifa&muf tpm;oGif;w,fqdkNyD ; 'Dvdktrnfay;vdkufw,f/ methyl methane wJYAsm/
H
e*dkodNyD;jzpfwJY propane olU udk b,fvdk trnfay;rvJqdkwm udk quf Munfh&atmif/
CH3 - CH2 - CH3
rlvj'yfaygif; propane » » ethyl methane tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufonfh

CH4 methane ethyl group
'D propane udkyJ 'DvdkowfrSwfNyD; trnfay;jyefawmh aemuftrnfwpfrsKd; &jyefw,f/ trnfu dimethyl methane jzpfjyefw,f/
CH3 - CH2 - CH3
tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufol tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufol

methyl group methyl group
rlvj'yfaygif;
CH4 methane
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
qufvufNyD; umAGeftrSwfpOf(4)vkH;jzpfwJY butane udk b,fvdk trnfay;rvJ
rlvj'yfaygif; tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufol
CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3
CH4 methane n-propyl group
n-butane » » n-propyl methane
'Dvdk owfrSwfNyD; trnfay;vdkuftkH;r,f ?

'gurlvj'yfaygif;
CH4 methane
tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufol tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufol

CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3 ethyl group
methyl group
n-butane » » ethyl methyl methane jzpfoGm;jyefNyD
tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufolu (Trivial system )omreftrnfay;pepfu olU udk iso-butane vdkU ac:w,f/
iso-propyl 'gudk derivative name t& trnfay;awmh (2) rsKd; ay;Edkifw,f/
CH3 CH3
tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufolu
CH - CH3 methyl (3)ck
CH - CH3
tri-methyl
CH3 CH3 'gudk rlv j'yfaygif;,l&if
'gudk rlv j'yfaygif;,l&if
iso-butane » » iso-propyl methane iso-butane » » tri-methyl methane
uJ 'Davmufqdk&ifawmh Alkane j'yfaygif;awG&JU omreftrnfay;pepfawGeJU qifhyGm;trnfay;pepfawG[m

umAGeftrSwf pOf(4) uae pNyD; ½IyfaxG;vmEdkifw,fqdkwm odavmufygNyD / vG,fw,fvdkU xif&ayr,fh umAGefta&twGuf rsm;&if rsm;ovdk a&maxG;vmw,f/
'gaMumifh IUPAC system or Geneva system trnfay;pepfudk odxm;zdkY&m tjyif wwfajrmufzdkUvJ vdkvmw,f/
IUPAC ( tdkif,lywf )trnfay;pepfuawmh &Sif;w,f/
1/ yxrtqifhtaeeJU long chain carbon umAGefqufwef; t&SnfqkH;udk aumufonfjzpfap ? ajzmifhonfjzpfap a½G;cs,fvdkufyg/

a½G;cs,fNyD;jzpfwJY umAGefta&twGuft& trnfowfrSwfr,f/ Oyrmt&SnfqkH;umAGefta&twGuf u (5)vkH; &Sdw,fqk&d if pentane
(7) vkH;&Sdw,fqdk&if heptane pojzifh trnfowfrSwfay;&r,f/
2/ umAGefqufwef; t&SnfqkH;udk a&G;cs,fpOfrSm ryg0ifyJ usef &pfcJY wJY tkyfpkawG udkawmh rlv qufwef;&Snf&JU tpm;xdk;tkyfpk substitutes
awGvdkU owfrSwfvdkufw,f/
3/ tJ'D substitutes awGeJY eD;aomumAGefbufae trSwfpOfudk a&wGufvdkufyg / Oyrmqdkygawmh t&SnfqkH;umAGefta&twGuf u (6) vkH;&Sdw,f/
'gqdk olUtrnfu hexane / tJ'D t&SnfqkH; umAGefxJrSm tpm;xdk; tkyfpkvdkU owfrSwf xm;wJY tpku b,fbufuaea&wGuf&if (3) ? nmbufuae
a&wGuf& if (4) rSm&Sdw,fqdk&if b,fbufu a&wGuf trSwfpOf ac:wmu rSefw,f/nmbufua&wGufNyD; trSwf pOfwyf&if a0;wJY twGuf rSm;r,f/
4/ aemufqkH;wpfck taeeJY umAGef wpfckwnf;rSmyJ wlnDwJY tkyfpkawG &SdwmyJ jzpfjzpf ? r&SdwmyJjzpfjzpfwpfckxuf ydkcJYr,fqdk&if tJ'DumAGef trSwf pOfudk
(2) BudrfqufNyD; ac:&r,f/Oyrm -wlnDwJU tkyfpk (erlem-rDodkif;vf ) vdkU xm;yg ?
umAGeftrSwfpOf(3) rSm twlwl&Sdw,fqdk&if trnfudk azmfjy&if 3, 3 - di-methyl pojzifh a&;om;azmfjyNyD; rlvtrnfeJY wGJzuf ac:vdkuf,kHygyJ/
uJ -aemufpmrsufESmrS m xyf&Sif;xm;ygw,f/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
IUPAC or Geneva System
Rule for Alkane
1. The number of carbon atom in the longest chain determines the name of the parent alkane.
u mAG
eft a&t wG
u ft r sm;q kH
;&S
w JYu mAG
d efq u fw ef;u d ka&G
;v d
ku fyg?N
yD
;&i fu mAG
eft a&t wG u f\ r lv t r n fu dkay;yg/
-CH3
substitute group  CH2-CH3  substitute group
CH3- CH - CH - CH2 - CH2 - CH3
left 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 5 4 3 2 1 right
t ckjyx m;wJY
ykHt &ajzmifh o n fjzpfap au mu fo n fjzpfap B
udK
u fw JY
b u fu a&wGu fyg?t r sm;q kH
;u mAGeft a&t wG u fu
6 v kH
; &S
w , f/' gq d
d k' D
u mAG
efq u fw ef;&S
n f&JUt r n fu Hexane jzpfw , f/b , fu a&a&(t r sm;q kH ;)awmh jzpf&r , f/
2. The end of the chain to be numbered 1 must be that end nearer to those carbon atoms which have
substituted groups or substitutents.
u mAG
efq u fw ef;&S
n fr S
myg0i fao mt pm;x d
k;t kyfpkES
i fht eD
;q kH
;&S
o n fh
d u mAG
efr S
pí t r S
w fpOf(1) [ ka&wG
u fr , f/
-CH3
t pm;x d
k;t kyfpkeJY
t eD ;b u f substitute group 
;q kH CH2-CH3  substitute group
left  CH3- CH - CH - CH2 - CH2 - CH3 right
1 2 3 4 5 6 wrong
2- methyl - 3- ethyl hexane
t pm;x dk;t kyfpkawG jzpfw JYmethyl u d ku mAG

eft r Sw fpOf(2) r SmawG Uw, f/ ethyl u d
ku mAG eft r S
w fpOf(3) r S
mawGU
w, f
' gq d
kt pm;x d k;t kyfpkeJY
t eD;q kH
;jzpfwJYu mAG
efb u fu d
ka&G;cs, f&r , f/ b , fb u fu a&wG
u f&i ft r S
w fpOf(2) r S
mawG U
wm
methyl u mAG eft r Sw fpOf(3) r SmawG U
wmu ethyl q d kawmh 2- methyl - 3 - ethyl hexane aygU /
t r n fawG eJY
* P ef;M u m;r S
m(-) dash av ;awG cH
ay;yg/aemu fw pfckM u n fh
yg/
CH3-
CH3-
substitute group   substitute group

1 2 3 4 5 6
left  CH3 - CH - CH - CH - CH2 - CH3 right
CH3-CH2-
2,4-dimethyl -3-ethyl hexane  substitute group
b , fb u uf a&wG u f&i fq u fw ef;&S

n fr S
mygwJYmethyl t pm;x d k;t kyfpku dku mAGeft r S
w fpOf(2) r S
mawGUw, f
ethyl u d ku mAG eft r S
w fpOf(3) r S
mawG U w, f/aemu fmethyl u d ku mAG eft r S
w fpOf(4)r S
mx yfawG Uw, f/
n mb u fu a&wG u f&i fmethyl u d ku mAG eft r Sw fpOf(3)r S
mawGUw, f/n mzu fu a&wG u fp&mrv dkawmhb l;?b mv d
v Jq kd
kY &i f
t rSwfpOfi , fw mu d kOD
;pm;ay; &r Smjzpfv dyg/ ' gaM
kY u mifht r n fay;r , fq dk&i fu mAG
eft r S
w fpOf(2)eJY
(4)r S
mmethyl
t kyfpk(2)ck&S
vd
d kUdi x n fhay;&r , f/ (3)ck&S d
cJY
&i ftri aygU / t ckawmh2,4- di methyl jzpfw , f?u mAG ef(3)r Smu ethyl
&S
d
x m;w, fq d kawmh t jyn fh
t pkH
ac:v d ku f&i fá 2,4-di methyl- 3 -ethyl hexane jzpfw , f/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

q u fw ef;&S
n fawG
rSmt pm;x d k;t kyfpkawGu wlaeM u r , fq d k&i ft r S
wfpOfawG ud kcG
Jra&;yJau mfrmcH (, )a&;ay;&r , f/
aemu fw pfcku t r S
w fpOfw pfckw n f;r S
myJr wlw JYt pm;x d k;t kyfpk&ScJY
d r , fq d
k&i fOyr mu mAG eft r S
w fpOf(3)r S
myJ
methyl
u wpfckethyl u wpfckt wlw l&S d
aecJYr , fq d
k&i ft u ©&mpOfu d kOD
;pm;ay;&r , f/3-ethyl -3-methyl jzpfo G m;r , f/
CH3-
CH3-
left  CH3 - C - CH2 - CH - CH2 - CH3 right
CH3-
2,2,3- tri - methyl hexane (t pm;x d
k;t kyfpkawG
wln D
aeM
u w, f)
left  CH3-
CH3 - CH2 - C - CH2 - CH3
CH3-CH2- right
3- ethyl -3-methyl pentane (t u ©

&mpOfu d
kOD
;pm;ay;x m;w, f)
'D
vdkeJYN
yD
;N
yD
v m;q d
kawmhr jyD
;ao ;b l;/ o au F
w awGazmfjyN
yD
; t r n fay;wwf&r Smjzpfo v d
k
t r n fawG
ay;x m;&i fv Jo au F
w jyefa&;wwf&r , f/ er lemav ;awG M
u n fh
&at mif/v kyfM
u n fh
awmhv Jr cu fygb l;/
Give the graphic structural formulae of 2- methyl -3-ethyl pentane v d kUq dkM
u ygpdkU
/
»» yx r q kH
; o l&JUr lv t r n fu dkM
u n fh
vdku fyg/ pentane v d ajymx m;w, f/ ' gq d
kY ku mAG ef(5) v kH
;u dkwef;pD
a&;v dku fyg/
»» ' kw d
, u mAG eft r Sw fpOf( 2 ) r S
mmethyl(CH3-) eJUu mAG eft r Sw fpOf(3)r S
methyl (CH3-CH2-) v d kU
ajymx m;wmjzpfv d
kU
ckeu u mAG ef(5)v kH;wef;r S
mjzn fh
pG
u fr , f/
»» aemu fq ;kHv dkaewJY pn f;v u fw H
awG rSmH awG udkpn f;(4)pn f;jyn fh
at mifjzn fh
&i fN
yD
;ygN
F yD/
1 2 3 4 5
 C- C - C - C - C
u mAG
eft r S
w fpOf(2)r S r , f  CH3
mCH3- methyl x n fh
 C-C-C-C-C
CH2-CH3 u mAG
eft rS
w fpOf(3)r S
mCH3-CH2- ethyl x n fh
r, f
'D
u mAG
eH
f (2 )v kH
;v d
k
CH3 
'D
u mAG
efH (3)v kH k C -
;v d C - C - C - C ' D
u mAG
efv JH (3)v kH
;v d
k
 CH2-CH3
'D
umAG
eH
f (1)v kH
;pD
vdk
CH3
t ajz CH3 - CH - CH - CH2 - CH3  2- methyl -3-ethyl pentane
CH2-CH3
»» aemu far ;cG ef;awG rSmv J' D

ykH
pHud kt wk, lNyD;t r n fawG ay;Mu n fhyg/
o l&JUr lv t r n fu d kMu n fh
vd ku fyg/ t r n fu ajymwJY t wdkif; u mAG efawG
udkwef;pDa&;v d
ku fyg/
»» t pm;x d k;cu fjzmrsm;u dkazmfjy t r S w fpOft wd kif; ae&mcsv d ku fyg/
»» t pm;x d k;cu fjzmrsm;u d
kae&mcsN yD;&i fu mAG efawG rS
mpn f;(4)pn f;jyefjyn fh
at mifH awG ud kv d
ku fjzn fh
vdku fyg/ N
yD
;ygN
yD
/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
2. Alkene [ R-CH=CH2 ] or Olefins » CnH2n
Alkene uawm h unsaturated r jynfh0wJY hydrocarbon j'yfaygif;jzpfNyD;awmh olY&JU a,bl,s ykHaoenf;udk ( CnH2n ) eJU a&;om;az:jyEdkifygw,f/
'gayr,fh 'Dvdkrjynfh0wJY (hydrocarbon)rSm (n) wefzdk;udk (2)uae p yg w,f/ umAGefawG&JU Mum;rSm ESpfxyfpnf;yg0ifaevdkY vJjzpfygw,f/
molecular formula graphic formula structural formula name of compound (IUPAC)
1. n  1 - - -
Trivial system vdkYac:wJY omreftrnfay;pepfawGu CH2=CH2 udk umAGefESpfvkH;eJY ESpfxyfpnf;yg0ifwmrdkY ethylene vdkU ac: Muw,f/
IUPAC pepfuawmh &Sif;w,f? j'yfaygif;rSm umAGefb,favmufygovJ ? umAGef(2)vkH;vm; tdkau -( eth ) eJU pr,f? ESpfxyfpnf;ygovm; ( ene ) eJU tqkH;owfr,f?
( ene )eJU tqkH;owfw,fqdk&if olefin rsKd;EG, f qDxGufapaom"mwfaiGU jzpfaMumif;tvG,fwulodapw,f/
2. n = 2 H H CH2=CH2 ethene
» C2H 4 H C=C H
ethylene
Trivial system vdkYac:wJY omreftrnfay;pepfu CH3-CH=CH2 udk umAGefokH;vkH;eJY ESpfxyfpnf;yg0ifwmrdkY propylene vdkU ac: Muw,f/
qifhyGm;trnftjzpf ethylene CH2=CH2 vdkUac:wJU rlv j'yfaygif; & YJ H atom ae&mrSm ( CH3- methyl )tkyfpk wpfck tpm;xdk;0ifa&mufw,fqdkNyD;
methyl ethylene vdkUac:jyefw,f/ IUPAC pepfuawmh &Sif;w,f? j'yfaygif;rSm umAGefb,favmufygovJ ? umAGef(3)vkH;vm;
tdkau - ( prop ) eJU pr,f? ESpfxyfpnf;ygovm; ( ene ) eJU tqkH;owfr,f? propene
H H H
3. n = 3 CH3-CH=CH2 propene
» C3H 6 H-C-C=C-H
H propylene / methyl ethylene
omreftrnfay;pepf
Trivial system vdkYac:wJY omreftrnfay;pepfu CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 udk umAGefav;vkH;eJY ESpfxyfpnf;yg0ifwmrdkY butylene vdkU ac: Muw,f/
aemufwpfrsKd;uawmh ethylene CH2=CH2 vdkUac:wJU rlv j'yfaygif; & YJ H atom ae&mrSm ( CH3-CH2- ethyl ) tkyfpk wpfck tpm;xdk;0ifa&mufw,fqdkNyD;
ethyl ethylene vdkUac:jyefw,f/ IUPAC pepfuawmh &Sif;w,f? j'yfaygif;rSm umAGefb,favmufygovJ ? umAGef(4)vkH;vm;
tdkau - ( but ) eJU pr,f? ESpfxyfpnf;ygovm; ( ene ) eJU tqkH;owfr,f? 'gayr,fh umAGeftrSwfpOf (4)uaepNyD; zGJUpnf;wnfaqmufykH uGJ jym;jcm;em; vmMuvdkU
ESpfxyfpnf;wnf&Sd&m umAGeftrSwfpOfudk az: jyay;&r,f/ 'gaMumifh olU trnfrSm trSwfpOfudef;awGxnfhay;&w,f/ 1-butene
2 1
4. n = 4 H H H CH3-CH2-CH =CH2 1-butene
» C4H 8 H-C-C-C=C-H
H H H 1 - butylene / ethyl ethylene
omreftrnfay;pepf
'D CH3-CH =CH-CH3 u vJ umAGefav;vkH;eJY ESpfxyfpnf;yg0ifwmrdkY olvJ butylene yJ ?

'gayrJU ESpfxyfpnf;&JU wnfae&mu umAGef (2)vkH;ajrmuf ae&mrSm&SdwmrdkU pnf;wnf&Sd&mumAGeftrSwfudkazmfjy&r,f? 'gaMumifh olU trnfudk 2 - butylene vdkUac:w,f/
aemufwpfrsKd ; u ethylene -CH=CH- &JU ab;wpfzufwpfcsuf pDuae CH3- tkyfpk (2) ck ucsdwfqufxm;vdkU dimethyl ethylene vdkU ac:jyefw,f/
IUPAC pepfuawmh &Sif;w,f? j'yfaygif;rSm umAGefb,favmufygovJ ? umAGef(4)vkH;vm;
tdkau - ( but ) eJU pr,f? ESpfxyfpnf;ygovm; ( ene ) eJU tqkH;owfr,f? 'gayr,fh umAGeftrSwfpOf (4)uaepNyD; zGJUpnf;wnfaqmufykH uGJ jym;jcm;em; vmMuvdkU
ESpfxyfpnf;wnf&Sd&m umAGeftrSwfpOfudk az: jyay;&r,f/ umAGeftrSwfpOf (2 ) ae&mrSm ESpfxyfpnf;&Sdaeawmh ol Yudk IUPAC u 2-butene
H H H H 1 2 3
H-C-C=C-C-H CH3-CH =CH-CH3 2-butene
H H
omreftrnfay;pepfu 2 - butylene / dimethyl ethylene
( pnf; wnf&Sd &m trSwfpOfudk az: jy&mwGif trSwfpOf i,faom udef;udk OD;pmay;azmfjy&onf/)
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
'D (CH3 )2 -C =CH2 uvJ umAGefav;vkH;eJY ESpfxyfpnf;yg0ifwmrdkY olvJ butylene yJ ? 'gayr,fh olu cufjzm toGif&SdwmrdkU IUPAC pepft&
trnfay;wJY tcg qufwef; t&SnfqkH; jzpfwJY umAGef ta&twGuf u(3)vkH; om &Sd vdkU propene ? cufjzm wenf;tm;jzifh substitute tpm;xdk;ae&m,lxm;aom
methyl tkyfpk uumAGeftrSwfpOf (2)rSmjzpfvdkU 2-methyl 'gaMumifh trnftjynfhtpkHu 2-methyl propene jzpfw,f/
2-methyl propene
H
H C H H CH3
2 1
C=C-H C = CH2 iso- butylene
H C H CH3
H
umAGef tufwrf wpfck udk wlnDaom tkyfpkawGu wNydKifwnf; csdwfqufxm;r,fqdk&if [ iso ] vdkU ac:Muw,f/
[ iso ] qdkwm wlnDjcif;vdkU t"dyÜm,f&w,f/
u mAGeft r S
w fpOf(4)u aepN yD; u mAGeft a&t wG
u fw l?[ d
ku fN
'd
K
* si ft a&t wG u fw lN
yD
; zG
JU
pn f;wn faq mu fykH
o @mefu Jjym
G;r IawG
&Sw maM
d u mifh4i f;j' yfaygi f;r sm;u d
kstructural isomerism o d kU
r [ kw f isomeric compounds awG vdkU
ac:M
u w, f/
isomeric compounds
1 CH3-CH2-CH =CH2 1-butene . 1 - butylene / ethyl ethylene
2. CH3-CH =CH-CH3 2-butene 2 - butylene / dimethyl ethylene
CH3
3. C = CH2 2-methyl propene iso- butylene
CH3
zG
JU
pn f;wn faq mu fykH
o @mefu G
Jjym;r Ir sm;pG
m&S
o n f/ ' gaM
d u mifhIUPAC pepft wd
kif;t r n fay;av Y
&S
o n f/
d
5. n =5 » C5H 10 pentene
6. n = 6 » C6H 12 hexene
7. n = 7 » C7H 14 heptene
8. n = 8 » C8H 16 octene
9. n = 9 » C9H 18 nonene
10. n = 10 » C10H 20 decene
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
2. Alkyne [ R-CCH ] or CnH2n-2
Alkyne uawm h unsaturated r jynfh0wJY hydrocarbon j'yfaygif;jzpfNyD;awmh olY&JU a,bl,s ykHaoenf;udk ( CnH2n-2 ) eJU a&;om;az:jyEdkifygw,f/
'gayr,fh 'Dvdkrjynfh0wJY (hydrocarbon)rSm (n) wefzdk;udk (2)uae p& yg r,f/ bmaMumifhvJqdkawmh umAGefawG&JU Mum;rSm okH;xyfpnf;yg0ifaevdkUyg/
molecular formula graphic formula structural formula name of compound (IUPAC)
1. n  1 - - -
Trivial system vdkYac:wJY omreftrnfay;pepfawGu CHCH udk umAGefESpfvkH;eJY okH;xyfpnf;yg0ifwmrdkY acetylene vdkU ac: Muw,f/
IUPAC pepfuawmh &Sif;w,f? j'yfaygif;rSm umAGefb,favmufygovJ ? umAGef(2)vkH;vm; tdkau -( eth ) eJU pr,f? okH;xyfpnf;ygovm; ( yne ) eJU tqkH;owfr,f?
2. n = 2 CH2=CH2 ethyne
» C2H 2 H CC H
acetylene
Trivial system vdkYac:wJY omreftrnfay;pepfu acetylene CHCH vdkUac:wJU rlv j'yfaygif; & YJ H atom ae&mrSm ( CH3- methyl ) tkyfpk wpfck
tpm;xdk;0ifa&mufw,fqdkNyD; methyl acetylene vdkUac:Muw,f/ IUPAC pepfuawmh &Sif;w,f? j'yfaygif;rSm umAGefb,favmufygovJ ? umAGef(3)vkH;vm;
tdkau - ( prop ) eJU pr,f? okH;xyfpnf;ygovm; ( yne ) eJU tqkH;owfr,f? propyne
3. n = 3 H CH3-CH=CH2 propyne
» C3H 4 H-C-CC-H
H methyl acetylene
Trivial system vdkYac:wJY omreftrnfay;pepfuae acetylene CHCH vdkUac:wJU rlv j'yfaygif; & YJ H atom ae&mrSm ( CH3-CH2- ethyl ) tkyfpk
wpfck tpm;xdk;0ifa&mufw,fqdkNyD; ethyl acetylene vdkUac:w,f/ IUPAC pepfuawmh &Sif;w,f? j'yfaygif;rSm umAGefb,favmufygovJ ? umAGef(4)vkH;vm;
tdkau - ( but ) eJU pr,f? okH;xyfpnf;ygovm; ( yne ) eJU tqkH;owfr,f? 'gayr,fh umAGeftrSwfpOf (4)uaepNyD; zGJUpnf;wnfaqmufykH uGJ jym;jcm;em; vmMuvdkU
okH;xyfpnf;wnf&Sd&m umAGeftrSwfpOfudk az: jyay;&r,f/ 'gaMumifh olU trnfu 1-butyne
H H
4. n = 4 CH3-CH2-C CH 1-butyne
» C4H 6 H-C-C-CC-H 2 1
H H ethyl acetylene
'D CH3-C C-CH3 uvJ umAGefav;vkH;eJY okH;xyfpnf;yg0ifwmrdkY olvJ acetylene trsKd;tpm;ygyJ ? 'D acetylene CHCH &JU
ab;wpfzufwpfcsuf pDuae CH3- tkyfpk (2) ck ucsdwfqufxm;vdkU olU trnfu dimethyl acetylene vdkU ac:w,f/
IUPAC pepfuawmh &Sif;w,f? j'yfaygif;rSm umAGefb,favmufygovJ ? umAGef(4)vkH;vm;
tdkau - ( but ) eJU pr,f? okH;xyfpnf;ygovm; yg&i f ( yne ) eJU tqkH;owfr,f? 'gayr,fh umAGeftrSwfpOf (4)uaepNyD; zGJUpnf;wnfaqmufykH uGJ jym;jcm;em; vmvdkU
okH;xyfpnf;wnf&Sd&m umAGeftrSwfpOfudk az: jyjcif;jzpfw,f/ 'gaMumifh umAGeftrSwfpOf (2 ) ae&mrSm ok;H xyfpnf;&SdaewmrdkU ol Yudk IUPAC u 2-butyne
H H 1 2 3
H-C-CC-C-H CH3-C  C -CH3 2-butyne

H H
dimethyl acetylene
( pnf; wnf&Sd &m trSwfpOfudk az: jy&mwGif trSwfpOf i,faom udef;udk OD;pmay;azmfjy&rnf/)
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Alkene & Alkyne
ES
pfx yfpn f;?o kH
;x yfpn f;awG &JUNaming system eJYwpfx yfpn f; Alkane awG &JUt r n fay;ykH
pepfu G mjcm;r Iu
wpfx yfpn ;fj' yfaygi f;awGu t pm;x d k;t kyfpkEiSfh
eD
;ao mu mAGefu d
kt r Sw fpOfp wyfay;&w, f/ N yD
;r St pm;x dk;t kyfpku d k
o wfr S
w fw , f/ES pfx yfpn f;?o kH
;x yfpn f;awG &JU
Naming system u double bond, triple bond awG v Jyg0i f&r , f/
2x yfpn f; 3 x yfpn f; b u fu aeyJpN yD ;t r S
w fpOfw yfay;&r , fh
t jyi f2x yf?3x yfpn f;&S
&mu mAG
d eft r S
w fu dkv Jazmyfj &
rS
mjzpfw , f/er lemav ; t &i fM u n fh
&at mif?
CH -
CH3-
3
CH3- CH2- CH2- C = CH2 CH3- CH2- CH - C  CH
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1
2-methyl -1-pentene 3-methyl -1-pentyne
t ckq dk&i fyl;wGJazmfjyx m;wJYu mAG efq u fw ef;&Sn f[ m(5)v kH ;&Sw , f/ u mAG
d eft r Sw fpOf(1)eJY
(2)M u m;r Smpn f;awG t oD
;o D
;
&SM
d
u w, f/' gaM u mifht J'Dpn f;awG b u fu ae t r S w fpOfu d kpNyD; a&wG u f&r , f/ N
yD;r St pm;x dk;t kyfpku d
kazmfjyr , f/
yx r ES pfx yfpn f;&JU t r n fu dkazmfjy&r , fq d
k&i ft pm;x d k;t kyfpku u mAG eft r S w fpOf(2)r Sm&S
wmethyl
d JY ?' gY
aM
u mifh2-methyl
jzpfr , f/ ESpfx yfpn f;u u mAG eft r S
w fpOf(1) eJY(2)Mu m;r S m&Sd
w , f?i , fw JY
t rS w fpOfu dkOD
;pm;ay;wmq d kawmh1 - pentene
t r n ft jyn fh t pHku dka&;v d
ku fawmh2-methyl -1-pentene aygU /
' kwd
, oH k;x yfpn f;&JU
t r n fu d
kazmfjy&r , fq d k&i ft pm;x dk;t kyfpku u mAGeft r S
wfpOf(3)r S m&Sw JYmethyl ?
d
' gY
aM
u mifh3-methyl o kH ;x yfpn f;u u mAG eft r S w fpOf(1) eJY(2 )Mu m;r S
m&Sw , f?i , fw JY
d t rSw fpOfu d
kOD
;pm;ay;&r , fq d
kawmh
1 - pentyne t r n ft jyn fh t pHku dka&;v d
ku fawmh3-methyl -1-pentyne aygU / x yfN
yD ;av hv mM
u n fh
ygr , f/
-CH3
-CH3
-CH3
CH3- CH - CH - CH - C  CH CH3-CH2-CH-CH-CCH
-CH3
CH3-CH2 -
CH3-CH2 -
'D
ykH
rS
mq d k&i f2x yfpn f;u (1)eJY (2)Mu m; 'DykH
rS
mu 3 x yfpn f;o n fu mAG ef(1)eJY
(2)M
u m;
t pm;x d k;t kyfpku (2x yfpn f;zu fu a&wG u f)awmh t pm;x d k;t kyfpku (3x yfpn f;zu fu a&wG u f)awmh
(2) eJY(3) r S mmethyl ES pfck(4)r Smethylwpfck u mAG ef(3)r Smethyl wpfck(4)r S mmethyl wpfck
aemu f(5)r S mmethyl wpfck' gaM u mifht r n fu ' gu awmh &S
i f;w, ft r n fu
t ajzmifh t wd ki;ft r n fay;v dku f&i f 3-ethyl -4-methyl -1- hexyne
2,3,5-tri methyl -4-ethyl-1- hexene jzpfygw, f/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
'Dwcgajymif;jyefjyefv kyfM
u r , f/
t r n fay;x m;wmawG udko au F
weJUjyefa&;M u r , f/
3- methyl -4-ethyl-1- heptene
1. 1- heptene q d kawmhu mAG ef7 v kH;?ene eJU t q kH
;o wfawmh2x yfpn f;?t J'D pn f;u u mAG eft r SwfpOf(1) eJY
(2)M
u m;r S
mjzpf&r , f/
2. 3- methylq d kawmhu mAG eft r S
wfpOf(3) r S mmethyl ( CH3-) x n fh r , f/
3. 4- ethyl q d kawmhu mAG eft r S
wfpOf(4) r S methyl ( CH3-CH2-) x n fh vd ku fr , f/
4. u Jaemu fq kH
;u sefwJYu mAGefawG rS
mpn f; 4 pn f;jyn fh at mifH awG jzn fh
M
u r , f/
CH3-
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
t q i fh1. C-C-C-C-C-C=C t q i fh2 eJYt q i fh 3. C-C-C-C-C-C=C
CH3-CH2-
um
AG
ef7vkH
;ud
ka&;r, f/
CH3-
t q i fh4. CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH - CH - CH = CH2
CH3-CH2-
3- methyl -4-ethyl 1- heptene
Give the graphic structureal formula of the following. wpfxyfpnf;jzpfap?ESpfxyfpnf;?okH;xyfpnf;

bmjzpfjzpf vkyfenf;vkyf[efawGu
(1) 3,3- di methyl 1 hexane 'Doabmw&m;twdkif;ygyJ
(2) 3,4 -di methyl hexene ay;xm;wJY trnfuaeumAGefta&twGufudkwef;pDa&;
(3) 3,4,4 -tri methyl heptan -1-ol pnf; azmfjyxm;wJYumAGefMum;rSmpnf;awGxnfh
(4) 3 -methyl -1- butanol NyD;&if tpm;xdk;rnfh tkyfpkawGudktrSwfpOftwdkif;ae&mcs?
(5) 4 -ethyl - 2- heptyne usefwJY umAGefawGrSm (H) awGudk(4)pnf;jynfhatmifjznfh
x yfN
yD
;pr f;o yfM
u n fh
M
u wmaygU
/
3,4,4 -tri methyl hexan -1-ol (or) 1-hexanol
1. hexan-1-ol q d
kawmhu mAG
efu 6 v kH
;a&;r , f?ol eJU
t q kH
;o wfawmhalcohol u mAG
eft r S
wfpOf(1)r S
mOHx m;r , f/
6 5 4 3 2 1
C - C - C - C - C - C - OH
2. 3,4,4 -tri methyl q d

kawmhu mAG
eft r w
S fpOf3 r S
mv Jmethyl, 4 r S
mu 2 cgmethyl ( CH3-) awG
x n fh
r , f/
CH3-
CH3-
u mAG
efawG rSmt r S w fpOfawG w yfw mu
6 5 4 3 2 1
C - C - C - C - C - C - OH a&SU
u wyfw yfaemu fu aewyfwyf
CH3-
t q i fajyo v d kwyfv d &w, faemf

kY
'D
ykH
pH
t wdkif;v kyf&r , fv d
kY
azmfjyx m;wmr[ kw fyg?
3. vd
kwmawG
jzn fh
N
yD;wmeJYaemu fq kH
;u sefwJYu mAG
efawG
rS
mpn f; 4 pn f;jyn fh
at mifH awG
jzn fh
M
u r , f/
CH3-
CH3-
CH3 - CH2 - C - CH - CH2 - C H2- OH

CH3-
vdkwmawG jzn fh
jyD
;N
yD
v m;
t d
kau ' gq d k
o lY
t r n fav ;jyefa&;v d
ku fyg
3,4,4 -tri methyl-hexan -1-ol
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

Alcohol r sm;u dkt r n fay;jci f;
Alcohol u v n f; ES pfx yfpn f;?o kH
;x yfpn f;wd kU
eJYt r n fay;ykH o ab mw&m;jci f;wlygw, f/ alcohol awG &JUt r n f
t q kH
;o wfykH
u awmhalkane awG &JU
t r n faemu fq kH ;pu m;v kH ;jzpfwJYe ae&mrS mol u d kt pm;x dk;jzn fh
pG
u fv dku f, kH
yg/
1/ yx r q kH; OH t ygu mAG eft a&t wG u ft r sm;q kH;q u fwef;u d ka&G
;cs, fygr , f/
2/ OH ygao mq u fwef;&S n fu d
ka&G ;N
yD;N
yD
qd k&i fx kH
;pHt wd kif; 3/ t pm;x d k;t kyfpkrsm;u d kt r S
wfpOfo wfr S wfygr , f/
OH ES i fheD
;ao mu mAG efu ae t r w S fpOfu d kwyfay;&r S mu d
kr ar h
eJY/ er lemwpfckt &i fpM u n fh
r , f/
5 4 3 2 1
CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CH2OH
-CH3
OH b u fu aet r S wfpOfpv d ku f&i ft pm;x d k;t kyfpkjzpfwJYmethyl u d ku mAGeft r SwfpOf(4)r S
mawG Y
r , f/
OH u u mAG eft r S
wfpOf(1) r S
m&S w, f/ t r n fay;&i ft &S
d n fq kH
;u mAG eft a&t wG u fu (5)v kH;jzpfawmhpentane
pentane u e u d kjzKwfol t pm;o G i f;v d
ku fawmhpentanol
u mAG
eft r S
wfpOf(1)r S
m&S vd
d kU1-pentanol (or) pentan-1-ol q d kN
yD
; t r n fo wfr Swfygr , f/
u mAG
eft r S
wfpOf4 r S
mmethyl ' gq d kt r n fu 4- methyl-pentan-1-ol (or) 4- methyl -1- hydroxyl pentane
odap&efo u fo u fyg- t m;v kH ;ao mat mf*Jepfj' yfaygi f;awG [ m
Alkane u aeq i fhyGm;q i f;o u fv mwmrd kU1- hydroxyl-4- methyl pentane v d kU
ay;jci f;jzpfw, f/
aemu fwpfcku OH u kdhydroxyl (hydroxide) q d kwmo d x m;zdkUv d
kw, f/
u J' w
Dpfcku d
kv Jt r n fay;M
u n fh
&at mif/
-CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 - CHOH - CHOH - CH2 - C - CH3
-CH3
yx r t aeeJUOH t ygu mAG eft a&t wG u fu d

kMu n fh
awmht m;v kH
;aygi f; 6 v kH
; &S
w, f/
d
OH t ygcarbon 6v kH
;q d
kawmhhexan-diol (or) hydroxyl hexane aygU / ( OH 2cgygv d kUdi o kH
;w, faemf)
OH ygwJUt r SwfpOfu 2 eJU3 r S mq d
kawmh2,3 hexan-diol (or) 2,3-dihydroxyl hexane
t pm;x d
k;t kyfpku u mAGeft r S
wfpOf5 r S
mES
pfcgygawmhdi methyl
' gq d
kt r n ft jyn fh
t pkH
u 5,5- dimethyl -2,3 -hexan-di-ol
(or)
(5,5- dimethyl - 2,3 -dihydroxyl hexane v d kU
ay;Ed
kifw, f)
u Jt ckav mu fq d kacgi f;v Jawmfawm½ f Iyfav mu fN

yD
x i fwmyJ/ av h
u si fh
wmyJjzpfjzpfav h v mwmyJjzpfjzpf
wpfr sK
;csi f;pD
d udkt ao t csmav h u si h
M
fu n fhyg/ o ab mw&m;csi f;t wlwlyJrd kUyd
kifyd
kifEd
kifEd
kif&o G
m;r S
myg/
wpfzu fo i fcef;pmawG
ud
kr av h
v mao ;ci f' gu d
kjyefaEG
;v d
ku fygt kH
;/
Alkyl group or Alkyl radical
Alkyl group qdkwm Alkane uae (H) wpfvkH;avsmh oGm;wJY j'yfaygif; awGygyJ / trnfrSm (ane) tpm ; ( yl ) qdkNyD; ajymif;oGm;r,f/
methane ( CH4 ) uae (-H) wpfvkH;avsmh oGm;wJY tcg jzpfvmwJY (-CH3) 'D j'yfaygif;udk methyl vdkUac:w,f/
ethane ( CH3-CH3 ) uae (-H) wpfvkH;avsmh oGm;wJY tcg jzpfvmwJY (-CH2-CH3) 'D j'yfaygif;udk ethyl vdkUac:w,f/
propane ( CH3-CH2-CH3 ) uae (-H) wpfvkH;avsmh oGm;wJY tcg ykHpH (2)rsKd; awGU&w,f/ a&SU buf umAGefuvJ xGuf vdkU &ovdk aemufbufumAGeu f vJ
xGufvdkU &w,f/ a&SUaemuf twlwlyJrdkU normal propyl ( CH3-CH2-CH2- ) (omrmef ) vdkU ac:w,f/ aemufwpfrsKd;u (-H)
wpfvkH; tv,fuae avsmh oGm;wJY tcg jzpfvmwJY (CH3-CH-CH3 ) udkawmh iso-propyl vdkU ac:w,f/ umAGefwpfvkH;udkyJ ab;wpfzuf
wpfcsuf rSaeí wlnDwJY cufjzmtkyfpk awGu wNydKifwnf; csdwfqufxm;wmjzpfvdkU ( iso )vdkUac:r,f/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

alkyl groups awGudk oifrSwfrdygNyDvm; ? rSwfrdNyD &NyD qdkrS a&SUquf avhvmyg/
'Dwcg rSwfom; avhusifh&rSmu reaction awGrSm awGU vm&r,fh j'yfaygif;trnfawGjzpfw,f/ yxrqkH; vG,ful ½dk;&Sif;wJU trnfay; ykHpHawGudk avhvmr,f/
1 . Alkyl halides [ R-X ]

R- = alkyl such as methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl .............etc.
X- = halide such as Cl- chloride, Br- bromide, I- iodide,.....etc
Alkyl halide (CnH2n+1-X) R-X X- = Cl- , Br- , I-

( Alkyl awG
udkhalogen u jzpfwJYhalide (Cl,Br,I) awG
eJU
wGJpyfay;v d
ku fawmhAlkyl halide awG
jzpfv mwmaygU
)
(a) CH3-Cl = methyl chloride

CH3-Br = methyl bromide
CH3-I = methyl iodide
(b) CH3-CH2-Cl = ethyl chloride
CH3-CH2-Br = ethyl bromide
CH3-CH2-I = ethyl iodide
(c) CH3-CH2-CH2-Br = n- propyl bromide
CH3-CHBr-CH3 = iso- propyl chloride
(d) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-Br = n- butyl bromide
CH3-CHBr-CH2-CH3 = secondary butyl bromide
CH3
CH-CH2-Br = iso-butyl bromide
CH3
2 . Alcohols [ R-OH ]
OH- = hydroxyl or hydroxide
alkyl tkyfpk eJU hydroxide wdkY aygif;pyfzGJU pnf;jzpfay: &mrS &&Sdvmaom j'yfaygif;rsm;udk alcohol (R-OH) vdkUac:Muw,f/ 'DtkyfpkawGudk trnfay;&mrSmawmh
omrmeftrnfay;pepftjyif [IUPAC] pepfeJY ygaygif;pyftrnfay;xm;ygw,f/ IUPAC qdkwmu qGZfZvefEdkifiH ? *seDAmNrdKU rSmtajcpdkuf xm;wJY
odyÜHynm&Sifrsm; tzGJU csLyf jzpfw,f/ 4if;tzGJU csL yfrS trnfay;&mwGif vG,ful½dk;&Sif;ayonf/
j'yfaygif;wpfckwGif umAGeftufwrf wpfvkH; yg&Sdygu 4if;onf rlv j'yfaygif;(methane)rS qif;oufvmonfjzpfí meth-, [k tpjyKívnf;aumif; ?
umAGeftufwrf ESpfvkH; yg&Sdygu 4if;onf rlvj'yfaygif; (ethane) rS qif;oufvmonfjzpfí eth-, [k vnf;aumif; ?
pojzifh azmfjya&;om;jcif;jzpfw,f/ uJ avhvmMunfhMu&atmif-
( Alkyl awG udkOH eJY wG Jq u fay;&i fawmhAlcohols v d kU
ac:wmaygU ) hydroxyl group v d kU
v Jac:ygw, f/
t rn a f y;wJY
t cgr lv j' yfaygi f;t r n f\ aemu fq u fpu m;v kH ; (ane) r S(e) u d kjzKwfí (-ol) jzi fh
t pm;x d
k;o n f/
Trivial system omrmeftrnfay;pepf IUPAC system
(a) CH3-OH = methyl alcohol (methan ol)
(b) CH3-CH2-OH = ethyl alcohol (ethan ol)
wwd, ajr mu fu mAG efr S
pí zG
JU
pn f;ykH
uGJjym;v mo n fjzpfí -OH \ wn fae&mu d kazmfjy&r , f/
-OH ES
i fh
t eD
;q kH
;jzpfao mu mAG etf r S
wfpOft i , fq kH
;u d
ef;u d
k, lí (1,2,3...) jzi fh
azmfjyay;&o n f/
(c) CH3-CH2-CH2-OH = n- propyl alcohol (propan-1-ol) 1- propanol
CH3-CHOH-CH3 = iso- propyl alcohol (propan-2-ol) 2-propanol
(d) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH = n- butyl alcohol (butan-1-ol) 1-butanol
CH3-CHOH-CH2-CH3 = secondary butyl alcohol (butan-2-ol) 2 butanol
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

3 . Aldehyde [ R-CHO ]
Aldehyde rsm;onf carbonyl tkyfpk0ifrsm;jzpfMuonf/ 4if; carbonyl rsm;wGif alkyl tkyfpk wpfpkyg0ifvQif aldehyde jzpfí
alkyl tkyfpk 2 ckyg0ifvQif ketone [kac:onf/ aldehyde rsm;onf alcohol rsm;udk "mwfwdk;&mrS &&Sdvmaom j'yfaygif;rsm;omjzpfonf/
(A[koktjzpf rSwf,l&efom)
R R
C=O C=O C=O
H R
carbonyl group aldehyde ketone

-CHO = Aldehyde
-CHO \ v Gwfaeao mpn f;r S mH wpfv kH
;pwi faygi f;pyfao mt cg-CHO wG i fCarbon t u fwr fwpfv kH;yg0i fwJY
t wG
uf
methane jzpfN yD; aldehyde \ a&S U pu m;v kH;r Sal jzi fhaygi f;pyfu mmethanal [ kac:jci f;jzpfo n f/
xdaM
kYu mifhCarbon t u fw r fw pfv kH
;yg0i fao myx r OD ;q kH
;ao mAldehydes j' yfaygi f;pk0i fu dk&w, )f
( Alkyl awG eJU-CHO t wG Ju d
kq u fx m;&i fAldehydes v d kU
ac:ygw, )f
Trivial system IUPAC system
o rd kif;t &ay;x m;ao mt r n fr sm;
(a) HCHO = formaldehyde methanal
(b) CH3-CHO = acetaldehyde ethanal
(c) CH3-CH2-CHO = propionaldehyde propanal
(d) CH3-CH2-CH2-CHO = n-butyraldehyde butanal
q &mu awmh' DAldehyde j' yfaygi f;awG rS
m (-CHO ) jr efr mv d kcsK
qd
d kN
yD
;t oH
xGu fv d
kU
(-CHO) csK &i f? nal e, fr , f ' gyJ/
d
u mAGefw pfv kH
;yg0i fw JY(-CHO ) csKqd
d k&i fmethanal r Do e, f
u mAG
efES
pfv kH
;yg0i fw JY(-CHO ) csKqd
d k&i fethanal t Do e, faygU uGm
4 . Acid [ R-COOH ] alkanoic acid

Aldehyde awGudk xyfNyD; "mwf;wdk;apwJYtcg organic acid rsm;jzpf vmMu jyefonf/
O
=
4if; acid \ rlv ykHo@mefrSm C-OH jzpfonf/ odkUaomf -COOH [k tajzmifhtwdkif; a&;om;azmfjy Muavh&Sdonf/
Acids ( -COOH ) r sm ;u dkt r n fay;&mwG i fx kH
;pHt wd kif;Carbon t u fw r fwpfv kH;yg0i fv mygu r lv Zpfjr pfmethane
acid \ t q k ;o wft r n fic jzi fh
H aygi f;pyfo n f/o Y kao mfat mf*Jepft u fq pfr sm;jzpfo n fh
d t wGu f'o' wpfv kH;aygi f;pyfí
methanoic acid [ k t r n fay;o n f/ ' gq d k&i fCarbon wpfv kH ;ygwJYAcid u d k&w, )f usefwmvJtwlwlygyJ/
( Alkyl t k yfpkawGeJY-COOH eJYq u fx m;ygu organoic Acid awG ud k&&S
w , )f
d
Trivial system IUPAC system
o rd kif;t &ay;x m;ao mt r n fr sm;
(a) H-COOH = Formic acid methanoic acid
(b) CH3-COOH = Acetic acid ethanoic acid
(c) CH3-CH2-COOH = Propionic acid propanoic acid
(d) CH3-CH2-CH2-COOH = Butyric acid butanoic acid
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
5 . Salts
t u fq pfq d
kw mH ion awG +
udkx kw fay;EdkifpG
r f;&S
w , f?H+ion x G
d u fNyD
; u sef&S
t pd
d w ft ydkif;u d
kawmh
acid radical v dkU
ac:w, f?t J'Dacid radical awG eJYmetals o wÅ Kr sm;aygi f;pyfx m;wm[ msalts q m;awG aygU
/
acid radical awG &JUt q kH ;o wft r n fu awmh-oate t r n feJY q kH
;N
yD
; organic acid awG rSmygwJY
u mAGeft a&t wG u ft wd kif; u mAGefw pfv kH
;q d
kmeth ?u mAG efES
pfv kH
;q d
keth ajym&&i fx kH ;pH
t wd kif;ygyJu G
m/
metal + acid radical = salt
HCOOH HCOO- + Na = HCOONa
methanoic acid methanoate sodium methanoate
CH3-COOH CH3-COO- + Na = CH3-COONa
ethanoic acid ethanoate sodium ethanoate
CH3-CH2-COOH CH3-CH2-COO- Na = CH3-CH2-COONa
propanoic acid propanoate sodium propanoate
CH3-CH2-CH2-COOH CH3-CH2-CH2-COO- = CH3-CH2-CH2-COONa
butanoic acid butanoate sodium butanoate
6 . Ether (R-O-R)
ether qdkwJYj'yfaygif;udkawmh alcohol armfvDusL; j'yfaygif; (2 )ck rS aeí a&udk z,f&Sm; jcif; jzifh &&SdEdkifw,f/
wenf;ajym&&if alcohol awG&JU zGJU pnf;ykHuGJjym;wJY j'yfaygif;trsKd;tpm;jzpfw,f?'gayr,fh *kPfowÅduawmh rwlygbl;/
etherawG&JU tokH;0ifykHu organic solvent tjzpfaomf4if; ? aq;½kHrsm;wGif arUaq;tjzpfaomf 4if; tokH;jyKMuw,f/
( Alkyl radical ES pfckM
u m;r S moxygen yg&i fawmhEtherv d kYac:M u w, )f
radical 2 ck [ mwpfckeJY w pfckcsw d fq u faejci f;r &S w JY
d t wG u ft r n fay;&mrS mo wd x m;&r , f/
(a) CH3 - O - CH3 = dimethyl ether
(b) CH3 - O - CH2-CH3 = ethyl methyl ether
(c) CH3-CH2 -O-CH2-CH3 = diethyl ether
7. Ester ( R-COO-R)
( Alkyl radical ES
pfcM
ku m;r S
m-COO- yg&i fawmhEster v d
kYac:jyefw, f)
ester qdkwJYj'yfaygif;udkawmh acid radical armfvDusL; eJU alkyl tkyfpk wdkYaygif;pyfjzpfay:rIuae&&Sdw,f/ organic ester awGvdkYac:Muw,f/
olu arT;ysHU wJY &eHY udkydkifqdkifwmjzpfvdkU a&arT;jyKvkyf&mrSm tokH;0ifw,f/ organic ester tcsKdU udk azmfjyxm;ygw,f/
ester awGudktrnfay;wJYae&mrSm owdxm;&r,f/ umAGefeJY qufrdwJY tydkif; eJY rqufrdwJYtydkif; atmufrSmaocsmMunfhyg/
acid radical group alkyl group
(a) CH3-COO - CH3 = methyl ethanoate
(b) CH3-COO - CH2-CH3 = ethyl ethanoate
(c) CH3-CH2-COO -CH2-CH3 = ethyl propanoate
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Alkane 'Dj'yfaygif;awGtm;vkH;udk igwdkU b,fvdk usufrSwfMurvJ

'Dtwdkif; oauFwawGudk usufaeMur,fqdk &ifa&maxG;ukefrSmaygU ? 'gaMumifh 'Dvdk rSwfom;Mur,f/
yxrqkH; (methane) rDwdef; ? (ethane) tDwdef; ?(propane) y½dkydef; ?(butane)AsL wdef; 'gav;awGawmh odw,fr[kwfvm;/
H H
uJ CH4 uae H C H H wpfvkH; avQmhvdkuf&if CH3 - qdkwJY H C
H H
methyl rDodkif;vf jzpfvmw,f r[kwfvm;?
uJMunfh tJ'D rDodkif;vf (CH3 -) 2 ck udk wGJvdkuf&if CH3 - CH3 qdkwJY ethane jzpfvmw,fav ?
H
uJ CH4 uae H C H H udk [dkbufwpfvkH; 'Dbuf wpfvkH; avQmhvdkuf ? NyD;&if (CH3 -) 2 ck udk xyfwGJvdkuf&if
H
CH3 - H CH3 -
C uae CH3 - CH2- CH3 qdkwJY propane jzpfvmjyefNyDaygU uGm /
H
dimethyl methane vdkY vJ ac: Edkifygw,f/
tJvdkyJ CH3 - CH3 qdkwJY ethane uae H wpfvkH; avQmhvdkuf&if CH3 -CH2- ethyl jzpfwmudk odae&r,f/
'gqdk&if 'DrSmMunfh rlv methane uae H udk [dkbufwpfvkH; 'Dbuf wpfvkH; avQmhvdkufNyD; 'Dbufuae CH3 -CH2- ethyl xnfhr,f ?
[dkbufu CH3 - methyl xnfh vdkufr,f qdk&if
H H CH3 -CH2- H - CH3
H C H C C
H H H
methane uae H udk [dkbufwpfvkH; 'Dbuf wpfvkH; avQmh ? NyD;awmh ethyl xnfh methyl xnfvdkufawmh
uJ bmjzpfvmwm awGU ovJ
ethyl methyl methane
vdkY vJ ac: Edkifygw,f/ CH3 - CH2- CH2 - CH3 qdkwJY butane jzpfvmjyefNyDaygU uGm /
aemufwpfrsKd ; qufMunfhvdkufygtkH; ? 'Dwcg H udk okH;vkH; z,f methyl 3 cg xnfvdkufawmh
CH3 -
CH3
C - CH3 tri methyl methane vdkY vJ ac: Edkifygw,f/
CH - CH3
CH3 - H CH3
iso- butane jzpfvmjyefNyDaygU uGm /

t"du tcsuf uawmh avhvmMunfh avav vG,fulavav ygyJ
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
« Alkane »
....... R-H , R-CH3 , R-CH2-CH3 ......
general formula » CnH2n+2
type of hydrocarbon » saturated hydrocarbon jynfh0aom [dkufN'dK umAGefrsm; ud(k paraffins) vdkU ac:Muygw,f/
type of bond » single bond jynfh0aom [dkufN'dK umAGefrsm; Mum;rSmwpfxyfpnf;rsm;om&SdMuw,f/

type of reaction » substitution reaction jynfh0aom [dkufN'dK umAGefrsm; jzpfwJYtwGuf aygif;pyf "mwfjyK EdkifpGrf; r&SdMuyJ
[dkufN'dK*siftufwrfrsm;udk z,f&Sm; "mwfjyK rIjzpfvdkU tpm;xdk;"mwfjyKjcif;om&Sdw,f/
tck'DpmrsufESmuaepNyD; j'yfaygif;awG&JU xkwfazmfykH xkwfazmfenf; eJY olwdkY&JU *kPfowÅdrsm;udk avhvmBunfhMur,f/

yxrqkH;tae eJY rlv Alkane j'yfaygif;awGudk rSwfrd od&Sd em;vnfxm;zdkY vdk ygw,f/
n=1 CH4 CH4 methane

n=2 C2H 6 CH3-CH3 ethane
n=3 C3H 8 CH3-CH2-CH3 propane
umAGef trSwfpOf (3)xd umAGefj'yfaygif;awGu tajymif;tvJ r&Sd Muao;ayr,fh umAGef trSwfpOf (4)uaepjyD; zGJUpnf;ykHo@mefawG ajymif;vJvmygw,f/
armfvDusL; ta&twGufawG wlayr,fhvnf; zGJU pnf;ykHuGJjym;jcm;em;wmrdkY zGJU ykHuGJ armfvDusL;rsm;vdkYac:ygw,f/
Structural isomers are called structural isomerism.

zGJU ykHuGJ armfvDusL;rsm; Isomeric compounds
n=4 C4H 10 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 n-butane

CH3
CH-CH3 (CH3)2-CH-CH3 iso- butane
CH3
iso- butane 2-methyl propane (IUPAC)
iso- butane udk IUPAC pepftwdkif; trnfay;r,fqdk&if t&ifqkH;umAGefqufwef;trsm;qkH;udk a½G;cs,f&ygr, f/

tck iso- butane rSm trsm;qkH; umAGefta&twGuf [m (3) vkH;rQom&Sdygw,f/ tJ 'D umAGefta&twGuf[m olY &JU rlv j'yfaygif; propane
tjzpf owfrSwfygw,f/ 'kwd, ydkif;taeeJY rlvqufwef;rSmryg0ifwJY cufjzm tkyfpk uawmh umAGef trSwfpOf (2) rSm awGU &Sdxm;wmjzpfvdkU 4if;\
trnf udk 2-methyl tjzpfazmfjy &r,f/ 'gaMumifh iso- butane &JU trnftjynfhtpHk[m 2-methyl propane vdkU IUPAC
pepft& ac: ygw,f/
Homologous series rsKd ; wlj 'yf a ygif ; pk0 if r sm;

A series of compounds like the alkanes in which each member differs from the preceding or
succeeding one by a CH2 group is known as a homologous series.
Each member of the series is known as a homologue.
atmf*Jepfj'yfaygif;rsm;wGif&Sd [dkufN'dKumAGef wdkYwGif uyfvsuf wnf &Sd aom pOfvdkufarmfvDusL;rsm;\ jcm;em;csufonf - CH2- yif jzpfaeygu
,if;j'yfaygif;rsm;udk rsKd;wlj'yfaygif;pk0ifrsm;[kac:Muw,f/ ,if; j'yfaygif;wpfckjcif;pDudk rsKd;wlj'yfaygif; (homologue) vdkUac:Muw,f/
( Oyrm alkane ) udkMunfhr,f/ rDodef; ( CH4 ) eJY tDodef; ( C2H6 ) wdkU\ jcm;em;csuf[m (- CH2-) jzpfonf/ ajym&&if umAGefwpfvkH;eJY [dkufN'dK*sif
(2)vkH; jcm;em;csuf &Sdw,f/ tDodef;eJU y½dkydef; ? y½kdydef;eJY AsL wdef; pojzifh qufwdkuf avhvmMunfhvdkuf&if (- CH2-)omtoD;oD; jzpfaeayvdrfhrnf/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
Preparation of Alkane
1. Alkane are prepared by heating the sodium salt of a carboxylic acid with soda - lime .
CaO
CH3 COONa + NaO H  CH4 + Na2CO3
sodium ethanoate methane

at mf*Jepft u fq pf\ q d k'D
, r fq m;ES i fh
qd k'gx kH
;u d kt ajcmu faygi f;cH jci f;en f;jzi fh
Alkane j' yfaygi f;jzpfao mmethane u d k
&&S apw, f/ ' Dreaction r S
d mjr i fw wfzd yJv d
kY kw , f/ b mv Jq d k&i ft o kH ;jyK
x m;wJYat mf*Jepfq m;[ mu mAG ef(2)v kH
; &S
w, f
d
qd k&i fx u
Gfv mwJYalkane j' yfaygi f;[ mt o kH ;jyKx m;wJYu mAG eft a&t wG u fx u f(1)v kH
;av smh oGm;r , f/
Oyr mu mAG ef(2)v kH
;jzpfw JYethane u d k&csi fw , fq d k&i ft o kH
;jyK&r , fhat mf*Jepft u fq pf&JUq dk'D
, r fq m;u d ku mAGef(3)v kH
;
yg&S w JY
d q m;jzpfat mifv kyf&r , f/ ' D q m;awG b , fu &r v J?v G , fygw, f?t u fq pfeJYaAU pf" mwfjyK &i fq m;eJYa&&w, q f d
kw m
i gwd kYo d
N
yD;o m;yJav / M ud Ku fw JY
q m;v mcJYx kw fjyv d kY&w, f//
CH3 COOH + NaOH CH3 COONa + H2O
Ethanoic acid Sodium hydroxide Sodium ethanoate
CH3 CH2COOH + NaOH CH3 CH2COONa + H2O

propanoic acid sodium propanoate
CaO t u fq pfq d kawmhH x G u fr , f

R- COONa + NaOH R-H + Na2CO3
aAY qd kawmhOH x u Gf
Sodium alkanoate Alkane aygi f;v dku fawmhH2OaygU
CaO xG u fw mz, f(H2O)
CnH2n+1 COONa + NaOH CnH2n+2 + Na2CO3
u sefw ma&;awm (hsalt)
Alkane awG ud kx kw fazmfEd kifw JY' kw d

, en f;u d
kav hv mMu n fhr , f/
The reduction of alkyl halides with molecular hydrogen takes place in the presence of catalysts
like platinum, Pt and palladium, Pd.
yv u fw e Dr ft r n f;(o d
) yav ' D
kY , r ft r n f; " mwfu lypö n f;jzi fhalkyl halide awG ud k[ dku fN
'd
K
*si feJU
aygi f;N
yD
; " mwfav Qmh
vd ku fw , /f t J'D
t cg[ d ku fN
'd
K
*si fu alkyl halide r S mygwJYhalide awG udkz, fx kw fae&m, lN yD; alkane j' yfaygi f;awG
- - - -
jzpfapw, f/ Cl > Br > I " mwfav Q mh
EkidfpG
r f;t pDt pOft & I u " mwfav Q mh
r It v G , fu lq kH
;jzpfw , f/
Pt or Pd " mwfav Q mh
w , fq d
kw mo dNyD;o m;r d
kY
R-X + H2 RH + HX
t x l;wv n fajymzd vd
kY kr, fr x i fyg
' Dreaction r S mv J
alkyl halide alkane
H u R-X r S m&S w JYX u zkd, f
d
Pt or Pd
CH3-I + H2 CH4 + HI Methyl iodide u ae Methane &o v d
k
methyl iodide methane
CH3-CH2I + H2 Pt or Pd CH3-CH3 + HI Ethyl iodide u aeq d kawmhEthane aygY

ethyl iodide ethane propyl iodide q dk&i fau m-----------
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Halogen acid u d
kt o kH
;jyK
N
yD
;" mwfav Q mh
en f;&S
d
ygao ;w, f/' gu aemu fwpfr sK
d
;aygU
iodide u x G u fr , f--hydrogen u 0i faygU av /
CH 3 -I  HI 
 CH 4  I 2 methyl halide u ae methane &r , fq d
k&i f
Ethyl iodide u aeq d kawmh

methyl iodide methane
Ethane aygY
CH3-CH2 I + HI CH3-CH3 + I2
wpfck&S w , faemf
d
ethyl iodide ethane
t o kH
;jyK
wJY
t u fq pfu
CH3-CH2CH2Br + HBr CH3-CH2CH3 + Br2
wpfzu fu halide eJY awmh
n-propyl bromide propane
wl&r , f/ o wdx m;yg/
Properties of Alkane
Physical properties.
- Under oridinary conditions, the alkane are unreactive .
- Alkanes are called paraffin hydrocarbon.(means little affinity)
C1 (methane)to C4 (butane) are colourless gases.
C5 (pentane) to C17 (heptadecane) are colourless liquids.
C18 (octadecane) onwards they are solids.
Alkane are insolube in water but are soluble in organic solvents.
o mrmeft ylcsdefwpfckat mu fr S
m&S w JY
d Alkanes awG [ minorganic acid r sm;ES i fh
ao mf4i f; aAYr sm;ES i fh
ao mf4i f; " mwfjyK Ed
kifpG
r f;
t m;en f;wmu d kawG
&S
Y &o v d
d ko lw d
&JUar mfv D
kY u sL;t av ;q awG r sm;v m&i fawmht &n fq lr S w f?t &n faysmfrS w fawG jri w
h
f uf
v mygw, f/ ' gayr , fha&&JU aysmfrSw fq lr S
w fx u fr au smfo v dka&r S mv Jaysmf0i fEd
kifpGr f;r &S
ygb l;?' gY
d t jyi fo yf
do n f;jci f;u v J
0. 7 av mu fo m&S vd
d kYa&x u faygY ygw, f/ o lw d kU
[ mav mifu R r f;&wmv G , fu lw JYyg&mzi fj' yfaygi f;awG awmhjzpfM u w, /f
yg&mzi (f paraffin)q d kw ma&S
;t ac:t a0:jzpfN yD
; jyn fh
0wJY
[ dku fN
'dK
u mAGefj' yfaygi f;u d kq d
kv d
kjci f;jzpfw , f/
Chemical properties.
t x i f&S m;" mwf* kP fo wd u awmhSubstitution t pm;x d
Å k;"mwfjyKjci f;ygyJ/wen f;ajym&&i fCl2 aygi f;N yD
;" mwfjyKwmjzpfv d
kY
Chloronation v d kY
ac:Ed kifygw, f/ ysH
U
ES U
Ht v i f;a&mifat mu fr Sm
Hydrogen t u fwr fwpfv k H
;csi f;pD
&JU
ae&mu dkChlorine t u fwr f
wpfv kH
;csi f;t pm;x d k;ae&m, l" mwfjyKjci f;jzpfv d
t q i fh
kY (4)q i fh
&S
ygw, f/' gayr , fht v i f;a&mifo mr&S
d cJU
d &i f"mwfjyK
jci f;[ mrN
yD
;q kH
;
Ed
kifawmh
ygb l;/ (o wd
jyK
&r , fh
t csu fu aea&mifat mu fr S
mwd
ku f½d
ku faygi f;pyfr Ir v kyf&ygb l;)
Substitution reaction ( Chloronation )
CH4 + Cl2 diffuses sunlight CH3Cl + HCl

methane methyl chloride
CH3Cl + Cl2 diffuses sunlight CH2Cl2 + HCl
methyl chloride methylene chloride
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 diffuses sunlight CHCl3 + HCl
methylene chloride chloroform
CHCl3 + Cl2 diffuses sunlight CCl4 + HCl
chloroform carbon tetrachloride
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
aemu f* kP fo wd Åwpfcku awmhCombustion av mifu R r f;" mwfjyK
jci f;ygyJ/hydrocarbons j' yfaygi f;awG u av r S
m
av mifu R r f;wJYt cgcarbon dioxide eJYwater u d
k&&S
apw, f/
d
u mAG efu av r S mav mifawmh
u mAG
ef' d
kifat mu fq dk'fjzpfv mo v d
k
CH4 + 2O2 CO 2 + 2H2O
[ dku fN
'dK
*si fu v Jav r S m
methane carbon dioxide
av mifawmh a&jzpfw maygU
Exercise for Alkane reactions

CaO
1. R- COONa + NaOH 
CaO
 CnH2n+1 COONa + NaOH 
CaO
 CH3 -COONa + NaO H  
CaO
 CH3 CH2-COONa + NaO H  
Pt or Pd
5. CH3-I + H2 ?
Pt or Pd
6. CH3CH2-I + H2 ?
Pt or Pd
7. R-X + H2 ?
8. CH3-I + HI ?
9. CH3-CH2 I + HI ?
10. R- I + HI ?
11. CH3-CH2 Cl + HCl ?
12. CH4 + O2 ?
13. CH3-CH3 + O2 ?
av h
u si fh
jci f; jzi fhat mifyG
Jq i f
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Alkene 'Dj'yfaygif;awGudkaum b,fvdk usufrSwfMurvJ
yxrqkH; (Alkene ) rlvtpu tDoif;aygU ? (ethene) ? NyD;awmh (propene) y½dkyif; ? (butene) AsL wif; pwJY
trnfav;awG awmh tajccH tm;jzifh awmh od NyD;jzpf&r,f/
CH2 = CH2 uawmh Alkene &J U rlvtp j'yfaygif; tjzpf odzdkU vdkw,f aemf ? usefwmu awmh xkH;pH twdkif; H wpfvkH; avQmhvdkuf NyD; &if
CH3 - qdkwJY methyl rDodkif;vf udk pNyD; xnfh vdkufr,f ? uJ bmjzpfvmrvJ qdkwm Munfh MuwmaygU /
(CH3 -) - CH = CH2 CH3 - CH = CH2 qdkwJY propene jzpfvmovdk ?
methyl ethylene methyl ethylene ( aemufwpfrsKd ; u propylene wJU )
CH2 = CH2 udk rlvwkef;u ethylene vdkY ac:Muw,f? uJ tck methyl [CH3-] xnfhay;vdkufwmqdkawmh olU trnf u
methyl ethylene vdkY ac: vJ &ygw, f/ propene vdkY ac:wmu IUPAC system tdkif,lywf pepf jzpfNyD; ? methyl ethylene uawmh
derivative qifhyGm;trnfay; pepfjzpfygw,f/ / tJ'gudkyJ Trivial system omreftrnfay;pepfu umAGefokH;vkH;yg vdkU propylene
vdkU ac:Mujyefw,f/ ig;rnf& jynfa&Tbdk awmif rif;wdkY odao;wmyJ ? tck u trnfokH;rsKd; wnf;ygaemh ?
CH2 = CH2 uae xkH;pH twdkif; H wpfvkH; avQmhvdkuf NyD; &if CH3 -CH2- qdkwJY ethyl xnfh vdkufr,f ? uJ bmjzpfvmtkH;rvJ
(CH3 -CH2-) - CH = CH2 CH3 -CH2- CH = CH2 qdkwJY 1-butene jzpfvmjyefNyDaemf

ethyl ethylene ethyl ethylene (1- butylene )
CH2 = CH2 udk rlvwkef;u ethylene vdkY ac:Muw,f? uJ tck ethyl [CH3-CH2-] xnfhvdkufwm qdkawmh olU trnfu
ethyl ethylene jzpfoGm;jyefwmaygU / ethyl ethylene ac: butene aygUuGm /
uJ 'Dwcg rSmawmh CH2 = CH2 &JU b,f nm ESpfzuf uae H wpfvkH; pD avQmh vdkuf NyD; methyl [CH3-] xnfhvdkufr,fqdk&ifaum
olU trnfu dimethyl ethylene jzpfoGm;jyefwmaygU / dimethyl ethylene ac: butene aygUuGm /
(CH3 -) - CH = CH - (CH3 -) »»» CH3 -CH=CH - CH3
methyl ethylene methyl 2-butene
symmetrical or s- dimethyl ethylene ( 2- butylene )
ESpfxyfpnf;uae ydkif;Munfh vdkuf&if [dkbuf 'Dbuf ESpfzufnDaewmjzpfvdkU symmetrical vdkU trnfay;xm;jcif;jzpfw,f/
'DtcgrSm butene u (2) ckawmif qdkawmh wpfckeJY wpfck uGJ jym; jcm;em;oGm;atmif ESpfxyfpnf; &SdwJU trSwfpOfudk azmfjy owfrSwfvdkufw,f/
'gaMumif h CH3 -CH2- CH = CH2 udk 1-butene vdkU ac:NyD; ? CH3 -CH=CH -CH3 udkawmh 2-butene vdkU ac:w,f/
'D butene udkyJ aemufwpfrsKd; a&;vdkU &ao;w,fqdkawmh butene u (3) rsKd;awmif jzpfoGm;NyD/ 'Dvdka&;Munfhvdkufawmh bmxl;jcm;rI awGUovJ ?
umAGef ta&twGuf u (4) vkH; ? [dkufN'dK*sif ta&twGuf uvJ (8)vkH; ? tJ'gudk omref trnfay;pepf uiso-butylene vdkU trnfay;xm;w,f/
CH3
C = CH2 IUPAC system uawmh olY udk 2-methyl -1-propene qdkNyD; trnfay;w,f/
CH3
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
2. Alkene ( R-CH = CH2 )
r jyn fh
0ao mUnsaturated Hydrocarbon t r sK;t pm;r sm;
d
General formula CnH 2n
Type of bond Double bond ( ethylenic bond )
Type of reaction Addition reactions
Type of hydrocarbon unsaturated hydrocarbon (olefins)
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon of alkenes are called olefins.

Alkene molecules contain a double bond each, commonly called ethylenic bonds.
r jyn fh
0ao m[ d ku fN
'd
K
u mAG efjzpfw JYalkenes t r sK ;t pm;u d
d kat mfv D zi f(olefins) q D jzpfapao m" mwfai G U
r sm;v dkYac:ygw, f/
r jyn fh
0jci f;t aM u mif;u awmhalkenes r sm;\ ar mfv D u sL;zG
JUpn f;ykH rS
mES pfx yfpn f;wpfckyg&S d
jci f;aM
u mif;jzpfw, f/
' gaM
u mih f' D
j' yfaygi f;awG U&JUt r n fr S
m(-ylene) (o d kU
) (ene) wd jzi fht q kH
kY ;o wft r n fay;M u w, f/ t q kH ;o wft r n u f d
k
M
u n fhjci f;t m;jzi fh4i f;wdo n fq D
kY jzpfapao m[ d ku fN'd K
u mAGeft kyfpk0i fr sm;jzpfaM u mif;o dEd
kifw , f?b maMu mihvf Jq dkawmh
t jcm;at mf*Jepfj' yfaygi f;r sm;r S
m' Dvd kt r n fay;x m;jci f;r &S d
vdkU
ygyJ/
Alkene [ R-CH = CH2 ]

Alkene uawm h unsaturated r jynfh0wJY hydrocarbon j'yfaygif;jzpfNyD;awmh olY&JU a,bl,s ykHaoenf;udk ( CnH2n ) eJU a&;om;ygw,f/
'Dae&mrSm (n) qdkwm umAGefawG&JU ta&twGufjzpfNyD; ( n 1 ) 'n' [m (1) rjzpf&ygbl;? NyD;&if umAGefqufwef;u rnfrQ&Snfvsm;aeygap
ESpfxyfpnf; onf wBudrfom ygcGifh&Sdw,f/ 'n' ta&twGuf&JU (2)q onf umAGefeJYaygif;pyf xm;aom[dkufN'dK*sif ta&twGuf udk jznfhpGufEdkifygw,f/
yxrqkH; ykHaoenf; uae (molecular structure) udka&;r,f/ NyD;&if (graphic formula) eJY azmfjyr,f?
molecular formula graphic formula structural formula name of compound

n=2 ethylene
H H
C2H 4 » C=C CH2=CH2 ethene
H H
n=3 H H H propylene
C3H 6 H C C=C H CH3-CH= CH2 propene
H
n=4 umAGeftrSwfpOf(3)udkausmfwmeJY armfvDusL;zGJUpnf;ykH ykHo@mefuGJjym;vmMuw,f/ 'gaMumifh pnf;&JU wnf&Sdae&m udk umAGeftrSwfpOfjzifh azmfjy&r,f/
C4H 8 H H H H 2 1 -butylene
H - C - C - C = C -H CH3-CH2-CH = CH2 1-butene
I
H H
S
O
M C4H 8 H H H H -butylene
1 2 3
E H - C - C = C - C -H CH3-CH=CH-CH3 2-butene
R H H
S
H H
C4H 8 C CH3 iso-butylene
H
H C=CH2
C=C-H 2 1 2-methyl-1- propene
CH3
H
C
H
H
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Preparation of Alkenes
1. Dehydration of Alcohols ( t &u fr Sa&y, fjci f;)
" mwfjyK jci f;t q i fh2 ck&S
ygw, f/ yx r t q i fhSulphuric acid jyi f;eJY
d t ylcsd
ef100º C x d t ylay;v dku fwJY
t cgt &u fx JrS
a&pwi fN yd K
uGJx G
u fv mNyD
;aemu ft ylcsd
ef160º C x d jr i fh
w i fv d
ku fw JY
t cgr Sv d
kcsi fw JYAlkene ESpfx yfpn f;j' yfaygi f;
ud k&&Sapw, f/ aemu fw en f;u awmh
d t &u fai uG
Ydk350º C x d t ylay;x m;wJYAlumina (Al2O3) ay:o d jzwfo ef;apjci f;
kY
jzi fh
v JES
pfx yfpn f;j' yfaygi f;Alkenes t r sK
;t pm;r sm;u d
d kx kw f, l&&SEd
d kifygw, f/
(a) Heating with concentratd sulphuric acid at 160ºC

When ethanol is heated with concentated sulphuric acid at 160ºC ethene is formed.

CH 3CH 2 OH  H 2SO 4 100
 C
 CH 3CH 2SO 4 H  H 2 O t ylcsd
e1f 00r S
mt u fq pfu H+eJY
t &u fu OH-
ethanol ethyl hydrogen sulphate wd aygi f;pyfN
kY yD
;a&molecule x G u fr , f/

CH 3CH 2SO 4 H 160
 C
 CH 2  CH 2  H 2SO 4
ethyl hydrogen sulphate ethene t ylcsd
e1f 60ºC r Smawmhethyl u H+ eJY
t u fq pfradical HSO4 wd kY
jyefaygi f;N
yD
;
CH 3CH 2 OH H 2SO 4 (conc) 160º C
CH 2 CH 2 H 2O r lv t u fq pfjyefjzpfr , f/
ethanol ethene
H 2SO 4 (conc) 160ºC
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 OH   CH 3CH  CH 2  H2O
propan -1- ol propene
v kyfen f;v kyf[ efu awmh t wlw lygyJ/wckyJ&S
w, f
d
xG u fv mr, fhH + u alcohol functional
t kyfpkeJY
u yfv su fjzpf&r , f/
H H
H---C----C---OH H2O CH2=CH2
H H H
H H
H C C C OH
adjacent carbon
H H H
adjacent carbon
(b) Passing the vapours of the alcohol over alumina, Al2O3 heated at 350ºC .
Al 2 O3 , 350º C
CH 3CH 2 OH CH 2 CH 2 H2O
ethanol ethene
CH3-CH2-CH2OH Al 2 O 3 , 350º C CH3-CH=CH2 + H2O
propan-1-ol propene
CH3-CHOH-CH3 Al 2 O 3 , 350º C CH3-CH=CH2 + H2O

propan-2-ol propene
propan-1-ol jzpfjzpfpropan-2-ol jzpfjzpfx G u fv mwJY&v ' fu t wlw lygyJ/t " d u t csu fu t &u fu aea&u d k
b , vf d
kz, fx kw fw , fq dkw mu d kjr i fat mifM
u n fh
w wfzdygyJ/aemu fN
kY yD; a&u dkz, fx kw f" mwfjyK jci f;r S
msulphuric acidt pm;
Syrupy phosphoric (metaphosphoric acid, HPO3) u d kt pm;x d
k;t o kH
;jyK
Edkifygw, f?' gayr , fht J'D t u fq pfu
not hygroscopic a&u d kpkyf, lEd
kifpGr f;r &S
d
ovdknot an oxidizing agent " mwfwd k;Ed
kifpG
r f;v Jr&S
d
ygb l;/ ' gaM u mifht &u fx JrS
a&u dkx yfcgx yfcgz, fx kwfay;&ygr , f/
Naming reaction ar ;cJY &i fawmh
ESpfq i fhajzp&mrv d kyJwd ku f&kd
u fajz&i fv J&w, f/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
2. Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides ( [ d ku fN
'd
K*si fESi fha[ v dk*si fy, fjci f;)
When ethyl chloride is heated with an alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide on a water bath,
ethene is formed.
Dehydrohalogenation q d kw mb mv J?hydrogen eJYhalogen u d kz, fjci f;yg/ b meJY z, fr v J?KOH , ethanol
heat yg/ K u Cl u d
kz, fr , -f- KCl / OH u H u d kz, fr , -f- H2O ?z, fN yD
;u sefw mb mawG v JAlkene j' yfaygi f;
awGaygUq &m&, f/
ethanol
CH 3CH 2 Cl KOH CH 2 CH 2 KCl H2O K KCl
ethyl chloride ethene H H
H---C----C---Cl
H H OH H2O
CH 3CH 2 CH 2 Br  KOH ethanol

 KBr  H 2 O  CH 3 CH  CH 2

n-propyl bromide propene
CH 3CHBrCH 3  KOH ethanol

 KBr  H 2 O  CH 3CH  CH 2

iso-propyl bromide propene

ethyl u dko kH
;v d
kY
ethene x u Gfw, f
qdk&i fpropyl o kH ;awmhpropene
Properties of Alkene awGxG u fv mrS
maygY
/
Physical properties
1. Ethene to butene ( carbon two to four ) are gases .carbon five to fifteen are liquids.
more than sixteen carbon atms are solid at room temperature.
2. They are all lighter than water in which they are insoluble .
Chemical properties
r jyn fh
0wJYHydrocarbon awG qd kawmho lY rSmaygi f;pyf" mwfjyK
jci f;wpfr sK
;yJ&S
d w, f/
d
Addition reactions
1. Addition of hydrogen ( Hydrogenation ) Hydrogen aygi f;awmhHydrogenation aygY /
ES
pfx yfpn f;u d
kzG
i fh
N
yD
;[ dkb u fw pfv kH
;' D
b u fwpfv kH
; aygi f;v d
ku fw m/ ES
pfx yfpn f;&S w JY
d ae&mu ae 0i f&r S maemf/
Ni, 300 C
CH 2  CH 2  H 2    CH 3 -CH 3
H H
ethene ethane
Ni, 300 C
CnH 2n + H2    CnH2n+2 CH2 =----= CH2 H H
Alkene Alkane
CH3--CH =----= CH2
2. Addition of chlorine and bromine
The addition of halogen to alkenes can take place in the dark, but is accelerated by light.
This reaction take place readily in the liquid phase or solvent (petrol , ethanol) and is catalysed in
solution by halide ions. Chlorine u t v i f;&S rS
d" mwfjyKEIef;yd
kjr efq efv d
kY
light
CH 2 CH 2 Cl 2 CH 2 Cl - CH 2Cl t v i f;u dkt u lypö n f;t jzpft o kH ;jyK w, f/
ethene ethene di chloride ar S
mif&i f" mwfjyK EIef;u aES ;v dyg/
kY
X-
CH 2 CH 2 Br2 CH 2 Br - CH 2 Br
u sefa[ v d k*si fn D
rQjci f;awG u &kd;&Si f;wJY
ethene ethene di bromide
t wG u fo d yfajymp&mr&S ygb l;/
d
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 207 ] .............................................." mwk&wemo dku f
3. Addition of hydrogen halides or halogen acids
Markownikoff ' s rule
When an unsymmetrical addendum (aygi f;pyfypö n f;)(HX) adds on to an unsymmertrical alkene,
two products are possible; but that product where the negative part of the addendum (X) adds
on to the carbon with the least number of hydrogen atoms is the major product.
t csK;r n a
d Do maygi f;pyfypö n f;wpfckES
i fh
t csK
;r n D
d ao malkene wpfckaygi f;pyfw JY
t cg" mwfjzpfypö n f;ES
pfr sK
d
;x G
u fv m
Ed
kifygw, ? f t J'D
ypö
n f;ES
pfr sK
;t eu fhydrogen t u fw r ft a&t wG
d u ft en f;q kH
;&S
d
w JYu mAGefu d
k0i fa&mu faygi f;pyfo lu
t "d u ypön f;jzpfw , fv d
kYr m;au mh
edpfau mh u ajymygw, f/
CH 2  CH 2  HX 
 CH3 -CH2 X
X = Cl . Br ( chloride, bromide)
symmetrical ethene unsymmetrical ethyl halide ( only one product)
CH 3 CH  CH 2  HX 
 CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 X  CH3 -CHX-CH3
unsymmetrical unsymmetrical addendum iso propyl halide (major product)
(t csK
d
;r n a
Do m
Alkene) (t csK
;r n D
d ao maygi f;pyfypö
n f;)
4. Formation of ozonide and Ozonolysis

When a stream of ozonized oxygen is passed into a solution of alkene in ethanoic acid (acetic) or
chloroform , addition of ozone to alkene takes places with formation of alkene ozonide.
This ozonide is readily decomposed by water. Methanal is formed.
O
chloroform , CHCl 3
CH 2 CH 2 O3 CH2 CH2
O O
ethene ethene ozonide
.... O
....
.
....
....
....
..
.............. .....
CH2 CH2 + H 2O Zn dust

2 CH 2O H 2O 2
O O methanal
O
CH3-CH=CH2 + O3  chloroform, CHCl3

 CH3-CH CH2
propene O O propene ozonide
.... O
....
.
....
.... +
....
.. H 2 O  Zn dust
 CH 3 -CHO + CH 2 O  H 2 O2
.............. .....
CH3-CH CH2
ethanal methanal
O O
O
CH3-CH=CH -CH3 + O3 
chloroform, CHCl3
 CH3-CH CH-CH3
2 butene O O butene ozonide
.... O
....
.
....
....
....
..
.............. .....
CH3-CH CH-CH3 + H 2 O 

Zn dust
 2 CH 3 -CHO + H 2 O2
O O ethanal
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

5. Hydroxylation ( a&o G i f;N
yd
K
uGJjci f;) wen f;t m;jzi fhhydroxide awG aygi f;jci f;aygY
Asm/
O ESpfv ;kHH ES pfv kH
; wjcr f;pD 0u fv d ku fawmhOH ES pfw G
JaygU?wpfzu fu d kw pfw G Jcsd
w fv d
ku fawmha&cJacsmif;a&mif;o v dk
glycol &wmaygU / t u lypö n f;t aeeJU1 % KMnO4 u d ko kH
;v Jt wlwlygyJaemf/x l;jcm;wmu ygr i f;*ed w f&JU
c&r f;a&mifu
t a&mifr hJjzpfo G m;jci f;yJ/' gaMu mifhpn f;t r sK;t pm;cG
d Jygq d k&i f' D
nDrQjci f;t o kH
;jyKav Y
&S M
d
u w, f/
When ethene is passed into cold dilute potassium permanganate solution, ethene glycol is formed.
dil KMnO4
CH 2 CH 2 [O] H 2O CH 2OH - CH 2OH
ethene nascent oxygen ethene glycol (1,2-dihydroxyl ethene) colourless
CH3-CH=CH2 + [O] + H2O dil KMnO 4 CH3-CHOH-CH2OH

proene nascent oxygen propene glycol (1,2-dihydroxyl propene) colourless
Decolourization of 1% bromine solution
' gv Jt a&mifr hJjzpfo Gm;jci f;yJ/' gayr , fhpn f;t r sK;t pm;cG
d Jygar ;v d
ku fv d
kY' D
nDrQ
jci f;u dkajzv dku f&i ft r S
w fjyn fh
r &ygb l;/
b mjzpfv Yvd
k Jar ;&i f' DnD rQjci f;u wpfx yfpn f;jzpfw JYr D odef; ?t D
odef;wd eJY
kYv J"mwfjyKEdkifv dkY
ygwJY/
' gaM
u mifhwd ku f½kd
u far ;wmu v G J&i ft o kH
;r jyK
o i fh
ygv d
t B
kY uH ay;yg&ap/
When alkene is shaken with or passed into a 1% solution of Br2 in carbon tetra chloride, CCl4 ,
The bromine colour is discharged.
CCl 4
CH 2 CH 2 Br2 (reddish brown) CH 2 Br - CH 2 Br
ethene ethene dibromide (colourless)
Alkene reactions
H 2SO 4 ( conc )
1. CH3-CH2OH 160 º C
?
ethanol
2. CH3-CH2OH + KOH ?
3. CH2=CH2 + H2 Ni, 300º C ?
4. CH2=CH2 + Cl2 light ?
CH2=CH2 + Br2 halide ion X - ?
H 2 O,
5. CH2=CH2 + O3 chloroform , CHCl 3 ? Zn, dust
?
6. CH2=CH2 + HBr ?
CH3-CH=CH2 + HBr ?
dil KMnO4
7. CH2=CH2 + H 2O + [O] (violet)
?
8. CH2=CH2 + Br2 (reddish brown)
CCl 4 ?
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Alkyne uJ 'Dj'yfaygif;awGudkaum igwdkU b,fvdk rSwfom;MurvJ ?vG,fygw,f/
yxrqkH; (Alkyne ) rlvtpu tDodkif;aygU ? (ethyne) ? NyD;awmh (propyne) y½dkydkif; ? (butyne) AsL wdkif; pwJY
trnfav;awG awmh tajccH tm;jzifh awmh od NyD;jzpf&r,f/
CH  CH
acetylene (or) ethyne
CH  CHuawmh Alkyne &J U rlvtp j'yfaygif; tjzpf odzdkU vdkw,f aemf ? NyD;awmh olU &JU rlvtptrnfu acetylene tufovif;
vdkY ac:w,f/ usefwmu awmh xkH;pH twdkif; H wpfvkH; udk avQmhvdkuf NyD; &if CH3 - qdkwJY methyl rDodkif;vf udk pNyD; xnfh Bunfhvdkufr,f ?
uJ bmjzpfvmrvJ qdkwm Munfh MuwmaygU /
(CH3 -) - C  CH CH3 - C  CH qdkwJY propyne jzpfvmovdk ?

methyl acetylene methyl acetylene
CH  CH udk rlvwkef;u acetylene vdkY ac:w,f aemf / uJ tck methyl [CH3-] udk xnfhay;vdkufwmqdkawmh olU trnf u
methyl acetylene vdkY ac: w, f/ propyne vdkY ac:wmu IUPAC system tdkif,lywf pepf jzpfNyD; ? methyl acetylene
uawmh derivative qifhyGm;trnfay; pepfjzpfygw,f/ /uJ qufNyD; avhvm Bunfh MuwmaygU /

CH  CH uae xkH;pH twdkif; H wpfvkH; avQmhvdkuf NyD; &if CH3 -CH2- qdkwJY ethyl xnfh vdkufr,f ? uJ bmjzpfvmtkH;rvJ
(CH3 -CH2-) - CH  CH CH3 -CH2- C  CH qdkwJY 1-butyne jzpfvmjyefNyDaemf

ethyl acetylene ethyl acetylene
CH  CH udk acetylene vdkY ac:w,f? uJ tck ethyl [CH3-CH2-] xnfhvdkufwm qdkawmh olU trnfu ethyl acetylene
jzpfoGm;jyefwmaygU / ethyl acetylene ac: 1- butyne aygUuGm / (1) qdkwmu tJ'DrSmygwJY okH;xyfpnf;&JU wnfae&mudk azmfjyxm;wmjzpfw,f/
uJ 'Dwcg rSmawmh CH  CH &JU b,f nm ESpfzuf uae H wpfvkH; pD avQmh vdkuf NyD; methyl [CH3-] xnfhvdkuf r,fqdk&ifaum
olU trnfu dimethyl acetylene jzpfoGm;jyefwmaygU / dimethyl acetylene ac: 2-butyne aygUuGm /
(CH3 -) -CC- (CH3 -) »»» CH3 -C  C - CH3

methyl acetylene methyl 2-butyne
symmetrical or s- dimethyl acetylene
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Alkyne ( R- C  CH )
general formula ---» CnH 2n-2

type of reaction ---» substitution / addition reaction
type of hydrocarbon ---» unsaturated hydrocarbon
type of bond --» triple bond ( acetylenic bond )
IUPAC name graphic formula formula Trivial system
'D
o ;kH
x yfpn f;t yd
kif;r S
methyne u d
ko l&JU
r lv t r n fjzpfw JY
acetylene v d
v Jo d
kY x m;&ygr , f?o kH
;x yfpn f;u mAG
eft wG
Ju d
k
o mreft r n fay;pepft &acetylene v d kY
ac:Mu w, f/
C2H 2 ethyne H - C  C - H CH  CH acetylene
C3H 4 propyne H -- C -- C C-H CH3--C  CH meyhyl acetylene
o kH
;x yfpn f;u mAG
eft wG
Ja&S
U
rS
mmethyl ygw, f' gaM
u mifh
o lu d
kmethyl acetylene v d
kY
v Jac:w, f/
H H
H--- C -- C -- C C-H
C4H 6 1- butyne CH3-CH2- C  CH ethyl acetylene
H H
o kH
;x yfpn f;u mAG
eft wG
Ja&S
U
rS
methyl group yg0i fw , f?' gaM
u mifh
o lu d
kethyl acetylene v d
kY
ac:w, f/
C4H 6 2 -butyne CH3-C  C-CH3 di methyl acetylene
o kH
;x yfpn f;u mAG
eft wG
Ja&S
UeJY
aemu fr S
mmethyl t kyfpk2ckyg0i fw , f?' gaM
u mifh
o lu d
kdi methyl acetylene
vd ac:ygw, f/
kY
1- butyne eJY2- butyne wd

kU
[ mu mAG eft a&t wGu fw l?[ d
ku fN
'd
K
*si ft a&t wG
u fr sm;wln D
M
u ao mfv n f;
zGJU
pn f;wn faq mu fykHr wln D
M
u wmjzpfv d
kU
isomeric compounds awG jzpfM u ygw, f/
H H CH3- CH2- C  CH 1- butyne

H-C-C  C-C-H
H H CH3- C  C - CH3 2- butyne
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Preparation of Alkynes
1. The calcium carbide required for this reaction is prepared by heating calcium oxide with coke
in an electric furnace. Calcium carbide is treated with water to liberate ethyne.
r azmu fx kH
;eJYu kwfr D
;ao G ;u d
ka&mN yD
;vQ yfppfaygi f;zd
keJU
t ylwdku fv d
ku f&i f u , fv fpD
, r fu mAd
k'f&w, f?&v mao m
u , fv fpD
, r fu mAdk'f j' yfaygi f;u d
ka&jzi fh
aygi f;pyfv d
ku fao mt cgt u fpfwv i f; t cd k;t ai G
U
r sm;ES
i fh
t wl azmu fx kH
;
ud k&&S
apygw, f/
d
electric furnace
CaO C CaC 2 CO
coke calcium carbide C H-OH
CaC 2 2 H 2O CH CH Ca (OH) 2 Ca
calcium carbide ethyne ( acetylene) C H-OH
calcium carbide
2. Dehydrohalogenation of alkene dihalide

De q d
kw my, fr , fv d
kYajymwmá á b mu d
ky, fay;&r v Jhydrogen eJYhalogen u d
ky, fx kw fay;&r , f/
b , fj' yfaygi f;u aey, fay;&r v Jq dkawmh?á á alkene dihalide q d kwJYj' yfaygi f;u ae hydrogen eJYhalogen u d k
y, fx kw fay;&r , f/?b meJY y, fr v J?á á KOH , ethanol - heat q d kw JY
t u lypö n f;awG
eJUy, fjci f;jzpfygw, f/
K u Br u d ky, fr , f á á KBr b , fEp Sfcgy, fr v J?2cgy, fr , f?2cgy, fawmh á 2KBr
OH u H u d ky, fawmhá á H2O &r , f?b , fES pfcgy, fr v J?á 2cgy, fr , f?2cgy, fawmh á 2H2O
y, fN
yD ;u sefw mb mawG v Já á Alkyne awG aygUAsm? u mAG efawG Mu m;r S
mb , fES , fhx yfpn f;v Já o kH
;x yfpn f;ygci fAsm
ethanol
CH 2 Br -CH 2 Br  2KOH   CH  CH  2KBr  2H 2O
Δ
ethene di bromide ethyne (acetylene)
Dehydrohalogenation of ethylidene chloride
CH3-CH2- u d kethyl v d ac:w, fHwpfv kH

kY ;av smh
vd?CH3-CH= u d
kY kawmhethylidene v d ac:w, f
kY
aemu fx yfH wpfv kH
;av smh
oGm;v d
yg/ ' Dreaction u v Jt ay:u reaction v d
kY kygyJ?H eJYCl u d
kz, fx kw fay;ygr , f/
ethanol
CH 3 -CHCl2  2KOH   CH  CH  2KCl  2H 2O OH
Δ
K
ethylidene chloride ethyne (acetylene) CH3--CHCl2
K
OH
K
OH
OH propene dibromide u d
k K
t o kH
;jyK
&i fawG &ygr , f/ CH3-CH -CHCl22
CH32--CHCl
CH3-CHBr-CH2Br K
y, fykH
y, fen f;u awmht wlw lyg/
K OH
OH
propylidene bromide
udkt o kH
;jyK
&i fpropyne
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
Properties of alkynes
alkynes &J U
*kP fo wÅ yd
dkif;u d
kMu n fh
r , fq d
k&i f 2 yd
kif;awG U
&w, f/r jyn fh
0ao mhydrocarbon awG jzpfv d
kY
aygi f;pyf" mwfjyKEd
kifM
uovd k?acid *kP fo wÅ yg&S
d vd
d kYo wÅ
K
ES
i fh
t pm;x d k;" mwfjyK
Ed
kifpG
r f;u d
kv JawG
U
&w, f/
Chemical properties
Addition reactions
yx r q kH
; hydrogen eJY
aygi f;pyf" mwfjyK
vdkY
Hydrogenation v d
kY
ac:w, f/wd
ku f½d
ku fa&;v J&ygw, f/
CH  CH  H 2 Ptor
Pd
 CH 2  CH 2 H
2,
  CH 3 - CH 3
Pt or Pd
ethyne ethene ethane
1. addition of hydrogen ( Hydrogenation )

Pt or Pd
CH CH H2 CH 2 CH 2
ethyne (excess) ethene
Pt or Pd
CH 2 CH 2 H2 CH 3 CH 3
ethene ethane
2. addition of halogen (Halogenation)

halogen eJY aygi f;pyf" mwfjyKvd kYHalogenation v d kY
ac:jyefw , f/at mu fr S
ma&;x m;wJY
t wdkif;yJHalogen awG u
wdku f½kd
u faygi f;pyfr , fq d
kaygu fu GJwwfv d
kYt v i f; ' gr S
r [ kw fo u fq dkif&mhalide t u lt n D
ud ko kH
;r Saygu fu G
JrIu d
ku mu G
, f
wm;q D ;Ed
kifygw, f/
Ethyne adds on chlorine and bromine in the dark to form di and tetra halide.
The direct combination between ethyne and chlorine can be explosived.( aygu fu G Jwwfo n f)
This is prevented (u mu G , fwm;q D;o n )f by light and metallic halides.
CH CH Cl 2 light
CHCl CHCl r lv j' yfaygi f;jzpfw JYEthyne
ethyne (excess) ethyne di chloride CHCH r S mC t a&t wG u f?
light
CHCl CHCl Cl 2 CHCl 2 CHCl 2
ethyne di chloride ethyne tetra chloride H t a&t wG u fu av smh oGm;jci f;
r &S
w JY
d t wG u fEthyne ygyJ
Cl2 Cl2
CH  CH   CHCl  CHCl   CHCl 2  CHCl2
light light
ethyne ethyne dichloride ethyne tetrachloride

ethyne reacts with aqueous bromine (t &n fu sJ)q d
k&i freaction u wpf0u feJY
N
yD
;q kH
;o G
m;ygr , f/
X-
CH CH Br2 (aq) CHBr CHBr
ethyne ethyne di bromide
ethyne reacts with liquid bromine, in the absence of solvent.(t &n fyspfjzpfawmh
t q kH
;x d
" mwfjyK
r , f)
X -
CH  CH  Br2 (l)   CHBr  CHBr
r lv j' yfaygi f;jzpfw JYEthyne
ethyne ethyne di bromide CHCH r S mC t a&t wG u f?
X - H t a&t wG u fu av smh oGm;jci f;
CHBr  CHBr  Br2   CHBr2  CHBr2
r &S
w JY
d t wG u fEthyne ygyJ
ethyne di bromide ethyne tetra bromide
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
Br2 Br2
CH  CH  
 CHBr  CHBr  
 CHBr2  CHBr2
X X
ethyne ethyne dibromide ethyne tetrabromide

(' D
vdkwpfq i fh
w n f;v Ja&;v d
v J&ygw, f/)
kY
ethyne reacts difficulty with iodine (cu fcJpG

m"mwfjyK
&v d
kYt q kH
;x d
r a&mu f/Iodineu t pd
kift cJjzpfaeo u d
k;)
ethanol
CH CH I2 CHI CHI
ethyne ethyne di iodide
3. addition of hydrogen halide or halogen acids

( Hydrohalogenation ) HI > HBr > HCl > HF
The addition take place in the dark but is catalysed by light and metallic halides.
ESpfx yfpn f;r S
m&S
cJY
d w JYacgi f;pOfeJY
t wlw lygyJ
Markownikoff 's rule pn f;r sOf;u d
kv d
ku femygw, f/
light
CH  CH  HBr  CH 2  CHBr
ethyne vinyl bromide
Vinyl bromide , being still unsaturated adds on another molecular of HBr

light
CH 2  CHBr  HBr  CH 3 -CHBr2
unsymmetrical unsymmetrical ethylidene bromide
light HBr
CH  CH  HBr  CH 2  CHBr  CH 3 -CHBr2
light
ethyne vinyl bromide ethylidene bromide
4. Hydration
Addition of the elements of water

When acetylene is passed into dilute sulphuric acid containing mercury(II)sulphate, at 60ºC.
Ethanal is formed.
acgi f;pOfu a&aygi f;jci f; ?a&u ion t jzpfN
yd
K
uGJpOfH+ ES
i fhOH- &w, f/
H 2SO 4
CH CH H 2O [ CH 2 CH - OH] CH 3CHO
Hg 2 60º C
ethyne vinyl alcohol ethanal
H
H 2SO4
CH CH 
2
 [ CH2=CHOH ] CH3-CHO
Hg 60ºC
OH
ethyne vinyl alcohol ethanal
r wn fN
r Jao ;wJY
j' yfaygi f;jzpfaev d
kY
H u wpfzu fu d
kpn f;zsu fN
yD
;aygi f;pyfw , f
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Substitution reaction (or) Formation of acetylides

aygi f;pyf" mwfjyK jci f;t ydkif;N
yD
;o G
m;jyefawmht ckt pm;x d k;" mwfjyKjci f;' gr S
r [ kwfo wÅ Kt u fpfo v d ku fawG jzpfay:jci ;f
t aM u mif;q u fv u fav h v mM
u n fh
&at mif?' D t yd kif;r S
mo d x m;&r , fh t csu f 2csu f&S w, f/ yx r t csu fu
d
o kH
;x yfpn f;u mAG eft r sKd
;t pm;jzpf&r , f/' kwd , t csu fu o kH ;x yfpn f;u mAG efjzpfayr , fht J'D o kH
;x yfpn f;u mAG efr S
m
H(hydrogen)&S &r , f/o kH
d ;x yfpn f;u mAG eft r sK
;t pm;r [ kwf&i f" mwfjyK
d jci f;r jzpfay:Ed kifo v d ko kH
;x yfpn f;u mAG efjzpfayr , fh
t J'Do kH
;x yfpn f;u mAG efr S
mH q d kwJU(hydrogen) r &S cJU
d &i fv Jno reaction ygyJ /
ar;ce
G
f;awGmethyne awG
rS propyne awG ay;xm;ayr, fhaem ;t ajzuacetylide jzpf&r, f/ rS
ufqkH wfrd
at mif'gav;awG
jyefM
unfhjyefa&;xm;ygtkH
;/
ethyne CH  CH acetylene
propyne CH3-C  CH methyl acetylene
1 butyne CH3-CH2-C  CH ethyl acetyleve
2 butyne CH3-C  C-CH3 dimethyl acetylene
Substitution reactions ( acidic properties)

Formation of metallic acetylides
(a) When acetylene is passed over heated sodium, one or both hydrogen atoms may be replaced
or substituted by sodium to form mono- and di sodium acetylides.
t ylay;x m;ao msodium ay:r Sacetylene " mwfai G Uud kjzwfo ef;apao mt cgacetylene r Shydrogen ion u d
k
sodium atom r Szv S , fx kwf" mwfjyK
N
yD; acetylides r sm;u d
kjzpfay:apw, f/
 1
CH CH Na CH C Na H
2 2

0i f0i fx G
u fx G
uf acetylene monosodium acetylide
pn f;r ysu f  1
CH CNa Na Na C C Na H2
2

monosodium acetylide di sodium acetylide
net result CH CH + 2 Na Na -C  C -Na + H2

acetylene disodium acetylide
propyne CH3-C CH + 2 Na CH3-C  C -Na + 12 H2

methyl acetylene sodium methyl acetylide
1
1-butyne CH3-CH2-C CH + 2 Na CH3-CH2-C  C -Na + 2
H2
ethyl acetylene sodium ethyl acetylide
(b) When ethyne is passed into an ammoniacal solution of copper(I)chloride , metallic acetyldes
are precipitated.( red ppt)
t rd
k;eD
;, m;aysmf&n fwG
i faysmf0i faeao mcopper(I)chloride ay:r Sethyne " mwfai G
U
udkjzwfo ef;apao mt cg
2 CH CH Cu 2Cl 2 2 NH 3 2 CH C Cu 2 NH 4Cl
acetylene mono copper acetylide (red ppt)
2 CH CCu Cu 2Cl 2 2 NH 3 2 CCu C Cu 2 NH 4 Cl
mono copper acetylide di copper acetylide (red ppt)
CH CH Cu 2Cl 2 2 NH 3 Cu C C Cu 2 NH 4 Cl
acetylene di copper acetylide (red ppt)
1
CH3-C CH + 2
Cu2Cl2 + NH3 CH3-C  C-Cu + NH4Cl
methyl acetylene copper methyl acetylene ( red ppt)
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
When ethyne is passed into an ammoniacal solution of silver oxide or silver nitrate,
metallic acetyldes are precipitated.
t rd
k;eD
;, m;aysmf&n fwG
i faysmf0i faeao msilver oxide ay:r Sethyne " mwfai G U
ud kjzwfo ef;apao mt cg
2 CH CH Ag 2O NH 3 2 CH C Ag NH 4 OH
acetylene mono silver acetylide (white ppt)
2 CH CAg Ag 2 O NH 3 2 Ag C C Ag NH 4OH
mono silver acetylide di silver acetylide (white ppt)
CH CH Ag 2 O NH 3 Ag C C Ag NH 4OH
acetylene di silver acetylide (red ppt)
2 CH3-C CH + Ag2O+ NH3 2 CH3-C  C-Ag + NH4OH

methyl acetylene silver methyl acetylene ( red ppt)
CH3-C C-CH3 contain no hydrogen on the triple bonded carbon and will not form metallic
acetylide. di methyl acetylene( CH3-C C-CH3 ) r S mo kH
;x yfpn f;&S
ayr , fh?o kH
d ;x yfpn f;eJUq u fx m;wJY
u mAG
efr S
m[ d
ku fj' d
K
*si fu r &S
d?' gaM
u mifhNo reaction o mjzpfw, f/
Alkyne reactions
1. CaO + C electric furnace ?
CaC2 + H2O ?
ethanol
2. CH2Br-CH2Br + KOH ?
ethanol
3. CH3-CHCl2 + KOH ?
4. CH CH + H2 (excess) Pt ? Pt ?
light
5. CH CH + Cl2 ?
6. CH  CH + Br2 (l) ?
7. CH  CH + Br2 (aq) ?
8. CH  CH + I2 ?
X
9. CH  CH + HBr (excess) ?
H 2SO 4 (dil ),60 º C
10. CH  CH + H 2O ?
Hg 2
11. CH CH + Na ?
12. CH CH + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 ?
13. CH CH + Ag2O + NH3 ?
14. CH CH + Ag2 NO3 + NH3 ?
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Hydrohalogenation of propyne (q , fwef;t q i fh x u feJeJau smfN
yD;ar ;v mcJU zl;w, f/)
CH3- C CH + HCl  CH3-CCl = CH2

 HCl
 CH3- CCl2 - CH3
propyne methyl vinyl chloride iso- propylidene chloride
( 2-chloro- 1 -propene) (2,2-dichloro- propane)
Hydration of propyne
CH3- C  CH + HOH H

2SO 4 ( dil )

2 
 [ CH3- COH  CH2 ]  CH3- CO  CH3

Hg , 60 C
propyne 1-methyl vinyl alcohol acetone

( 2-hydroxy -1- propene) ( dimethyl ketone)
Write down the the symbolic equation for the reaction of iso-butene and HBr.
What is the major product? Give the name of the rule used in this reaction.
CH3 CH3 CH3

C = CH2 + HBr CBr - CH3 + CH - CH2Br
CH3 CH3 CH3
iso-butene tertiary- butyl bromide iso-butyl bromide

( major product)
Markownikoff ' s rule is used in this reaction.
O
=
R - C- or R - CHO 'D
vdkzG
JU
pn f;ykH
r sK
;&S
d wJY
d o lu d
kAldehyde t kyfpkawG
vd
kUac:w, f/
H
R
-
C=O 'D
vdkzG
JU
pn f;ykH
r sK
;u d
d kawmh ketone j' yfaygi f;pkawG
vd
kUac:w, f/
-
R
wu , fawmho lw d
kY(2)ck[ mar mfv D u sL; t a&t wG u fw l t csK
;t pm;wlM
d u wJYIsomer j' yfaygi f;awG jzpfM
u ayr , fh
*kP fo wd awG
Å u awmhwpfckeJYwpfcku JG jym;Mu ygw, f/
o lw d
kU&JUu mAGeft u fwr fr S
mpn f;(2)pn f;v G
w faewmu d kawG U&w, f?
t J'D
pn f;t v Gw fawG rSmAlkyl t kyfpkwpfpkeJUhydrogen t u fw r fu d kaygi f;pyfx m;&i fawmh
Aldehyde [ R-CHO ] t kyfpk0i fjzpfv mN yD;?
vGw faeao mpn f; (2) pn f; r S mAlkyl t kyfpkES pfpkeJUaygi f;pyfx m;&i fawmh
ketone [ R-CO-R ] t kyfpk0i fj' yfaygi f; awG jzpfv mygw, f/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Alcohol ( R-OH )
general formula CnH 2n+2
O (or) CnH2n+1 -OH
(A lkyl group) eJ
U[OH] hydroxyl functional group aygi f;pyfjzpfay:r Iu d
kfAlcohols v d
kU
ac:w, )f
Graphic formula r q G
Jawmh
yJwd
ku f½kd
u fa&;o m;v d
ku fw , f/
(a) CH3-OH = methyl alcohol (wood spirit) (methanol)
(wood spirit) o pfo m;r S&&S

v mao mt &n f
d
(b) CH3-CH2-OH = ethyl alcohol (rectified spirit) (ethanol)
(rectified spirit) t q i fh
q i fh
aygi f;cH
jci f;jzi fh
&&S
ao mt &n f(aygi f;cH
d &n f)
(c) CH3-CH2-CH2-OH = n -propyl alcohol (propan-1-ol) 1-propanol
(d) CH3-CHOH-CH3 = iso -propyl alcohol (propan-2-ol) 2-propanol
(e) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH = n -butyl alcohol (butan-1-ol) 1-butanol
(f) CH3-CHOHCH2-CH3 = secondary butyl alcohol (butan-2-ol) 2-butanol
CH3-
(g) CH-CH2OH iso-butyl alcohol 2-methyl propan-1-ol
CH3-
neo- butyl alcohol v d kU
v Jac:M
u w, f/
CH3 r lv u mAG
eft u fw r fr S
mH wpfv kH;r Sr &S
awmh
d w JY
t wG
u fneo v d
ac:jci f;jzpfw , f/
kY
(h) CH3 C ---OH tertiary butyl alcohol u d
kU
v Jac:w, f 2-methyl propan-2-ol
CH3
Ethyl alcohol or ethanol is one of the most important alcohols.

az:jyx m;wJYalcohol j' yfaygi f;awG
x Ju r Sethanol u t a&;B
uD;q kH
;t " d
u r i f;o m;B
uD;ygyJ/
Preparation of Alcohols
1. By the hydrolysis of alkyl halide
Alkyl halide j' yfaygi f;awG udka&o G i f;N
zdKcGJv d
ku f&i fr i f;wd
vd
kY kcsi fwmu dk&N
yD
?ao mu fzd o mjyi fx m;ayawmh
kY / [ J[ J' gayr, fh
t ckx kwfazmfv d ku fwJY
t &u fawGud kM
u n fh &i fr i f;wdao mu fcsi fygU
kY r v m;q d
kwmo dcsi fr d
w, f/ t &u f[ mau mif;v m;r au mif;v m;
r i f;wd
q kH
kY ;jzwfMu n fhaygYuG
m/ t ckt o kH ;jyKvd ku wf JYNaOH [ mt jyi f;pm;cR wfaq ;yg/ t J'gu d kr i f;wd
od
kY x m;NyD;o m;yg/
u Jn D rQjci f;a&;x m;wmu d kMu n fh
vd ku fpr f;r , f
The ethyl chloride is heated under reflux with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide.
reflux
CH 3 CH 2 Cl  NaOH   CH 3CH 2OH  NaCl
ethyl chloride ethanol

H-OH
reflux
CH 3 CH 2  SO 4 H  H 2 O   CH 3CH 2OH  H 2SO 4
ethyl hydrogen sulphate ethanol

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
2. Manufacture of ethanol from petroleum refinery product
Hydrocarbons of very high molecular weight are heated to 520º C under 12 atm pressure when they
break down to give alkanes. At the same time, ethene is produced as a gaseous by product.
This gas is passed into sulphuric acid when ethyl hydrogen sulphate and di ethyl sulphate are formed.
ar mfv D
u sL;t av ;q r sm;wJYa&eH
ud kt ylay;N
zd
KcG Jv ku
d fwJYt cgalkanes j' yfaygi f;awG &&SwJY
d t jyi fab ;x G
u fypö
n f;jzpfao methene
gas v Jwpfcse dfwn f;wN yd
K
i fwn f;x Gu f&S
v mw, f?t J'D
d " mwfai GU
udksulphuric acid ay:jzwfo ef;apjci f;t m;jzi fhq m;ES
pfr sK
;
d
udk&&Sapw, f/ &&S
d v mwJY
d q m;ESpfr sK
;u d
d ka&o G
i f;Nzd
KcGJv d
ku f&i fawmhv d
kcsi faewJYalcohol awG&jyefNyD
aygY
/
H HSO 4
CH 2  CH 2  H 2SO 4 
 CH 3CH 2SO 4 H
ethene ethyl hydrogen sulphate
CH 3CH 2SO 4 H  CH 2  CH 2 
 CH 3CH 2 -SO 4  CH 2  CH 3
diethyl sulphate
If these products are dilute with water, hydrolysis takes place to give ethanol.
CH 3CH 2SO 4 H  H 2O 
 CH3CH 2 OH  H 2SO4
ethyl hydrogen sulphate ethanol
(CH 3CH 2 )2SO 4  2 H 2 O 

 2 CH 3CH 2 OH  H 2SO 4
diethyl sulphate ethanol
3. Manufacture of ethanol by fermentation

Starch is pressure cooked to release the starch granules. The cooked starch is cooled and then
treated with freshly germinated barley which is called malt for 1 hour at 60º C . Malt contains the
enzyme diastase . Starch so treated breaks down into a sugar called maltose.
u pD" mwf&aS
do mt apY r Iefr sm;u d
k&&S ap&efzd
d t m;ay;csu fN yKwfay;&r , f?csu fjyKwfN
yD;u pDawGud kt at ;cH
N
yD
;aemu ft an S
mifh
xGu fpjyKaeao mr ka, mpyg;ES i fh
t wlr D
;aEG;aEG;eJY
t csdefwpfem&DMu mx m;v dku fw, f?t J'D
t csd
efr S
myJ(waq ;)ZD
0"mwfu lypö
n f;eJY
aygi f;pyfv d
ku fwJY
t cgu pD " mwfu d ko M
u m;t jzpfo dkYajymif;v Jay;v d
ku fw, f/t J'gu dkmaltose v d ac:M
kY u w, f/
n diastase n &dk;&d
k;av ;awG
;M
u wmaygU
(C 6 H10 O 5 ) n H 2O C12 H 22 O11
2 2 C6H10O5 + H ½ O = 2[ C6H11O5.5 ]
starch maltose
=C12H22O11
Yeast is added to the maltose at room temperature when an enzyme , maltase present in it,
catalyses its break down into glucose.
wzeft J'Dar mv fwd pfx Ju d
kY kt cef;t ylcsd efr S
myJaemu fx yft i fZd
kif; ar mfawY
pfZD
0" mwfu lypön f; u d
kx yfx n fh
ay;v d
ku fwJY
t cg
*v l;u d
pft jzpfo d
kY kYx yfr H
N
yd
K
uG Ja&mu f&S jyefw, f/
d
&d
k;&d
k;av ;yJawG ;r d
w, f/
C12H22O11 + H 2 O = [ C12H24O12 ]
C12 H 22 O11 H 2O yeast 2 C6 H12 O 6
( maltase ) 2=[C6H12O6]
maltose glucose
In the next step, another enzyme, zymase , present in yeast catalyses the decomposition of glucose
to ethanol. aemu fq kH
;t q i fh
rS
mawmht i fZkidf;Zd
kifar U
pfu *v l;u d
pfu d
kY kt &u ft jzpfo d
ajymif;v Jay;v d
kY ku fw, f/
yeast
C 6 H12 O 6 2 CH 3CH 2 OH 2 CO 2
( zymase )
glucose ethanol
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
Properties of alcohol
Physical properties
1. methanol (CH3OH)to butanol (C4H9OH) = mobile liquids (t ai G U ysH
vG, fao mt &n fr sm;)
2. (C5H11OH) to (C11H23OH) = oily liquids (q D u JY
od kYyspfao mt &n fr sm;)
3. (C12H25OH) and above = solids
methanol and ethanol are miscible with water.(a&wG i fwpfo m;wn f;aysmf0i fo nf)
The most toxic member is methanol.("gwkt q d yft awmu fjzpfapw, f)
Chemical properties
1. reaction with the metallic sodium ( acidic property)

When a piece of sodium is added to ethanol at room temperature, producing hydrogen.
t ylay;x m;NyD
;ao mq dk'D
, r fo wÅK
ay:r Sethanol t &u fu d
kjzwfo ef;apao mt cgt &u f\ OH functional group r SH ES
i fh
Na o wÅ K
wd kU
u zv S
, fx kwf" mwfjyK
w, f/ t &u fr SH x G
u fv mjci f;aM
u mifht u fq pf* kP fo wÅ
ajr mu fw, f/
d
1
CH3-CH2OH + Na CH3-CH2ONa + 2
H2
ethanol sodium ethoxide
2. reaction with the PCl5 ( phosphorus penta chloride)

t cef;t ylcsd
efr S
mPhosphorus penta chloride PCl5 eJYzv S
, fx kwf" mwfjyK
N
yD
; HCl " mwfai G
U
udk&&S
apw, f/
d
PCl5 reacts with ethanol at room temperature liberating HCl gas.
CH 3 CH 2 OH  PCl5 
 CH 3 CH 2 Cl  POCl3  HCl
ethanol ethyl chloride
3. reaction with sulphuric acid [ Formation of Ether ]
When ethanol is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid at 140º C di ethyl ether is formed.
'D
t q i fh
rS
ma&x G
u fw, f/ o d
w, fr [ kwfv m;a&q lr S
wf
CH3CH2OH + H2SO4 100 

C
 CH3CH2 -SO4H + H2O R -O - R zGJU
pn f;r I
ethanol ethyl hydrogen sulphate t D
o mether

CH3CH2SO4H + CH3CH2OH 140  C
 CH3CH2 -O-CH2CH3 + H2SO4
t &u f&JUt u fppf* kP fo wÅ
d( H jyefx G
u fr , f) di ethyl ether
conc H SO
2 4 CH CH -O- CH CH  H O
2 CH 3CH 2 OH  3 2 2 3 2
140ºC
ethanol di ethyl ether
rS
m ;wwfv G ef;v dk
Uo wd jyK
conc H2SO4
2 CH 3CH 2 OH  CH 3CH 2 -O- CH 2CH 3  H 2 O ethanol q d kwJY
t &u fu d
kyJsulphuric
140ºC acid(conc)eJ U" mwfjyKwJY
t cg
ethanol di ethyl ether t ylcsd
ef( 140º C ) r Smether
H 2SO 4 (conc) 160º C
CH 3CH 2 OH CH 2 CH 2 H 2O t ylcsd
ef( 160º C ) r S
mu ethene
ethanol ethene
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
4. Formation of esters ( Esterification )
When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid, a small amount of sulphuric acid (conc) is added
as catalyst.
t u fq pfr S
ef&i fH x Gu f?' gayr , fhat mf*Jepft u fq pfawG u t m;aysmh w, f?' gaM
u mifhsulphuric acid (conc) u d k
yr mP t en f;i , fx n fhay;jci f;t m;jzi fht &u fr S-OH u d kH u q G J, lw, f/ v G
wfx G
u fo G
m;ao mpn f;t csi f;csi f;csd
wfq u f
N
yD; R-COO-R q d kwJYzG
JU
pn f;ykHt & o lwd ud
kY korganic ester v d kU
ac:ygw, f/ t J'Dester awG udkM
u n fh
vdku f&i ft u fq pf
radical eJYalkyl radical wd aygi f;pyfx m;wmawG
kY U
&v dr fh
r , f?' D
vdkyJorganic ester &S
ov d
d kinorganic ester v J&S d
ygw, f/
H SO CH3CH2 OH
CH 3CH 2 OH CH COOH 2 4 CH 3COOCH 2 CH H 2O
3 3
ethanol ethanoic acid ethyl ethanoate
CH3COO H
Inorganic ester
When alcohol reacts with HBr, HI , HCl to form Inorganic ester.
CH3CH2OH HBr CH3CH2Br H2O

ZnCl2
CH3CH2OH HCl CH3CH2Cl H2O
ethanol ethyl chloride
5. Oxidation of alcohol
t &u fr Sm"mwfwd k;*kP fo wÅ &S
dw, f?b mv d
d " mwfwd
kY k;w, fv d ajymwmv J?[ d
kY ku fN
'd
K*si fu d
kz, f&i f " mwfwd k;w, fr [ kwvf m;(t cef;5)
' gY
t jyi f[ dku N
f' d
K
*si fu dkx kwfay;jyef&i fv J" mwfwd k;w, fv dkU
ajymEd kifo v dkt u fq pf* kP fo wÅ v J&S
d jyefw, f(t cef;13)?' gq d
d ko lwd
ud
kY k
(t &u f)ao mu fv d ku fv d
kY" mwfwdk;w, fq dk&i fb mv J/ r i f;wdkYi gwdkYcE¨mu dk, fx Jwen f;t m;jzi fht u fq pfawGa&mu fv mwm
r [ kwfv m;?' gaM u mifht &u fo r m;awG qDu csOfapmfeH wmaygU / t u fq pfq d kwmcsOfwJY * kP fo wÅ v J&S
d ao ;w, fav /
d
(A) Dehydrogenation
acgi f;pOfu [Dehydrogenation] b my, fjci f;v J[hydrogen] y, fjci f; ?b , fu y, fr v J[ethanol] u
b meJY
z, fr v J[copper 300ºC] ygq &m/b mjyef&r v J[CHO] csK awG
d aygU q &m?csK&i f-- e, fv d
d ku fr S
maygU
uGm
When ethanol is passed over freshly reduced copper heated at 300º C, removal of hydrogen
with formation of ethanal.
H
CH3-CH2OH Cu , 300º C CH3-CHO + H2
CH3-C - O-H
ethanol ethanal
H
(B) Oxidation by oxidizing mixtures
When heated with a mixture of potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid , oxidation take place
in two stages to finally give ethanoic acid.
K 2Cr2O 7
CH3-CH2OH + [O] CH3-CHO + H2O
dil H 2SO 4
ethanol ethanal
K 2Cr2O 7
CH3-CHO + [O] CH3-COOH
dil H 2SO 4
ethanal ethanoic acid
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Reactions of Alcohol
reflux
1. CH3-CH2Cl + NaOH ?
2. CH3-CH2-HSO4 + H 2O ?
3. (CH3-CH2)2SO4 + H 2O ?
4. C6H 12O 6 zymase ?
5. CH3-CH2OH + Na ?
6. CH3-CH2OH + PCl5 ?
H 2SO4 ( conc)
7. CH3-CH2OH 140º C
?
H 2SO4 ( conc)
8. CH3-CH2OH + CH3COOH ?
H
9. CH3-CH2OH + HI X ?
10. CH3-CH2OH + HCl ZnCl 2 ?
11. CH3-CH2OH Cu , 300º C ?
K 2Cr2O 7 K 2 Cr2 O 7
12. CH3-CH2OH + [O] ? ?
dil H 2SO 4 dil H 2SO 4
Properties of alcohol
Physical properties
1. methanol (CH3OH)to butanol (C4H9OH) = mobile liquids (t ai G
U
ysH
vG, fao mt &n fr sm;)
2. (C5H11OH) to (C11H23OH) = oily liquids (q D
u JY
odkYyspfao mt &n fr sm;)
3. (C12H25OH) and above = solids
methanol and ethanol are miscible with water.(a&wG
i fwpfo m;wn f;aysmf0i fo nf)
The most toxic member is methanol.("gwkt q d
yft awmu fjzpfapw, f)
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Petroleum Industry and Petrochemicals
a&eH vk yfi ef;eJYa&eH"m wkypön f;rsm
;
There are three major fossil fuels; t "d u u swJY½kyf<u i f;av mifpmBuD; o kH
;r sK
; &S
d ygw, f/t J'gawG
d u awmh
(i) coal au smu fr D ;ao G
;
(ii) crude oil a&eH pdr f; eJY
(iii) natural gas. o b m0"mwfai G U
wdyJjzpfM
kY u w, f/
Fossil fuels were formed in the earth's crust from material that was once living.
Coal comes from fossil plant material.
Crude oil and natural gas are formed from the bodies of marine microorganisms.
These fuels are non-renewable and finite resources.
Q. What are the three major fossil fuels?

There three major fossil fules are (i) coal (ii) crude oil (petroleum) and (iii) natural gas.
½kyf<u i f;av mifpmawG [ mwpfcsd efwpfcgu u r Ç may:r S m&S

i fo efcJY M
u wJYo u f&S awG
d ao aMu ysu fpD
;&mrSjzpfay:v mwm jzpfw, f/
'D
vd kawG jzpfv mzd
kYb lr d
aA' o u fwr f; [prehistoric time o r d kif;OD;r wdkifci facwf] ES
pfo ef;aygi f; 400 av mu fr S
jzpfEd kifw, f/
au smu fr D ;ao G
;u awmht yi fawG ao aM u ysu fp;D &mrSjzpfay:v mN yD ; ?a&eH eJU o b m0" mwfai G
U
awG u awmhr sm;jym;v SpG mao m
yi fv , fa&aeo wÅ 0gr sm;ao aM u ysu fpD ;&mrSjzpfv mM u w, f/ t J'D½kyf<u i f;av mifpmawGaemu fx yft o pfjyefjzpfzd kUqd kwm
ESpfo ef;aygi f;&meJYcsDNyD
;r S
o mjzpfv mEd kifr , f/ r i f;wdkYapmifh
Edkif&i fv Japmifh aygU uGm/
Crude oil is one of the Earth's major natural resources.

Prehistoric marine creatures died and sank to the sea-bed and were covered and surrounded by mud.
The change into crude oil and natural gas was brought about by high pressure, high temperature and
bacterial acting over millions of years.
The original organic material broke down into hydrocarbons.
a&eH pdr f;v d

ac:wJYCrude oil [ m½kyf<u i f;av mifpmawG
kY x Ju t " d u av mifpmwpfr sK ;jzpfw, f/
d
o rd kif;OD ;r wdikfci facwfav mu fu wn f;u a&aeo wÅ 0gav ;awGao M u ysu fpD
;M
uN yD; jr i fh
r m;wJY
t ylcsd
eft m;au mif;wJ zd
Y t m;awG
aM u mifho lwY [d
k myi fv , fM
u r f;jyi fr S
mES
pfo ef;aygi f;r sm;pG
m&T
U
HEGawG
H x JrSmyd
wfr daeM u &mu ae a&eH pdr f;t jzpfajymif;v Jv mMu w, f/
o leJYt wlo b m0" mwfai G Uudkv Jt wlwlyJwl;azmfawG U&S M
d
u w, f/t J'D
r lv o u f&S
&kyf<u i f;av mifpmawG
d N
ydKuG J&mu aehydrocarbons
j' yfaygi f;awG jzpfv mM
u wmygyJ/t ckr i f;wd o i f, lav h
kY v maeMu wJUorganic awG aygU uG m/
Fractional distillation is the separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point
by means of distillation using a fractionating column.
a&eHpd
r f;x JrS
mt r sK;r sK
d ;ao mhydrocarbon j' yfaygi f;awG
d &S
M
d
u w, f?' gayr , fho lwd [ mq lr S
kY wfv d ac:wJYboiling point
kY
awGr wlM u b l;?' gaM
u mifhq lr S
wfr wlwJYt J'Dhydrocarbon awG udkt ydkif;v d
ku fcG
Jx kwfo efY
pi fjci f; u d
kt &pfu saygi f;cH
jci f;
fractional distillation v d ac:w, f/ t J'D
kY cG
Jx kwfo efY
pi fay;wJYu &d, mB uD ;u d
kawmfractionating
h column v d kYac:M w
w, f/aemu fwpfr sK d
; fractionating tower v d v Jac:ygw, f/
kY
Crude oil is a mixture of many different hydrocarbon molecules.
The various hydrocarbon molecules are separated by refining.
Q. Fractional distillation
A technique to separate into different fractions with different boiling points is called fractional
distillation.
Crude oil contains many hydrocarbons with different boiling points.
The fractions may be sepsrated by fractional distillation.
Q. Write down the four uses of ethene from octane cracking . Uses of ethene
(i) to manufacture ethanol (ii) to produce plastic ( eg. PVC)
(iii) to produce chemical solvents (iv) to ripe the fruits
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Fraction Number of Hydrocarbon Boiling point ºC
Refinery gas C 1 to C 4 below 25 o b m0" mwfai G UawGjzpfw , f
P etrol C 4 to C 12 40-100 awGGas oline v d
" mwfq D kU
v Jac:w, f
Naphtha C 7 to C 14 90- 150 hydrocarbon av mi fpmwpfr sK ;jzpfw , f/
d
P araffin C 9 to C 16 150-240 Kerosene a&eH qD ^ av , Ofq Dt jzpfo kH;w, f/
Disel oil C 15 to C 25 220-250 'D
Z, fq D awGjzpfw , f
Lubricating oil C 20 to C 70 255-350 yi fv , uf l;o ab F mav mi fpm&n f
Bitumen residue over C 70 above 350 v r f;ci ;fzd
t wG
kY u f u wÅ &map;
Q. What is a fuel ? av m i fpmq d

kwmb mv J/
Fuel is a substance which stores the large amount of potential energy.
av mifpmq d
kwmyr mP r sm;pG
m&S
wJYt wn fpG
d r f;t i fawG
ud
ko d
kav S
mifx m;wJYt &mjzpfw, f/
Q. What is meant by ‘flash point’ ? av eJ av mifpmu d

Y kr D
;&d
IU
&mrSjzpfv mao mt ed
r fY
q kH
;t ylcsd
ef
Flash point is the temperature at which the vapour will ignite in air in the presence of a flame.
Q. What is meant by Ignition temperature ?

av eJY
av mifpmu d
kr D
;&d
IU
p&mrv d
kyJt v d
kt av smu fr D
;pG
JapwJY
t ed
r fY
q kH
;t ylcsd
ef
Ignition temperature is the temperature at which fuel; air mixture ignites without a flame.
av mifpmjzpfwJY[ d ku fN
'd
K
u mAGefj' yfaygi f;awG [ mu mAG efq u fwef;wd k&i fpu fEd
k;&wmv G, fayr , fht i f* si fv n fywfr Ir acsmar G
U
b l;?
t i f* si fv n fywfr Iau mif;at mift apmyd kif;acwfawG rS
mTetraethyl-lead u d kx n fh
oGi f;t o kH
;jyK
jyefawmh v JcJt q d yaf wG
av x kx JjyefY ESU
H
N
yD; i , f&G
, fwJY
u av ;awG OD
;aEm Su fyd
kif;q d
kif&mx d
cd
ku fv mwJYt wG u fydwfyi fwm;q D ;cJh
M
u w, f/
'Lead' ( tetraethyl-lead) was added to gasoline to prevent " knocking".
Catalytic Cracking
The demand for various fractions from the refinery does not necessarily match with their supply
from the oil. For lighter fractions such as gasoline (petrol), the demand is greater than the supply.
av mifpmjzpfwJYhydrocarbon awG av mifu R r f;&mu ae pG r f;t i fawG
udk&&Sw, f/ ' gayr , fhar mfv D
d u sL;t av ;q r sm;wJY
av mifpmawG [ mr D ;pG
Jzd
&mcu fcJw, f/ ' gaM
kY u mifhr D
;pG
Jv G
, fu lat mifar mfv Du sL;q u fwef;i , fwJYhydrocarbon awG &&Sbd
d kU
" mwfu lypö
n f;t o kH
;jyK
í cG Jx kwfjci f;v kyfi ef;pOfu d
kcatalytic cracking v d ac:w, f/
kY
Q. What is meant by ‘cracking’ ? jzwfawmu fjci f;q d

kwmb mt " d
yÜ
g, fv J/
Large molecules from heavier fractions can be broken down into smaller, valuable molecules
by the use of catalysts on heating .
Q. What products do you get all cracking reaction ? jzwfawm u fjci f;awGu ae b mypö n f;awG &v mrv J/
All cracking reactions give two types of products. jzwfawm u fjci f;u ae " mwfjzpfypö
n f; 2r sK
;&&d
d w
S , f/
(i) an alkane with a shorter chain than the original. r lv x u f wd kawmif;wJhalkane awG ud k&&Sov d
d k
(ii) a shorter chain alkene molecule. q u fwef;wd kwJhalkene molecule awG ud kv J&&S
ygw, f/
d
Alternative Transport Fuels t pm ;x d

k;av mifpmrsm;
a&eH
u ae av mifpmt r sK
;r sd
d K
; &&S
ov d
d ka&eH
t pm;t jcm;ypö n f;r sm;r S
v Jav mifpmrsm;u d
kx kwfv kyf&&S
Ed
dkifw, f/
Q. Preparation of gasoline from methanol.
ZSM -5
n CH 3 OH ( CH 2 ) n H 2O
ZSM -5
methanol gasoline(h ydrocarbon) water
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Q. Describe how petrol is obtained from crude oil.Write equation to indicate
how ethene can be made from petrol.
Petrol is obtained by the fractional distillation of crude oil.
catalyst
C 8 H18 4 C 2H 4 H2
heat
petrol ethene
Q. What is meant by the term of Zeolite ?

Zeolite is one of a large group of alumino - silicates of sodium, potassium , calcium and barium.
Q. What is meant by the term of ZSM-5 ?

ZSM-5 is an artifical zeolite composed of aluminium, silicon and oxygen.
[It was first made by two chemists working for the US Mobil Oil Company.]
ZSM-5 u d kt ar &d
u eft ajcpd
ku fa&eH
u kr®
PuD " mwkyn m&S
i f2OD
;u pwi fwD
xGi fcJY
wmjzpfw, f/
Q. How do you understand by the term 'diesel' ?

Diesel is a fraction of C15 to C25 which is used as a fuel in diesel engines.
ar mfv D
u sL;t av ;q r sm;o v d
ku mAG
efq u fwef;&S
n fwJY' D
Z, fu d
k' D
Z, fo kH
; t i f* si fawG
rS
mo mt o H
k;jyK
Ed
kifw, f/
High-speed diesel engines in cars, buses and truks use fuel. DERV = Diesel Engine Road Vehicle
Q. Arrange kerosene , petrol and diesel oil in the decreasing order of their boiling point ranges.
Give ONE example of use for EACH of them
Diesel is used in diesel engine.
Kerosene is used in jet engine.
Petrol is used in petrol engine.
Q. What is meant by the term 'biodiesel' ?

Biodiesel is a methyl or ethyl ester of organic acids. It is prepared from the plant seed oils
by a chemical process known as transesterification.
t pm;x d
k;av mifpmjzpfwJYZD
0' D
Z, fu d
kt yi f&JU
t apY
qDu aewq i fhajymif;v Jx kwfazmf&&S
wmjzpfw, f/
d
Q. Describe how would you obtain biogas ? Mention its use in myanmar.
Biogas is produced by the decomposition of organic wastes by the anaerobic becteria.
Biogas is used for electrical generating engines in myanmar.
o u f&S
dpG
efY
ypfypön f;r sm;u d
kb u fwD;&D
;, m;yd k;r sm;u pm;o kH
;&mrSNyd
KuG
Jx G
u fv mwJYt pm;x d
k;av mifpmZD
0" m
wfai G
U
u kd
&&S
w, f/ o lY
d ud kr sm;ao mt m;jzi fhv Qyfppfr D
;x G ef;&mrS
mt o kH;jyK
av h
&Sw, f/
d
Q. What are the uses of LPG and CNG in myanmar?

LPG is used in households, restaurants, hotels and motels for cooking, frying and other heating
systems.
CNG is used in taxis, buses and vehicles.
Q. What are the Different kinds of coals ?

(i) peat(o pf½G
u faq G
;) (ii) lignite (brown coal)
(iii) bituminous (soft coal ) (iv) anthracite ( hard coal )
Q. Name the chemical which can be obtained from coal and mention their use
(1) ammonia - for fertilizer
(2) coal gas - for industrial heating
(3) coal tar - for paint, dyes, creosote and pitch(u wÅ
&m)
(4) coke - for iron and steel making, - for home and industrial heating
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Chapter 15
Chemistry in Society
1. Chemistry in Modern Agricultre acwfr D pd

ku fysK
d
;a&;ES
i fh" mwkaA' \ t cef;u @
The world population is increasing day by day and year by year.
There is an urgent need for increasing food production to feed the increasing population.
Chemistry helps to increase food production in agriculture.
u rÇmay:r S mwpfES pfN
yD
;wpfES
pfwpf&u fN yD
;wpf&u fv lOD;a&awG wdk;yGm;v mM
u w, faemf/' D vd kw dk;yG
m;v mwJY
v lawGaMu mitfh pm;
t pmv d kt yfcsu fyr mP awGr sm;jym;v mw, fav ?' gaM u mifh" mwkaA' u pd ku fysK
;a&;x kw fu kefzu fu ae t J'D
d vd
kt yfcsu fawGudk
jzn f;q n ;fay;zd
kY
&mwax mifhw ae&mrS yg0i fu ln D
ay;zdkU
jzpfv mw, f/
2. Elements required by plants t yi ft wG u fv dkt yfao mj' yfpi fr sm;

All plants required at least 22 elements for their growth.
The ten elements which are required in signficant quantities are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulphur, magnesium and iron.
The other elements are required in very small traces.
t yi fw pfyi f&S
i fo efv mapzd
kYt en f;q kH
;j' yfpi u
f 22 r sK
d
;av mu f&S w , f/t J'D
d t x Ju r Sr &S
r jzpfv d
d kt yfw JYj' yfpiuf awmhq , fr sK
;
d
jzpfw , f/o lw d
u C,S,P,H,N,O,Mg,K,Ca,Fe wd
kY jzpfM
kY u w, f/ u sefw mu r ajymyav mu fw JY j' yfpi fawG jzpfM
u w, f/
3. Sources of plant nutrients t yi f\ t "d u t m[ m&t &i f;t jr pfr sm;

Plants get their nutrient elements from three sources; air, water and soil.
Plant get carbon and oxygen from air, hydrogen and oxygen from water and other elements
from the soil.
t yi fawG &JU
t "d
u t m[ m&t &i f;t jr pfB uD;o kH
;cku awmhav ?a&eJYajr q D vT mwdjzpfM
kY u w, f/
u mAGefeJY
at mu fpD * si ft wG J(CO2) u d kav x Ju ae&&S N
d
yD;?[ d
ku fN
'd
K
*si feJY
at mu fpD
* si ft wG
J( H2O ) u d
ka&u ae wq i fh
&&Sd
w , f/u sefw JYj' yfpi ft r sm;pku d
kawmhajr q vD T
mu ae&&S M
d
u wmaygU /
4. How plants obtain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and water.
Air is a gaseous mixture of nitrongen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Plants get carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil.
In the presence of sunlight the green parts of the plant can bring about a chemical reaction that
combine carbon dioxide and water to form sugar which is further converted to other food forms
and is stored in the plant. This chemical reaction is knowns as photosynthesis.
(this reaction is very complex)
av [ mwu , fawmh " mwfai G
U a&mBuD;wpfckygyJ?o lY x JrS mEdku fB
wdK*si f?at mu fpD * si feJY
u mAG ef' d
kifat mu fq d k'fawG y0i
g fMu w, f/
t yi fu av x Ju ae (CO2) u d k&&S
N
dyD
;?ajr q D
vT mu ae a&eJYt jcm;" mwfq m;awG ud kpkyf, l&&S w , f/ t J'gawG
d ud kt yi f&UJ
t pd r f;a&mif&SwJY
d t pd
wft ydkif;awG u ae&JU t yl" mwfu d kpkyf, lN
yD
;aygi f;pyf" mwfjyK vd ku fw , f?N yD;r So Mu m;j' yfaygi f;r sm;t jzpf
zGJU
pn f;v ukd fM
uNyD
; wzeft yi fawG &JU
t pmt m[ m&t jzpfzG JU
pn f;v dku fjyefw , f/
'D
vd k½Iyfax G;wJY
o b m0jzpfpOfu dkt v i f;r S
t pmpkzG
D JU
jci f;v dkY
ac:M u w, f/" mwfjyK jci f;u d kawmh' D vd kazmfjyM
u w, f/
sun light in green parts
6 CO 2 (g) 6H 2 O (l) C 6 H12 O 6 (s) 6 O 2 (g)
Sugar is a compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
5. Soil ajr q D
vTm
The soil is the source of plants nutrients. It supplies water and other elements to the plants.
Plans absorb their mineral nutrients from the soil in the form of dissolved salts.
Rain water washes away the available soluble salts.
Thus the amount of plant nutrients in the soil is continually depleted.
Therefore it is necessary to supplement these plant nutrients to produce better crops.
This is achieved through the use of fertilizers.
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ajr q DvT
m[ mt yi f&JU t m[ m&t &i f;t jr pfw pfckjzpfo v d kt yi ft wG u fa&eJY
t jcm;v d
kt yfwJYj' yfpi fawG udkax mu fyH
ay;ovl J
Y
jzpfw, f/ r d
k;a&?r dk;a&u awmhajr q D vT mx Ju &&S Ed
dkifw JY
aysmf0i f" mwfq m;awG udkt a0;u dkw d
ku fpm;o G m;wJYt "ud w&m;cH ygyJ/
rdk;a&aM
u mifh t yi ft wG u fv d
kt yfaewJY
t m[ m&awG q u fN yD;jyK
ef;wD;av smh
u so G
m;apw, f/' gaM u mifhydkau mif;r G
efw JY
au mu fyJ
oD ;ES
awG
H &&S zd
d kU
t wG u fjyi fyu ae t ax mu ft yH U
awG vd kv mw, f/ t J'gu awmh" mwfajr M o ZmygyJ/
6. Fertilizers
Fertilizers are substances that supply nutrients to plants.
There are natural fertilizer and chemical fertilizer.
t yi ft wG
u fv d
kt yfw JYt m[ m&r sm;u d
kax mu fyH
ay;Ed
Y kifao mt &mawG ud
kajr M
o Zmv d
ac:M
kY u w, f/
o lw d
u awmho b m0ajr M
kY o ZmeJY" mwk"mwfajr M
o Zmwd kYjzpfM
u w, f/
7. Natural Fertilizers
There are two types of natural fertilizers; manure and humus.
Manure is obtained by the decomposition of animal dung and urine.
Humus come from plant residuces.
o b m0ajr M o ZmrSmt r sK
;t pm;2r sK
d ;&S
d d
w , f?o wÅ K0gawG
&JU u si fB
uD;u si fi , fu ae" mwfajymif;v JrIu ae&wJYajr M
o Zm(manure)
eJYt yi fu ae&&S v mwJYt yi faq G
d ;ajr M
o Zm( humus ) wd jzpfM
kY u w, f/ ' gayr , fh' D ajr M
o Zmav mu feJYt yi fawG &S
i fo efEd
kif
M
u ayr , fhv kH av mu fw JY
t m;awmh r jzpfao ;b l;?' gaM
u mifht yi fawG &Si fo efMuD;x G
m;o efr mzd
t wG
kY u f" mwfajr M
o ZmawG u
r &Sr jzpfv tkd yfv mM
d u w, f/
8. Chemical Fertilizers
Chemical fertilizers are salts and other chemical compounds containing elements necessary for
plant growth.
" mwk"mwfajr M o Zmq d ko n fr S
mt yi fawG
&Si fo efB
uD ;x Gm;v mapzd
kY" mwkaA' q m;ESi fh
t jcm;ao mj' yfaygi f;awG
aygi f;pyfzG
U
Jpn f;
x m;jci f;yJJjzpfw , f/ t J'gu dkrSt yi fawG
u o lw dkY
&JU
t jr pfawGu ae t pmt wG u fpkyf, lpm;o kH
;M
u w, f/
9. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium ( NPK )

The most important elements that are required by plants from the soil are nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium, because these three elements are essential for the growth of plants.
Therefore the basic composition of chemical fertilizers may constitute any one, two or three
of these elements.
ajr q D
vTmu wq i fht yi fawG t wG u fv d kt yfaewJY" mwfajr Mo ZmawG u awmh(NPK) v d ac:wJY
kY " mwfajr M
o ZmawG jzpf
Mu w, f/ b maMu mifh
v Jq dk&i fo lwdx Ju wpfckck' gr S
kY r [ kw ft m;v kH
;u dk&r St yi fawG [ m&S i fo efB
uD;x G
m;Ed
kifM
u v kY
ydJjzpfw , f/
' gaM
u mifh
" mwfajr M
o ZmawG udk' D
vd kj' yfpi fawGud
kt ajccH N
yD ; aygi f;pyfx kw fv kyfM
u jci f;jzpfw , f/
10. Effects of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK)on plants

Nitrogen is an essential and important constituent of the plant's body.
Phosphorus is another important constituent of the plant's body.
Potassium is not a constituent element, of the plant body.
Leaf crops like cabbage, required abundant nitrogen, a fair amount of phosphorus
but not much potassium.
Root crops required a good amount of potassium fair amount of phosphorus but very little
nitrogen.
Seed bearing plants such as peas, beans and tomatoes required a good amount of phosphorus
and potassium, but little nitrogen.
Fruiting and seed formation required higher potassium but very little nitrogen.
t yi f&JUav ay:t n G efY
t wu ft zG JU
t pn f;t wG u fEd
ku fB
wK* si fyg0i fw JY
d " mwfajr M
o Zmu r &S r jzpft a&;ygw, f/azgY
d pz&yfuv n f;
t yi f&JUav ay:t n G efY
t wu ft zG JU
t pn f;t wG
u fr &S
r jzpft a&;ygjyefw , f/yd
d kw u fpD
, r fu awmh t yi f&JU
ajr at mu ft zG JU
t pnf;
t wG u ft a&;ygt &ma&mu fw JY " mwfajr M o Zmjzpfw , f/ &Gu fpm;o D ;ESH
(Oyr m?r kefv mx kyf) t wG u fEd
ku fB
wK d
* si fu t " d
uuNsyD;
azmh pz&yfu awmh t en f;i , fq d kv kHav mu fw, f/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
t aph aq mift yi fawG (yJo D
;?ajymif;?c&r f;csOf)t wG
u fu awmhazmh
pfz&yfygwJYajr M
o Zmu t " d u u sw, f/
azsmf&n fo D
;awGeJYajr at mu fyi fpn ft p&S w JY
d OawGt oD ;awG
t wG
u fu awmhyd kw u fpD, r fu t " d u u sw, f/
11. Classification of chemical fertilizer

According to the elements contained in them the chemical fertilizers are divided into three groups.
(i) nitrogen fertilizer
(ii) phosphorus fertilizer
(iii) potassium fertilizer
ajr Mo Zmx JrS
myg0i fw JY
j' yfpi fay:r lw n fN
yD
; " mwfajr Mo ZmawG udkt kyfpk3 pkcG
Jv d
ku fw , f/
(i) nitrogen ygwh J"mwfajr M o Zm(½G u fpm;o D;ES
H
r sm;t wGu f)
(i) phosphorus ygwh J"mwfajr Mo Zm(t aph aq mifao mt yi fr sm;t wG u f)
(i) potassium ygwh J"mwfajr M
o Zm(Opm;o D ;ES
(ajr at mu f)r sm;t wG
H u f) M
u u fo Gef?ajr yJ?t mv l; . . . . .
12. Nitrogen fertilizers

The important nitrogen fertilizers are ; Urea, ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate
and calcium nitrate.
(i) Urea fertilizer
The composition of urea according to its formul is CO(NH2)2.
The presentage of nitrogen is 46%.
It has an acid reaction and the application of urea to the soil increases the acidity of the soil.
, l&D
;, m;" mwfajr M
o Zmu d
kt v G
eft u R
H
o kH
;r , fq d
k&i fajr q D
vTmu d
kt csOf" mwfwd
k;apwmu d
kawmh
o wd
jyK
yg/
Production of urea
Urea is manufactured on a very large scale by heating ammonia and carbon dioxide under pressure
with a suitable catalyst.
pressure catalyst
CO 2 (g) 2 NH 3 (g) CO(NH 2 ) 2 (s) H 2 O (l)
Reaction in the soil
In the soil urea reacts with water to form ammonia and carbon dioxide.
CO(NH 2 ) 2 (s) H 2 O (l) CO 2 (g) 2 NH 3 (g)
, l&D;, m;x kw fazmfykH
eJYajr q D
vTmrS
m"mwfjyK
ykH
nDrQ
jci f;u cP cP ar ;wwfv d
M
kY
u n fh
x m;o i fh
w , f/
(ii) Ammonium sulphate fertilizer
The composition of Ammonium sulphate according to its formul is (NH4)2SO4 .
The presentage of nitrogen is 21%.
It has an acid reaction and so it increases the acidity of the soil.
(iii) Ammonium nitrate fertilizer
The composition of Ammonium nitrate according to its formul is NH4NO3 .
The presentage of nitrogen is 34.35%.
It has an acid reaction and so it increases the acidity of the soil.
(iv) Calcium nitrate fertilizer
The composition of Ammonium sulphate according to its formul is Ca(NO3)2.
The presentage of nitrogen is 13% or 16%.
13. Phosphate fertilizer

The important phosphate fertilizer is superphosphate.
The formula of superphosphate is Ca(H2PO4)2. 2CaSO4.
18% superphosphate(18% P4O10) and 45% superphosphate(45% P4O10) soluble in water.
Superphosphate is a white or grey powder or granule.
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

Bone meal
Bone meal is not a chemical fertilizer.
t ½kd
;" mwfajr M
o Zm[ m" mwk"mwfajr M o Zmr[ kw fyg/o b m0ajr M
o Zmo mjzpfygw, f/b maM u mifhv Jq dkawmh o wÅ K
0gawG
&JU
t ½kd
;awG udkM
udw fcG
Jacszsu fjci f;u &&S
v mv d
d jzpfw , f/
kY
Bone meal is prepared by crushing defatted bones.
It contains about 3 percent of nitrogen and 22 percent of phosphoric acid.
Therefore it is used as a phosphate fertilizer.
14. Potassium fertilizer

The important potassium fertilizers are potassium chloride and potassium sulphate.
15. Soil reaction

Acidity and alkalinity of the soil is one of the important factors because the plants do not grow well
on the soil of high acidity or high alkalinity.
ajr q D
vTmawGrS
mt u fq pf" mwfv G
efu J&i fyJjzpfjzpfaAY" mwfr sm;ae&i fyJjzpfjzpft J'D
t csu fawG
x Ju wpfckck&S
r , qf d
d k&i f
t yi fawG[ mau mif;au mif;r &S
i fo efb l; r B
uD ;x G
m;Ed
kifM
u b l;av /
16. Test for soil reaction

Soil reaction is easily tested by litmus papers.
The sample of soil are taken in separate test tube. Some water is added in each test tube and
stirred well.
The contents are filtered and the filtrate tested separately with blue and red litmus papers.
ajr q D
vT mawG rSmt u fppf" mwfawG aAY" mwfawG vG efu JrI&S
r &S
d ud
d kawmhv pfw r wfpu ú LeJY
t vG, fw u lppfaq ;Ed kifygw, f/
er lemajr q D
vT mwpfcsK U
d
ud k, lN
yD
; zef>yefx JrS ma&eJY o r pGmar Tay;v d ku fN
yD
; v pfw r wfpu úLt jym?t eDwd eJY
kYpr o
f; yfv dkU
t jymu kdt eD
ajymif;&i fajr q D
vTmrSmt csOf" mwfr sm;aer S mjzpfo v d k?t eDudkt jymajymif;o G m;&i fv Jajr q D
vTmrS
mo wÅ K
" mwfr sm;pG myg0i a
f er S
m
jzpfw, f/ ' gaMu mifh
ajr q DvT mu dkt &i fq kH
;jyKjyi a
f y;&r , f/
17. Neutralization of soil acids

Lime is added to the soil to neutralize the soil acids.
Lime is usually supplied to the soil as limestone, CaCO3, quicklime, CaO and slaked lime,Ca(OH)2.
Quicklime should not be applied direct to growing plants.
ajr q D
vTmawG
rS
mt u fq pf" mwfv G efu Jae&i f" mwfjy, fapzdkYx kH
;jzi fh
jyK
jyi fay;Ed
kifygw, f?' gayr , fhr azmu f&ao ;wJY
x kH
;jzpfw JY
Quicklime u dkwdku f½kd
u ft o kH
;jyK
&i ft yi fawGysu fpD
;o G
m;r S
mjzpfw , f/
18. Neutralization of soil alkali

Gypsum, CaSO4 .2H2O is added to the soil to neutralize soil alkali.
ajr q D
vTmawG
rS
maAY
" mwfv G
efu Jae&i fawmh"mwfjy, fapzd
kY
Gypsum a*g' efau smu fr IefY
jzi fh
jyK
jyi fay;Ed
kifygw, f?
19. Insecticides
Insecticides are chemicals that kill insects.
BHC or benzene hexachloride also known as Gammaxene.
Gammaxene(BHC) is used for spraying or dusting of plants, especially cotton.
The insecticide Endrin is toxic to mammals and should be used with caution.
Endrin is an excellent all purpose plant spray.
Aldrin and dieldrin are other well-known insecticides which can be obtained as emulsion or powder,
and are used as soil fumigant.
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

t yi fawG t wG u faemu fx yft a&;B uD ;wmu awmht i f;q u fawG udku mu G , fzd
yJjzpfw, f/
kY
pD
;yGm;a&;o D ;ESjzpfw JY0gyi fawG
H udkawmhBHC v d kY
ac:wJYyd
k;o wfaq ;u d kt o kH;jyKM
u w, f/
t jcm;pdku yf sK
;a&;o D
d ;ESawG
H udkawmhr sm;ao mt m;jzi fhEndrin u d kt o kH
;jyK M
u w, f/ ' gayr , fh o lu ao G
;aEG
;o wÅ
K
0gawG
jzpfw JY
v lt ygt 0i ft jcm;ao mwd &pä
mefr sm;t wG u ft q dyft awmu fjzpfapwmu d kawmho wd jyK&r , f/
aemu ft yi fawG rSmjzpfav h &S
wJYr d
d Ia&m*gu d
kawmhAldrin eJY dieldrin u yd k;o wfay;Ed kifpGr f;&S
w , f/
d
20. Growth substances

Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is the principle chemical substance which in the normal plant is responsible
for many different growth regulatory activities.
Depending upon its concentration IAA can variously activate the growth of leaves, stems, roots,
flowers, fruits and seeds.
IAA q d kw mwen f;t m;jzi fhajym&i ft yi fawG &S
i fo efBuD;x Gm;v mapzd kY
&eft wG u fv IH
Uaq mfay;wJY t m;aq ;wpfr sK
;yg/
d
IAA&JUyg0i fr It o kH
;csr Iay:r lw n fNyD
; t &G
u fawG ?yi fpn fawG ?t jr pfawG ?t yGi fh
awG?t o D;awGeJY
t apY awGMuD
;x Gm;v mapzd
kY
v IH
U
aq mfay;Ed
kifygw, f/ pD ;yG
m;jzpfv Jt ajr mu ft jr m;x kwfv kyfMuovd kt o kH ;v Jwn fhw , f/aps;v Jaygygw, f?
IAA x JrS mNAA q d kw myg&S ao ;w, f/ o lY
d wd &JUlong term awG
kY ud kar ;wwfv d u su fx m;o i fh
kY w, f/
Growth substances(IAA) can be used in many ways in agriculture.

They are used to induce flower initiation, fruit development, to delay leaf fall and fruit drop, and
to produce seedless fruits.
Some of them are used even as herbicides.
Naphthalene acitic acid (NAA) could, bring about flower initiation and is successfully used for
promoting simultaneous fruiting in pineapple plantations.
pd
ku fysK
;a&;v kyfi ef;awG
d rS
mo lwd&JUt o kH
kY ;0i fykH
ud kM
u n fhr , fq d
k&i ft yG
i fh
awG
ud kapmapmyG i fh
apw, f?t o;awG D ud
kB
uD;x G
m;
apw, f?t &G u fawG udkt a<u aemu fu sapo v d kt o D ;wi fapw, f?t apY r JY
t oD ;r sK;u d
d ko D ;apEd
kifw , f/
wcgw&H rSmawmhaygi f;o wfaq ;t aeeJY v Jt o kH ;jyKygao ;w, f/ IAA x JrS mNAA yg0i fr IaM u mifht yi fawGrSmt apmq kH
;yG
i fh
t apmq kH ;o D
; wcsd efw n f; wNyd
K
i fw n f; zGU
H
N
zd K
;r IawG jzpfapw, f?Oyr m(emewfo D ;v kd
r sK;)
d
Chapter 15 »» CHEMISTRY & SOCIETY

pmar ;yG
JrS
mar ;av h
&S
d
w JYar ;cG
ef;r sm;
1. Element required by plants

All plants required at least 22 elements for their growth.
2. What are the ten essential elements for plants ?

The ten elements which are required in significant quantities are
C, O2 , N2 , P , K , Ca , S , Mg, and Fe.
3. What are the sources of plant nutrients and what does each of them supply to plant?
Plants get their nutrient elements from three sourses; air, water and soil.
Air supplies carbon and oxygen to plants.Water supplies hydrogen and oxygen to plants.
Soil suppliues other elements to plants.
4. Write down the photosynthesis reaction in words and symbols.

carbondioxide + water sunlight glucose + oxygen
6CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l) sunlight C6H12O6 (s)+ 6O2 (g)
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
5. How many types of fertilizers are there? What are these?

There are two types of fertilizers.
(i) Natural fertilizers ( manure and Humus)
(ii) Chemical fertilizer ( salts and other chemical compounds)
6. How many types of chemical fertilizers are there? What are these?
There are three types of chemical fertilizer.
(i) Nitrogen fertilizers
(ii) Phosphorus fertilizers
(iii) Potassium fertilizers
7. What are fertilizer?

Fertilizers are substances that supply nutrients to plants.
There are natural fertilizer and chemical fertilizer.
8. What are the important nitrogen fertilizers?

The important nitrogen fertilizers are Urea, ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate
and calcium nitrate.
9. What are the important potassium fertilizers?

The important potassium fertilizers are potassium chloride and potassium sulphate.
10. How does prepare manufacture of urea? Write down the equation.
Urea is manufactured on a very large scale by heating ammonia and carbon dioxide under pressure
with a suitable catalyst.
CO2 (g) + 2NH3(g) pressure catalyst CO(NH2)2(s) +H2O (g)
11. Write an equation for the reaction of soil urea with water.
CO(NH2)2(s) + H2O (l) ----------- CO2 (g) + 2NH3(g)
12. Describe how would you neutralize the soil acid and the soil alkali?
Neutralzation of the soil acids
Lime is added to the soil to neutralize the soil acids.
Neutralzation of the soil alkali
Gypsum, CaSO4 . 2H2O is added to the soil to neutralize soil alkali.
13. What are insecticides? Give an example.

Insecticides are chemicals that kill insects.
Example , BHC (Benzene hexa chloride), Endrin and Aldrin.
14. Express NPK requirements for flowering and fruiting.

plants N P K
Flowering plant little fair amount fair amount
Fruiting plant little - large amount
15. Give the names of growth substances.

Growth substances - Indole acetic acid, IAA
- Naphthalene acitic acid, NAA
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
16. Explain how plants obtain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and water.
Plant get carbon and oxygen from air, hydrogen and oxygen from water and other elements from
the soil. Carbon dioxide and water undergo photosynthesis in green parts of the plants to produce
sugar.
17. What are the natural fertilizer?

Natural fertilizers are manure and humus.
Manure is obtained by the decomposition of animal dung and urine.
Humus come from plant residuces.
18. Which element N (or) P (or) K is most suitable for seed bearing plants and for leaf crops?
Seed bearing plants required large amount of P and K.
Leaf crops required large amount of N.
19. How can you test the soil reaction? Explain it.
Soil reaction is easily tested by litmus papers. The sample of soil are taken in separate test tube.
Some water is added in each test tube and stirred well.
The contents are filtered and the filtrate tested separately with blue and red litmus papers.
If the blue litmus turns red, the soil is said to be acidic.
If the red litmus turns blue, the soil is said to be alkalinity.
20. Explain why acidity and alkalinity of the soil is one of the important factors.
The plants do not grow well on the soil of high acidity or high alkalinity.
So much use of chemical fertilizers such as urea and ammonium sulphate makes the soil high acidity.
******************************
Cement Production
1. Cement
Cement is used in the constuction of building.
It is mixed with sand and water and sometimes with quicklime, CaO.
Cement finds use as binder in construction works.
Cement is grey powder.
It is composed of lime, alumina, silica and iron III oxide ( haematite) as
- tetracalcium alumino-ferrate, 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
- dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2
- tricalcium silicate and 3CaO.SiO2
- tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO.Al2O3.
bd v yfajr u dkwn faq mu fa&;v kyfi ef;awG rS
mt o kH ;jyK
M
u av h&Swmu d
d ko d
M
u rSmyg?o JawG a&awG eJY
t wlwcgw&Hx kH ;u d
kyga&mpyf
t o kH
;jyK
Mu ygao ;w, f/b d v yfajr q dkwmwpfckeJY wpfckwG Jpyfapzd
t wG
kY u fM
u m;cH
ypö n f;wpfckyg/ r D
;cd
k;a&mift r IefY
awG jzpfN
yD
;
o lY
ud kx kH
;?&T
U
H
ap;?o JeJY
oHyg0i fwJY
ajr ap;r sm;eJY
aygi f;pyfx m;ygw, f/
2. Raw materials for making cement

Raw materials used for cement production are haematite, Fe2O3, limestone, CaCO3 and clay
which is composed of silicon dioxide, SiO2 and aluminium oxide, Al2O3.
bd v yfajr jyK v kyfzd
t wG
kY u fv d
kt yfw JY
u kefM
u r f;ypö n f;t csK
U
d
u awmho H yg0i fw JY
ajr ap;?x kH
;au smu f?&T
U
H
ap;awGyjzpf
J ygw, f/
t J'gawG ud kt csK;u sa&mpyfo r at mifar T
d N
yD ; t x l;jyK
v kyfx m;wJY
rD
;zd
keJY
av S
mfzkwf&ygw, f/ t J'gu d kRotary Kiln v dkY
ac:w, f/
These raw materials are ground and heated in a special furnace called RotaryKiln. (apmif;í v n faeao mrD ;zdk)
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

3. Manufacturing Process
bd v yfajr jyKv kyfykH
t q i fh
B
uD;av ;q i fh
&Sygw, f?a&mpyfjci f;?t ylay;jci f;?t at ;cH
d jci f;eJY
B
udwfcGJa&mpyfjciwd f; kY
yJjzpfygw, f/
The four main stages in the manufacturing process of cement are, mixing, heating, cooling and
grinding.
(i) Mixing
Limestone, haematite and clay are finely ground and mixed in the right proportions.
x kH
;au smu f?o H " mwfygwJYajr ap; t p&S w tJY &mawG
d udkr Sefu efw JY t csK
;t pm;eJYo r at mifa&mpyfN
d yD; t x l;jyK v kyxf m;wJY
rD
;zdkx Jx n fhay;&ygr , f/
(ii) Heating
After heating, the roasted product which is called clinker, come out from the lower end of
the Kiln.
t vS n fh
nD pG
mt ylay;N yD;o G
m;wJY
aemu f&&d vS mwJYr D
;o i f;acsmfcJu av ;awG udku v i fu mv d kY
ac:w, f/
(iii) Cooling
The roasted clinker is allowed to cool in a rotating cylinder by cool air.
t J'aDv S mfzkw fN
yD
;u v i fu mawG ud kav at ;r Iw fay;x m;wJYv n fywfaewJY q v i f' gx JrS
mt at ;cH NyD ;at ;cJapw, f/
(iv) Grinding
After cooling, the clinker is mixed with the right percentage of gypsum and ground in a grinding
mill. The gypsum regulates the setting time of cement.The resultant powder is cement.
t at ;cH &&Sv mwJY
d u v i fu mawG ud ka*g' efau smu fr IefY
eJUt csK ;t pm;r S
d efpG
ma&mpyfN yD
;M
udw fcG Jacsv d
ku fwJY t cgbvdyfajr
t r IefY
awG jzpfv mw, f/ a*g' efau smu fr IefYeJY
a&mpyfv d ku fjci f;u &u ft en f;i , fMu mMu mo d r f;q n f;x m;zd jzpfw, f/
kY
4. Plaster of Paris ( POP)

Plaster of paris is a fine white powder which is used for making casts of various objects.
Plaster of paris is hydrated calcium sulphate, 2CaSO4.H2O .
Plaster of paris is obtained by heating gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O .to about 125ºC.
1 1
CaSO4.2H2O 
125ºC
 CaSO4. H2O + 1 H2O
2 2
gypsum plaster of paris
Plaster of paris is used for making casts and for cementing glass to metals.
(POP)q d kw mywfw D;r IefY

awGjzpfw, f?o lY
ud kt &m0w¬ K
t awmfrsm;r sm;&JU
rd
kcG
u f?ykH
pH
oGef;av mif;zd
t wG
kY u ft o kH ;jyK
av&hw, f
d
S
' D(POP) u d ka*g' efau smu fjzpfw JYGypsum, CaSO4.2H2O u aewq i fht ylay;jci f;t m;jzi fh x kw fv kyf&&S
w , f/
d
o lY
udka&r S
mazsmfN
yD
;cP r S mv Qi fjr efpG
mat ;cJN
yD; r mau smo G
m;wJY
t wG u faq ;&kH
awG rS
mrSmau smu fywfw D
;t jzpfv Jo kH
;av h
&S
M
du w, f/
When Plaster of paris is mixed with water, the hydrate, forms a paste, which hardens quickly,
expanding slightly in the process, as a result of crystallization.
1. What is cement?
Cement is used as binder in the construction of buildings. It is composed of lime, alumina,silica and
iron(III)oxide (haematite). Cement is a grey powder.
2. What are the chief compounds present in cement?

Chief compounds present in cement
(1) lime CaCO 3 (2) Alumina, Al2O3
(3) Silica SiO2 (4) Haematite, Fe2O3
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
*The dampness is due to the presence of MgCl2 as one of the impurities. MgCl2 is hygroscopic
and can absorb moistre from the atmosphere.
'Dvd kpdkpG
wfjci f;u q m;x JrS mr o efYpi fao ;wJYMgCl2 v d kt n pft aM u ;wpfckr[ kwfwpfckyg0i faev d jzpfw, f/
kY
o lwd u av r S
kY myg&S wJY
d a&ai G UawGud kpkyf, lx m;wmjzpfwJY t wG u ft pd kjyefjci f;awG
jzpfay:apw, f/
*The percentage of the different impurities are high in the common salt produced by the traditional
method, and therefore, it is not very suitable for industrial use.
' gaMu mifh' D vd ken f;eJY
q m;x kwfazmfjci f;[ mt n pft aM u ;awG r sm;pG
myg0i faeao ;wJY t wG u fpD ;yG m;jzpfx kwfv kyfzkY
&
dmt wG
uf
r o i fhav smfwmu d kawG U&w, f/
*In the traditional method of production wood fires are used for evaporation and considerable
areas of forest are destroyed yearly because of the falling of trees for firewood.
rd&kd
;zv men f;eJY q m;x kwfazmfjci f;t wG u ft " u d t u sK;t jypfu awmhav mifpmt jzpfx i f;u d
d kt o kH ;jyK
&wJYt wG uf
o pfawmawG [ mwES pfx u fwES pfjyKef;wD ;v mw, f/
*Prevention of unnecessary wastage of forests may be achieved to some extent, by using solar
evaporation for production of salt.
' gaMu mio fh pfawmawG rv dkt yfyJjyKef;wD ;r Ir &S
apzd
d kYaev Sr f;q m;x kwfv kyfjci f;u d
kajymif;v Jt o kH
;jyK v mMu w, f/
wpfckawmh &S
w , fr d
d &kd
;zv men f;u B ud Ku fwJY t csd
efM udK
u fwJY ae&mrS mx kwfv kyf&&S ayr , fhaev S
d r f;q m;x kwfv kyjfci f;u
ae&mt u s, ft 0ef; ?x kwfv kyfr , fh u mv awGu t wm;t q D ;wpfckv d kjzpfaewmav ;ygyJ/
3. Salt production by Solar evaporation

*The production of salt by solar evaporation may be carried out only during the dry. hot season.
Therefore December to middle of May is the suitable time for the production of salt by solar
evaporation.
aev S r f;q m;csu fv kyfEd
kifwJYu mv u awmh' D Zi b
f mv v , fav mu fu ae ar v av mu ft x d(5 v )au smfau smfyljyi f;ajcmu f
ao G wJY
Y &mo D rS mx kwfv kyfav h&S ygw, f/ t J'D
d aev S ef;q m;awG &&Szd
dt wG
kY u fyi fv , fa& 0i fa&mu fEd kifwJY
ajr mif;awG
ud kwl;azmfx m;
&S &N
d yD
; u efB uD ; (5) u efwq u fwn f;v d kt yfygw, f/
The production process are
*The undissolved suspensions settle down in the first pond.
yx r u efr S mt n pft aM u ;jzpfwJY
a&jr §
yfawG t r Id
u fo &kd
u fawG udkz, f&Sm;ay;&ygr , f/
*The undissolved Al2O3 settle down in the second pond.
' kwd, u efu d ka&mu fv mwJY t cgyi fv , fa&r S mraysmf0i fwJY&T U
H
ap; awG udkt en fx d kifapygw, f/
*The undissolved CaCO3 settle down in the third pond.
wwd , u efr S mawmhaemu fx yfr aysmf0i fEd kifao ;wJYx kH ;" mwfawG udkt en fu sapw, f/
*In the fourth pond crystallization of dissilved substances starts to take place. In this pond CaSO4
which is less soluble than NaCl, KCl and MgSO4 starts to crystallize out.
pwkwÄ u efa&mu fwJY t cgr S
mawmhyi fv , fa&wG i f;r S
maysmf0i faeMu wJYq m;awG [ mykH aq mifcJt jzpfpwi ft en fu sv mw, f?
t J'Dt cgr S mo lwd x u faysmf0i fo wÅ
kY en f;wJYCaSO4 [ ma&o efY
d eJY
aq ;aM u mv dku fcsdefr S
mt jcm;q m;r sm;eJYt wlyg0i fo m
G;N
yD
;
aemu fq kH ;yOör ajr mu fu efu dka&mu f&S
csd
d efr S
mNaCl u v kH ;0t en fu su sef&pfcJYygawmh w, f/
*The concentrated sea water is next channelled into the fifth solar pond and NaCl crystallizes
in this pond.
4. Bittern
*The water that flows out from the fifth solar pond consists of dissolved MgSO4, MgCl2 and
MgBr2.This water is call bittern.
yOör ajr mu fu efa&mu fcsd
efr S
ma&au mif;a&o efY
r sm;eJY
aq ;aM
u mv d
ku fv d
kYaysmf0i fo G
m;M
u wJYMgSO4, MgCl2 and MgBr2.
q m;t a&mrsm;u d kawmh(q m;x kwfNyD
;u sefao m&n f)q m;u su fwu f&n f v d kYac:M u ygw, f/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Questions & Answers
1. Name the principal areas for the production of common salt from sea water.
*The principal areas for production of salt from sea water are costal regions.
What is the major impurity that causes common salt to become damp?
*The major impurity that causes common salt to become damp is MgCl2 as one of the impurities.
2. Describe the substances that remain in the solution after crystallization of NaCl from
sea water.
*The substances that remain in the solution after crystallization of sodium chloride from sea water
are KCl, MgSO4, MgCl2 and MgBr2.
3. Arrange the substances that dissolve in sea water to their increasing solubilities.
NaCl
 , KCl ,MgSO4 , MgCl2 , MgBr2
    
increa sin g solubiliti es
4. Common salt obtained by traditional method is not pure. Why?

Common salt (NaCl) obtained by the traditional method is not pure, since dissolved substances
such as MgSO4and MgCl2 together with small amounts of CaSO4 remain mixed with common
salt.
5. What are the disadvantages for the production of common salt by the traditional method?
*Common salt obtained by the traditional method contains different impurities.
This method required large amount of firewood leading to the deforestation.
6. Describe the methods of salt production.

There are two type of salt production.
(1) Traditional method and
(2) Solar evaporation.
7. What does common salt become damp when it is exposed to the air?
Pure sodium chloride is not deliquescent solid. The common salt become damp when it is exposed
to the air. The dampness of NaCl is due to the prsence of MgCl2 as one of the impurities and its is
a hygroscopic compound.
8. What are the dissolved substances in sea water ?

Dissolved substances in sea water are NaCl, KCl, MgSO4, MgCl2 and MgBr2.
9. What are the undissolved substances in sea water ?

Undissolved substances in sea water are supspension, Al2O3, CaCO3 and CaSO4 .
10. Common salt obtained by the traditional method is impure. Why?

Common salt obtained by the traditional method is impure because dissolved substances such as
MgSO4, MgCl2 and small amount of MgBr2 remain mixed with common salt.
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Polymers
1. Polymerization
This section covers the following ideas
(i) Addition Polymerization
(ii) Condensation Polymerization
(iii) Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers
(iv) The disposal and recycling of plastic wastes
'Dt ydkif;r S
mav hv m&r S mu awmhaygi f;pyfay:v D r mawG jzpfjci f;?q efY
Ed
kifu sK
U
Ed
H kifao may:v D r mt r sK
;t pm;jzpfay:jci f;t B
d udr fB
udrf
t ylay;?x yfcgx yfcgykH oGef;av mif;Edkifao may:v Dr meJYwB udr fo mykH
oG ef;av mif;Edkifw JY
ay:v Dr mjzpfjci f; EiSfh
pG
efY
ypfyv yfpwpf
awG ud kjyefv n ft o kH
;jyK
jci f;wd
yJjzpfw , f/
kY
2. Polymers
Natural polymer
All living things contain polymer . Proteins, carbohydrates, wood and rubber are all polymers.
The other elements are required in very small traces.
o u f&S awG
d t m;v kH ;r Smay:v D r mawG yg0i fMu w, f?t o m;" mwfawG ?u mb d k[ d
ku fN
'dK
wfawG (o Mu m;j' yfaygi f;)?o pfo m;r QiawG
f eJY
&mb map; ' gawG ud ko b m0u &&S wJY
d ay:v D r mawG vd kY
ajymMu w, f/
' gq d
kpolymer q d kw mb mv J?
ay:v D r mq dkw mao ;i , fw JY ar mfv D u sL;r sm;pGmu d
kpkpn f;&i f;u aeB uD ;r m;wJYar mfv D
u sL;t pka0;B uD ;jzpfv mwmu d kajym wmyg/
t J'D
rS mo b m0t av smu f&S N
dyD;o m;jzpfw JY ay:v Dr meJYv lawG jyKv kyfzefw D;&, lx m;wJY ay:v D r mawG qd kN
yD
;&S
M
du w, f/
o b m0ay:v D r mawG ud kM
u n fh
N
yD;" mwko d yÜyn m&S
H i fawG u at mifjr i fpG mt wk, lr G r f;r H
jci f; acwfr Den f;yn mawG ud kt o;cskH&i f;
v lo kH
;u kefypö n f;awG jzpfw JYzv i fawG (Film) ?zd kifb mrQ i fawG G(Fibres)?t 0wft x n fawG ?u m;?av , OfawG rS mo kH
;wJY
t pdw ft yd kif;awG eJYx kx n fBuD ;r m;wJYypö n f;awG(bulky objects) pwmawG udkx kw fv kyfcJYM
u w, f/
t J'D
vd kjyKv kyfzefwD ;x m;wJY ay:v D r mawG ud kyv yfpwpfawG vd kY
ac:Mu wmaygY /
Synthetic polymer, often called plastic.
3. polymer á many parts á ( poly = many)(mer=parts)

polymers are large organic macromolecules. They are made up of small repeating units known as
monomers.
ay:v D r mq dkw mao ;i , fr sm;jym;v Gef;v S
w JYar mfv Du sL;u av ;awG ud
kx yfcgx yfcgaygi f;pyfpkpn f;&i f;eJUB
uD ;r m;rm s;jym;v mwJY
ar mfv D
u sL;t pkt a0;B uD;wpfckjzpfygw, f/ t J'D ar mfv D u sL;t pkt a0;B
uD;u dkr lv r d
kEd
krmwpfckv d
kYac:M u w, f/
ay:v D r m2r sK;&S
d ygw, f/ t r sK
d ;t pm;wlawG
d csn f;yJzG
JU
pn f;x m;wJY (Homopolymers)(same kind) [ d krdkay:v D r meJY
t r sK
;t pm;r wlw JYr d
d kEd
krm2r sK ; (o d
d ) 2r sK
kY ;x u fyd
d kN
yD
;aygi f;pyfjzpfay:v mwJY(co-polymers)u d kay:v Dr mwd kYjzpfw , f/
4. Homopolymer
Homopolymers, containing just one monomer.
eg. poly(ethene), poly(propene) and poly(chloroethene)...
Copolymers
Copolymers made of two or more different types of monomers.
eg. nylon(polyamide), terylene(polyester)
Nylon is made from two monomers, and biologial proteins are made from 20 different monomers,
the amino acids.
a&eH&JU
ab ;x G
u fypön f;jzpfw JYt , fv fu i f;j' yfaygi f;awGudk" mwfu lypö n f;t o kH
;jyK N
yD ; jzwfawmu f&&S v mwJY
d ar m
fv D
u sL;awG
u ae
yv yfpwpfypön f;&JU
t pjzpfwJYr d kEd
krmawGud kx kw fv kyf&&S
w , f/
d
The alkene fragments from the catalytic cracking of crude oil fractions produced the starting
monomers for the first plastic.
[monomer r d kEd krmq d
kw mu r lv j' yfaygi f;wpfcku d
kq d kv kd
jci f;jzpfw , f]
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
5. Addition polymers
Alkenes such as ethene contain a C=C double bond. These molecules can take part in addition
reaction where the double bond is broken and other atoms attach to the carbons.
aygi f;pyfay:v Dr mawG jzpfv mapzd kYt D
o i f;u JY
oYkao m2x yfpn f;yg0i fw JY
d t , fv fu i f;awGjzpfzdkY
vdkw, f?' gr S
t jcm;t u fw r fawG
t jcm;j' yfpi fawGeJYaygi f;pyfzd&mt wG
kY u fo lY
rSm&Sw JYES
d pfx yfpn f;u d
kjzwfawmu fNyD
; aygi f;pyfEd
kifr S
mayg
U?' D
vd keJYt r sK
;t pm;
d
r wln D M
u wJYyv yfpwpfv lo kH ;u kefypö n f;t o pfawG jyK
v kyfEd
kifv mM
u w, f/
6. Properties of addition polymers aygi f;pyfay:v D r mjzpfv mapzd kYo lw d&JU*kP fo wÅ

kY t csK
d U
d
ud ki gwd
kUo d x m;r Sjzpfr , f/
(i) All polymers are long-chain molecules made by joining together a large number of monomer
molecules.
(ii) Addition polymerization involves monomer molecules that contain a C=C double bond.
(iii) Addition polymers are homopolymers, made a single monomer.
(iv) During addition, the double bonds open up and the molecules join to themselves to make
a molecules with a very long-chain.
(1) q u fw ef;&S
n far mfv D
u sL;t csi f;csi f;awG w pfckeJY
wpfckcsd
w fq u fMuN yD
;BuD ;r m;wJYrdkEdkrmar mfv D u sL;BuD ;awGjzpf&r , f/
(2) Monomers t csi f;csi f;wpfckeJY w pfckcsdw fq u fzdkY
t wGu f2x yfpn f;awG yg&S &r , f/
d
(3) Addition polymers awG [ mt r sK d
;t pm;wlmonomers t csi f;csi f;aygi f;pyfjci f;o mjzpfw , f/
(4) Monomers awG t csi f;csi f;aygi f;pyfwtJY cg2x yfpn f;awG yGi fh
xGu fv mN yD; o lwd kYt csi f;csi f;jyefcsd
w fq u f&mu ae
quwf ef;&S
n fay:v D r mawG jzpfv mw, f/
Polymerizationt ajr mu ft r sm;jyK v kyfjci f;

Addition polymers
(aygi f;pyfay:v D
r mawG
jzpfv mapzd
kUu mAG
efeJY
u mAG
efM
u m;r S
mESpfx yfpn f;awG
yg&S
&r , f)
d
PE (polyethene)
1. type of polymer (ay:v D r mt r sK
;t pm;u )-
d addition polymer (aygi f;pyfay:v Dr mjzpfw , f)
type of bond (pn f;t r sK
;t pm;u ) -
d double bond (open up) (ES
pfx yfpn f;yG
i fh
oGm;r , f)
monomer (r lv j' yfaygi f;u ) - ethene [ CH2=CH2 ]

Trade name (u kefpn ft r n f) - Polythene (Polyethylene) P E
properties (*kP fo wÅ )
d - tough, durable (cdkifcH
Yí Mu m&S n fcHEdkif)
Mention is used (t o kH
;0i fykH
r sm;) - plastic bags, bowls, bottles, packaging
(t d
w f?cG
u f?ykv i f;?x kw fyd
k;ypö
n f;r sm;u d
kt r sm;q kH
;x kw fv kyfw , f/)
Polyethene ( P E )
H H
H H high temperature
n C=C ------C -- C------
H H high pressure, catalyst n
H H
ethene polyethene(polyethylene)
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Polymerization (PP)
2. monomer (r lv j' yfaygi f;) - propene [ CH3-CH=CH2 ]

Trade name (u kefpn ft r n f) - Polypropylene, ( PP )
d - tough, durable (cd
kifcH
Yí M
u m&S
n fcH
Ed
kif)
Mention is used (t o kH ;0i fykH
r sm;) - crates and boxes, , plastic rope
(jci f; ?ao wÅ
m?yv yfpwpfB
udK
;)
H H
n C=C ------C -- C------
H high pressure, catalyst n
CH3 CH3 H
propene (propylene) poly propene (poly propylene)
Polymerization (PVC)
monomer (r lv j' yfaygi f;) - chloroethene [ CH2=CHCl ], vinyl chloride

Trade name (u kefpn ft r n f) - Polyvinyl chloride, ( PVC )
d - strong, hard (cdkifcHY
í r mau smao mfv n f;u R
w fq yfr Ir &S
)
d
r sm;) - insulation, pipe and guttering
(v Q
yfu m?yd
ku f?t d
r fo mcG
u fr sm;?ajr mif;r sm;)
H H
n C=C ------C -- C------
H Cl high pressure, catalyst H Cl n
vinyl chloride poly vinylchloride
Polymerization (PTFE)
monomer (r lv j' yfaygi f;) - Tetrafluoroethene [ CF2=CF2 ]

Trade name (u kefpn ft r n f) - Polytetrafluoroethylene, teflon ( PTFE )
d - non-stick surface (t yl' P fcH Ed
kifí r su fES
mjyi fap;u yfr Ir &S
)
d
r sm;) - non-stick frying,pan,joints
(t aM
u mft d
k;?' , fr sm;?*sK
d
i f;q u fr sm;)
F F
F F high temperature
n C=C ------C -- C------
F F high pressure, catalyst n
F F
tetrafluoroethene poly tetrafluoroethene
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Polymerization
monomer (r lv j' yfaygi f;) - Styrene , phenylethene [ C6H5-CH=CH2 ]

Trade name (u kefpn ft r n f) - Polystyrene ( PS )
d - light, poor conductor of heat ( aygY yg;NyD
;t ylpD ;u l;r IeJw, f)
r sm;) - packaging, (foam) (av , Oft wG
i f;x kw fyd
k;jci f;r sm;)
H H
n C=C ---------C -- C---------
H high pressure, catalyst
C6H 5 H C6H 5 n
7. Condensation polymerization
q efYEd
kifu sK
U
H
Edkifao may:v D r mrsm;jzpfay:jci f;r SmawmhEdkifv G
ef?ay:v D
t u fpwmq d kN
yD
; 2r sK
;awG
d U
&ygw, f/ t r S
eft m;jzi fh
awmh
r sK
;r wlwJY
d rE
kddkrmawG t csi f;csi f;csd
wfq u fv d
ku f&i fa&ar mfv D
u sL;wpfckx G
u fv mapwJYt wG u fCondensation polymer
vd ac:M
kY u jci f;jzpfygw, f/
(a) Nylon
Ed
kifv G
ef[ mt pd kift cJwpfckyJ?o lY ud
kt ylay;aysmh apN yD
;r St aygu fao ;u ae n S pfx kwfv d ku fjci f;jzi fht r Q
i fr sm;u d
k
&&S apw, f?t J'D
d Edkifv G
efcsn fr Q
i fawG
eJYt 0wft x n fawG ?eu fu wd kifawG?&u fu wfB udK
;awGEd kifv G
efB ud
K;awG jyK
v kyf
&, lEdkifygw, f/ wpfckawmh &S w, f?Ed
d kifv G
efu d
kzd
kifb mypö n f;awGeJY
rSm;av h
&S
w, f/Ed
d kifv G
ef[ mzd kifb mr[ kwfyg/
Nylon is a solid when first formed, but it can then be melted and forced through small holes.
Nylon is not just made into fibres.
Use of Nylon- shirt , ties , sheet , ropes , racquest strings.
Nylon
Nylon is a copolymer of two different monomers, a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid formed
by a link between amino group (-NH2) and carbolyic acid group ( -COOH ) of each monomer.
Ed
kifv G
ef[ mu dkay:v Dr mt r sK
;t pm;jzpfN
d yD
; r wln D
wJY
rd
kEd
krmawGjzpfwJY' d
kifat r i f;eJUt u fq pft kyfpkt wG
Jaygi f;pyfjci f;jzi fh
a&ar mfv uDsL;wpfv kH
;q kH
;&IH
;o G
m;u mq u fwef;&Sn fay:v Dr mwpfckjzpfay:v mw, f/
Condensation Polymerization
type of polymer (ay:v D r mt r sK;t pm;)

d - Condensation Polymerization (q efY Ed kifu sLH
U
Ed
kifao may:v Dr m)
type of bond (pn f;t r sK d
;t pm;) - piptide bond (amide link) (ax mifh jzwfpn f;)
different monomers (r lv j' yfaygi f;r sm;) - 1st diamine , 2nd dicarboxylic acid
Trade name (u kefpn ft r n f) - Polyamide ( nylon )
d - light, ( aygY yg;w, f)
Mention is used (t o kH ;0i fykHr sm;) - shirt , ties , sheet , ropes , racquest strings.
(wD &S
yfr sm;?eu fu wd
kifv n fpD
;r sm;?t d
yf, mci f;pr sm;?&u fu wfB udK
;r sm;)
1st diamine H2N- -NH2 2nd dicarboxylic acid HOOC- -COOH

=O
=O
H H
N- -N C- -C
H H HO OH
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
H O O
H
==
==
----- + N -- --N + C--- ---C + ------
H H HO OH
di amine dicarboxylic acid
an amide(piptite)link
O O O O polyamide
==
==
==
==
(Nylon)
C--- ---C N -- --N C--- ---C N -- --N
H H H H
+HOH +HOH +HOH
(b) Polyester
Polyester are condensation copolymers made from two monomers. One monomer has an alcohol
functional group (-OH) and other monomer has a carboxylic acid group(-COOH).
ay:v D t u fpmv dac:wJY
kY wm&mv i f;[ mv Ju d kay:v D r mt r sK
;t pm;jzpfN
d yD; r wln D wJY
rdkEd
krmjzpfwJYt &u fzef&S
i ft kyfpk(-OH)
eJUt u fq pft wGJjzpfwJU(-COOH)aygi f;pyfjci f;jzi fha&ar mfv D u sL;awG q kH
;&IH
;o G
m;wJU q u fwef;&Sn fay:v Dr mwpfckyJ
jzpfygw, /f aemu fx yfyv yfpwpft r sK;t pm;u G
d JawG udkq u fav h
v mwJY t cgyv yfpwpft r sm;pk[ mt ylay;v d kfu f&i ft &n f
aysmfaysmh
aysmif;o Gm;M
uNyD;t jcm;ykH
pH
wpfr sK
;u d
d kt v G , fwu lajymif;v JEd
kifwJY
t wG u ft J'Dyv yfpwpfr sK;u d
d kawmh
t ylay;ykH ajymif;
Edkifao myv yfpwpf(thermoplastics) v d kY
ac:w, f/
Condensation Polymerization
type of polymer (ay:v D
r mt r sK
;t pm;) -
d Condensation Polymerization (q efY Edkifu sLH
U
Ed
kifao may:v D
r m)
a&ar mfv Du sL;q kH
;&IH
;o G
m;ao may:v D r mt r sK
;t pm;
d
type of bond (pn f;t r sK d
;t pm;) - ester link
different monomers (r lv j' yfaygi f;r sm;) - 1st alcohol functional group , 2nd dicarboxylic acid
Trade name (u kefpn ft r n f) - Terylene (polyester )
d - softer than nylon ( Ed kifv G
efx u fEl;n H
w , f)
Y
r sm;) - shirt , ties , sheet , ropes , racquest strings.
HO OH and HOOC COOH
O O
==
==
O -- --O +
C--- ---C
H H HO OH
alcohol functional dicarboxylic acid
group
O O O O
==
==
==
==
C--- ---C O -- --O C--- ---C O -- --O
+H2O +H2O +H2O

polyester
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
(1) thermoplastic polymers

Most of the plastic can be softened on heating and melted and then re-moulded.
They are called thermoplastics.
aemu fay:v D r mwpfr sK;u awmht ylay;v d

d t &n faysmfN
kY yD;aemu fr S
mwpfB udr fo mykH oGef;av mif;EdkifN
yD;aemu fx yfwpfBudrf
t ylay;ykaHjymif;r &Ed
kifawmhb l;/ o lwd
&JU
kYzGJU
pn f;wn faq mu fykH
u t rQi ft csi f;csi f;a&m, S u fo G
m;N
yD; r mau smu spfv pfwJY
t pdkift cJawGjzpfo G
m;Mu w, f?' gaMu mifh
t J'D
ay:v Dr mu d
kawm(thermosetting
h polymer) v d ac:w, f/
kY
(2) Thermosetting polymers

Some polymers can be heated and moulded once.The chains in these polymers are cross-linked
to each other. These cross-links are permenent chemical bonds. They make the structures regid
when moulded and no softening takes place again on heating.
Methods for recycling plastic waste

t o kH;jyKNyD;o m;pGefYypfyv yfpwpfawG [ mywf0ef;u si fu d kn pfn r f;r Ijzpfapo v d k?u kef;ae?a&aeo wÅ K0gt p&S wJY
d ajr ay:ajr at mu f
pepfawG u ykdgt aES mu ft , S u fjzpfapwmu d kri f;wd
kY
od M
u rSmyg?' gaM u mifh yv yfpwpfawG udkpn f;r JU
u r f;r JYr ypfM u zd kYt aM u mif;o i f&i f;
rSwfo m;o G m;apcsi fw, f?wd pG
kYefY
ypfv d ku fwJYyv yfpwpfawGu R wfu R wft dyfawG [ mjyefN yD;t o kH;jyK
vd &wJYyv yfpwpfawG&S
kY ov d
d k
ESpfo ef;aygi f; r sm;pG mx dr ysu fpD ;yJ&S aewJYyv yfpwpfawG
d v J&S
w, f?' gaM
d u mifho d yÜyn m&S
H i fawG [ mu d k, fwd kifyJx kwfv ykfx m;wJY
en f;yn meJYu d k, fh
&I; u d
k, fywfjyefjzpfaeM u w, f?' gaM u mifh
jyefo kH
;v d kY
&o av mu fjyefo kH ;N
yD; yv yfpwpfx kwvf kyfr Iu d kav Q mhcsM
u w, f/
jyefo kH;v dkY
&o av mu fM u n fhr , fq d k&i f-t B udr fB
u rdfykH
ajymif;v dkY
&wJ Y
Thermoplastic polymers. u d kawmh t ylt en f;i , fjyefay;
vd ku f&i ft &n faysmfo G m;NyD
; aemu fx yfykH pH
t o pfwpfckajymif;v Jt o kH ;jyK
Ed
kifM
u w, f/
wB ud r fo mykH oGef;av mif;Ed kifwJYay:v D r mjzpfwJYThermosetting polymers u awmhaemu fwB ud r ft &n faysmfzY kt wG
d uf
t ylcsd ef700av mu feJY av r JYt ajct aer S mt ylay;r S &w, f/t J'gr Saemu fx yfr d kEd krmt o pfwpfckjzpfv mN yD ;aemu fwB ud r ft ylay;
ykH
ajymi f;v d kY
&w, f? ' gayr , fh pD ;yG m;a&;t &M u n fh&i ft ½IH;ay: wJY t v kyfjzpfv d kYr v kyfcsi fayr , fhv kyfu d kv kyaf e&w, f?
Oyr ma&Zv m;B uD ;awG ?t r Id
u fykH
;awG ?v Q yfu mypö n f;awG aygY uGm?
Methods for recycling plastic waste

(i) Thermoplastic polymers.
- heat at low temperature
- obtain molten or softened polymer
- re-mould into new thermoplastis products
(ii) Thermosetting polymers

- heat at high temperatures (700ºC) in the absence of air
- obtain new monomers and other chemicals
- re-polymerise into new products
Soaps and detergents

Soap
Soap is a sodium salt of fatty acid formed from the chemical reaction of oil or fat molecules
with caustic soda.
eg. sodium stearate , C17H35COO- Na+ (or) Sodium octadecanoate
q yfjymq w kd mat mf*Jepft u fq pfr sm;&JUqdk'D

, r fq m;jzpfw, f?q yfjymu d
kt q D
cJar mfv D
u sL;r sm;ES
i fh
au mh
pwpfq d
k'D
, rf
[ d
ku faj' mq dk'fwd
ud
kY kt ylay;" mwfjyK
jci f;u aewq i fh &&Sw, f/
d
Soap is manufactured by heating natural fats and oils of either plants or animals with a strong alkali.
The fats and oils, called triglycerides, are complicated ester molecules.
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
Saponification
Fat is boiled with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form soap. The ester are broken down in the
presence of water-hydrolysed. This type of reaction is called saponification.
t qDcJrsm;ES
i fh
au mh
pwpfq dk'D
, r f[ d
ku faj' mq d
k'fr sm;u d
kq lyG
u fat mift ylay;N yd
KuG Jjci f;r S
wq i fha&o G
i f;N
yd
K
uGJrIjzpfv mr, f
N
yD;awmhq yfjymawG udk&&S
v mw, f?' gu d
d ksaponification q yfjymjyK v kyfjci f;v dac:w, f/
kY
H35C17-COO CH2 HO-CH2
 C17H35COO- Na+ (l) +

H35C17- COO CH + 3NaOH (aq)  HO-CH
glyceryl tristearate + sodium hydroxide 

 sodium stearate(soap) + glycerol
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

r l&i f;u ' vDd
k CH2 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
The cleaning properties of the soap or detergent depond on its structure and bonding.
Sodium stearate consists of a long hydrocarbon chain which is hydrophobic(water hating) attached
to an ionic head which is hydrophilic (water loving).
q yfjymrS
mq D
udkq G
Jii fao mt yd
kif;hydrophobic ES i fh
a&u d
kq G
Jii fao mt yd
kif; hydrophilic q d kN
yD
; 2ydkif;yg&S
w, f?
d
qDacs;awGudkhydrophobic u q G Jac:o G
m;N
yD
; hydrophilic u a&r S mazsmfN yD
;q G
Jac:o G
m;v d
kYo efY
&S
i f;apjci f;jzpfw, f/
Detergents ( Soapless Soap )

Detergents are not made from fats and oils. This soapless detergents contain moleculs with a salt-
like group attached to a long chain of hydrocarbon.
Soapless detergents do not form scum with hard water since they do not react with Mg2+ and Ca2+
from hard water. Detergent molecules are bio degradable. Becteria readily break down the
detergent molecules so they do not persist in the environment.
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

SO-3.Na+
C18H29SO3Na = Sodium Alkyl Benzene Sulphonate = sodium 4-dodecyl benzene sulphonate /

dodecyl q d kwmu mAG ef12v kH ;u dk&n fn Tef;x m;wm/ t ay:u r sOf;u av ; awG aygY?t J'D r sOf;x dyfu av ;wd kif;r S
mu mAG efawG
&SM
du w, f/N yD;&i fawmhpn f;av ;pn f;jyn fh at mifhydrogen awG x n fhMu n fh
yg/
o efY&S
i f;apwJY ypö n f;q d kwmt q D awG t qD cJawG u aejyKv kyf&, lx m;wmr[ kwfb l; ?t J'D q yfjymr[ kwfwJYq yfjymq d kwmar mfv D
u sL; awG jzpfMuN yd; q m;t kyfpkwpfckcsd wfq u fyg&S aewJY[ d
d ku fN
'd
K
u mAG efq u fwef;&S n fwpfckyJjzpfw, f/t ckaz:jyx m;wJUykH ud
k
qd k'D
, r ft , fv fu d kif; b i fZi f;q mv fzd kedwfv kYa
dc:w, f/ Soap awG [ ma≈eJU xd awG U
vd kYt jr Iyfr x Gu fM
uov d ka≈awG rS
m
2+ 2+
ygwJU Mg and Ca awG eJYv J" mwfr jyK EdkifM
u b l;/ Detergent awG u " mwfjyK M
u ayr , fh t en ft zwfawG r jzpfay:M u ygb l;/
' gt jyi fDetergent awG ud kajr q DvT mawG rSm&S
M
d
u wJUb u fwD ;, D
, m;r sm;u N zd
KcGJEd
kifpG
r f;&S
M
d
u wJY t wG u fywf0ef;u si fq d kif&m
jyo emawG v Jjzpfay:r Ir &S M
du b l;/ ' gaM u mifht &n fyJjzpfjzpft r IefY
yJjzpfjzpf*kP fo wÅ awG
d u t wlwlyJrd kUpD
;yGm;jzpfx kwfv ykfae
Mu wmaygU uG m/
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................
ku f
'Dt yd kif;r S
m'D
vdk'D
vd kawGar ;w, f/ ' D
vdkyJjyefajzv d
ku fw , f/
1. What is meant by a polymer?
polymers are large organic macromolecules. They are made up of small repeating units known as
monomers.
2. What are the properties of addition polymers?

(i) All polymers are long-chain molecules made by joining together a large number of monomer
molecules.
(ii) Addition polymerization involves monomer molecules that contain a C=C double bond.
(iii) Addition polymers are homopolymers, made a single monomer.
(iv) During addition, the double bonds open up and the molecules join to themselves to make a
molecules with a very long-chain.
3. Draw the structural formula of the following compounds.

(i) Chloroethene ( vinyl chloride) CH2=CHCl
H H
n C=C ------C -- C------
H Cl high pressure, catalyst H n
H
(ii) Tetrafluoroethene and suggest the name of the polymer formed from each compound.
Write down the equation. Tetrafluoroethene = CF2=CF2
F F
F F high temperature
n C=C ------C -- C------
F F high pressure, catalyst n
F F
Tetrafluoroethene polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE)
4. What type of polymerization would the following compounds can undergo?

Write down the equation.
(a) CH3-CH=CH2 (b) CF2=CF2
type of polymerization = addition polymer
H H
n C=C ------C -- C------
H CH3 high pressure, catalyst H n
CH3
propene polypropene (PP)
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
5. Draw the polymer formed between the following compounds.
(a) HOOC COOH and H2N NH2
O O
==
==
H H
N -- --N + C--- ---C
HO OH
H H
diamine dicarboxylic acid condensation polymer
O O O O
==
==
==
==
C--- ---C N -- --N C--- ---C N -- --N
H H H H
polyamide (nylon)
(b) HO OH and HOOC COOH
O O
==
==
+ O -- --O + C--- ---C +

H H HO OH
alcohol functional group dicarboxylic acid
an ester link
O O O O polyester
==
==
==
==
C--- ---C O -- --O C--- ---C O -- --O
+H2O +H2O +H2O
6. What is the long form of the following substances and mention their uses.
(a) PVC = polyvinyl chloride, - insulation, pipe and guttering
(b) PTFE = polytetrafluoroethene - non-stick frying pans, taps and joints
(c) PP = polypropene - crates and boxes, plastic rope
(d) PS = polystyrene - insulation, packaging ( foam )
(e) PE = polyethene - plastic bags, bowls, bottles, packaging
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
7. (a) Explain the terms of thermoplastic polymers
Most of the plastic can be softened on heating and melted and then re-moulded.They are called
thermoplastics.
(b) Explain the terms of thermosetting polymers
Some polymers can be heated and moulded once.The chains in these polymers are cross-linked to
each other. These cross-links are permenent chemical bonds. They make the structures regid
when moulded and no softening takes place again on heating.
(c) Explain the terms of nylon
Nylon is a copolymer of two different monomers, a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid formed by
a link between amino group (-NH2) and carbolyic acid group ( -COOH ) of each monomer.
(d) Explain the terms of polyester
Polyester are condensation copolymers made from two monomers. One monomer has an
alcohol functional group (-OH) and other monomer has a carboxylic acid group(-COOH).
8. What are the methods for recycling plastic wastes?

(i) Thermoplastic polymers.
- heat at low temperature
- obtain molten or softened polymer
- re-mould into new thermoplastis products
(ii) Thermosetting polymers

- heat at high temperatures (700ºC) in the absence of air
- obtain new monomers and other chemicals
- re-polymerise into new products
9. What is soap? Explain with suitable example.

Soap is a sodium salt of fatty acid formed from the chemical reaction of oil or fat molecules with
caustic soda.
eg. sodium stearate , C17H35COO- Na+
10. What is meant by the terms of detergent ?

Detergents are not made from fats and oils. This soapless detergents contain moleculs with a salt-
like group attached to a long chain of hydrocarbon.
11. What is meant by the terms of soapless detergent ?

Soapless detergents do not form scum with hard water since they do not react with Mg2+ and Ca2+
from hard waterm Detergent molecules are bio degradable. Becteria readily break down the
detergent molecules so they do not persist in the environment.
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
12. What is meant by the terms of saponification ?
Fat is boiled with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form soap. The ester are broken down in the
presence of water-hydrolysed. This type of reaction is called saponification.
13. Explain the cleaning action of soap.

The cleaning properties of the soap or detergent depond on its structure and bonding.
Sodium stearate consists of a long hydrocarbon chain which is hydrophobic(water hating) attached
to an ionic head which is hydrophilic
14.Write the chemical equation for the formation of soap in word and symbols.
 C17H35COO- Na+ (l) +

H35C17- COO CH + 3NaOH (aq)  HO-CH
glyceryl tristearate + sodium hydroxide 

 sodium stearate(soap) + glycerol
15. Classify the type of nylon, on the type of reaction, the type of bond formed and the monomers used.
Defined the type of bond formed.
During polymerization -NH2 group of first monomer condense with -COOH group from the second
monomer by removing water molecule and each time a link is made a water molecule is lost.
Problem of Fertilizer
1. Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the following nitrogen fertilizers.
(i) Urea, CO(NH2)2 (ii) Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
( N = 14 , C = 12 , O = 16 , H = 1 )
relative molecular mass of CO(NH2)2 = 12 + 16 + (14 x 2) + (1 x 4)
= 60
60 g of CO(NH2)2 contains 28 g of nitrogen
100 g of urea contain ?
28  100
=
60
= 46.66 g
percentage of nitrogen in urea = 46.66%
(ii) Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 ( Try yourself )
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

2. A field of rice needs 15 kg of nitrogen per acre. How many kilograms of ammonium nitrate are
required for 10 acres? ( N = 14 , C = 12 , O = 16 , H = 1 )
1{u t wG u fv d kt yfaewJY
1 acre need for nitrogen = 15 kg ed
ku fx &kd * si fu 15 u D v& d
kS
w , f/
d
10 acres need for nitrogen = 15 x 10 = 150 kg 10 { u q a
k
dwm h 150u vd
D k
vd kw maygY / ' gayr , fh vd kcsi fw mu
relative molecular mass of NH4NO3 = (14 x 2) + (1 x 4) + (16 x 3) NH NO j' yfaygi f;jzpfaew, f/
4 3
= 80 ' gaM u mifht r d keD
, r fEd ku fx &d w fx JrS
m
&S w JYEd
d ku fx &kd * si f&JUyg0i fr Iu d k
28 kg of nitrogen obtain from 80 kg of NH4NO3 &SmMu n fh awmh28 u D vd ky&
JSw , f/
d
150 kg of nitrogen obtain from ? ' gaM u mi f
h150 u v
D &
k
dzd q
Y
k &
k
d i f??
150  80
=
28
= 428.57 kg of ammonium nitrate.
428.57 kg of ammonium nitrate fertilizer required for 10 acres .
3. The price of 100kg of ammonium sulphate is 15000 kyats and the price of 100 kg of urea is 40000
kyats. (a) What is the price of 1 kg of nitrogen in ammonium sulphate?
(b) What is the price of 1 kg of nitrogen in urea ?
(a) relative molecular mass of (NH4)2SO4 = (14 x 2) + (1 x 8) + 32+ (16 x 4)
= 28 + 8 + 32 + 64 100u D vdk*&r fygwJY(NH4)2SO4
= 132 udk0, f&i f15000u syfay; &r , fajymN yD
;
100 kg of (NH4)2SO4 = 15000 kyats 1kg &Sw JYnitrogen u
d
132 kg of (NH4)2SO4 = ? b , fav mu fu so v Jw JY?ar ;v u
k fykH
d u/
'D
awmh(NH4)2SO4u d
k&S
mM
u n fh
vdku fawmh
15000  132
= nitrogen u 28 kg yJygw, f/ 28 kg yJ
100 &zd
kU
b , fav mu fay;&r v J&S
mB
u n fh
awmh
= 19800 kyats 19800 u syfawm
i fay;&w, f/
28 kg of nitrogen contain 132 kg of (NH4)2SO4 = 19800 kyats ' gq d
k1 kg &Sw JYnitrogen av ;&zd
d kY
1 kg of nitrogen = ? b , fav mu fay;&v Jw Gu fM
u n fh
awmh
707u syfawmifay;&w, f/
= 707 . 14 kyats
aps;BuD ;wmu Gm
(b) relative molecular mass of CO(NH2)2 = 12 + 16 + (14 x 2) + (1 x 4)

= 60
100 kg of CO(NH2)2 = 40000 kyats
60 kg of CO(NH2)2 = ?
¶ t ay:u wpfyk'feJUt wlw lyJ
40000  60
=
100
= 24000 kyats
28 kg of nitrogen contain 60 kg of CO(NH2)2 = 24000 kyats
1 kg of nitrogen = ?
= 857 . 14 kyats
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
4. The price of 100kg of sodium nitrate is 80000 kyats. The price of 100kg of urea is 40000 kyats.
Which fertilizer will you buy for nitrogen? Give reason.
relative molecular mass of NaNO3 = 23 + 14 + (16 x 3) 100u D

vdk*&r fygwJYNaNO3 u d
k0, f&i f
= 85 80000u syfay;&r , f?' gaM
u mifh1kg
100 kg of NaNO 3 = 80000 kyats
&SwJYnitrogen wefzd
d k;u d
kt &i fykpä
mawG
85 kg of NaNO 3 = ? t wd kif;&S
mM
u n fh
vdku fawmh4857 u syf
80000  85 av mu fu sw, f/ ' D vd kyJurea u d k
=
100 &S
mB
u n fh
awmh875 u syfyJay;&w, f/
=68000 kyats ' gq dk nitrogen awG yg0i wf JY
14 kg of nitrogen contain 85 kg of NaNO3 = 68000 kyats b , f" mwfajr M
o Zmu d
kri f;0, fr v J?
1 kg of nitrogen = ? t "d
u t csu fu nitrogen ygwmcsi f;
68000 t wlwl aps;aygwmyJ0, fr S maygU /
=
14
= 4857.14 kyats
relative molecular mass of CO(NH2)2 = 12 + 16 + (14 x 2) + (1 x 4)
= 60
100 kg of CO(NH2)2 = 40000 kyats
60 kg of CO(NH2)2 = ?
40000  60
=
100
= 24000 kyats
28 kg of nitrogen contain 60 kg of CO(NH2)2 = 24000 kyats
1 kg of nitrogen = ?
24000
=
28
= 857 . 14 kyats
Urea should be buy. It is cheaper than sodium nitrate based on nitrogen.
5. If 20 kg of nitrogen is taken by crops and 3 kg of nitrogen is carried away by running water from one
acre of soil, how much of urea should be added to the soil to recover its original nitrogen content?
'D
wcgu wpf{ u r S
mv d
kt yfcsu f nitrogen u 20kg &S
w, f?r d
d k;a&aM
u mifh
q kH
;&IH
;o G
m;wmu 3kg &S
w, f/ r lv ajr q D
d vTm&JU
vd
kt yfcsu fu d
kjzn fh
ay;zd
kUnitrogen ygwJYurea u d
kb , fav mu fx yfx n fh
ay;zd
vd
kY krv J/ r lv v d
kt yfcsu fjyn fh
rD
zd
kUq d
k&i f 23kg
av mu fx n fh
r S20kg u sefr S
mjzpfw, f/ ' gaMu mifh
total nitrogen = need for nitrogen + waste
= 20 kg + 3 kg
= 23 kg
relative molecular mass of urea CO(NH2)2 = 12 + 16 + (14 x 2) + (1x4)
= 60
28 kg of nitrogen contain 60 kg of urea
23 kg of nitrogen ?
23 60
=
28
= 49.28 kg of urea is need for one acre.
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

ku f
long term mention their use
N PK N itrogen, Phosohate, Potassium fertilizer
BHC Benzene Hexa C hloride Insecticides
IAA Indole Acetic Acid growth substances
N AA N aphthalene Acetic Acid growth substances
PE Poly(Ethene) plastic bags, bottle
PP Poly(Propene) creats and boxes, rope
PVC Poly(vinylchloride) pipes and guttering
PTFE Poly(tetrafluoroethene) non-stick tap and joints
PS Poly(styrene) insulation, packaging (foam)
PO P Plaster of Paris making casts and cementin glass
Trade names
Trade name
nylon polyamide
Polyester terylene
PTFE teflon
William Saw
...............................
‚ 09-961565730-‚ 09-960532500
.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

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@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 177 ] ..............................................

General formula for Alkane(paraffins) CnH2n+2

by history molecular formula Greek name molecular formula

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

j' yfpi fu mAGefeJY[ d ku fN

electronic structure valence electron total bond

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

dot-cross structure graphic structure structural formula

1. Alkane [ R-H ] paraffins

2. Alkene [ R-CH = CH2 ] olefins

3. Alkyne [ R-CH CH2 ]

aemufqufwGJ taeeJY Alcohol tydkif;udkvJ jznfhpGufNyD; oifMum; &ygr,f/

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

molecular formula graphic formula structural formula name of compound

6. n = 6 » C6H 14 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 hexane

name of molecules derived group name of derived group

water ( H2O ) H O H O O H hydroxyl ( -OH )

Alkyl group or Alkyl radical

iso-butane CH3 iso-butyl

Alkyl group or Alkyl radical ( R- ) CnH2n+1-

ethane CH3-CH3 CH3-CH2- ethyl

propane CH3-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH2-CH2- n-propyl

isomeric compounds CH3-CH-CH3 iso-propyl

CH3-CH-CH2-CH3 secondary butyl

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

The Trivial system

umAGeftrSwfpOf(1) methane CH4

aemufwpfrsKd;uawmh "methane" \qifhyGm;j'yfaygif;rsm;qdkNyD; trnfay;Mujyefygw,f/

CH3 - CH2 - CH3

rlvj'yfaygif; propane » » ethyl methane tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufonfh

CH3 - CH2 - CH3

tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufol tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufol

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

n-butane » » n-propyl methane

'Dvdk owfrSwfNyD; trnfay;vdkuftkH;r,f ?

tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufol tpm;xdk; 0ifa&mufol

n-butane » » ethyl methyl methane jzpfoGm;jyefNyD

iso-butane » » iso-propyl methane iso-butane » » tri-methyl methane

uJ 'Davmufqdk&ifawmh Alkane j'yfaygif;awG&JU omreftrnfay;pepfawGeJU qifhyGm;trnfay;pepfawG[m

1/ yxrtqifhtaeeJU long chain carbon umAGefqufwef; t&SnfqkH;udk aumufonfjzpfap ? ajzmifhonfjzpfap a½G;cs,fvdkufyg/

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

2- methyl - 3- ethyl hexane

t pm;x dk;t kyfpkawG jzpfw JYmethyl u d ku mAG

substitute group   substitute group

2,4-dimethyl -3-ethyl hexane  substitute group

b , fb u uf a&wG u f&i fq u fw ef;&S

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

3- ethyl -3-methyl pentane (t u ©

»» aemu far ;cG ef;awG rSmv J' D

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

molecular formula graphic formula structural formula name of compound (IUPAC)

'D CH3-CH =CH-CH3 u vJ umAGefav;vkH;eJY ESpfxyfpnf;yg0ifwmrdkY olvJ butylene yJ ?

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

[ iso ] qdkwm wlnDjcif;vdkU t"dyÜm,f&w,f/

1 CH3-CH2-CH =CH2 1-butene . 1 - butylene / ethyl ethylene

2. CH3-CH =CH-CH3 2-butene 2 - butylene / dimethyl ethylene

10. n = 10 » C10H 20 decene

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

molecular formula graphic formula structural formula name of compound (IUPAC)

H-C-CC-C-H CH3-C  C -CH3 2-butyne

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

2-methyl -1-pentene 3-methyl -1-pentyne

.......................................................UAS. BSc. BEd [Chem].......................................................

3- methyl -4-ethyl 1- heptene