CE 271‐ Building Design Process 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
   

1 
 
Contents 
1  INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS .................................................................................... 7 
1.1  Drawing equipments ..................................................................................................................... 7 
1.1.1  Drawing Pencils ..................................................................................................................... 7 
1.1.2  Refillable pencil ..................................................................................................................... 7 
1.1.3  Ink fountain pens .................................................................................................................. 7 
1.1.4  Fine pen ................................................................................................................................. 8 
1.1.5  Protractor .............................................................................................................................. 8 
1.1.6  Compass ................................................................................................................................ 8 
1.1.7  T‐Squares .............................................................................................................................. 8 
1.1.8  Set Squares ............................................................................................................................ 9 
1.1.9  Board clips ............................................................................................................................. 9 
1.1.10  Drawing board ....................................................................................................................... 9 
1.1.11  Circle templates .................................................................................................................. 10 
1.1.12  Craft knife ............................................................................................................................ 10 
1.1.13  Flexi‐curve ........................................................................................................................... 11 
1.1.14  French Curves ...................................................................................................................... 11 
1.1.15  Parallel Rule ........................................................................................................................ 11 
1.1.16  Adjustable Square ............................................................................................................... 12 
1.1.17  Compass cutter ................................................................................................................... 12 
1.2  Orthographic Projection ............................................................................................................. 12 
1.2.1  First angle projection .......................................................................................................... 13 
1.3  Lines and line work ..................................................................................................................... 17 
1.4  Lettering ...................................................................................................................................... 19 
1.5  Conversion of 2D to 3D ............................................................................................................... 20 
1.5.1  Oblique projection .............................................................................................................. 21 
1.5.2  Isometric projection ............................................................................................................ 22 
1.5.3  Single point perspective ...................................................................................................... 22 
1.5.4  Two point perspective ........................................................................................................ 23 
1.5.5  Three point perspective ...................................................................................................... 25 
1.5.6  Drawing in Perspective ....................................................................................................... 28 
1.5.7  2 Point vs 3 Point Perspective ............................................................................................. 29 

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2  Conceptual architecture ..................................................................................................................... 30 
2.1  Dimensional relationship ............................................................................................................ 30 
2.2  Man and colour ........................................................................................................................... 32 
2.3  The eye perception ..................................................................................................................... 33 
2.4  Dimension relationships ............................................................................................................. 35 
2.5  Dimensions and space requirements .......................................................................................... 36 
2.6 ........................................................................................................................................................... 38 
3  Planning of buildings ........................................................................................................................... 39 
3.1  Building elements and materials (Brief with their structural requirements) ............................. 39 
3.1.1  Foundation .......................................................................................................................... 39 
3.1.2  Walls .................................................................................................................................... 47 
3.1.3  Roof/ Slabs .......................................................................................................................... 50 
3.2  Green Roofing Systems ............................................................................................................... 53 
3.2.1  Stair cases ............................................................................................................................ 55 
3.2.2  Doors and Windows ............................................................................................................ 58 
3.2.3  Finishes ................................................................................................................................ 62 
4  Building regulations ............................................................................................................................ 66 
4.1  Introduction to international building regulations ..................................................................... 66 
4.1.1  History ................................................................................................................................. 66 
4.1.2  Structure ............................................................................................................................. 67 
4.1.3  General ................................................................................................................................ 68 
4.1.4  Development ....................................................................................................................... 69 
4.1.5  Use in Government Regulation ........................................................................................... 69 
4.2  Introduction to local building regulations................................................................................... 70 
4.3  Part I ‐ Submission of Plans for Approval of Land Sub‐Divisions and Buildings .......................... 72 
4.3.1  Submission of plans ............................................................................................................ 72 
4.3.2  Scales of plans ..................................................................................................................... 75 
4.3.3  Particulars to be on plans, Site Plan & Sub‐division plans .................................................. 76 
4.4  Part II Duties of qualified person employed or engaged to prepare the plans or to supervise 
building work & other development activities ....................................................................................... 82 
4.4.1  Change of qualified Person ................................................................................................. 83 
4.4.2  Offenses by qualified person .............................................................................................. 84 

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 4.4.3  Duties of owner or occupier prior to the commencement of work ................................... 84 
4.4.4  Duties of owner or occupier to the occupation of completed building ............................. 85 
4.4.5  Certificate of conformity for occupation ............................................................................ 85 
4.4.6  Inspections by the authority ............................................................................................... 85 
4.4.7  Licence for the temporary occupation of the building ....................................................... 86 
4.4.8  Contents and display of certificate of conformity for the occupation of Building ............. 86 
4.4.9  Offenses after completion of building work ....................................................................... 87 
4.4.10  Unauthorized occupation & use of any building or any lot ................................................ 88 
4.4.11  Public building Certificate ................................................................................................... 88 
4.4.12  Responsibility for safety ...................................................................................................... 90 
4.4.13  Offenses in the use of a public building .............................................................................. 90 
4.5  Part III‐ Planning Regulation........................................................................................................ 91 
4.5.1  Sub‐division of land ............................................................................................................. 91 
4.5.2  Splaying of street corners ................................................................................................... 95 
4.5.3  Street line & Building Line ................................................................................................... 95 
4.5.4  Parking and Traffic Control ................................................................................................. 95 
4.5.5  Specification as to lots ........................................................................................................ 95 
4.5.6  Development Guide Plan (DGP) .......................................................................................... 96 
4.5.7  Clearance from electric lines ............................................................................................... 96 
4.6  Part IV ‐ Building Regulations ...................................................................................................... 97 
4.6.1  Open spaces to be provided ............................................................................................... 97 
4.6.2  Boundary Clearance ............................................................................................................ 98 
4.6.3  Overhangs and other sun‐shading devices for buildings .................................................... 98 
4.6.4  Rear space ........................................................................................................................... 98 
4.6.5  Irregular Shape .................................................................................................................... 98 
4.6.6  Width of footway required to be provided ......................................................................... 98 
4.6.7  Access from a Street ........................................................................................................... 99 
4.6.8  Splayed corners ................................................................................................................... 99 
4.6.9  Projection beyond street, road‐widening line etc. ............................................................. 99 
4.6.10  Offenses .............................................................................................................................. 99 
4.6.11  Minimum width of buildings ............................................................................................. 100 
4.6.12  Height of building .............................................................................................................. 100 

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 4.6.13  Minimum area of rooms in residential buildings .............................................................. 100 
4.6.14  Minimum dimension of lavatories, water closets and bathrooms ................................... 100 
4.6.15  Height of rooms in residential buildings ........................................................................... 101 
4.6.16  Provision of lighting and ventilation ................................................................................. 103 
4.6.17  Location of sources of natural light and ventilation ......................................................... 103 
4.6.18  Sources of natural light and ventilation may open upon a balcony, verandah or porch . 104 
4.6.19  Sources of natural light and ventilation ............................................................................ 104 
4.6.20  Other ................................................................................................................................. 106 
4.7  Part V ‐ Mechanical Ventilation and Air ‐ Conditioning ............................................................ 108 
4.7.1  Natural light and ventilation requirements may be waived or modified ......................... 108 
4.7.2  Mechanical ventilation for a residential room.................................................................. 108 
4.7.3  Other rooms requiring to be mechanically ventilated ...................................................... 108 
4.7.4  Plans for air‐conditioning or other ventilation system ..................................................... 108 
4.8  Part VI ‐ Sanitation .................................................................................................................... 109 
4.8.1  Water Supply & Sewerage ................................................................................................ 109 
4.8.2  Sanitary Convenience ........................................................................................................ 109 
4.8.3  Drainage ............................................................................................................................ 110 
4.8.4  Waste disposal .................................................................................................................. 110 
4.8.5  Electrical and plumbing work ............................................................................................ 110 
4.8.6  Definition .......................................................................................................................... 110 
5  Building design .................................................................................................................................. 137 
5.1  Site Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 137 
5.1.1  Site Mapping ..................................................................................................................... 137 
5.1.2  Getting to Know Your Land ............................................................................................... 138 
5.1.3  Making a Site Map ............................................................................................................ 139 
5.2  Residential Home Design – Zoning Laws ................................................................................... 139 
5.2.1  Adding Zoning Regulations to Site Map ............................................................................ 140 
5.3  Drawing Bubble Diagrams for Outdoor Spaces ........................................................................ 140 
5.3.1  House Placement .............................................................................................................. 141 
5.4  Needs Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 142 
5.4.1  Household Members Needs ............................................................................................. 142 
5.4.2  Functional Spaces ‐ Design  House Areas .......................................................................... 142 

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 5.5  Draw House Plans Bubble Diagrams ......................................................................................... 143 
5.5.1  Example Bubble Diagrams for Two Story House............................................................... 145 
5.5.2  Draw Circulation in Diagrams ............................................................................................ 145 
5.5.3  Organization of and Relation between Spaces ................................................................. 146 
5.5.4  Stairs .................................................................................................................................. 146 
5.6  Structural Design ....................................................................................................................... 146 
5.7  Design Floor Plans ..................................................................................................................... 150 
5.7.1  Draw Floor Plan ‐ Simple Sketches .................................................................................... 151 
6  Assignments ...................................................................................................................................... 153 
Assignment ‐01 ..................................................................................................................................... 153 
Assignment ‐02 ..................................................................................................................................... 154 
 

   

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1 INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS 
1.1 Drawing equipments 
When drawing, sketching or attempting basic graphics work the equipment shown below is very useful 
and sometimes essential. 

1.1.1 Drawing Pencils 
Drawing  Pencils  are  a  basic  requirement  of  any  graphics  course.  You  need  a  number 
ranging  from  2B  to  2H.  These  letters  refer  to  the  hardness  of  the  pencil  lead.  When 
sketching a soft lead such as 2B is can be used to produce quick drawings and shading. 
On the other hand , when drawing precisely a 2H or even a harder pencil such as a 4H is 
ideal. This type of pencil keeps its sharp edge for longer and produces very fine lines.  

1.1.2 Refillable pencil  
 

 A refillable pencil is very useful especially if you are constructing a drawing that 
needs  a  constant  thickness  of  line.  The  refills  are  available  in  a  range  of 
thicknesses  and  either  hard  or  soft  leads. 
Disadvantages are that the refillable pencils are relatively expensive and so are 
the refills. Also, the leads tend to break more easily. 

1.1.3 Ink fountain pens 
 

 Ink fountain pens can be used for producing ‘fancy’ styles of writing. Often the pens 
can be bought with a variety of ‘nibs’ as a set. These can be used to draw / write in a 
vast  range  of  styles.  This  type  of  writing  is  called  ‘Calligraphy’.  Ink  pens  are  rarely 
used  now  as  word  processing  software  can  be  used  to  produce  accurate  styles  of 
writing in a range of fonts. 

7 
 
1.1.4 Fine pen  
 

A fine  pen (colour ‐ normally black) is  used to  draw permanent,  accurate lines. 

Fine  pens  are  available  with  various  thicknesses  of  'tips'.  They  are  especially 
useful  for  printing  and  placing  notes  alongside  designs  and  sketches.  They  are 
also  used  for  producing  the  final  outline  of  a  design.  Fine  pens  are  relatively 
cheap and come in a range of colours. 

1.1.5 Protractor 
 

A  protractor  is  used  to  measure  angles.  A  typical  protractor  is  a 

semi‐circular piece of plastic with 180 degrees printed around its 
curve.  This  piece  of  equipment  is  not  only  used  in  graphics  for 
constructing  accurate  drawings  but  is  also  used  in  subjects  like 
Mathematics. 

1.1.6 Compass 
 

A compass is an absolute essential piece of equipment. It is well worth buying 
a  good  set  which  includes  at  least  two  compasses  allowing  the  drawing  of 
small and large circles. The drawing opposite is a ‘bow’ compass, this is used 
for drawing small circles very accurately. Cheap compasses tend to slip on the 
paper and break quite easily. A good, quality compass set will last a life time. 

1.1.7 T­Squares 
 

8 
 
T‐Squares  are  use  to  draw  horizontal  lines.  They  are  especially  useful  when  constructing  accurate 
orthographic drawings or architectural drawings. A T‐Square is normally used with a drawing board, set 
squares and clips. It must be pushed firmly against the edge of the drawing board when it is being used. 

1.1.8 Set Squares 
 

 Set Squares are used to draw accurate angles. The most common are 45 and 
60/30 degrees. When using set squares they should always used along with a 
T‐Square. The Set‐square rest on the straight edge of the T‐Square and this 
ensures when the angle is drawn that it is accurate. 

1.1.9 Board clips  
 

Board clips are used to hold the drawing paper in position. They simply clip on to the 
board holding the paper firmly against the drawing board 

1.1.10 Drawing board 
 

Drawing  board  one  of  the  essential 

equipment  in  manual  drawing.  The 
arrangement  of  a  typical  drawing  board 
is  given  below.  The  drawing  paper  is 
fixed  to  the  board  using  board  clips. 
Drawing  horizontals  are  possible  by 
moving  the  T‐  ruler.  Left  hand  and  right 
hand  boards  are  commonly  available  in 
the market to suit make it user friendly.  

9 
 
 

1.1.11 Circle templates 

 Circle  templates  are  very  useful.  They  are  plastic  with  a 

number  of  accurate  circles  cut  out.  They  are  used  to  draw 
circles  of  set  diameters/sizes  and  are  particularly  useful  if  the 
circle  is  small.  Small  circles  are  difficult  to  draw  using  a 
traditional compass because the compass can easily slip on the 
paper.  With  a  template,  the  circle  diameter  is  selected  and  a 
sharp  pencil  is  used  to  draw  round  the  cutout  circle. 
Ellipse  templates  are  similar  to  circle  templates  and  these  are 
useful for drawing ellipse / oval shapes accurately. 

1.1.12 Craft knife 

A craft knife is used to cut out card shapes It is important that a 
steel  ruler  is  used  as  the  sharp  blade  of  the  craft  knife  is  less 
likely  to  slip.  a  cutting  mat  should  be  placed  below  the  card 
being cut. Also, if a plastic ruler is used the knife can easily cut 
into  its  straight  edge,  damaging  it.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
when using a craft knife as they are very sharp, if they slip they 
can cut hands and fingers very badly. 

A  craft  knife  can  also  be  used  to 

sharpen  pencils.  Normal  pencil 
sharpeners tend to shorten the lead as 
the sharpener is turned. This means that the  pencil needs sharpening often. On the 
other  hand  when  using  a  craft  knife,  the  lead  can  be  left  quite  long.  Also,  a 

10 
 
small piece of glass paper can be used to give a precise edge to the lead. A ‘chisel’ shaped point is ideal 
for drawing  accurate lines.

1.1.13 Flexi­curve 
A  Flexi‐curve  is  used  to  draw  curves.  It  can  be  formed  into 
almost any curve as it is flexible. Flex‐curves are useful as they 
are  simply  shaped  to  form  the  desired  curve.  However,  a  flex‐
curve is delicate and if forced into a tight curve it will break. 

1.1.14 French Curves  
French Curves are purchased in sets of three or four. They 
are used to draw curves by finding the section of curve that 
matches  the  desired  shape  on  the  profile  of  the  curve. 
Some  French  Curves  also  have  either  circles  or  ellipses  of 
various sizes cut out. These can be used in the same way as 
circle or ellipse templates. 

1.1.15 Parallel Rule 

11 
 
 A  Parallel  Rule  is  useed  to  draw  parallel 
p lines.  It  is  basicallyy  two 
rulers  held  together  by  two  linkaages.  The  linkages  provid
de  the 
parallel  motion. The  rulers have sscales either m
metric, imperrial or 
both. 

1.1.16 Adjustable Sq
A quare  

An Adjjustable Squaare is a set sq
quare which  can be adjussted to almosst any 
angle.  When  adjussted  a  small  screw  is  haand  tightened
d,  locking  th
he  set 
squaree  in  position.  This  means  that  there  is  no  need  to  have  both  45
5  and 
30/60  degree set squares. Theyy are much m
more expensivve than norm
mal set 
squarees. 

1.1.17 Compass cuttter  
A ccompass cutteer is extremeely useful if you are attem
mpting 
to ccut circles in card or paper. using scisso
ors often prod
duces 
or  results  but  a  compass  cutter  usually  cuts  accurrately. 
poo
Thee compass cu
utter can be adjusted to cu
ut circles of vaarying 
sizees.  The  cuttin
ng  point  is  a  craft  knife  blade. 
b care  should 
still be taken wh
hen using thiss type of cutteer. 

 
 

1.2 Orrthographiic Projectiion  
 

Orthograp
phic projectio
on is a meanss of representting a three‐d object in two dimensions. It is a 
dimensional o
form of p
parallel projecction, where  the view direection is orth
hogonal to the projection  plane, resulting in 
ne of the scene appearingg in affine traansformation on the viewing surface. Itt is further diivided 
every plan
into multiiview orthogrraphic projecttions and axo
onometric pro
ojections. 

12 
 
Orthographic Projection is a way of drawing an object from different directions. Usually a front, side and 
plan  view  are  drawn  so  that  a  person  looking  at  the  drawing  can  see  all  the  important  sides. 
Orthographic drawings are useful especially when a design has been developed to a stage whereby it is 
almost ready to manufacture. 

There  are  two  ways  of  drawing  in  orthographic  ‐  First  Angle  and  Third  Angle.  They  differ  only  in  the 
position of the plan, front and side views. Below is an example of first angle projection. 

1.2.1 First angle projection 
 

Assume that a small block is made 35 mm x 30 mm × 20 mm and that two of the corners are cut away as 
shown below in three stages. 

Figure 1.1 illustrates a pictorial view of the block and this has been arranged in an arbitrary way because 
none of the faces are more important than the others. In order to describe the orthographic views we 
need to select a principal view and in this case we have chosen the view in direction of arrow A to be the 
view from the front. 

13 
 
     

Figure 1.1 

The five arrows point to different surfaces of the block and five views will result. The arrows themselves 
are positioned square to the surfaces, that is at 90° to the surfaces and they are also at 90°, or multiples 
of 90° to each other. The views are designated as follows: 

View in direction A is the view from the front, 

View in direction B is the view from the left, 

View in direction C is the view from the right, 

View in direction D is the view from above, 

View in direction E is the view from below. 

In first angle projection the views in the directions of arrows B, C, D and E are arranged with reference to 
the front view as follows: 

14 
 
The view from B is placed on the right, 

The view from C is placed on the left, 

The view from D is placed underneath, 

The view from E is placed above. 

The  experienced  draughtsman  will  commit  the  above  rules  to  memory.  It  is  customary  to  state  the 
projection used on orthographic drawings to remove all doubt, or use the distinguishing symbol which is 
shown on the arrangement in Figure 1.2. 

Figure 1.2  First angle projection arrangement. Dotted lines indicate hidden edges and corners 

1.2.1.1  Third angle projection 
 

The  difference  between  first  and  third  angle  projection  is  in  the  arrangement  of  views  and,  with 
reference to the illustration in Figure 1.3, views are now positioned as follows: 

View B from the left is placed on the left, 

View C from the right is placed on the right, 

View D from above is placed above, 

15 
 
View E from below is placed underneath. 

Study the rearrangement shown in Figure 1.3 and remember the above rules because it is vital that the 
principles of first and third angle projection are understood. The distinguishing symbol for this method is 
also  shown.  If  a  model  is made  of  the  block  in  Figure  1.1,  and  this  can  easily  be  cut  from  polystyrene 
foam used in packing, then a simple demonstration of first and third angle projection can be arranged by 
placing  the  block  on  the  drawing  board  and  moving  it  in  the  direction  of  the  four  chain  dotted  lines 
terminating in arrows in Figure 1.4. 

Figure 1.3 Third angle projection arrangement 

16 
 
    

Figure 1.4  (a) First angle arrangement (b) Third angle arrangement 

Figure 1.4 (a) shows the positioning for first angle and Figure 1.4(b) for third angle projection. The view 
in each case in the direction of the large arrow will give the five views already explained. The terms first 
and third angle correspond with the notation used in mathematics for the quadrants of a circle in Fig. 
4.6  the  block  is  shown  pictorially  in  the  first  quadrant  with  three  of  the  surfaces  on  which  views  are 
projected. The surfaces are known as planes and the principal view in direction of arrow A is projected 
on to the principal vertical plane. The view from D is projected on to a horizontal plane. View B is also 
projected on to a vertical plane at 90 to the principal vertical plane and the horizontal plane and this is 
known  as  an  auxiliary  vertical  plane.  Another  horizontal  plane  can  be  positioned  above  for  the 
projection from arrow E, also a second auxiliary vertical plane on the left for the projection of view C. 
Notice that the projections to each of the planes are all parallel, meeting the planes at right angles and 
this  a  feature  of  orthographic  projection.  The  intersection  of  the  vertical  and  horizontal  planes  give  a 
line which is the ground line GL. This line is often referred to as the XY line; this is useful in projection 
problems since it represents the position of the horizontal plane with reference to a front view and also 
the position of the vertical plane with reference to a plan view. 

1.3 Lines and line work 
 

Two thicknesses of line are recommended for manual and CAD drawings. A wide line and a narrow line 
in the ratio of 2:1. 

17 
 
Standard  lead  holders,  inking  pens  for  manual  use,  and  those  for  CAD  plotters  are  all  available  in  the 
following  millimetre  sizes:  0.25,  0.35,  0.5,  0.7,  1.0,  1.4  and  2.0.  Line  thicknesses  of  0.7  and  0.35  are 
generally  used  and  will  give  good  quality,  black,  dense  and  contrasting  lines.  Table  5.2,  shows 
applications for different line types which are designed to obtain a good professional finish to a drawing. 
Various  combinations  of  line  thickness  and  type  are  shown  on  the  mechanism  in  Fig.  5.2.  (Circled 
numbers relate to the line types in Table 5.2.) Figure 5.3 shows part of a cone and if the complete cone 
was required, for example for dimensioning purposes, then the rest would be shown by adding narrow 
continuous lines which intersect in a dot.  

Table 1.1  Types of lines 

18 
 
1.4 Lettering 
It has previously been mentioned that technical drawings are prepared using only two line thicknesses 
and  if  reasonable  care  is  taken  a  pleasing  result  can  easily  be  obtained.  Drawings  invariably  need 
dimensions  and  notes  and  if  these  are  added  in  a  careless  and  haphazard  manner,  then  a  very  poor 
overall impression may be given. Remember that technical drawings are the main line of communication 
between  the  originator  and  the  user.  Between  a  consultant  and  his  client,  the  sales  manager  and  his 
customer, the designer and the manufacturer, a neat well executed technical drawing helps to establish 
confidence. The professional draughtsman also takes considerable pride in his work and much effort and 
thought is needed with respect to lettering, and spacing, in order to produce an acceptable drawing of 
high standard. 
The  following  notes  draw  attention  to  small  matters  of  detail  which  we  hope  will  assist  the 
draughtsman’s technique of lettering.  
1. Lettering may be vertical or slanted, according to the style which is customarily used by the 
draughtsman. The aim is to produce clear and unambiguous letters, numbers and symbols. 
2. If slanted lettering is used, the slope should be approximately 650–700from the horizontal. 
Legibility is important. The characters should be capable of being produced at reasonable speed and in a 
repeatable manner. Different styles on the same drawing spoil the overall effect. 
3. Use single stroke characters devoid of serifs and embellishments. 
4. All strokes should be of consistent density. 
5. The  spacing  round  each  character  is  important  to  ensure  that  ‘filling  in’  will  not  occur 
during reproduction. 
6. Lettering should not be underlined since this impairs legibility. 
7. On  parts  lists  or  where  information  is  tabulated,  the  letters  or  numerals  should  not  be 
allowed to touch the spacing lines. 
8. All drawing notes and dimensions should remain legible on reduced size copies and on the 
screens of microfilm viewers. 
9. Capital letters are preferred to lower case letters since they are easier to read on reduced 
size copies of drawings. Lower case letters are generally used only where they are parts of 
standard symbols, codes or abbreviations. 
10. When producing a manual drawing the draughtsman should take care to select the proper 
grade of pencil for lettering. The pencil should be sharp, but with a round point which will not injure the 
surface. Mechanical pencils save time and give consistent results since no resharpening is necessary. 

19 
 
 11. Typewritten,  stencilled  or  letters  using  the  ‘Letraset’  adhesive  letter  system  may  be  used 
since these provide uniformity and a high degree of legibility. 
 
Table 1.2 

 
 

Table 1.2 gives the minimum recommended character heights for different sizes of drawing sheet and it 
is  stressed  that  these  are  minimum  sizes.  If  lower  case  letters  are  used  then  they  should  be 
proportioned so that the body height will be approximately 0.6 times the height of a capital letter. The 
stroke thickness should be approximately 0.1 times the  character height and  the  clear space between 
characters  should  be  about  0.7  mm  for  2.5  mm  capitals  and  other  sizes  in  proportion.  The  spaces 
between lines of lettering should be consistent and preferably not less than half the character height. In 
the case of titles, this spacing may have to be reduced. All notes should be placed so that they may be 
read from the same direction as the format of the drawing but there are cases, for example when a long 
vertical object is presented, where it  may be necessary to turn the drawing sheet through 90 in the 
clockwise  direction,  in  effect,  to  position  the  note  which  is  then  read  from  the  right  hand  side  of  the 
drawing sheet. 
 

1.5 Conversion of 2D to 3D 
 

The  principles  of  pictorial  and  orthographic sketching  are  similar,  except  that  in  pictorial sketching 
 you   will   be   dealing   with   volumes   rather  than  flat  planes.  Basically,  pictorial  sketches  and  pictorial 
 drawings  are  practically  the  same  except for the drawing materials used in their develop‐ ment and 
the fact that pictorial sketches are not normally drawn to scale. By following a few sim‐ ple  steps,  based 
 on  pictorial  drawing  construction principles,   you   should   be   able   to   prepare meaningful  pictorial 
 sketches. 

20 
 
1.5.1 O
Oblique projection 
 

Ob
blique projecttion is a meth
hod of drawin
ng objects in  3 dimensionss. It is 
qu
uite  a  simple  technique    compared 
c to  isometric  orr  even  perspeective 
drawing. Howeever, to draw  accurately in
n oblique pro
ojection tradittional 
drawing equipm
ment is needeed (see diagraam below). 
blique projecttion is a type of parallel prrojection: 
Ob
it p
projects an im
mage by interrsecting parallel rays (projeectors) 
In  both obliquee projection aand orthograp
phic projectio
on, parallel lin
nes of 
the  source  objject  produce  parallel  lines  in  the  projjected  imagee.  The 
projectorss  in  oblique  projection  intersect  the  projection  plane 
p at  an  oblique  angle  to  produce  the 
projected image, as op
pposed to thee perpendicular angle used
d in orthograp
phic projectio
on. 
Mathemaatically,  the  parallel 
p projecction  of  the  point 
p (x,y,z)  on 
o the  xy‐plaane  gives  (x  + 
+ az,y  +  bz,0)).  The 
constantss  and  b  uniqu
uely  specify  a  parallel  projection.  Wh
hen  a  =  b  =  0, 
0 the  projecction  is  said  to  be 
hographic" orr "orthogonal". Otherwise,, it is "obliquee". The constaants a 
"orth
and  b  are  not  necessarily  less  than  1,  and 
a as  a  con
nsequence  leengths 
meassured  on  an  oblique  projeection  may  be 
b either  larger  or shorterr than 
they  were in spacce. In a generral oblique projection, sph
heres of the  space 
are p
projected as  ellipses on th
he  drawing p
plane, and  no
ot as circles aas you 
woulld expect them from an orrthogonal pro
ojection. 
que drawing  is also the crudest "3D" drawing method but the easiest 
Obliq
ue is not really a 3D system but a 2 dimensional view of 
to master. Obliqu
an object  with 'forced depth'. One  way to draw
w using an ob
blique view is to draw the  side of the o
object 
ooking at in two dimensions, i.e. flat, aand then draw
you are lo w the other ssides at an an
ngle of 45 deggrees, 
but insteaad of drawingg the sides full size they arre only drawn
n with half the depth creatting 'forced d
depth' 
‐ adding aan element o
of realism to tthe object. Even with thiss 'forced deptth', oblique d
drawings lookk very 
unconvinccing to the eyye. For this reeason obliquee is rarely used by professio
onal designerr and engineeers. 
In  an  oblique  pictoriaal  drawing,  th
he  angles  dissplayed  amon
ng  the  axes,  as  well  as  the  foreshorttening 
factors (scale) are arbitrary. More  precisely, any given set o
of three coplaanar segmentts originating from 
the  same  point  may  be 
b construed  as  forming  some 
s obliquee  perspectivee  of  three  sid
des  of  a  cubee.  This 
result is kknown as Poh
hlke's theorem, from the  German matthematician P
Pohlke, who p
published it iin the 
early 19th
h century.  

21 
 
The resulting distortions make the technique unsuitable for formal, working drawings. Nevertheless, the 
distortions are partially overcome by aligning one plane of the image parallel to the plane of projection. 
Doing so creates a true shape image of the chosen plane. This specific category of oblique projections, 
whereby lengths along the directions x and y are preserved, but lengths along direction z are drawn at 
angle using a reduction factor is very much in use for industrial drawings 

1.5.2 Isometric projection 
 The term "isometric" comes from the Greek for "equal measure", reflecting that the scale along each 
axis of the projection is the same (this is not true of 
some other forms of graphical projection). 
An  isometric  view  of  an  object  can  be  obtained  by 
choosing  the  viewing  direction  in  a  way  that  the 
angles between the projection of the x, y, and z axes 
are all the same, or 120°. For example when taking a 
cube,  this  is  done  by  first  looking  straight  towards 
one  face.  Next  the  cube  is  rotated  ±45°  about  the 
vertical axis, followed by a rotation of approximately 
±35.264° (precisely arcsin (tan 30°) ) about the horizontal axis. Note that with the cube (see image) the 
perimeter of the 2D drawing is a perfect regular hexagon: all the black lines are of equal length and all 
the cube's faces are the same area. 
In a similar way an isometric view can be obtained for example in a 3D scene editor. Starting with the 
camera  aligned  parallel  to  the  floor  and  aligned  to  the  coordinate  axes,  it  is  first  rotated  downwards 
around the horizontal axes by about 35.264° as above, and then rotated ±45° around the vertical axes. 
Another  way  in  which  isometric  projection  can  be  visualized  is  by  considering  a  view  within  a  cubical 
room  starting  in  an  upper  corner  and  looking  towards  the  opposite,  lower  corner.  The  x‐axis  extends 
diagonally  down  and  right,  the  y‐axis  extends  diagonally  down  and  left,  and  the  z‐axis  is  straight  up. 
Depth is also shown by height on the image. Lines drawn along the axes are at 120° to one another. 
 

1.5.3 Single point perspective 
 

22 
 
  

Single‐point perspective is just about the simplest form of perspective projection it is possible to have. It 
is called single‐point perspective because it involves only a single vanishing point. This was the first type 
of  perspective  to  be  formally  discovered,  during  the  renaissance,  but  before  that  artists  had 
approximated one and two point perspecive just by trying to draw what they saw.  

1.5.4 Two point perspective 
 

One‐point perspective is great if you happen to be looking directly at the front of something, but what if 
your subject is turned to the side? Then you need two point perspective!  
In two point perspective, there are two vanishing points on the horizon line. Every line except vertical 
ones will converge onto one of the two vanishing points. 

23 
 
 one  four 
Let's  say  you  want  to  Now  draw  in 
draw  a  city  block.  Draw  guidelines  to  make 
a horizon line, and place    other  buildings  on  the 
two  vanishing  points  block.  Remember, 
 

along it.   every  non‐vertical  line 

must  converge on one 
of  the  two  vanishing 
points.  
 

two  five 
Let's  start  with  the  first  Finally,  erase  the 
building. Draw a vertical  guidelines  that  you 
line  that  will  be  the   

don't  need,  and  get 

edge  closest  to  you.  ready to add windows, 
Then  draw  the  cars,  people,  and 
guidelines  for  the  roof  what‐ever  else  fills 
and  bottom  of  the  your imagination 
building.    

three   
Distance is tricky: divide 
the  bottom  line  in  half, 
and  then  in  half  again, 
and  then  in  half  again. 
This  will  make  it  seem 
as  if  equal‐sized 
buildings  are  next  to 
each other. 

24 
 
 1.5.5 Three point perspective 
 

Three‐point perspective is probably the most challenging of all.  
In three point perspective, every right‐angle line in the drawing will eventually converge on one of three 
perspective points. This can look distorted if the vanishing points are two close together, but if they are 
far enough apart, three‐point perspective is the most accurate way of drawing the world around you in 
three dimensions. 

one  four 
Let's  draw  a  simple  box.  The  far  edges  of  the 
Draw  a  horizon  line  box can be found by 
across  your  page.  Place  drawing  lines  from 
two  vanishing  points  on  the ends of the front 
   
 
the  line,  and  one  more   
edges,  back  to  the 
above or below it.   vanishing points.  

two  five 
Chose a point where you  Erase  the  guidelines 
would  like  to  put  the  and you are left with 
corner closest to you.   a great‐looking box! 

   
 

three  See  what  happens 

Draw  a  line  from  the  when  you  do  one 
corner  back  to  each  of  box each below  
the  vanishing  points  to 
make  the  edges  of  the 
 
 
 
box.  Make  marks  along   

these  lines  to  indicate 

how long each edge is. 

25 
 
The three photos below demonstrate the difference between 1‐Point and 2‐Point Perspective, as well as 
3‐Point Perspective. The first photograph (Fig. 1) is an example of one‐point perspective. All of the major 
Vanishing  Points  for  the  buildings  in  the  foreground  of  Fig.  1  converge  at  one  central  location  on  the 
horizon line. The angle of view or Point Of View (POV) in Fig. 1 is referred to as Normal View perspective. 
In  Fig.  2  the  vanishing  points  for  the  two  opposing  faces  of  the  center  foreground  building  project 
towards two different vanishing points on the horizon line. In Fig. 3 we see that the horizontal building 
elements  project  to  the  left  and  right  horizon  and  the  vertical  building  elements  project  to  a  central 
vanishing point in the sky. This upper vanishing point is called the Zenith. If one were looking down on 
the object from a Bird's Eye perspective, the vanishing point below the horizon and would be called the 
Nadir. 
 

 
Deconstructing "Perspective" from Photography 
In  the  next  three  diagrams,  you  will  see  the  same  three  photographs  with  Vanishing  Point  trajectory 
lines  (magenta)  and  Horizon  Lines  (blue)  traced  over  the  subject  matter.  Fig.  4  and  Fig.  5  are  both 
examples of Normal View perspective. A Normal View angle places the Horizon Line at a natural height 
as if the viewer was looking straight forward without tilting the head/camera up or down. In these two 
examples, you will notice that all of the vertical features of the buildings are straight up and down. 
Fig. 6 is an example of a Worm's Eye perspective. In Fig. 6 the head/camera is tilted upward placing the 
Horizon  below  the  picture.  The  perspective  when  the  view  is  tilted  in  an  upward  direction,  creates  a 
third  vanishing  point  at  the  Zenith.  All  of  the  vertical  building  features  will  converge  at  this  upper 
vanishing point. If we were looking down on a subject, the viewing angle would be a Bird's Eye View and 
the vertical details would converge at the Nadir. 

26 
 
This  technique  of  traacing  parallell  lines  to  their  convergeence  point  would 
w be  useed  to  constrruct  a 
Perspectivve  Grid  from  exiting  phottographic  maaterial.  Each  convergence 
c point  will  reepresent  the  exact 
location o
of the Horizon
n, Zenith, or N
Nadir in that p
photograph.
 

 
The Illusio
on of Depth 
In the preeceding photographic examples you w
will notice that as an objecct recedes towards a Vaniishing 
Point  (infinity)  it  appe
ears  to  get  sm
maller.  This  phenomenon 
p is  due  to  thee  fact  that  th
he  "viewer"  is  at  a 
steeper angle of view  when looking an object tthat is in closse proximity aas opposed to an object o
of the 
same  sizee  that  is  farth
her  away  and
d  therefor,  viiewed  at  a  sh
hallower  anggle.  This  phen
nomenon  wass  first 
observed during the 16
6th century, w
when a Germ
man painter and printmakeer named Alb
brecht Dürer b
began 
observed obje
drawing o ects onto a sh
heet of glass  (below, left),, later known
n as the 'pictu
ure plane.' Prrior to 
the discovvery of the picture‐plane, artists used their best gueess to determine perspective (below, rigght). 
 

 
Dürer drawing on glass 'picture plane' cc. 1520 (left), Cappella Torrnabuoni fresco in Florence c. 
Albrecht D

27 
 
1490 (right) 
 
 
The  picture‐plane  shown  in  the  diagram  below  represents  the  point  where  the  observer  perceives 
perspective. In the physical world, the "picture plane" (as shown below) represents the point at which 
the observer perceives perspective as interpreted by the lens of the eye. In the world of illustration, the 
"picture  plane"  is  actually  the  flat  surface  of  the  paper  or  computer  screen,  and  the  perception  of  3 
dimensional depth or perspective is an artificial illusion. 
 

 
 
 
 

1.5.6 Drawing in Perspective 
 

The following diagram Fig. 7 is a sample of the typical reference material you might expect to receive on 
a technical illustration project. All of the major plan and elevation views are represented here as well as 
an Isometric view. From this reference, we will construct a variety of perspective views in the tutorials 
that follow this page. 

28 
 
 

 
 
 
 

In the following six examples, you will see a perspective grid and our subject in various aspects discussed 
in the previous paragraph. Fig. 8 is a Normal View 1 Point Perspective drawing. Fig. 9 is a Worm's Eye 
View 1 Point Perspective drawing. Fig. 10 is a Bird's Eye 1 Point Perspective drawing. Fig. 11 is a Bird's 
Eye or High 3/4 View 2 Point Perspective drawing. Fig. 12 is a Bird's Eye 3 Point Perspective drawing. If 
you  were  to  extend  the  vertical  vanishing  point  lines  downward,  they  would  converge  at  the  Nadir 
Station point.  

1.5.7 2 Point vs. 3 Point Perspective 
 

29 
 
  

By now you may have noticed that perspective drawing techniques differ from other types of commonly 
seen  technical  imagry.  In  Fig.  13  you  have  three  examples  of  3/4  view  illustrations  that  are  not  in 
perspective  view.  They  are  classified  as  Isometric,  Dimetric,  and  Trimetric  drawings.  In  these  types  of 
illustrations all parallel lines remain parallel and therefor, never converge at a single point.  

   

30 
 
2 Conceptual architecture 
2.1 Dimensional relationship 

The  oldest  known  code  of  dimensional  relationships  of  man  was  found  in  a  burial  chamber  of  the 
pyramids  near  Memphis  and  are  estimated  to  date  back  to  roughly  3000  BC.  Certainly  since  then, 
scientists and artists have been trying hard to refine human proportional relationships. 

We  know  about  the  proportional  systems  of  the  Empire  of  the  Pharaohs,  of  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans,  and  even  the  system  of  Polycletes,  which  for  a  long  time  was  applied  as  the 
standard, the details given by Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and the 2 people of the middle 
Ages.  In  particular,  the  work  of  Dürer  is  known  throughout  the  world.  In  all  of  these  works,  the 
calculations  for  a  man’s  body  were  based  on  the  lengths  of  heads,  faces  or  feet.  These  were  then 
subdivided  and  brought  into  relationship  with  each  other,  so  that  they  were  applicable  throughout 
general life. Even within our own lifetimes, feet and ells have been in common use as measurements. 

The  details  worked  out  by  Dürer  became  a  common  standard  and  were  used  extensively.  He  started 
with the height of man and expressed the subdivisions as fractions: 

31 
 
1/2 h =  the whole of the top half of the body, from the crotch upwards 

1/4 h = leg length from the ankle to the knee and from the chin to the navel 

1/6 h = length of foot 

1/8 h =  head length from the hair parting to the bottom of the chin, distance between the nipples 

1/10 h= face height and width (including the ears), hand length to the wrist 

1/12 h =face width at the level of the bottom of the nose, leg width (above the ankle) and so on. 

The sub‐divisions go up to 1/4Q h. 

During  the  last  century,  A.  Zeising,  brbught  greater  clarity  with  his  investigations  of  the  dimensional 
relationship of man’s proportions. He made exact measurements and comparisons on the basis of the 
golden section. Unfortunately, this work did not receive the attention it deserved until recently, when a 
significant researcher in this field, E. Moessel, endorsed Zeising’s work by making thorough tests carried 
out  following  his  methods.  From  1945  onwards,  Le  Corbusier  used  for  all  his  projects  the  sectional 
relationships in accordance with the golden section, which he ca!led ‘Le Modulor’  

32 
 
 

The  function  of  housing  is  to  protect  man  against  the  weather  and  to  provide  an  environment  that 
maintains his well‐being. The required inside atmosphere comprises gently moving (i.e. not draughty), 
well oxygenated air, pleasant warmth and air humidity and sufficient light. To provide these conditions, 
important  factors  are  the  location  and  orientation  of  the  housing  in  the  landscape  as  well  as  the 
arrangement of spaces in the house and its type of construction. 

The prime requirements for promoting a lasting feeling of well‐being are an insulated construction, with 
appropriately sized windows placed correctly in relation to the room furnishings, sufficient heating and 
corresponding draught‐free ventilation. 

2.2 Man and colour 
 

Colours have a power over humans. They can create feelings of well‐being, unease, activity or passivity, 
for instance. Colouring in factories, offices or schools can enhance or reduce performance, in hospitals it 
can  have  positive  influence  on  patients’  health.  This  influence  we  indirectly  through  making  rooms 
appear wider or narrow thereby giving an impression of space, which promotes feeling of restriction or 
freedom. It also we directly through the physical reactions or impulses evoked by the individual colours. 
The  strongest  impulses  effect  comes  from  orange;  then  follow  yellow,  red,  green,  and  purple.  The 
weakest impulse effect comes from blue, ( greeny blue and violet (i.e. cold and passive colours). 

Strong impulse colours are suitable only for small area in a room. Conversely, low impulse colours can 
be  used  for  large  areas.  Warm  colours  have  an  active  and  stimulating  effect,  which  in  certain 
circumstances can be exciting. Cold colours have a passive effect — calming and spiritual. Green causes 
nervous tension. The effects produced by colours also depend on brightness and location. 

Warm and bright colours viewed overhead have a spiritually stimulating effect; viewed from the side, a 
warming, drawing closer effect; and, seen below, a lightening, elevating effect. 

Warm  and  dark  colours  viewed  above  are  enclosing  or  dignified;  seen  from  the  side,  embracing  and, 
seen below, suggest safe to grip and to tread on. 

33 
 
Cold  and  bright  colours  above  brighten  things  up  and  are  relaxing;  from  the  side  they  seem  to  lead 
away; and seen below, look smooth and stimulating for walking on. 

Cold  and  dark  colours  are  threatening  when  above;  cold  and  sad  from  The  side;  and  burdensome, 
dragging down, when below. 

White is the colour of total purity, cleanliness and order. White plays a leading role in the colour design 
of  rooms,  breaking  up  and  neutralising  other  groups  of  colours,  and  thereby  create  an  invigorating 
brightness. As the colour of order, white is used as the characteristic surface for warehouses and storage 
places, for road lines and traffic markings. 

2.3 The eye perception  

The activity of the eye is divided into seeing and observing. Seeing first of all serves our physical safety 
but  observing  takes  over  where  seeing  finishes;  it  leads  to  enjoyment  of  the  ‘pictures’  registered 
through  seeing.  One  can  differentiate  between  a  still  and  a  scanned  picture  by  the  way  that  the  eye 
stays  on  an  object  or  scans  along  it.  The  still  picture  is  displayed  in  a  segment  of  the  area  of  a  circle, 
whose  diameter  is  the  same  as  the  distance  of  the  eye  from  the  object.  Inside  this  field  of  view  the 
objects appear to the eye ‘at a glance’. The ideal still picture is displayed in balance. Balance is the first 
characteristic  of  architectural  beauty.  (Physiologists  are  working  on  a  theory  of  the  sixth  sense  —  the 
sense  of  balance  or  static  sense  —  that  underpins  the  sense  of  beauty  we  feel  with  regard  to 
symmetrical, harmonious things and proportions. 

Outside  this  framework,  the  eye  receives  its  impressions  by  scanning  the  picture.  The  scanning  eye 
works forward along the obstacles of resistance which it meets as it directs itself away from us in width 
or depth. Obstacles of the same or recurring distances are detected by the eye as a ‘beat’ or a ‘rhythm’, 
which has the same appeal as the sounds received by the ear from music. ‘Architecture is Frozen Music. 
This effect occurs even when regarding a still or scanned picture of an enclosed area.  

A room whose top demarcation (the ceiling) we recognize in the still picture gives a feeling of security, 
but on the other hand in long rooms it gives a feeling of depression. With a high ceiling, which the eye 
can only recognize at first by scanning, the room appears free and sublime, provided that the distance 
between the walls, and hence the general proportions, are in harmony. Designers must be careful with 
this because the eye is susceptible to optical illusions. It estimates the extent of width more exactly than 

34 
 
depths or heights, the latter always appearing larger. Thus a tower seems much higher when seen from 
above rather than from below p. 24 cj~ and tj~. Vertical edges have the effect of overhanging at the top 
and horizontal ones of curving up in the middle. 

When taking these things into account, the designer should not resort to the other extreme (Baroque) 
and,  for  example,  reinforce  the  effect  of  perspective  by  inclined  windows  and  cornices  (St  Peter’s  in 
Rome) or even by cornices and vaulting painted in perspective and the like. The decisive factor for the 
measurement of size is the size of the field of view and, if applicable, the field of vision and, for the exact 
differentiation of details, the size of the field of reading. The distance of the latter determines the size of 
the details to be differentiated. 

The Greeks complied exactly with this rule. The size of the smallest moulding under the cornice of the 
individual  temples  of  varying  height  is  so  dimensioned  that,  at  an  angular  distance  of  27°,  it  complies 
with the reading field of 0°1’. From this also results the reading distances for books (which varies with 
the size of the letters) and the seating plans for auditoriums etc. 

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 2.4 Dimension relationships 

There have been agreements on the dimensioning of buildings since early times. Essential specific data 
originated in the time of Pythagoras. He started from the basis that the numerical proportions found in 
acoustics must also be optically harmonious. From this, Pythagoras developed his right‐angled triangle. 
It contains all the harmonious interval proportions, but excludes both the disharmonious intervals (i.e. 
the second and seventh). 

Space measurements are supposed to have been derived from these numerical proportions. Pythagoras 
or diophantine equations resulted in groups of numerals that should be used for the width, height and 
length of rooms. These groups can be calculated using the formula 

a2 + b2 = c2. 

a2 + b2 = c2 

a = m(y2 ‐ x2) 

b= m•2•x•y 

c = m (y2 + x2) 

In this x and y are all whole numbers, x is smaller than y, and m is the magnification or reduction factor. 

36 
 
2.5 Dimensions and space requirements 
 

The space requirement can vary with the application, space availability, environment etc. however it is 
playing a vital role in designing. Because the occupations comfort is mainly govern by the satisfaction of 
the minimum space required.  Following figures will illustrate some of the useful mans activities and the 
minimum required space. 

37 
 
 38 
 
  

39 
 
3 Planning of buildings 
3.1 Building  elements  and  materials  (Brief  with  their  structural 
requirements) 
3.1.1 Foundation 
 

The foundation of a house is a somewhat invisible and sometimes ignored component of the building. It 
is  increasingly  evident,  however,  that  attention  to  good  foundation  design  and  construction  has 
significant  benefits  to  the  homeowner  and  the  builder,  and  can  avoid  some  serious  future  problems. 
Good  foundation  design  and  construction  practice  means  not  only  insulating  to  save  energy,  but  also 
providing effective structural design as well as moisture, termite, and radon control techniques where 
appropriate. 

Depending on the load transformation  the foundation can be broadly catagarized in to two catagories. 

They are: 

1. Shallow foundation  
2. Deep foundation 
 

3.1.1.1 Shallow foundations 
 

Shallow  foundations  are  those  founded  near  to  the  finished  ground  surface;  generally  where  the 
founding depth (Df) is less than the width of the footing and less than 3m. These are not strict rules, but 
merely guidelines: basically, if surface loading or other surface conditions will affect the bearing capacity 
of a foundation it is 'shallow'. Shallow foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings') include  

1. pads ('isolated footings'),  
2. strip footings  
3. and rafts. 

  

Shallows foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to support the imposed 
loads; they are generally unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as poorly‐compacted fill, 
peat, recent lacustrine and alluvial deposits, etc. 

40 
 
3.1.1.1.1 Pad foundations 
 

Pad foundations are used to support an individual  point load such as that due to a structural column. 
They may be circular, square or rectangular. They usually consist of a block or slab of uniform thickness, 
but they may be stepped or hunched if they are required to spread the load from a heavy column. Pad 
foundations are usually shallow, but deep pad foundations can also be used. 

3.1.1.1.2 Strip foundations 

41 
 
Strip  foundations  are  used  to  support  a  line  of  loads,  either  due  to  a  load‐bearing  wall,  or  if  a  line  of 
columns need supporting where column positions are so close that individual pad foundations would be 
inappropriate.      

3.1.1.1.3 Raft foundations 
 

Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area, normally the entire area 
of  the  structure.  They  are  used  when  column  loads  or  other  structural  loads  are  close  together  and 
individual pad foundations would interact.  

A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the entire loaded area. It may 
be stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated into the foundation.  

Raft  foundations  have  the  advantage  of  reducing  differential  settlements  as  the  concrete  slab  resists 
differential movements between loading positions. They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low 
bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area. 

3.1.1.2 Deep foundations 
 

Deep  foundations  are  those  founding  too  deeply  below  the  finished  ground  surface  for  their  base 
bearing  capacity  to  be  affected  by  surface  conditions,  this  is  usually  at  depths  >3  m  below  finished 
ground level. They include piles, piers and caissons or compensated foundations using deep basements 
and  also  deep  pad  or  strip  foundations.  Deep  foundations  can  be  used  to  transfer  the  loading  to  a 
deeper, more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.  

Piles  are  relatively  long,  slender  members  that  transmit  foundation  loads  through  soil  strata  of  low 
bearing  capacity  to  deeper  soil  or  rock  strata  having  a  high  bearing  capacity.  They  are  used  when  for 
economic,  constructional  or  soil  condition  considerations  it  is  desirable  to  transmit  loads  to  strata 
beyond  the  practical  reach  of  shallow  foundations.  In  addition  to  supporting  structures,  piles  are  also 
used to anchor structures against uplift forces and to assist structures in resisting lateral and overturning 
forces.  

Piers are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is constructed insitu in a deep 
excavation.  

Caissons are a form of deep foundation which are constructed above ground level, then sunk to the 
required level by excavating or dredging material from within the caisson.  

42 
 
Compensated  foundations  are  deep  foundations  in  which  the  relief  of  stress  due  to  excavation  is 
approximately balanced by the applied stress due to the foundation. The net stress applied is therefore 
very small. A compensated foundation normally comprises a deep basement. 

 Piled foundations can be classified according to : 
the type of pile  
(different structures to be supported, and different ground conditions, require different types of 
resistance) and  
the type of construction  
(different materials, structures and processes can be used). 

3.1.1.2.1 Types of pile 

1. End bearing piles  
2. Friction piles  
3. Settlement reducing piles  
4. Tension piles  
5. Laterally loaded piles  
6. Piles in fill  

Piles are often used because adequate bearing capacity cannot be found at shallow enough depths to 
support the structural loads. It is important to understand that piles get support from both end bearing 
and  skin  friction.  The  proportion  of  carrying  capacity  generated  by  either  end  bearing  or  skin  friction 
depends on the soil conditions. Piles can be used to support various different types of structural loads. 

End bearing piles 

43 
 
End  bearing  piles  are  those  which  terminate  in  hard,  relatively  impenetrable  material  such  as  rock  or 
very  dense  sand  and  gravel.  They  derive  most  of  their  carrying  capacity  from  the  resistance  of  the 
stratum at the toe of the pile. 

Friction piles 

Friction piles obtain a greater part of their carrying capacity by skin friction or adhesion. This tends to 
occur  when  piles  do  not  reach  an  impenetrable  stratum  but  are  driven  for  some  distance  into  a 
penetrable soil. Their carrying capacity is derived partly from end bearing and partly from skin friction 
between the embedded surface of the soil and the surrounding soil. 

44 
 
 Settlement reducing piles 

Settlement reducing piles are usually incorporated beneath the central part of a raft foundation in order 
to reduce differential settlement to an acceptable level. Such piles act to reinforce the soil beneath the 
raft and help to prevent dishing of the raft in the centre. 

Tension piles 
 

Structures  such  as  tall  chimneys,  transmission  towers  and  jetties  can  be  subject  to  large  overturning 
moments and so piles are often used to resist the resulting uplift forces at the foundations. In such cases 
the resulting forces are transmitted to the soil along the embedded length of the pile. The resisting force 
can be increased in the case of bored piles by under‐reaming. In the design of tension piles the effect of 
radial contraction of the pile must be taken into account as this can cause about a 10% ‐ 20% reduction 
in shaft resistance. 

45 
 
 Laterally loaded piles 
 

Almost all piled foundations are subjected to at least some degree of horizontal loading. The magnitude 
of  the  loads  in  relation  to  the  applied  vertical  axial  loading  will  generally  be  small  and  no  additional 
design calculations will normally be necessary. However, in the case of wharves and jetties carrying the 
impact  forces  of  berthing  ships,  piled  foundations  to  bridge  piers,  trestles  to  overhead  cranes,  tall 
chimneys  and  retaining  walls,  the  horizontal  component  is  relatively  large  and  may  prove  critical  in 
design.  Traditionally  piles  have  been  installed  at  an  angle  to  the  vertical  in  such  cases,  providing 
sufficient  horizontal  resistance  by  virtue  of  the  component  of  axial  capacity  of  the  pile  which  acts 
horizontally. However the capacity of a vertical pile to resist loads applied normally to the axis, although 
significantly  smaller  than  the  axial  capacity  of  that  pile,  may  be  sufficient  to  avoid  the  need  for  such 
'raking'  or  'battered'  piles  which  are  more  expensive  to  install.  When  designing  piles  to  take  lateral 
forces it is therefore important to take this into account. 

Piles in fill 

Piles that pass through layers of moderately‐ to poorly‐compacted fill will be affected by negative skin 
friction, which produces a downward drag along the pile shaft and therefore an additional load on the 
pile. This occurs as the fill consolidates under its own weight. 

  

3.1.1.2.2 Factors influencing choice of pile 

1. Location and type of structure  
2. Ground conditions  
3. Durability  

46 
 
 4. Cost  

There  are  many  factors  that  can  affect  the  choice  of  a  piled  foundation.  All  factors  need  to  be 
considered and their relative importance taken into account before reaching a final decision. 

Location and type of structure 
 

For structures over water, such as wharves and jetties, driven piles or driven cast‐in‐place piles (in which 
the shell remains in place) are the most suitable. On land the choice is not so straight forward. Driven 
cast‐in‐place  types  are  usually  the  cheapest  for  moderate  loadings.  However,  it  is  often  necessary  for 
piles  to  be  installed  without  causing  any  significant  ground  heave  or  vibrations  because  of  their 
proximity  to  existing  structures.  In  such  cases,  the  bored  cast‐in‐place  pile  is  the  most  suitable.  For 
heavy  structures  exerting  large  foundation  loads,  large‐diameter  bored  piles  are  usually  the  most 
economical. Jacked piles are suitable for underpinning existing structures. 

 Ground conditions 
 

Driven piles cannot be used economically in ground containing boulders, or in clays when ground heave 
would  be  detrimental.  Similarly,  bored  piles  would  not  be  suitable  in  loose  water‐bearing  sand,  and 
under‐reamed bases cannot be used in cohesionless soils since they are susceptible to collapse before 
the concrete can be placed. 

 Durability 
 

This  tends  to  affect  the  choice  of  material.  For  example,  concrete  piles  are  usually  used  in  marine 
conditions  since  steel  piles  are  susceptible  to  corrosion  in  such  conditions  and  timber  piles  can  be 
attacked by boring molluscs. However, on land, concrete piles are not always the best choice, especially 
where the soil contains sulphates or other harmful substances. 

 Cost 
 

In coming to the final decision over the choice of pile, cost has considerable importance. The overall cost 
of  installing  piles  includes  the  actual  cost  of  the  material,  the  times  required  for  piling  in  the 

47 
 
construction plan, test loading, the cost of the engineer to oversee installation and loading and the cost 
of  organisation  and  overheads  incurred  between  the  time  of  initial  site  clearance  and  the  time  when 
construction of the superstructure can proceed. 

3.1.1.2.3 Pile groups 
 

Piles are more usually installed in groups, rather than as single piles. A pile group must be considered as 
a composite block of piles and soil, and not a multiple set of single piles. The capacity of each pile may 
be  affected  by  the  driving  of  subsequent  piles  in  close  proximity.  Compaction  of  the  soil  between 
adjacent piles is likely to lead to higher contact stresses and thus higher shaft capacities for those piles. 
The  ultimate  capacity  of  a  pile  group  is  not  always  dependent  on  the  individual  capacity  of  each  pile. 
When analyzing the capacity of a pile group 3 modes of failure must be considered.  

1.  Single pile failure  
2.  Failure of rows of piles  
3.  Block failure 

  
The  methods  of  insertion,  ground  conditions,  the  geometry  of  the  pile  group  and  how  the  group  is 
capped all effect how any pile group will behave. If the group should fail as a block, full shaft friction will 
only be mobilized around the perimeter of the block and so any increase in shaft capacity of individual 
piles is irrelevant. The area of the whole base of the block must be used in calculating the end bearing 
capacity  and  not  just  the  base  areas  of  the  individual  piles  in  the  group.  Such  block  failure  is  likely  to 
occur if piles are closely spaced or if a ground‐contacting pile cap is used. Failure of rows of piles is likely 
to occur where pile spacing in one direction is much greater than in the perpendicular direction. 

3.1.2 Walls 
 

Walls, with a wall history dating back thousands of years and having a multitude of designs and forms, 
are one of the most basic components of construction. In terms of construction applications, walls can 
have two main purposes: to act as a support for a structure and to divide or enclose an area. This article 
deals  primarily  with  the  latter:  walls  that  are  typically  detached  from  other  structures  and  serve  as  a 

48 
 
barrier to divide and enclose areas.  A wall can be constructed from a variety of different materials while 
employing numerous techniques, some of which are discussed in the Wall Construction Methods section 
below. At the end, modern day wall applications and uses are described. 

Walls, including the Great Wall of China, the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem, or the Berlin Wall, have been an 
integral part  every society in written history. In fact, one of the oldest walls still standing  today is the 
Great Wall of China, which began construction as early as 300 BC. 

Walls  originally  kept  in  animals  and  other  belongings  and  kept  out  enemies.  Early  cities  used  various 
types  of  wall  as  a  necessity  to  defend  from  attacks.  Later,  walls  served  as  decorative  fence  barriers 
dividing land and marking property. This is seen today in residential areas where yards and properties 
are adjacent and privacy is desired, or to act as retaining walls. 

Early  walls  were  made  from  dry  stone  construction,  also  called  stone  fences  or  dykes.  This  simple 
construction  method  was  being  used  in  parts  of  Africa  and  South  America  as  early  as  1300  BC;  today 
examples of this type of mortar‐less wall can still be seen in the United Kingdom and the United States. 

The use of mortar in wall construction was first developed by the Chinese and later popularized by the 
Romans. A wall that is built with  mortar is much stronger and durable than its dry stone  counterpart. 
With  the  introduction  of  mortar,  brick,  block  and  other  types  of  earth  became  more  popular  in  wall 
construction. 

A  more  recent  development  in  wall  construction  is  the  use  of  concrete  and  precast  concrete  in  the 
building of walls. A concrete wall can be poured in place; in this process, a cement fence form is brought 
to the site, and the concrete is poured directly where it will stand. Precast concrete walls are similar but 
can be cast in a molding facility and later shipped and lifted into place. 

The wall is expanding in its types of applications. Walls can be used in the classic defense barriers or land 
markers  as  well  as  for  sound  and  wind  barriers,  artful  decorations  and  a  wide  variety  of  other  uses. 
Walls are as staple a construction today as they have been for thousands of years. 

3.1.2.1 Brick Walls  
 

Aside from its stylish appearance, a brick wall has many functional characteristics… 

49 
 
 • Security brick wall against intruders 
• Blocks noise from busy streets 
• Provides a property boundary wall  
• Increases security  
• Stylish privacy wall 
• Contributes to landscaping themes 
• Allows creativity in design 
• Creates a wall enclosure for family and pets 

A  brick  wall  endures  for  generations  with  style  and  class  that  most  other  materials  can’t  match.  Brick 
walls  continue  to  be  very  popular,  adding  value  and  prestige  to  homes,  offices  and  other  buildings. 
As with any building material, there are considerations and choices available. Since brick is made from 
porous  clay  material  it  is  susceptible  to  absorbing  water,  which  can  cause  damage  from  freezing 
temperatures,  erosion,  and  weathering.  To  overcome  these  weaknesses,  brick  walls  have  been 
produced  using  concrete  bricks,  a  very  popular  choice.  Concrete  brick  walls  eliminate  some  of  the 
shortcomings  of  clay  brick  walls,  but  the  majority  of  weaknesses  are  still  inherent  with  the  concrete 
brick wall. 

3.1.2.2 Concrete Block Walls 
 

Split  Face  Concrete  Block  Wall  Panels  have  served  well  in  the  past  for  a  variety  of  applications  where 
high  durability  and  efficiency  are  key  issues.  Besides  its  popularity  for  commercial  and  industrial 
buildings,  it  has  been  used  extensively  for  all  kinds  of  walls,  including  boundary  walls,  sound  barriers, 
retaining  walls,  privacy  walls  and  security  walls,  to  name  a  few.  Concrete  block  is  a  great  building 
material and has earned its reputation for having… 

• Durability  
• Good engineering qualities 
• Ability to withstand the elements of the environment 
• Simple technology 
• Adaptable to receive applied finishes 
• Excellent sound barrier qualities 
• Capability of building various heights 
• Availability universal 
• Easily transportable distribution 

50 
 
3.1.3 R
Roof/ Slabs 
 

51 
 
  

3.1.3.1 Clay T
Tile  
 
Clay tile iss most often tthought of in the tradition
nal "S" or "Spanish" tile loo
ok but clay caan now be maade in 
several  otther  patternss  as  well.  Tile  is  a  very  resilient 
r mateerial  and  is  able 
a to  withsstand  some  of 
o the 
harshest eelements succh as hail, win
nd, and fire.  The one draw
wback to tiles is their weiight; they aree very 
heavy, and require cerrtain structural standards for the framee and deckingg of the roof. They have a great 
life expectancy, with a minimum du
uration of 40 to 50 years. TTiles may neeed to be pred
drilled and nailed if 
h roof, or eveen supported
you have  a steep pitch d by metal brrackets, all off which could
d increase thee cost 
d with this tyype of roofingg system. Tilee roofs offer o
associated one of the longest warran
nties in the ro
oofing 
industry.  Most  tile  maanufacturers  (both  clay  an
nd  concrete)  will  offer  a  minimum  of  a  50  year  lim
mited 
warranty on their prod
ducts. 

   
3.1.3.2 Concrrete Tile  
 

Concrete  tile  has  esse o the  upsidees  of  clay  tilee  but  with  the  added  ad
entially  all  of  dvantage  of  being 
available in an even grreater numbeer of styles including tradittional clay, slate, and even
n wood shakee! It is 
ideal for ccommunities with appearaance codes beecause it has such a wide rrange of appeearance optio
ons.  

 
 

52 
 
Advantages 
1. Long life  
2. Long warranty  
3. Strong material  
4. Available in a variety of shapes and colors  
5. Environmentally Friendly  

Disadvantages 

1. Material expense  
2. A heavy material, which will not work on all roofs  

3.1.3.3 Metal roofing 

  
Metal roofs are great for any type of roof and are ideal in forested, moss prone, or heavy precipitation 
areas. Typically made up of steel, alumninum or copper, metal roofs offer some of the best protection 
for your home. They withstand high winds, shed snow and rain very effectively and are fire resisitant. 
Some people fear that hail may put dents in a metal roof, but many roof metal materials guarantee no 
denting. Another concern is that lightning may be attracted to a metal roof, and is more likely to strike 
the house but this is unfounded.  
Metal  roofs  are  very  lightweight,  weighing  about  one  quarter  as  much  as  tile  roofs  and  nearly  half  as 
much as asphalt shingles. Metal roofing is generally more expensive than asphalt roofing, but cheaper 
than  tile  or  slate  roofing.  It  has  a  long  life  and  can  even  lower  heating  and  cooling  costs  because  it 
reflects heat from the sun. If properly installed a metal roof will usually last as long as the house with 
manufacturer warranties often lasting 50 years. Although metal roofs can be walked on, care should be 
taken when walking on a roof with deep shake and tile profiles, to prevent damage to the contour of the 
ridges. 
Metal roofs vary in color, style, and texture more than any other roofing material. They can be made to 
look like wood shakes, standard shingles, or even tile but without the extra weight. Many styles come in 
sheets  which  are  quickly  and  easily  installed  while  metal  shingles  will  require  additional  time  and 
expense because of individual placement and nailing. Recycled metal roofing can also be purchased, as 
an environmentally safe option for your home.  
 
Advantages 
1. Long life  
2. Long warranty  
3. Good weather resistence  

53 
 
 4. Available in a variety of shapes and colors  
5. Enviornmentally Friendly  
 
Disadvantages 
 
1. Material expense  
 

3.2 Green Roofing Systems 
 

A green roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with vegetation and a growing 
medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane. It may also include additional layers such as a root 
barrier  and  drainage  and  irrigation  systems.  (The  use  of  “green”  refers  to  the  growing  trend  of 
environmentally friendly and does not refer to roofs which are merely colored green, as with green roof 
tiles or roof shingles.) 
Container  gardens  on  roofs,  where  plants  are  maintained  in  pots,  are  not  generally  considered  to  be 
true  green  roofs,  although  this  is  an  area  of  debate.  Rooftop  ponds  are  another  form  of  green  roofs 
which are used to treat grey water. 
Also  known  as  “living  roofs”,  green  roofs  serve  several  purposes  for  a  building,  such  as  absorbing 
rainwater,  providing  insulation,  creating  a  habitat  for  wildlife,  and  helping  to  lower  urban  air 
temperatures  and  combat  the  heat  island  effect.  There  are  two  types  of  green  roofs:  intensive  roofs, 
which  are  thicker  and  can  support  a  wider  variety  of  plants  but  are  heavier  and  require  more 
maintenance, and extensive roofs, which are covered in a light layer of vegetation and are lighter than 
an intensive green roof. 

     

54 
 
                                   

Taking  the  place  of  the  usual  shingles,  tiles,  metals,  and  membranes,  the  green  roof  is  on  the  rise  in 
popularity,  as  it  proves  to  be  an  energy  efficient,  earth  friendly  alternative.  The  green  roof  covers 
traditional  roofing  materials  with  vegetation  that  provides  many  benefits  to  the  structure  and  the 
environment. A green roof has a number of layers including a soil layer, as well as layers for drainage 
and  waterproofing  with  the  vegetation  layer  topping  them  all.  Though  it  varies  between  green  roof 
systems, the roof may even have an irrigation system installed for upkeep of the plants.  However the 
plants typically used on these roof systems do not require much watering, since the installed plants are 
generally found in drought prone areas.  
Green roofs are not only on the rise here in the United States , but are quite popular in different parts of 
Europe . In fact, Germany is considered to be at the top of green roof research and development partly 
due to the German public feeling a responsibility to use as little energy as possible. Even in Sri Lanka it is 
gaining the popularity. 
Irrigation systems aren't necessary under most circumstances, but there are the few exceptions. When 
installing an irrigation system for your green roof, do not use surface watering systems such as a drip or 
spray system. You should install a system that delivers the water deep underneath the vegetation and 
straight to the roots. A drip system wastes water through evaporation, losing much of the needed water 
before it can get to the plant roots.  
Green roofs come in two different types:  
• Extensive  
• Intensive. 
 
First, the extensive green roof, also referred to as an eco‐roof , has fewer and thinner layers, making it 
much lighter. The lighter roof requires less additional bracing and support for the structure, thus making 
the extensive roof cheaper. Since they have less soil medium, extensive roofs ' plant selection is limited 
to mosses, succulents and grasses—all low growing plants. These plants grow from 16 to 24 inches tall, 
creating a low profile roof. The extensive green roof is very low maintenance since most of the plants 
are drought tolerant.  
The  intensive  green  roof  isn't  as  limited  to  the  variety  of  plants  because  the  soil  medium  depth  is 
increased greatly. Therefore, an intensive roof will be much heavier, and may require additional bracing 
and  support.  The  increased  soil  allows  for  taller  plants  that  may  require  more  maintenance.  It  is  also 
possible  to  find  waterfalls,  gazebos,  and  other  small  structures  atop  an  intensive  green  roof.  Though 

55 
 
intensive green roofs require additional maintenance and materials, they also provide the opportunity 
for an outdoor area that can be used recreationally or to grow food.  
There are a number of advantages to having a green roof: 
A  green  roof  reduces  a  lot  of  heat  from  the  roofs  surface,  thus  saving  on  air  conditioning  and  energy 
costs  for  the  building.  This  is  especially  good  in  urban  areas  with  large  buildings  because  many 
structures  create  what  is  called  a  heat  island  affect,  making  the  inner  city  substantially  hotter  than 
surrounding areas.  
A green roof works as a good sound insulator, reducing the noise inside a building by up to 10 decibels.  
A  green  roof  shields  the  roof  membrane  layer  from  absorbing  heat  from  the  sun,  thus  making  the 
membrane last longer. Green roofs also retain water well, creating less storm water drainage, and run 
off from the building.  
Green roofs reduce the amount of pollutants that run off with rainwater from buildings. The Green roof 
retains much of the water in the soil and the plants will actually absorb some of the pollutants, purifying 
the water before it leaves the building.  
Green roofs also act as a natural air filter. The vegetation will absorb various airborne toxins, purifying 
the air. 
Intensive  green  roofs  provide  garden  and  yard  space  in  tight  living  conditions,  such  as  apartment 
buildings.  
 

3.2.1 Stair cases 
 
The idea of making something of a staircase in the home is one that surprises many people; indeed, a lot 
of people we speak to daily never appreciated the range of different options that are available. Yet the 
stairs in a home are one of the first things people notice, and making the right impression can be crucial 
to the overall look of a property. 
When  looking  to  purchase  a  feature  staircase,  the  two  most  important  things  to  have  are  some  basic 
measurements (which tend to be the same ones for any design of staircase) and the sort of materials or 
"look" you wish to incorporate into the stair. For the vast majority of the stairs we look at, a rough floor 
to floor height, and the dimensions of the opening in the ceiling are all that are required for an accurate 
estimate to be provided, and are easily measured in a matter of moments. 
The two main design categories tend to be the more traditional timber staircases (perhaps in an Oak), 
and the more contemporary designs with steel supports or glass infill panels.  

56 
 
                   

       

57 
 
In  Sri  Lanka,  concrete  can  be  identified  as  the  most  common  construction  material  for  stair  cases. 
However, it is so many disadvantages with compared to other materials.  

• Heavy structures and hence need strong supporting elements. 
• High cost.  
• Take more time to construct. 
• Needs a supporting structure while constructing. 
• Difficulty in maintain good dimension accuracy while constructing. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  common  types  of  materials  used  for  staircases  is  wood.  Since  the  early 
periods, especially in medieval times, wooden staircases had been used by people. Castles made use of 
movable  wooden  staircases.  Although  these  were  very  functional  and  flexible,  because  they  can  be 
transferred  from  one  place  to  another,  they  do  not  last  for  very  long,  since  the  wood  rots  quickly 
because of the changing weather.  

Today, wood is still a common staircase material, although the quality has greatly improved with time. 
Wooden staircases are usually made from strong hardwoods, such as oak and pine. Machines are used 
to  refine  this  wood,  as  well  as  give  them  protective  weather‐resistant  coatings  to  protect  them  from 
being  destroyed  easily.  Wooden  staircases  are  still  among  the  most  widely  used  staircase  material, 
because of their classic appeal and elegant look. Most homes use wooden staircases.  

Iron  is  also  a  common  material  for  staircases.  Iron  is  a  sturdy  material,  and  usually  requires  less 
maintenance  than  the  other  types  of  staircases.  Although  many  iron  staircases  are  seen  inside 
structures, iron staircases are more recommended for outside use. They are very durable, and can last 
for years to come. 

Other staircase materials commonly used today are glass and aluminum. Aluminum is a sturdy type of 
steel  which  is  seen  in  most  modernized  homes.  As  for  glass,  they  are  more  often  seen  as  staircase 
railings rather than used for the steps itself. 

In choosing staircase materials, it is always better to consider not only its design, but also its durability. 
Pick  a  staircase  material  that  will  be  appropriate  for  your  place  and  that  you  can  use  to  its  full 
advantage.  

Widths: Stair & Landing Units 800mm ‐ 3000mm (Separate or attached, as required) 

Rise (Step Height): 150mm ‐ 220mm, depending on floor levels and the Technical Building Regulations. 

Going  (Step  Span):  220mm  ‐  300mm,  depending  on  floor  stair  openings  and  the  Technical  Building 
Regulations. 

Waist (Thickness): 150mm ‐ 225mm, depending on span and design characteristics. 

58 
 
3.2.2 Doors and Windows 
 

Windows  and  doors  are  the  most  complex  elements  of  the  building's  exterior.  Hence,  that  has  to  be 
design and build with high attention. Selecting a type, shape, material and a size will be mainly governed 
by the followings: 

• Environment 
• Internal area, which served 
• Building dimensions 
• Climate 
• Ease of operation 
• Insulating effects 
• Maintenance properties 
• Price 
• Safety factor 
• Ease of Cleaning 
• Style and overall fit 

When it comes to choosing the right doors and windows for your home, you may find that you are spoilt 
for choice. There are so many different types of doors and windows to choose from! There are several 
factors to consider when buying windows and doors. 

3.2.2.1 Doors 

Doors  are  a  little  different  from  windows  because  you  don't  have  to  consider  glass  panes.  All  what  is 
needed to know is the type of materials that it  will be made of, and the designs that appeals. However, 
getting more light is important, then  French doors can be considered installing. 

 
59 
 
Doors can be made from different materials. The type of materials that choose will affect the price of 
the  doors.  Doors  can  be made  from  wood  such  as  teak,  mahogany,  jack  wood,  and  others.  Doors  can 
also be made from UPVC, which is a special plastic material that is very commonly used in the chemical 
industry. 

UPVC  is  a  type  of  hard  plastic.  It's  known  to  be  very  durable.  Unlike  wood,  it  is  not  prone  to  flaking, 
rusting or rotting. Both UPVC doors and windows are available. 

Once  you  have  decided  on  the  materials  that  you  would  like  to  use  for  your  doors  and  windows,  you 
should decide on the design. The design that you choose for your doors and windows should depend on 
your overall theme. For example, if you have a holiday resort theme, and all your furniture is made of 
wood, you may want to choose wood as your primary material for your windows and doors as well. 

3.2.2.2 Awnings 

A  wing  is  a  structural  adaptation  to  prevent  entering  unnecessary  direct  solar  radiation  in  to  the 
building.  In  tropical  climatic  conditions  preventing  direct  solar  radiation  entering  in  to  the  building  is 
very  impotent,  because  it  can  improve  the  thermal  comfort  inside.  Especially  when  the  windows  are 
close, the entered direct solar radiations will remain inside and create the green house effect. 

The  location  of  an  awning  on  a  building  may  be  above  a  window,  a  door,  or  above  the  area  along  a 
sidewalk.  With  the  addition  of  columns  an  awning  becomes  a  canopy,  which  is  able  to  extend  further 
from a building, as in the case of an entrance to a hotel. 

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3.2.2.3 Windows 

Today, there are 11 basic window types to choose from, below is a brief description of each type. 

3.2.2.3.1 Casement Windows 
 

The most common used windows today.  

Operates like a hinged door, except that it 

opens and closes with a lever inside the 

window. They can be opened completely to 

allow 100% air flow to come in.  

3.2.2.3.2 Double and Single Hung Windows 
 

It  has  panes  that  slide  up  and  down  in  tracks 

called  stiles.  When  open,  these  windows  allow  air 

flow  through  half  of  its  size.  In  single‐hung 

windows the top sash is fixed and can’t be moved.  

3.2.2.3.3 Awning and Hopper Windows 
 

Similar in look to the Casement 

Windows, yet they tilt to open instead of 

slide (awning tilts inwards and Hopper 

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tilts outwards). Both types allow air flow almost through their full size. 

H o riz o nta l S l idi ng Wi nd ows

These are actually Double‐Hung or Single‐Hung 

windows laid on their sides. Allow air flow through 

half of their size.  

F ixed Win d ow

Can’t be opened or closed and are installed directly into a wall. 

Gla s s Bl oc k Wi nd ows

Same as fixed windows, but installed like concrete blocks. Allow for privacy.

Bay Windows

Wide and decoratively impressive allow for 

180° view. Consists of three adjacent 

windows or sections of windows in a series.  

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B ow Wi n d ow s

Similar to the Bay window, but is gently 

curved rather than angled.  The curved 

shape is created by a series of narrow 

sashes.  

J a l ou si e W i nd ows

Composed from a set of narrow horizontal panes of glass 

slats that open upward with a crank. Allow 100% of available 

ventilation. k

S kyl ig ht an d R oof Win d ows

Admit natural light and help distribute light more

evenly throughout the room. Considered an

energy saver feature. Comes in many shapes and

sizes.

3.2.3 Finishes 
 

The final step in the completion of a wall surface is to add the interior wall finish. There are
so many options to choose from-how do you make up your mind?  

If you want to be happy with the end results of your hard work, you need to have a good
starting point and then stick within your established budget.

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Now, to get started off on the right foot, let's...

...get out your scrapbook and pull out all your favorite rooms. Then on paper, list your likes
and your dislikes for each room. Following are some questions that may help to get you
started:

What type of interior wall finish does the room have?

What is it that you like about the color?

How does the room make you feel?

Does the room invite you to come in, or does it push you away?

What type of material does the wall surface have? Is it smooth or textured, real or
faux?

A number of different materials can be used to finish off your walls. If you are looking for
that professional decorator look hang on-there is a great deal of fun to be had. Your options
are only as limited as your imagination.

If you think a particular look is far too expensive to achieve-stop worrying right now. If your
budget doesn't allow for the "Real McCoy", it is chic to go with the ever so popular faux
paint technique or plastered wall effect.

Following are several choices to consider for your interior wall finish, but don't stop here-
you may have a few ideas of your own:

Brick or Stone-Solid or veneers, both make a beautiful interior wall finish,

but will need to be installed properly to last. Check with the manufacturer for
proper installation and structural reinforcement requirements. Once it's up,
you won't need to apply a wall finish-you're done.

Paint-is available in all types of colors and it even comes textured. There two
basic types of paints for your interior wall finish: oil based and water based.

Water based paint is usually less toxic and cleans up much easier.
You can choose between flat, eggshell, satin, semi-gloss and gloss
finishes. The glossier finishes wash and wear better than a flat paint,

64 
 
 but you will end up with a shinier wall. The eggshell finish has almost
no sheen and washes much better than a flat paint.

Oil based paint, especially on trim, will usually wear longer and wash
better than water based paints.

Color-speaks volumes about a room. Where specific colors can make

you feel calm, energetic, or nervous. The perfect colors and tones for
your home should be researched wisely in order for your rooms to
reflect the feelings you want them to.

False Finish-a French term meaning a false finish. This finish can be
made to look like brick, stone, marble, granite, wood grain, leather,
crackled paint, rusted iron, or verdigris and much more.

Trompe L'Oeil (sounds like tromp-louee) -meaning "trick the eye"

in French, is a painting technique that depicts actual objects to look as
if they are real. This technique utilizes principles of light and shadow to
make the subject look three dimensional.

Texturing Compound-is manufactured by many different companies.

However, there are specific types for different applications. If you are going to
add texture to your walls, then you need to make sure that it is compatible
with the surface material you are applying it to.

Wall texturing is fun and the interior wall finish results can be quite
astonishing. There are endless design patterns that can be created. In
addition, you can add other materials such as: color tinting, glazes, and
objects to the compound to make your walls truly unique.

Straw Thrown Plaster-is very popular in French Country walls. All

you do is trowel on wet plaster to your walls and literally throw a hand
full of straw onto the wet plaster. Lightly tamper the straw so that it
embeds into the plaster with a clean trowel. Once it's dried apply
either one or two coats of an aged yellow tinted glaze to age and seal
the wall at the same time.

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 Sand, Pebbles, Glass, Artifacts-to give an artistic quality to your
interior wall finish. Get creative and be artistic! One of a kind walls can
be created by just using your imagination. But, before you attempt it-
take a piece of scrap gypsum board and practice, practice, practice to
come up with the look that is uniquely yours.

Pigment-If you are looking for a true Old World textured wall, an easy
way to achieve it is to add pigmentation to your compound. Once it's
put on the wall with a trowel and let dry, either a glaze, or a wax is
used to seal and age the wall.

Tile-comes in either porcelain, ceramic, terra-cotta, metals, glass, and

natural stones, marble, or granite. There is just about as wide of price range
for tiles as there is different designs available on the market. If you can't find
what you are looking for you can have your own designs custom made, or
even make them yourself via a ceramic or pottery shop.

Wood-composed of either solid wood, plywood or veneers. It can be

purchased in board dimensions, flat or raised panels, shingles, or in large
sheets. It is "WISE" to remember that if you are wanting to install any type of
wood product over a combustible wall system that an approved fire stop is
used between the wall structure and the wood surface for additional fire
protection.

   

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4 Building regulations 
4.1 Introduction to international building regulations  

A building code is a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable level of safety for
constructed objects such as buildings. The International Building Code (IBC) is a model
building code developed by the International Code Council (ICC). A model building code has
no legal status until it is adopted or adapted by government regulation. The IBC provides
minimum standards to insure the public safety, health and welfare insofar as they are
affected by building construction and to secure safety to life and property from all hazards
incident to the occupancy of buildings, structures or premises.

Before the creation of the International Building Code there were several different building
codes used, depending on where one decided to construct a building. The IBC was
developed to consolidate existing building codes into one uniform code that could be used
nationally and internationally to construct buildings. The purpose of the IBC is to protect
public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction of buildings.
Therefore, it is used to regulate building construction through use of standards and is a
reference for architects and engineers to use when designing buildings or building systems.

4.1.1 History 

The first building codes can be traced back to early 1800 BC. The Babylonian emperor
Hammurabi enforced what was known as the Code of Hammurabi. This code was very strict
and stated that, “If a builder build a house for someone, and does not construct it properly,
and the house which he built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to
death.” Building codes have evolved over time to protect the safety of building occupants
without the threat of death.

Building codes were first seen in the United States in the early 1700’s AD. George
Washington and Thomas Jefferson encouraged the development of building regulations to
provide minimum standards to ensure health and safety of our citizens. In the early 1900’s
insurance companies lobbied for further development of building codes to reduce properly
loss payouts caused by inadequate construction standards and improperly built structures.
During this time period, local code enforcement officials developed most of the building
codes with the assistance of the building industry.

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In 1915, the Building Officials and Code Administration (BOCA) was established. This
organization developed what is now known as the BOCA National Building Code
(BOCA/NBC), which is/was mainly used in the Northeastern United States.

In 1927, the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO) was established. This
organization developed what is now known as the Uniform Building Code (UBC), which
is/was mainly used in the Midwest and Western United States.

In 1940, the Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI) was founded. This
organization developed what is now known as the Standard Building Code (SBC), which
is/was mainly used in the Southern United States.

Over the years each of these codes (BOCA/NBC, UBC, & SBC) were revised and updated.
Many of the codes were duplications of one another or very similar in nature. In order to
avoid duplication and to consolidate the development process BOCA, ICBO, and SBCCI
formed the International Code Council (ICC). The purpose of the ICC was to develop codes
without regional limitations. In 1994 they began to develop what would become the
International Building Code (IBC).

In 1997, the first edition of the IBC was published. There were still many flaws and it was
not widely accepted. In 2000, the first comprehensive and coordinated set of the IBC was
published. All three organizations (BOCA, ICBO, & SBCCI) agreed to adopt the IBC and
cease development of their respective individual codes. The IBC supercedes the BOCA/NBC,
UBC, & SBC codes and states & local governments began to adopt the new consolidated
code.

4.1.2 Structure 

The International Building Code is arranged in a systematic manner for easy reference. It
incorporates all aspects of building construction. It is made up of thirty-five (35) chapters
and several appendices. The chapters in the IBC are as follows:

1) Administration 19) Concrete

2) Definitions 20) Aluminum

3) Use and Occupancy Classification 21) Masonry

4) Special Detailed Requirements Based on Use and Occupancy

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 22) Steel

5) General Building Heights and Areas 23) Wood

6) Types of Construction 24) Glass and Glazing

7) Fire-Resistant-Rated Construction 25) Gypsum Board and Plaster

8) Interior Finishes 26) Plastic

9) Fire Protection Systems 27) Electrical

10) Means of Egress 28) Mechanical Systems

11) Accessibility 29) Plumbing Systems

12) Interior Environment 30) Elevators and Conveying Systems

13) Energy Efficiency 31) Special Construction

14) Exterior Walls 32) Encroachments into the Public Right-of-

15) Roof Assemblies and Rooftop Structures Way

16) Structural Design 33) Safeguards During Construction

17) Structural Tests and Special Inspections

34) Existing Structures

18) Soils and Foundations 35) Referenced Codes

Each chapter is broken down into sections and each section into sub-sections. Each section
describes performance criteria to be met or references other sections of the IBC or other
standards such as ANSI, ASTM, etc. The following is an excerpt from Chapter 7 of IBC 2000.

4.1.3 General

Each portion of a building separated by one or more fire walls that comply with the
provisions of this section shall be considered a separate building. The extent and location of
such fire walls shall provide a complete separation. Where a fire wall also separates groups
that are required to be separated by a fire barrier wall, the most restrictive requirements of
each separation shall apply. Fire walls located on property lines shall also comply with
Section 503.2. Such fire walls (party walls) shall be constructed without openings.

69 
 
As excerpt indicates, the code structure states regulation in terms of measured performance
rather than in rigid specification of materials. This allows for the acceptance of new
materials and construction methods without revising the code.

4.1.4 Development 

There are five subcommittees of the International Code Council (ICC) that developed and
update the International Building Code (IBC). The Steering and Performance committees of
the ICC oversee each of these subcommittees. The committees consisted of code officials
(BOCA, ICBO, SBCCI), design professionals, trade professionals, builders and contractors,
manufacturers and suppliers, and government agencies.

The General Subcommittee is responsible for development and updating of chapters

1,2,5,6,12,13 and 26-34. The Structural Subcommittee is responsible for development and
updating of chapters 16-25. The Fire Safety Subcommittee is responsible for development
and updating of chapters 7-9,14, and 15. The Means of Egress Subcommittee is responsible
for development and updating of chapters 10 and 11. The Occupancy Subcommittee is
responsible for development and updating of chapters 3 and 4.

The development of the IBC typically runs in eighteen-month (18) cycles. The first step is
accepting applications for code committees and code change proposals. The next step is to
publish the proposed changes. The third step is to hold public hearings on the proposed
changes. Next the minutes from the hearing are published. The following step is to collect
public comments. The fifth step is to publish the public comments. Next the final public
hearing is held. After the final public hearing the annual ICC meeting is held. Finally the
revised or new code is published. Below is an example code development schedule from the
ICC.

New editions of the IBC are published every three (3) years. Amendments to the 2000
edition were issued in 2003 and 2006. In between edition revisions, intervening
supplements are published. The last supplement was issued in 2004. The amendments are
issued to incorporate approved changes, lessons learned and new technology. All the
changes in the new editions are indicated by markings in the margins.

4.1.5 Use in Government Regulation 

The Constitution of the United States of America grants states jurisdiction over regulation of
building construction. The International Building Code (IBC) is designed to be adopted by

70 
 
reference by ordinance. Forty-seven (47) states including Washington, DC, the U.S
Department of Defense, and the National Park Service have adopted the IBC or parts of it
into government regulation. Local building code officials mainly regulate the enforcement of
the IBC.

One or more International Codes currently enforced statewide

One or more International Codes enforced within state at local level

One or more International Code adopted statewide with future enforcement date

Several states including Arkansas, California, Georgia, and Florida have amended versions
of the IBC and incorporated the amendments into their building codes. California has yet to
adopt the IBC due to disputes between the ICC and National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA).
The NFPA has developed its own code NFPA 5000 to offer the industry an ANSI-accredited,
consensus-based alternative to the IBC. It is expected that within the next five years all
states will incorporate some form of the IBC.

4.2 Introduction to local building regulations 
 

The Sri Lankan planning and building regulations have been formulated to address the
development issues that have emerged in the recent past due to rapid growth of the

71 
 
economy. The impact of this growth has been strongly felt in the City of Colombo and its
immediate environs.

In 1985, a development plan was prepared for the city of Colombo. However, its focus
largely centered on physical development, and it paid no explicit attention to economic,
environmental or other issues that were equally important in developing a comprehensive
plan. As a result, the city of Colombo began to experience a multitude of problems. Some of
these are related to inadequate infrastructure facilities; others to pollution, traffic
congestion, urban environment, urban sprawl and inappropriate distribution of land in the
city. Also it is envisaged that 50% of the city population are living in low income settlements
consuming 11% of the city land.

As the planning issues in the city are complex, a comprehensive planning approach is
essential, integrating all urban issues that are currently seen as well as those that are likely
to emerge in the future. Such an approach is needed to prepare the city of Colombo to face
the challenges in the next century.

The Development Plan has been developed to address these needs and to ensure a viable
economy, supported by a more conducive and aesthetically friendly environment and much-
improved quality of life in the 21st century.

It is felt that the existing area of the Colombo City alone is inadequate to cope up with the
functional & spatial requirements to facilitate the needs to meet the challenges of the 21st
century as a modern Capital City. Considering this an area was demarcated by including
surrounding local authorities to form as one planning unit along with the city to function as
the Core Area for Sri Lanka. The Core Area has been approved by the Cabinet of Ministers in
July 1998 as the Capital Territory of the Country.

72 
 
  
 

4.3 Part I ­ Submission of Plans for Approval of Land Sub­Divisions and 
Buildings 
4.3.1 Submission of plans 

4.3.1.1 Citation and Commencement
These Regulations may be cited as the Planning and Building Regulations 1999 approved
under section 8F of Urban Development Authority Law and shall come into operation on
the 29th day of July, 1999.

73 
 
4.3.1.2 Submission of Plan for approval  
 

Every application under Section 8J of the Law for a development permit to engage in any
development activity shall be made to the Authority in the relevant form accompanied by
the fees specified in "Schedule I".

(1) Every plan submitted under section 8J of the Law shall-

(a) be signed by the owner of the site or premises;

(b) be submitted in 5 copies ;
(c) be prepared and signed by a qualified person in accordance with these
Regulations except a plan-

(i)to carry out minor addition or alteration to a building which does not affect
any structural part thereof ;

(ii)for the construction of a single or two storey building with a total floor area
not more than 280 square meters, (3000 square feet) and whose walls or
columns are not situated on the boundary of the property and the construction
does not involve pile or raft foundation;

(d) be prepared on standard metric size sheets of the international A series;

(e) be signed by the owner of the building or premises or proposed building in

respect of which the plans are submitted by applicant and bear the owners or
applicant's name and address,

(f) be accompanied by a statement setting out the purpose of development of the

building or premises to which the plan relates;

(g) be accompanied by a copy of the relevant approved survey plan of the premises
in which the building is situated or in which the proposed building is to be
situated or building works to be carried out.

(2) The Authority may require additional sets of plans or enlarged details, specifications
or other information thereof or other documents relating thereto to be submitted

(3) (i) Any land sub-division should be prepared and signed by a Licensed Surveyor
and leveller.

(ii) When such land exceeds 1.0 hectare it should be certified by a Town Planner

(4) The Authority may give preliminary planning clearance prior to the formal approval
of plans.

74 
 
 (5) For the purpose of this regulation the names of those who are eligible to sign the
plan prepared under 3 (1) c (i) and (ii) should be registered with the Authority.

4.3.1.3 Preliminary Planning –Clearance 
 

An application for Preliminary Planning Clearance may be granted pending evalution on the
development concept proposed with all detailed planning and technical matters reser-ved
for a subsequent detailed formal submission. A preliminary planning clerarance may be
granted to the applicant without prejudice to the right of the Authority to impose any
additional requirement when detailed proposal plan is submitted for approval.

(1) The applicant will be informed by a letter upon approval of the outline proposal, with
or without conditions imposed. He shall then make detailed formal proposal within 12
months. During that time, the applicant will liaise with the various other relevant
agencies/departments on their requirements. The provisional permission will lapse by
the end of the 12 months' period.
(2) The applicant shall submit a detailed proposal for formal approval under Section 8 J
of the Law in the prescribed Forms. The proposed plans shall incorporate the
technical requirements of the various departments as well as other planning
requirements communicated to the applicant.
(3) The preliminary planning clearance shall not constitute a permit nor shall entitle the
applicant or any person to commence or carry out any development activity
whatsoever.

(1) Every development permit shall be in writing and shall be subject to the restrictions
and conditions set out therein.
(2) Formal written permission will be released only after the final plans are in order and
Development Charges paid.
(3) Only one application, either for clearance approval or formal will be considered for a
particular site at any one time.

4.3.1.4 Appeals 
 

75 
 
Where an applicnat is aggrieved by the decision of the Authority in respect of his
preliminary planning clearance application or formal application for planning approval, may
be lodge an appeal in writing to the Minister within 30 days of the decision being conveyed
to him.

4.3.1.5 Plans for additions and alterations  

Where any building works consist of repair or alteration of an existing building or any or any
addition thereto, a plan or plans of such building works submitted under the Law shall, if so
required by the Authority, be accompanied by a prescribed certificate in form issued by a
qualified person stating that he has examined the building and is of the opinion that the
building is capable of bearing the loads and stresses which may be increased or altered in
any way by reason of the repair, alteration or addition.

4.3.1.6 Non acceptance of plans  
If the Authority is of the opinion that a plan, drawing or calculation submitted under the law
is beyond the scope of the professional competence of a qualified person signing the same it
may refuse to accept such plans, drawings or calculation or, if it accepts, the authority may
return the plans drawings or calculations.

4.3.2 Scales of plans  
All plans signed by a qualified person and submitted under the section 8J of the UDA Law, shall be
drawn to the following scales and consist of

a. A sketch plan of the surrounding area sufficient to locate the building site.;
b. site plan - 1 : 1000;
c. Key or location plan - 1 : 1000;
d. Plan of a building - 1 : 100 except where the size of building is too large for the plan to
be drawn on the required standard size paper, in such case, the Authority may accept a
plan prepared to a scale not smaller than 1:200;
e. A detailed blocking out plan to a scale of not less than 1:1000 showing the proposed
sub-division of lots together with their dimensions, direction, width and levels of all
proposed streets, open spaces and space for other amenities to be reserved and the
use to which every site will be put to.

76 
 
4.3.3 Particulars to be on plans, Site Plan & Sub­division plans

Site plan or subdivision plan showing ‐ 

a) the location of the lot and site of the building to be erected or the building works to be
carried out (clearly coloured) including figured dimensions of the lot and of the
distances between the building or place where the building works are to be carried out
and the lot boundary;

the scale of the plan, the North-point and the numbers of adjoining lots or buildings.

the means of access to the site from a street;

all street lines, building lines, any road widening line and any adjustment of land or
holding for a service road, back lane, and drainage reserve, and such other details as
may be shown on the relevant development plan which has been approved by the
Minister and or as may be shown in any street lineplans of the Local Authority.

all existing drains, watercourses, sewer lines, manholes, fences, retaining walls, and
slopes on the lot or adjoining lots and the nearest fire hydrant on an existing road
including figured dimensions of the distances between the drains, and fire hydrant, and
the building or the place where the building works are to be carried out;

(vi) the highest known flood level of the site as recorded by the Irrigation Department,
Sri Lanka Land Reclamation & Development or
A plan of any building or any other authority where the land is subject to floods ;

(vii) all existing contours or spot levels of the site and of adjoining roads and lands, with slopes
steeper than 450 and exceeding one and a half metres in height being clearly indicated;

(viii) any formation of a new slope or embarkment and the provision of a retaining wall or other
structure to stabilize such slope or embankment if the slope or embankment is higher or
steeper than that which is safe for such prevailing site conditions as may be determined by an
approved soil engineer's report or as may be specified by the Authority, including an
endorsement that the necessary plan or plans of the wall or structure will be subsequently
submitted to the Authority for approval;

77 
 
 (ix) any proposed surface or subsoil drain and its point of discharge or connection to an existing
drain or a watercourse;

(x) any proposed sewer line and manhole and their respective connections to an existing sewer
line and manhole;

(xi)all parking arrangements for the proposed development, and

(xii)proposed landscaping.

4.3.3.1 Floor Plan  
 

(b) a floor plan of each storey and flat roof of the building containing or showing-
(i) clear statement indicating the purpose for which every part of the storey is to be used, and
the provision in accordance with the

(ii) requirement of the Code of fire practices of means of escape in case of fire.

(ii) the type of materials to be used for the walls, super-structure and floor slabs of the
building or in the building works and the maximum permissible live load that such floor slabs
are designed to carry;

(iii) dimensions in figures dimensions of the building and all rooms, compartments, corridors,
staircases, verandas and roof terraces and the thickness of the walls and columns thereof;

(iv) dimensions in figures of the clear areas of every air-well, back-yard, court-yard and open
space in and around the building and the distances from the external walls of the building to
the centre line and side of every street, road reserve, and drainage reserve within the lot or
adjoining thereto;

(v) dimensions in figures of space between all walls, piers and stanchions;

(vi) the positions of all sanitary appliances, vent pipes and floor traps and their connections to
drain lines;

(vii) all the lines of the surface drainage in or around the building with arrows indicating the

78 
 
 direction of flow of water and the outlet drains into which the water discharges and the sizes
of these outlet drains;

(viii) the means of escape from fire and the fire prevention measures taken in respect of the
building including the provisions of fire extinguishing equipment and installations therein; and

(ix) clear statements indicating every part of each storey of the building that is to be air-
conditioned, mechanically ventilated or pressurised and, where such part is to be air-
conditioned, whether the air-conditioning shall be by means of a centralised system or package
unit and wherever possible the position or positions of the air-conditioning plant or unit shall
be indicated on the floor plan;

4.3.3.2 Sections 
 

(c) Cross, longitudinal and other sectional drawings of the building clearly delineating the
disposition of the adjoining ground and showing -
(i) the types of materials used and the thickness of all walls, floors, roofs, ceilings,
foundations, beams, roof slabs, drains, and aprons, and other related parts of the building;

(ii) the existing ground level or levels and any proposed new ground level or levels if the
building site is to be raised or lowered with clear statements as to how the new ground level or
levels might affect the stability of all adjoining land or buildings and what steps are being
taken to safeguard the same;

(iii) dimensions in figures of the distances from any existing or required retaining wall or slops
of the site, which exceeds one and a half metres in height, to the proposed building ,the lot
boundaries thereof and any existing building on adjoining land that is within ten metres of the
retaining wall or slope and is nearest thereto; and

(iv) dimensions in figures of the door, window or ventilation openings, the height of every
storey, the ceiling height and the ground floor level or levels and footway level or levels of the
Building in relation to the existing ground and street level or levels thereof, and the clear
distances between the lot boundary and the external walls of the building;

4.3.3.3 Elevations 

(d) Front, rear and side elevations of the building showing-

79 
 
(i) all the external walls, external columns, parapet walls and doors, windows or ventilation openings,
canopies and balconies and the roof of the building with dimensions in figures and the types of
materials to be used in the construction of the external walls, external columns, parapet walls,
openings canopies, balconies and roof where required by the Authority;

(ii) part elevation or elevations of every existing adjoining building showing its height, floor levels,
external walls, doors, windows, roof and other external and visible features, with indications of the
types of materials used in the construction thereof; in such special locations where the Authority has to
give detailed guidelines; and

(iii) the levels of every adjoining footway, verandah way, street and ground of the building and the
levels of all proposed counterparts of the footway, verandah way, street and ground; and

4.3.3.4 Other details  

particulars or information relating to the building or building works as the Authority may require.

4.3.3.5 Colouring of plans specifications of material used in building works 

Every plan submitted under the Law shall be drawn in black ink or produced in print and all extension
to the existing building works shown on the plans shall be coloured red. Each unit should be given a
different colour.

All parts of an existing Building that are to be removed shall be shown in dotted lines on the plans

If so required by the Authority a plan submitted under the Law shall be accompanied by specifications
of all materials proposed to be used in the building works of which the plans are submitted.

4.3.3.6 Installation or extension or alteration of any air conditioning mechanical ventilation 
or fire protection system 

Where any air- conditioning, mechanical ventilation or fire protection system is to be installed in a
building or part thereof or any such system therein is to be extended altered, layout and detailed plans
of the installation or the extension of alteration as the case may be, shall, before the
installation,extension or alteration is carried out, be submitted to the Authority for approval along with
a certificate from qualified person, not withstanding plans of the buildings in which the system is to be
installed extended or altered have been provided under regulation

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4.3.3.7 Structural details and calculation  

The detailed structural plans of any building works other than those indicated in Regulation 3 (1) c (i) &
(ii) shall be submitted to the Authority together with a copy of the design calculation before the
building works are carried out or resumed.

The detailed structural plans and design calculations shall be prepared in accordance with the provision
of the Law these regulations, and any other written law relating to building construction and signed by
the qualified person who prepared the detailed structural plans and design calculations, and shall show
-

(a) clearly the superimposed load for which each floor system or part thereof has been designed;

(b) the results of any soil test carried out, the calculations for any determination of soil bearing
capacity and complete boring investigations and details of the soil;

(c)the type or types of foundation to be used; and

(d) the type of piles, method of pile driving and type of machinery to be employed in piling, if the
same is required.

A certificate from a qualified person shall be submitted.

4.3.3.8 Approval of Plans 

Where a plan of any development activity is submitted under the Law, Authority may approve the plan
with or without any terms or conditions imposed within 8 weeks from the registered date of application
and, in the case of a temporary building, a plan or the application for permission to erect the building
may be approved by the issue of a temporary permit on such terms and conditions as the Authority
thinks fit.

A temporary permit for the erection of a temporary building which is issued under paragraph (1), shall
be valid for such period of time as may be specified in that permit.

Where the temporary building is -

(a) a shed for entertainment purposes; or

(b) a shed for funeral, religious or other purposes; or

81 
 
(c) a builder's working shed or store or any other shed used in connection with any new building works;

or

(d) a hoarding or frame for the display of advertisements or sign boards or other advertising devices; or

(e) a protective hoarding, catch platform or sidewalk shed on street orfootway in connection with any
building works; or

(f) a scaffolding on a street ;

or

(g) a stall or shed in a building or other premises for trade fair fun fair or exhibition purposes,the
permit shall be valid for not more than one year.

On the approval of a plan of any building or building works the Authority shall notify the owner of the
building or the premises in which the building works, are to be commenced, carried out or resumed
and any qualified person who prepared the plan or who is to supervise the building works of such
approval and of the terms or conditions, if any, on which such approval has been granted and shall
return one copy of the plan to the applicant/owner.

Where there is a contravention or mispresentation of facts or a failure to comply with a term or

condition on which an approval or a permit is granted under this regulation, such approval or permit,
as the case may be, shall be revoked.

4.3.3.9 Disapproval of the plans  

Where the Authority disapproves a plan of any development activity submitted under the Law, the
Authority shall notify the owner of the premises n which the development ativities are to be
commenced, carried out or resumed and any qualified person who prepared or submitted the plan
under regulation 3 or who is to supervise the building works under paragraph (c) of regulation 16 of
such disapproval with the reasons therefore and return one copy of the plan to the owner or qualified
person within 4 weeks from the registered date of the application and retain the fees.

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4.4 Part II Duties of qualified person employed or engaged to prepare the 
plans or to supervise building work & other development activities  
 

16. A qualified person shall:

(a) without misrepresentation or suppression of any particulars or information give as correctly and
clearly as possible information that are required to be given on a plan which shall be signed by him and
submitted under the Section 8 J of the Law.

(b) Ensure that all the plans and specifications, which he signs, and submits under the Law are in
conformity with the provisions of these Regulations, and any regulation made under the Code of Fire
Precautions for Buildings or any direction given by the Fire Chief.

(c) supervise all building works and other development activities of which the plan or plans are
prepared by him or for which he is otherwise responsible under these Regulations for the purpose of
ensuring that the works are carried out in accordance with such plan or plans, and any written order or
direction given by the Chairman and submit his certificate of supervision to the Authority on
completion of the building works and before issuing a certificate of conformity of the building in
respect of which the building works are carreid out, to any other person.

(d) Submit to the Authority such progress reports on the building works and where applicable such
certificate relating thereto as may be specified below at the appropriate times or stages of the
building works -

(i) at the end of every three months beginning from the date of the submission to the Authority
of a notice of intention to commence, carry out or resume the building works under sub-
paragraph (c) of paragraph (1) of regulation 18:

(ii) when the foundation and the structural parts of the building below the ground level are
completed and before any work on the structural parts of the building above ground level is
carried out, a progress report accompanied by a record plan and details of all pilling works
which have been carried out on the building site;

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 (iii) when all the structural parts of the building are completed, a report on the completion
including a certificate, that all the building works relating to the structural parts have been
carried out under his/her supervision in accordance with the detailed structural plans and
calculation submitted under regulation 13;

(iv) on completion of all the building works;

(v) when there is a termination of his service in the building works,within fourteen days of such
termination, a summary report on all those building works which have been carried out under
his supervision and a certificate to that effect; and

(vi) when otherwise required by the Authority and in such manner as may be required.

(e) notify the Authority in writing if the building or part thereof is occupied or used before the
Authroity has issued a certificate of conformity for the thereof under regulation 22 or a licence for the
temporary occupation thereof under regulation 24.

4.4.1 Change of qualified Person  

17.(1) Where there is a change of a qualified person employed or engaged to prepare a plan of any
building works or to supervise the same and such change is made after the plan has been submitted
under the Section 8 J of the Law, the qualified person whose services are being terminated shall notify
the Authority in writing of the termination of his services within fourteen days of such termination and
with effect from the date of such termination no building work shall be commenced, carried out or
resumed unless another qualified person has notified the Authority in writing of this appointment as
the qualified person to supervise the building works under paragraph (c) of regulation 16.

(2)A notice of the termination of services given by a qualified person under paragraph (1) shall be
accompanied by his summary report and certificate in accordance with sub-paragraph (v) of paragraph
(d) of regulation 16.

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4.4.2 Offenses by qualified person 

18.(1) A qualified person who has submitted any plan or specifications under the Law or who is
required to supervise any building works under these Regulations shall be guilty of an offence under
these Regulations if he/she, without any reasonable cause,-

(a) misrepresents any relevant particulars or information required to be given on such plan or
specifications under the Law or these Regulations r suppresses therefrom such particulars or
information; (d) regulation 16

(b) submits an incorrect progress report or certificate to the Authority under paragraph

(c) contravenes or fails to comply with any of the provision of regulation 16 or 17.

(2) Any person who is found guilty of an offence under this regulation shall be debarred from
submitting plan for any development activity to the Authority.

4.4.3 Duties of owner or occupier prior to the commencement of work 

19.(1) Prior to the commencement or carrying out of any building works or the resumption of any
building works which have been suspended for3 months, the owner or occupier of the premises shall-

(a)ascertain that all the plans of the building works which have to be submitted under the
section 8 J of the Law have been approved and that such approval has not been withdrawn or is
still valid;

(b) ensure that the detailed structural plan of the building works have been submitted to the
Authority in accordance with the provisions of regulations 13;

(c) give at least seven days' notice of his intention to commence, carry out or resume the
building works and apply to the Authority for a permit to commence, carry out or resume such
building works.

(d) have the written confirmation in the usual form issued by the qualified person or persons,
employed or engaged by him to supervise the building works, that the person or persons, as the
case may be, shall supervise the building works in accordance with paragraph (c) of regulation
13.

85 
 
(2) A notice required to be given under this regulation shall be complete and shall not contain any
incorrect particulars or information.

4.4.4 Duties of owner or occupier to the occupation of completed building 

21. On completion of any building works in accordance with an approved plan or plans and prior to the
building or part thereof in respect of which the building works have been completed being occupied or
used or permitted to be occupied or used, the owner or occupier of the building or part thereof, or the
current owner or occupier, if there has been a change of ownership or tenancy, or the developer if the
building is part of a housing development or any other building development, shall apply to the
Authority-

(a) for a certificate of conformity for the occupation of such building or part thereof where the
building is new;

(b) for a licence for the temporary occupation of the building or part thereof where the certificate of
conformity could not be obtained due to minor deviations from the plan or plans which need to be
regularised or other requirements still need to be complied with under these Regulations

4.4.5 Certificate of conformity for occupation 
 

22. The Authority may grant a certificate of conformity for the occupation of a building or part thereof
or any other development activities when

(a) every certificate and report in respect of the building or part thereof or any other development
activity have been submitted to the Authority pursuant to the provisions of regulation 13;

(b) all the requirements shown on the plan or plans and all the written directions given by the
Authority to the qualified person or persons,who prepared the plan or the building or part thereof or
the building works under paragraph

(c) of regulation 16, have been complied with and a certificates from the qualified person is forwarded
to that effect; and (c) all the fees payable under these Regulations have been paid.

4.4.6 Inspections by the authority 

23.(1) The Chairman or his authorised representative may enter upon and inspect at all reasonable
times a building before a certificate of conformity for the occupation thereof is issued under regulation

86 
 
22 or any building works at any stage thereof for the purpose of determining whether all the provisions
of the Law and these Regulations have been complied with, and of calling the attention of the qualified
person or persons who prepared the approved plan or plans of the development activity to any
deviation from the approved plan or any other plan of the development activity submitted under these
Regulations or to any non-completion of the development activity in accordance with such plan or
plans or to any non-compliance with a provision of the these Regulations or the plan or plans or a
requirement shown thereon which he may have to observe.

(2) The authorised representative of the Authority shall, before entering upon and inspecting a building
or any development activity under paragraph (1) identify himself by producing and exhibiting his
written authority

4.4.7 Licence for the temporary occupation of the building 

24(1) Notwithstanding the fact that a certificate of conformity for the occupation of a building or part
thereof is not issued because of a deviation from the approved plan or plans of compliancthe building
or non-compliance with a requirement endorsed on the plan or plans by the Authority or non-
completion of the building works in respect of the building, the Authority may grant or renew a licence
for the temporary occupation of such building or part thereof for a period not exceeding six months at
a time if the deviation, non-compliance or non-completion is in his opinion neither of a serous nature
nor in any way detrimental to the well-being and safety of the person or persons who may occupy the
building or part thereof during such period.

(2) A licence may be granted or renewed under paragraph (1) on such terms or conditions as the
Authority thinks fit and shall be revoked on a breach of any of those terms or conditions.

4.4.8 Contents and display of certificate of conformity for the occupation of Building 

25 (1) A certificate of conformity for the occupation of a building or a license for the temporary
occupation thereof shall state the purpose for which the building has been constructed and where the
building is a non-residential or multi-purpose building the certificate or licence shall also indicate --

(a) the intended use or uses for which the building in its several parts has been designed and approved;

(b) the number of persons for whom means of escape in case of fire are provided in the building; and

(c) the maximum permissible live load which each floor may support

87 
 
(2) In a non-residential building, copies of the certificate of conformity for the occupation or the
licence for the temporary occupation of the building shall be displayed on every floor or part of the
building in such manner as the Authority may direct together with a copy of the direction of fire escape
floor diagram showing clearly the approved fire escape route or routes from that floor or part of the
building where the licence is displayed.

(3) The possession of a certificate of conformity for the occupation or a licence for the temporary
occupation of a building or part thereof shall not exempt the owner thereof from having to comply
with the requirements of relevant authorities which may be endorsed on the approved plan, plans of
the building or part thereof, or written permit or may otherwise be applicable to the building or part
thereof under any other written law.

(4) The Authority may recall and cancel a certificate of conformity for the occupation of a building if,
in the opinion of the planning committee, the strength of the building has become less than required to
carry the loads indicated on the certificate or the building no longer complies with these regulations
for the purpose or use stated on the Certificate.
(5) A certificate of conformity for the occupation of a building shall not be recalled under paragraph
(4) only because the building fails to comply with a written law not in force when the certificate was
issued
(6) Before a building or part thereof is used for a purpose other than as stated on the certificate of
conformity for the occupation of the building or for a purpose which is likely to increase the danger of
fire occurring within the Building or a part thereof, the owner of the building or part thereof shall
notify the Authority of such purpose or proposed use and shall comply with all written directions given
by the Authority in respect of the purpose or use and carry out such building works as may be required
by the these Regulations to make the building or part thereof suitable for the purpose or use.
(7) The exit from a building other than a private dwelling house and every door opening on to a
staircase of the Building and all other means of fire-escape which are provided therein in accordance
with the Code of Fire Precautions for Buildings shall, except where otherwise required by the fire
chief, not be locked or obstructed whilst the building or a part thereof is being used or occupied.

4.4.9 Offenses after completion of building work 

26.The owner or occupier of a building or part thereof or, if the building or part thereof is part of a
housing development or any other building development, the developer shall if he, without any
rasonable cause, contravenes or fails to comply with the provision of regulation 21 or paragraph (2) (6)

88 
 
or (7) of regulation 25 be guilty of an offence under the Law and shall be liable on conviction to a fine
as described in section 25 of the Law.

4.4.10 Unauthorized occupation & use of any building or any lot 

27. (1) No person shall occupy or use a building or part thereof or permit the building or part thereof to
be occupied or used or construct any structure on a sub-devided lot without a Certificate of
Conformity.

(2) A person who contravenes the provisions of paragraph (1) shall be guilty of an offence under
Section 8 K of the Law.

4.4.11 Public building Certificate 
 

28 (1) An owner or occupier of a public building or part thereof havingan occupant load of more than two
hundred persons shall apply for and obtain, in addition to a certificate of conformity for the
occupation of the building or part thereof,a public building certificate from the Authority. The
owner or occupier shall not occupy or use the building or part thereof or permit the building or
part thereof to be occupied or used without a public building certificate authorising such
occupation.

(2) A public building certificate shall be valid for not more than five years as may be specified therein
but may be renewed on a request made by the owner or occupier. Such request shall be made 2
months prior to the expiry of such permit.

(3) An application for the issue or renewal by the Authority of a public building certificate having an
occupant load of more than two hundred persons, shall be made in a prescribed form and shall be
accompanied by -

(a) i. a certificate from the Director of Buildings confirming that the building is structurally sound
to hold an occupancy load of more than two hundred persons.
ii. The fees prescribed for such issue or renewal to be paid direct to the Department of
Buildings.

(b) the fees prescribed for such issue or renewal;

89 
 
 (c) three copies of the plan of every floor of the building or part thereof which is drawn to a scale
not smaller than 1:200 and signed by the owner of the building or part thereof or his agent and
which shows the following particulars in distinct colours:-

i the intended use and occupant load of the building or part thereof

ii the approved means of fire escape and the approved fire escape routes of the Building or part
thereof and any requirement pertaining thereto as laid down in the Code of Fire Precautions for
building or by fire Chief.

iii the position and type of every fire extinguishing equipment installed in the building or part
thereof in accordance with the Code of Fire Precautions for Buildings or fire Chief.

iv the position and size of every window and other opening in every external wall for lighting,
natural ventilation, air-conditioning system and other means of ventilation, if any; and

v the position of every lift, escalator, fire protection system, portable fire extinguishers and
other service equipment

certificate as the Authority may require from one or more qualified persons certifying that they
have examined the building or part thereof and every system and equipment referred to in sub-
paragraph (c) and the Building or part thereof and the system and equipment are in good working
condition and in conformity with the Act and any regulations made there under and these
Regulations and the Code of Fire Precautions for Buildings; and

(e) the name, qualifications and such other relevant particulars as the Authority may require of
the person designated to act as a safety officer for the building or part thereof under
regulations 29.

(4) In an application for the renewal of a public building certificate under paragraph (3), the floor
plan referred to in sub-paragraph (c) of the paragraph need not be submitted again if no change
to the particulars shown on the plan has taken place since the date of its last submission to the
Authority under the sub-paragraph.

(5) Where an application for the issue or renewal of a public building certificate is made under
paragraph (3), the Authority may refuse to issue or renew the public building certificate or may

90 
 
 issue or renew the public building certificate on such terms and conditions as he thinks fit.

(6) The Authority may revoke any public building certificate that has been issued or renewed under
this regulation when there is -

(a) a breach of any of the terms or conditions of the certificate;

(b) failure to comply with the provisions of regulation 29;

(c) any misrepresentation of a material fact in the application for such public building certificate
or accompanying plans or documents upon the basis of which the certificate was issued ; or

(d) knowledge that the fire hazards within the building or part thereof, for which the public
building certificate was issued, have increased without adequate fire safety measures being
taken to the satisfaction of the Fire Chief.

4.4.12 Responsibility for safety 
 

29. The owner or occupier of a public building or part thereof which has a floor area of more
than 5000 m2 or an occupancy load of more than one thousand persons shall designate a
responsible person to act as a safety officer for the purposes of -

(a) enforcing good housekeeping rules and fire safety precautions within the building or part
thereof;

(b) exercising supervision over the maintenance of all means of fire - escape, lifts, and fire
protection systems and equipment, within the Building or part thereof;

(c) detecting and removing all fire hazards and obstructions which may prevent the
effective use of any means of escape in case of fire; and

(d) organising periodical fire drills in order to ensure that all persons employed in or using
the building or part thereof are familiar with all means of escape in case of fire.

4.4.13 Offenses in the use of a public building 

30. The owner or occupier of a public building or part thereof, having an occupant load of more
than two hundred persons, shall be guilty of an offence under Section 28 of the Law if he,
without a reasonable cause, contravenes or fails to comply with any of the provisions of
paragraph (1) of regulation 28 or of regulations 29.

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4.5 Part III­ Planning Regulation  

4.5.1 Sub­division of land 
31 (1) No Government Agency or any other person shall carry out or engage in any development activity
within the UDA declared Areas of Colombo City except in accordance with the development
guidelines given in the relevant Development Plan prepared under Section 8A and the Planning
and Building regulations prepared under Section 21, of the Law.

(2) (a) No parcel of land or lot designated or proposed for any use other than agriculture or
horticulture shall be sub-divided unless a plan relating to such sub-division has been approved by
the Authority. (b) Any person intending to sub-divide a land shall submit to the Authority an
application which is in conformity with the requirements of regulation (3),(9) and (10)

(3) The Authority in approving the plans for sub-division of land may require the applicant to modify
the plan as it may consider necessary. The sub-division on the site shall be carried out only after
the approval of the Authority is given.

(4) (a) The minimum extent of land and width of lots shall be in accordance with the provisions of
regulation 35 (1);

(b) The drains which are demarcated on subdivision plans should be given a lot number.

(5) No lot in such sub-division shall be less than 12 metres in depth.

(6) No new sub-division shall have the effect of reducing the open space, light and ventilation and
other requirements of any existing building on the site to less than those required under these
regulations.

(7) No lot in a sub-division plan shall be utilised for any purpose other than the purpose for which
it was approved.

(8) Every lot in a sub-division shall abut on an existing or proposed publicstreet or a street in
accordance with the provisions of paragraphs (10), (11) and (12) of this regulation.

(9) The minimum width of a carriageway reservation for the street shall be as approved by the Authority but
in no case shall be less than 3.6 metres for streets upto 9.0 metres in width and 6.0 metres for streets wider
than 9.0 metres.
(10) No site or lot abutting a street, less than nine metres in width, shall be used for non-
residential use or construction of any building for such use except as provided under paragraph
(15) of this regulation.

92 
 
 (11) The width of private roads, in a new sub-division of land in any land use zone, other than
special primary Residential and Primary Residential zone should be not less than 9.0 metres.
(12) Every street meant to serve dwelling units shall be in conformity with the specifications set
out in Form "A" below.

(13) The number of dwelling units given in Column 4 in Form " A" could be doubled, if both origination
and destination of such streets mentioned in Column 1, are connected on to a public street. In such
case the maximum lengths shown in Column 2 also could be doubled but the minimum width of the
road shall not be less than 4.5 m.

(14) A street meant to serve one or more lots for construction of any building for non-residential use
may be permitted with access less than 9 metres in width and shall be in conformity with the
specification set out in Form "B"below.

93 
 
However if the Authority is of the opinion that undue hardship will be caused to a person in the case of
residential use of a lot if the minimum access requirements for a dwelling house as stipulated in Form
'A' above, are to be complied with, the minimum width or access may be reduced on the
recommendations of the Mayor/Chairman of the Local Authority and in consultation with the Planning
Committee subject to the following:

(i) A minimum width of 3 metres is available for access

(ii) This reduction will not apply in case of a new sub-division.

(iii) If the settlements are of Low Income character

(15) Every such street shall connect on to a public street which is not less than nine (9.0) metres in
width or a private street of which the owner of such private street has a right of way which connects
on to a public street which is not less than nine (9.0) metres in width.

(16) (a) Every street which is less than (9.0) metres in width and exceeds thirty metres in length, shall
be provided with a turning circle of not less than nine (9.0) metres in diameter or any other form of
space acceptable to the Authority at a suitable location along the street, so that a vehicle can be
turned safely.

(b) If the road is 9 m. in width and if it is a dead end road, a turning circle of a diameter of 15 m.
should be provided in all zones except in special primary residential zone & primary residential zones.

(17) Any parcel of land at the corner of two streets shall be rounded off with the tangent length from
the point of intersection to the curve, being half the road width, across the direction of the tangent.

(18) No lot in a sub-division shall be put to use or built upon unless the streets are demarcated, opened
out to their full width and developed with infrastructure to the satisfaction of the Authority.

(19) Every application for a Certificate of Conformity under Section 8K of the Law shall be submitted to
the Authority with a certificate from a Licensed Survey and a Chartered Town Planner that the sub-
division of land has been carried out as per the approved plans and permit.

(20)(1) Where the parcel of land or site to be sub-divided exceed 1.0 hectare an area of not less than
ten percent of the land or site excluding streets shall reserved for community recreation and open
space uses in appropriate locations except in the following instances:-

94 
 
(a).In commercial and industrial land sub-divisions, if the minimum land parcel of the sub-division is
not less than 2000 sq.m. and all the road widths are not less than 9 metres, the land may be sub-
divided without reserving 10 percent of the land for open space uses but subject to the condition that
in the event of further sub-division of any of the parcels the developer should either

i. reserve the 10 percent of the land so sub-divided ; or

ii. deposit the market value of 10 percent of that land so sub-divided at the Authority.

(b). In Residential land sub-divisions, if the minimum land parcel of the sub-division is not less than
1,000 sq.m. and the development is limited to two housing unit per lot the land may be sub-divided
without reserving 10 percent of the land for open space uses but subject to the condition that in the
event of further sub-division or construction of more than two housing units per lot, the developer
should deposit the market value of 10 percent of the land so sub-divided or developed at the relevant
Local Authority.

(c). When the land to be sub-divided is located within a radius of 0.5 kilometres from a public open
space such as a lake, public playground, etc., which is more than 4000 sq.m. in extent and if the
Authority directs the developer, the developer should depdeposit at the Authority the market value of
the land, for the open space requirement, instead of providing the open space physically within the
site.

(d). When the open space requirement of a sub-division is not more than 500 sq.m. in extent or if the
Authority directs the developer to do so, with the approval of the Chairman of the Urban Development
Authorivy, the developer should deposit at the Authority the market value of the area of land of the
open space required for the sub-division instead of providing the open space physically.

(e). In unauthorised land sub-divisions where the reason for not approving is the non-provision of 10
percent open space, the individual land parcels may be permitted for development or further sub-
division, subject to depositing at the Authority 10 percent of the market value of the land parcel, or
reserving 10 percent of the land parcel so developed or sub-divided.

(2) (a) Such reserved space shall be vested with the Authority free of all charges.

(b)Market value of the land should be determined by the qualified valuer or Government Valuer.

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4.5.2 Splaying of street corners
32 The Authority may require the corner of any buildings including bound-ary walls or fences to be
erected at the corner of two streets to be rounded off or splayed, unless otherwise directed by the
Authority, with the tangent length from the point of intersection to the curve being half the road
width across the direction of the tangent.

4.5.3 Street line & Building Line
33 (1) Street Lines and Building Lines sanctioned by the Local Authority under a resolution adopted by
the Council at a general meeting will be considered as those street lines and building lines
applicable within the administrative limits of the Local Authority.

(2) (i).When there is a necessity to determine any new street lines or building lines or open up new
streets or roads in areas where there are no sanctioned street lines or building lines, a detailed
planning study shall be carried out before any action is taken to propose new street lines or
building lines or opening up of new roads or streets

(ii) Such proposals should be tabled and obtain approval at the Planning Committee and a
General Meeting of a Local Authority.

(3) No building shall extend beyond the building line, provided that balconies,sunshades or
eaves, not exceeding 1.0 meter in width may be permitted between the building line, and the
street line, and a fence or boundary wall not exceeding two metres in height may be permitted
on the street line.

(4) Any street line approved or sanctioned by the local authority shall not be varied without the
prior approval of the Authority

(5)The Authority may take into consideration the full width of the street line as the physical
width of the road where the access road to the development site is demarcated with an
approved street line, if the owner donates the land within the street line by deed to the Local
Authority or the Road Development Authority as the case may be, but without any expense
being incurred by either of the authorities.

4.5.4 Parking and Traffic Control
34 Every plan submitted along with the application for the purpose of obtaining a development permit
to carry out development activities, shall comply with the requirements in Schedule III on Parking
Requirements.

4.5.5 Specification as to lots 
35. (1) The minimum extent, number of floors and road widths, the minimum width of plots and open
space around the building except front of the plot for different class of buildings, should be in

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 conformity with the specification set out in Form "C" below unless the Authority has stipulated a
higher or lower minimum extent and/or higher or lower width of lots in a Development plan
already approved for the area or proposed for the area.

(2) Every lot or site which abuts on to the end of dead end street may have a frontage less than the
width in Form "C" above, but have a frontage which is not less than 3.0 metres wide
perpendicular to the line of the street.

(3) The Authority may relax the requirements of the specified site extent and width, in the case of
an existing lot provided, that a building satisfying the other regulations .

(4) The maximum height of a building on an existing lot which is six metres or less in width and or
has less than one hundred and fifty square metres in extent shall not exceed seven and half
metres in height or two floor unless the Authority direct otherwise.

4.5.6 Development Guide Plan (DGP) 
36 (1) The Authority is responsible for the preparation and issue of Development Guide Plan (DGP),
which is statements, objectives and vision for a particular area identified in the development
plan of the Local Authority area.

(2) It will cover planning and design policies and guideline on land use, transport, environmental
improvement, pedestrian and open space system, building height, intensity of development,
conservation and redevelopment of local areas, conservation of historic areas, advertisement
control and tree preservation etc.

(3) Until such time the DGP is prepared, the Authority may, in the interest of harmonising the
development activities with the surrounding development, direct the person. to make such
modifications as it deems necessary to keep to the requirements of this regulation.

(4) As each DGP is completed it will be gazetted as the plan for local areas. When all D.G.P.s are
completed the whole of the Local Authority Area will be covered by the new Development Plan.
This Development Plan will provide a clear guide to landowners on what their land could be
used for. It also identifies where special and detailed controls are applicable.

(5) Each DGP should identify the architecturally, environmentally, aesthetically and
archaeologically valuable areas and buildings and it should be listed so that no demolitions,
changes, alterations or additions should be done without the prior approval of the Authority.

4.5.7 Clearance from electric lines
37. All buildings shall be separated from any overhead electric supply lines by a distance of atleast 1.5
metres in case of low tension lines and not less than 4.5 metres in case of high tension lines.

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 However, clearance from the Electricity Board or the Authority responsible for the supply and
distribution of electricity should be obtained in case of a proposed building in proximity to high
tension lines.

The Urban built form, character of the street and the natural environment within the context of local
areas may have a continuity & harmony with the built and natural environment when the
Development Guide Plans (DGP's) are enforced until such time the Authority may decide and
instruct on open spaces around the buildings, Architectural form and the character of the
street and the building etc.

* where there are no building lines # Plot coverage for new buildings Max -
Maximum
Min. - Minimum Res. – Resident

4.6 Part IV ­ Building Regulations

4.6.1 Open spaces to be provided 
 

38 (1) In every building to be erected on a lot wherever an open yard or space is provided for in and

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 around the building, the position and the dimension of it shall be in accordance with the plans
approved by the Authority under these regulations and provisions of regulation 35 and 'Form "C ".

(2) In the case of building where an open space is intended to be provided on the site for purpose of
access, maintenance of the building in separating it from adjoining properties, such open space
shall in no case be less than 1.0 m. in width.

4.6.2 Boundary Clearance
39 (1) The boundary clearance required to be provided in building shall be as stipulated in Form "C " of
Regulation 35 and as required by the Code of Fire Precaution for Buildings.

4.6.3 Overhangs and other sun­shading devices for buildings
(2) Notwithstanding the provisions of regulation 40 the overhangs, canopies, wings or other sun-
shading devices of a building shall be permitted to project up to 1.0 m. beyond the building line,
provided that the roofing materials used are of the non-combustible type.

4.6.4 Rear space
40. (1) For the purpose of this regulation the rear of the building shall be deemed to be the face which is
further from any street on which the building is situated; provided that where the building is
situated on more than one street the rear of the building, unless the Authority, authorises or
directs, shall be deemed to be the face which is furthermost from the widest portion of such
street.

4.6.5 Irregular Shape
(2) In sites of irregular shapes where it is impracticable to provide an open space to the entire width
of the rear, the Authority may direct that the open space of the rear shall be left as it deems
appropriate, having regard to the circumstances of the case.

4.6.6 Width of footway required to be provided
41 (1) Any uncovered footway or (arcade ) verandah-way required to be provided and constructed shall
be -

(a) located within the building lot;

(b) continuous along the entire portions of the building lot abutting the street or as otherwise
directed by the Authority.

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4.6.7 Access from a Street
42. Every building to be erected on a lot which does not abut a public street shall have access from a
private street and the means, nature and width of the access shall be in accordance with a sub-
division plan and private streets approved by the Authority. The owner of such building lot shall
have legal right over such street.

4.6.8 Splayed corners
43 (a) Where a building is erected at the junction of two streets and in the case where the degree of
splay or rounding off is not shown on the Development Plan or any statutory document the corner
of such building shall be splayed or rounded off as provided in Section 32,to a height of not less
than 6.0 m above the street level.

(b) a fence or boundary wall not exceeding 2 metres in height may be permitted on the street line.

4.6.9 Projection beyond street, road­widening line etc. 
 

44. No part of any building shall project beyond-

(a) the front face of such building over a street; or

(b) a street, line or acquisition line, as the case may be,as shown on the relevant documents or
plan approved by the Authority.

4.6.10 Offenses 
 

45 Whenever an open space, footway or access has been provided in connection with any building in
pursuance of the provisions of these Regulations or any other Law or any regulations made
thereunder, it shall be an offence under these Regulations -

(a) to make or maintain, or permit to be made or maintained, any alteration in the open space,
footway or access;

(b) to construct or maintain, or permit to be constructed or maintained, a roof over any portion
thereof so as to diminish the area of the open space, footway or access;

(c) to cause or permit to be caused, any obstruction whatsoever to the open space, footway or
access.

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4.6.11 Minimum width of buildings 

46. Every new row house, shop building or other building shall have a minimum width of 6.0m
measured between the centres of party or external walls or party and external walls at ground
level, except that the minimum width for a new building to be erected on a corner site may be
4.80 m.

4.6.12 Height of building 

47. The height of any building and the number of storeys that it may comprise shall be in strict
accordance with the provisions of Regulation 35, Form 'C' and the Development Plan of the relevant
Local Authority.

4.6.13 Minimum area of rooms in residential buildings 

48. The area of any habitable room in a residential `building shall be not less than 8.0 square meters
with a minimum width of 2.50 m clear between walls except -

(a) a kitchen which shall have a minimum area of 5.0 squaremeters with a minimum width of
2.0m clear between walls;

(b) a store or utility room which shall have an area of not more than 2.5 square metres.

(c) any room specified in regulation 49

4.6.14 Minimum dimension of lavatories, water closets and bathrooms 

49. In all buildings the sizes of lavatories, water closets and bathrooms shall be -

(a) in the case of a water-closet or lavatory with pedestal type closet fittings, not less than 1.70
m by 0.8m;

(b) in the case of a water - closet or lavatory with fittings other than pedestal type closet
fittings, not less than 1.3m by 0.8 m.;

(c) in the case of a bathroom, not less than 1.5 square meters with a width of not less than 0.8
m; and

(d). in the case of a bathroom with closet fittings, not less than 2 square meters with a length of
not less than 1.7 m and a width of not less than 0.8 m.

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4.6.15 Height of rooms in residential buildings 

50(1) The height of rooms in residential buildings shall be -

(a) for living rooms and bedrooms not less than 2.8 m ;

(b) for kitchens not less than 2.8 m; and

(c) for bathrooms, lavatories, water-closets, porches, balconies, terraces and garages not less than 2.2
m.

4.6.15.1 Shops  

(2) The height of ground floor rooms in a shop shall be not less than 3.0 m and the height of upper floor
rooms shall be not less than 2.8 m.

4.6.15.2 Schools 

(3) The height of classrooms in a school shall be not less than 35m.

4.6.15.3 Hospitals 

(4) The height of rooms used for the accommodation of patients in a hospital shall be not less than 3.5
m. Factories

4.6.15.4 Factories 

(5) The height of rooms in a factory in which any person works shall be not less than 3.0 m.

4.6.15.5 Resort buildings 

(6) (a) The height of rooms in a place of public resort shall be not less than 3.0 m. Where a balcony is
provided in a place of public resort the height between the level of the topmost tier of the balcony and
the ceiling over such topmost tier, and the height between the floor immediately under the balcony
and the underside of the balcony, shall be not less than 3.0 m in each case.
(b) In a place of public resort the provisions of paragraph (7) shall apply to water -closets, lavatories,
cloak rooms, kitchens, corridors and rooms to which the public do not have access.

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4.6.15.6 Other buildings 

(7) In a building other than any of those specified in a paragraphs (1) to (6) the height of the rooms on
the ground floor shall be not less than 3.0 m and on upper floors not less than 2.8 m except that any
part of a ground floor or upper floor may be not less than -

(a) 2.6 m if such part is left open and used as a covered garden; or

(b) 2.40 m if used for car parking purposes.

4.6.15.7 Basement 

(8) In a basement storey the height of any part thereof or of any room not otherwise specified in
paragraphs (1) to (7) shall not be less than -

(a) 2.8 m if used as shops, offices, business premises, plant rooms or the like;

(b) 2.60 m if used for storage purposes; or

(c) 2.4 m if used for car parking purposes.

4.6.15.8 Clear height of car parking areas 

(9) Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (7) and (8), in those parts of a building used or
intended to be used principally for car - parking purposes, the minimum clear height at any part,
including the underside of ceiling beams, ducts, sprinkler heads, service pipes, lightings, fixtures and
the like, shall be not less than 2.2 m.

4.6.15.9 Minimum height of covered footways 

51. The height of any covered footway constructed pursuant to regulation 50 shall be not less than 3.0
m below which height only the following items may project if the underside of such items be not less
than 2.5 m from the footway paving:-

(a) beams;

(b) stairways and landings;

(c) screens; and

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(d) signboards and advertisements.

4.6.16 Provision of lighting and ventilation 

52.Every building shall be provided with -

(a) natural lighting by means of glazed windows, skylights, fanlights, doors or other approved natural
light- transmitting media;

(b) natural ventilation by means of windows, skylights, fanlights, doors, louvres or ventilation openings.

4.6.17 Location of sources of natural light and ventilation 

53(1) In a building the windows and openings through which natural light and ventilation can be
obtained shall be so located that-

(a) they face and open upon-

i. the sky;

ii. A public road or a street with right of way or public space dedicated for public use.

iii. a courtyard or open space located within the building lot and complying with the relevant provision,
of regulation 38 or 39 as the case may be; or

iv. an air well complying with the requirements of regulation 58; and

(b) in the case of a building other than that specified in sub-paragraph (c), partof the room served by
such sources shall be more than 10m away horizontally from such sources; and

(c) in the case of godowns and factories, workshops and ware houses no part of the room served by
such sources shall be more than-

i. 12m away horizontally from a source if that source is a window, ventilation opening or other natural
ventilation device located in an extenal wall of the room; or

104 
 
ii. 9 m away vertically from a source, if that source is a ventilation opening or other natural ventilation
device in the roof of the room.

4.6.18 Sources of natural light and ventilation may open upon a balcony, verandah or porch  

(2) Sources of natural light and ventilation may open upon an enclosed or partly enclosed balcony,
verandah or porch if -

(a) such balcony, verandah or porch faces upon a street or service road or upon a courtyard or open
space which is located upon the building lot and complies with the relevant requirements of
regulations 38 and 45;

(b) the maximum depth of the room served by suchsourcesdoes not exceed 10 m measured from the
outer face of the enclosure wall of the balcony, verandah or porch; and

(c) the front of the balcony, verandah or porch has an opening to external air, the area of which shall
be at least 75 per cent of the floor area of such balcony, verandah or porch.

4.6.19 Sources of natural light and ventilation 

54. Every room in any building shall be provided with natural light and ventilation by means of one or
more sources having an aggregate area of not less than-

4.6.19.1 Rooms for residential purposes 

(a) 15 per cent of the floor space of the room of which atleast 70 per cent shall have openings so as to
allow free uninterrupted passage of air, if such room is used for residential purposes [(excluding such
room as referred to in paragraph (c)],

If such room is in a low rise building there should be an-unobstructed passage of not less than 2.3 m.
between such opening and the boundary of the lot opposite to such opening.

4.6.19.2 Rooms for business purposes, etc. 

(b) 15 per cent of the floor space of the room of which at least 50% shall have openings so as to allow
free uninterrupted passage of air, if such room is used for business purposes or in connection with a
shop, a place of public resort, a factory or any other usage not mentioned in this regulation;

105 
 
4.6.19.3 Stores, garages, etc in residential buildings. 

(c) 10% of the floor space of the room of which 50% shall have openings so as to allow free
uninterrupted passage of air, if such room is used as a store, pantry , utility room, garage or the like in
a residential building.

4.6.19.4 Water closets toilets and bathrooms 

(d) 10% of the floor space of the room or 0.2 m2 (whichever is greater) of which 100% shall have
openings so as to allow free uninterrupted passage of air, if such room is a water-closet, latrine, urinal,
bathroom, toilet or laundry room;

4.6.19.5 Schools 

(e). 20% of the floor space of the room of which at least 50 per cent shall have openings so as to allow
free uninterrupted passage of air, if such room is used for the dissemination of knowledge in school;

(f). 20% of the floor space of the room of which 100% shall have openings so as to allow free
uninterrupted passage of air, if such room is used for the accommodation of patients in a hospital,
convalescence home, nursing home or the like;

4.6.19.6 Staircase, corridors and lobby 

(g)10% of the floor area per floor in the case of an enclosed staircase, corridor or lobby of which 50 per
cent shall have openings so as to allow a free uninterrupted passage of air except as required under the
provisions of the Code of Fire Precautions for Buildings.

4.6.19.7 Parking 

(h) 10% of the floor space of the room of which at least 50% shall have openings so as to allow free
uninterrupted passage of air

4.6.19.8 Factories, warehouses and godowns 

(i) 10% of the floor space of the room of which atleast 50 per cent shall have openings so as to allow
free uninterrupted passage of air, if such room is used as a godown or any other storage area.

4.6.19.9 Terrace Houses 

55. In addition to the requirements of paragraph (a) of regulation 57 there shall also be provided in
the case of terrace houses of a depth greater than 12 m. permanent ventilation from front to rear by

106 
 
suitable vents in all front, back and cross walls at each floor. Such vents shall have a net opening area
of not less than 0.4 square meters.

4.6.19.10 Adjoining rooms 

56. For the purpose of determining light and ventilation requirements, any room may be considered as
a portion of an adjoining room when half of the area of the common wall is open and unobstructed

4.6.19.11 Natural light and ventilation for basement rooms 

57. When any room is located in a basement and is to be naturally lighted and ventilated, such room
shall have atleast one third of the height of its external walls and all its required sources of natural
light and ventilating above the outside ground level.

4.6.19.12 Provision of a air well for the purpose of natural light, and ventilation court 
yard
58 (1) The provision of air-well for the purpose of natural lighting and ventilation shall be restricted to
buildings of not more than 10 storeys in height and the air-well shall have a minimum width of
3.0 m. The minimum size for such air well shall be 12 square meters for buildings under 4
storeys and it shall be increased progressively at the rate of 1 square meter for every additional
storey. For buildings of more than 10 storeys, an internal courtyard having a minimum dimension
of 6.0 m shall be provided in place of an air-well. for buildings less than 2 storeys shall have an
air well of a minimum size of 6 sq.m. with a width of one side shall be minimum of 2.3 m.

(2) No internal air-well or courtyard required for the purpose of natural lighting and ventilation
shall be roofed over. However if the shortest side of the Air Well is less than 5.0 m., overhangs,
canopies, wings, sun shading devices, eaves or balconies should not exceed 0.5 m.

(3) The floor of an internal courtyard shall either be paved with concrete which falls to a gully or
turfed and maintained as an internal garden and adequately drained to the satisfaction of the
Authority.

4.6.20 Other 

4.6.20.1 Provision of facilities for disabled persons 

59. The application for the approval to construct a public building, such as a Hospital, Theatre, Grand
stand, Assembly hall, Departmental Stores or any other building that will be utilised by disabled
persons, , shall endeavour to take measures so that the entrance/exits; corridors, stairs, elevatory

107 
 
equipment, lavatories and other facilities can be used easily by the above category of persons and shall
adhere to the provisions of Schedule II in order to give effect to section 23 (2) of the Protection of the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, No 28 of 1996.

4.6.20.2 Provisions for approval of "Prescribed Projects" under the Environmental Act. 

60.The applications for the approval under the provisions of Part IV C of the National Environmental
Act. No. 47 of 1990 as amended by Act No. 56 of 1993, should be adhered to when preparing
"prescribed projects" under the above mentioned Environmental Act.

4.6.20.3 Fire Safety  

61.(1) Every building shall conform to fire safety requirements applicable to the area or type of
building or as may be specified by the Authority with a view to providing a greater measure of safety to
the inhabitants of such buildings.

(2) All Intermediate Rise, Middle Rise, High Rise buildings and Public buildings of more than 300 sq.m.
in floor area, factories and ware houses, shall conform to fire safety requirements as may be
recommended by the Chief Officer of the Fire Brigade

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4.7 Part V ­ Mechanical Ventilation and Air ­ Conditioning 

4.7.1 Natural light and ventilation requirements may be waived or modified 

62(1) Where air-conditioning, mechanical ventilation or artificial lighting is installed, or intended to be

installed in a building, the provisions of these Regulations relating to natural light and ventilation and
the height of rooms may be waived or modified at the discretion of the Authority if-

4.7.2 Mechanical ventilation for a residential room 

(a) such installation is in accordance with the relevant provisions of these Regulations, having regard
to the particular type of occupancy of the building or part thereof; and

(b) the owner of the building has given an undertaking to the Authority affirming that he will comply
fully with the relevant provision of these Regulations when the air-conditioning unit, mechanical
ventilation system or artificial lighting is no longer in use.

(2) In a room used for residential purposes where fresh air is obtained by mechanical means supplying a
minimum of 3 air change per hour,the openings of the natural ventilation sources may be reduced to
half of that specified in paragraph (a) to (c) of regulation 54, as the case may be, but shall not in any
case be less than 0.5 square meters.

4.7.3 Other rooms requiring to be mechanically ventilated 

63 Except as specified in paragraph (2) of regulation 62, mechanical ventilation shall -

(a) be provided in every room, staircase, corridor or lobby where the relevant requirements for natural
ventilation under these Regulations are not met;

(b) in other cases, be provided in accordance with the other provisions of these Regulations or as may
be required by the Authority.

4.7.4 Plans for air­conditioning or other ventilation system 

64 Plans for the installation, extension or alteration of an air-conditioning, mechanical ventilation or

other ventilation system shall be prepared by a qualified person and submitted to the Authority for
approval in accordance with the relevant provisions of these Regulations.

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4.8 Part VI ­ Sanitation   
4.8.1 Water Supply & Sewerage 

65. (1) Every building shall be provided with a protected water supply system connected to an existing
public water supply system.

(2) Where it is not possible to provide connection to the public water supply system, a system
connected to a private service shall be provided.

(3) Every building shall be provided with water storage tanks and pumps of such capacity as may be
specified in each case, where the Authority has reason to believe that the supply of water shall not be
continuous taking into consideration the situation of the building and other land marks of the area.

(4) (a) No well used for the supply of drinking water shall be located less than 15.0 meters from a
cess pit or a soakage pit of a septic tank.

(b) A well used for the supply of drinking water should not be located within 10.0 m. from a
cess pit or a soakage pit of a septic tank , unless a recommendation is obtained from a
qualified Geologist and the Medical Officer of Health of the relevant area, in the absence of
pipe borne water.

(c) In areas where there no pipe borne water supply systems are installed, the minimum lot
size should be 20 perches in extent.

(d) The bottom level of a soakage pit, a cess pit or a septic tank should not be lower than the
water table of such area.

4.8.2 Sanitary Convenience 

66. (1) Every dwelling unit shall have at least one water closet while every other type of building shall
be provided with an adequate number of water closets, urinals, wash basins and other sanitary
conveniences. Provided that the number of water closets, urinals, wash basins and other sanitary
conveniences to be provided in any building shall be as specified in Schedule IV.

(2) All sewerage and waste water outlets shall be connected to an existing public sewerage system and
the Authority may, in any particular case, require the sewerage and waste water to be pre-treated to
bring them to acceptable standards before being connected on to a public sewerage system.

110 
 
(3)(a) Where a public sewerage system does not exist, or where the Authority is of the opinion that the
outlets cannot be connected to the public system, sewerage shall be disposed through a septic tank;
and

(b) Waste water shall be suitably disposed of through a soakage pit.

4.8.3 Drainage 

67. Every building shall be provided with adequate drainage facilities to drain off and convey rain
water from the roof to a street drain or other approved outlet without causing dampness or damage to
the walls or foundation of the buildings or those of adjacent building

4.8.4 Waste disposal 

68. Waste generated within any premises shall be collected and disposed of in a manner which the
Authority considers essential so as to safeguard the health of the inhabitants therein.

4.8.5 Electrical and plumbing work 

69. All electrical and plumbing work in any building or premises shall be carried out by a qualified
person as the case may be, and these works shall conform to such standards and specifications as the
Authority may require with a view to ensuring maximum safeguard and sanitary conditions within any
such building or premises.

4.8.6 Definition 

70. In these Regulations, unless the context otherwise requires -

"apartment" means a unit as defined in the apartment ownership Law No. 11 of 1973.

"accepted codes of practice" means codes, standards or manuals acceptable to the Urban
Development Authority.

"access" means any street used as means of access to building or other premises where the public have
a right of way or not;

"air conditioning" means the process of treating air so as to control simultaneously its temperature,
humidity, purity, distribution, and movement to meet the requirement of the air-conditioning space

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"air change" means the rate of air entering or leaving a space by natural or mechanical means in terms
of the number of volumes of the space:

"air well" means any space within or out side the building for the purpose of obtaining natural light &
ventilation. Outside the building is the space within that lot of land, enclosed by one or more faces of
such building or one or more boundaries of such lot.

"amendment plan" means a plan showing any deviation from or amendment of or addition to an
approved plan of a building, or any land subdivion for the occupation of which a certificate of
conformity has not been issued.

"approved" means approved by the Urban Development Authority or the relevant Local Authority,
under the authority delegated by UDA.

"approved on a temporary permit" means approved for such limited period as may be specified by the
UDA or any Local Authority in the permit issued in granting such approval;

"approved plan" means a plan of a building or any building works or any land subdivision approved by
the UDA or the Local Authority in accordance with the Law and the Regulations;

"authority" means the Urban Development Authority and includes any Authority or officer authorised by
the Chairman with the approval of the Board of Management generally or specially to exercise the
powers, functions and duties conferred by these Regulations;

"balcony" means any stage, platform, oriel window or other similar structure projecting outwards from
the wall of a building beyond the outer face of an external wall of the building and supported by
brackets or cantilevered;

"basement " means -

(a). a storey which is below the ground storey and the floor of which is situated at such a level which is
wholly or that more than 2/3 the height of such storey is below the level of the ground adjoining its
perimeter walls for more than 2/3 the length of such perimeter walls;

112 
 
(b). where there is no ground storey, a storey the floor of which is situated at such a level that more
than 2/3 the height of such storey is below the level of the ground adjoining its perimeter walls for
more than 2/3 the length of such perimeter walls;

"boundary wall" means any wall, enclosure or screen built on or along a boundary line of a parcel of
land for the purpose of separating such land from another adjoining parcel of land:

"blind Wall" means a wall in any construction work having no openings.

"building" includes a house outhouse, stable latrine, shed, godown or any structure made out of
masonry bricks, mud, timber, metal or any other material.

"building envelope" means the elements of a building which enclose air-conditioned spaces through
which thermal energy may be transferred from the exterior"

"building line" means the line upto which a building will be permitted to extend.

"building residential" means a building exclusively consisting of one dwelling unit or a number of
dwelling units.

"business premises" means a building or part thereof designed, adapted or used for the carrying on of
a business or profession, sale or exchange of goods with a profit making motive, private, hospitals and
nursing homes, and private educational institutes etc.

"chairman" means the Chairman of Urban Development Authority.

"chartered Architect" means a person whose name appears on a register of Chartered Architects kept
by Sri Lanka Institute of Architects .

"code of Fire Precautions for Buildings" means the Code of Fire Precautions for Buildings that will be
published by the Publication No. ICTAD/DEV/14 or any other fire regulation by the Fire Department of
Colombo.

"column in relation to structure-steel or reinforced concrete", means a part of a construction which

by its resistance to compression in the direction of its length and to bending actions induced by such
compression, supports and transmits a load;

113 
 
"competent authority" has the same meaning as in the Planning Authority

"concrete" shall have the same meaning as in the Code Practice accepted by the Institute of Engineers
Sri Lanka :

"construct" means build, erect and place in position and includes reconstruct, rebuild, re-erect and
replace in position;

"cross wall" means an internal wall dividing a party wall or an external wall into distinct lengths;

"dead load" or "dead loading" means the weight of all walls, floors, roofs, partitions and other like
permanent structures;

"detached building" means a building or part thereof which is used or is intended, adapted, or
designed to be used for living purposes and is a self-contained unit;

"development activity " has the same meaning as in the Law.

"dwelling house" or "dwelling Unit" means a building or part of a building consisting of a room or group
of rooms forming a self-contained unit with independent living, cooking and sanitary facilities.

"duct" means a passageway for conveying air;

"duct covering" means the outside covering of a duck.

" duct lining" means the inside lining of a duct fan casing or duct plenum inclusive of materials such as
adhesive, insulation, coating and film;

"existing Lot" means a lot recongnized by the Local Authority as a Lot, with an assessment
Number,which is in existence before the coming into operation of this Regulation .

"external wall" means an outer wall or vertical enclosure of a building not being a party wall even
though it may adjoin a wall of another building;

"factory " means a building or part thereof designed, adapted, or used for-

(a) the making of any article, commodity or product or part thereof or;

114 
 
(b) the altering, repairing, ornamenting, finishing, cleaning, washing or the breaking up or demolition
of any article, commodity or product or part thereof; or

(c) the adapting for sale or assembly of any article, commodity or product or part thereof;

"flat" means a separate dwelling used or constructed or adapted to be used wholly or principally for
human habitation for a single family, where the kitchen, lavatory, bathroom or water-closet are
contained within the separate dwelling and that dwelling is contained in a building comprising two or
more such dwellings joined vertically;

"flexible joints" means connections between ducts and equipment normally provided to prevent
vibration and to allow for thermal movement;

"flexible connection" means connection at the extremity of ventilation ductwork connecting terminal
units, extract units and grills;

"flood level" means such flood level as may be specified for an area by the Department of Irrigation or
Sri Lanka Land Reclamation & Development Corporation for the purposes of these Regulations.

"floor" includes a horizontal platform forming the surface of a storey and any joist board, timber,
stone, concrete, steel or other substance connected with or forming part of such platform;

"floor area" means the horizontal area of a floor of a building measured from the exterior faces of
exterior walls or in the case of a common wall separating two buildings from the centre line of such
common wall and shall include all roof projections and balconies exceeding 1.0 m. in width and all
areas having a roof and capable of being enclosed.

"floor area gross' means the total of the floor area of every floor in a building;

"footing" means the construction by which the weight of a building is transferred to the foundation or
piles of the building.

"floor area ratio" means the gross floor area of all buildings on a lot divided by the area of such lot

"foot way" includes a footway or verandah way at the side of any street;

115 
 
"foundation" means that part of a construction immediately below the footings of a building, which is
in direct contact with and through which the weight of the building is transmitted to the ground;

"fresh air" means "normal outdoor " not unduly affected by odours, smoke, effluent, dust, fumes
discharges from mechanical plant and the like;"garage" means includes a building or part thereof, used
for housing or parking of motor vehicles.

"godown" means a building or part thereof designed, adapted or used for the storage but not for the
sale of goods in connection with the carrying on of any trade or business;

"ground storey" means that storey of a building to which there is an entrance from the outside on or
above the level of the natural ground at the front of the building;

"height" in relation to-

(a) a room, means the vertical distance measured between the finished floor level and the underside of
the ceiling;
(b)

any storey, means the vertical distance measured between the upper surface of the floor immediately
above it;

(c) a wall, mens the vertical distance measured from the base of the wall to its highest part or, in the
case of a gable, to half the height of the gable;

"habitable room" means any room not less than 8.0 m2 in area but does not include any bathroom,
water-closet, open verandah, terrace or garage;

"hospital" means a building or part thereof designed, adapted or used for the care of treatment of the
sick, infirm, aged, convalescent or pregnant;

"hotel" means a building specially designed and constructed or substantially adapted to be used to
accommodate persons for the purpose of gain or profit, with or without arrangements for communal
feeding.

"housing accommodation" includes a building or tenement wholly or principally constructed, adapted

for human habitation or for human habitation and as business premises;

116 
 
"housing complex" means a group of dwelling units on a site which is permanently in "common
enjoyment" and may include a block of flats;

"industrial building" includes factories, workshops and warehouses;

"law" means the Urban Development Authority Law of No 41 of 1978;

"licensed Surveyor & Leveller " means a person who is authorised by the Surveyor General of Sri Lanka
to practice.

"load bearing wall" a wall which supports any load in addition to its own weight; "local Authority" has
the same meaning as in Law;

"local Qualified Person" means whose qualifications are recognized by a professional institute of Sri
Lanka.

"lot" in relation to land means the entirety of any land which has been demarcated by boundary marks
or enclosed within boundary walls or fences where such land belongs to one single person or to a set of
co-owners and approved as a lot by the Local Authority;

"maintained " means maintained in an efficient state, in proper working order and in good repair.

"masonry" means brick, stone , hollow or solid concrete block, granite or other similar building
material or a combination of the same put together and set in mortar;

"mechanical ventilation" means the process of supplying or removing air to or from a building or part
thereof by mechanical means or devices;

"natural ventilation" means the supply of outside air to a building or removal of inside air from a
building by means of windows and other openings due to wind outside and convection effects arising
from temperature or vapour pressure differences (or both) between inside and outside of the building;

"non-load bearing wall" means a wall which supports no load other than its own weight;

"occupant load" of a building or part thereof means the total number of persons that may occupy such
building or part thereof at any one time;

117 
 
"owner" means whose name is registered in the assessment registry of the Local Authority.

"office" means a building or part thereof used for office purposes or for the purposes of administration,
clerical work, book keeping, accounting, drawing, editorial work or banking;

"panel wall" means a non-load bearing wall in frame construction built between columns or piers and
wholly supported at each storey;

"parapet" means that a short wall constructed on a balcony or verandah;

"partition" means a temporary or easily removable vertical structure made of panel work covered with
metal, wood or plastic sheets or other similar material used for the sub-division of spaces within a
building;

"partition wall" means an internal wall used for the purpose of subdividing a storey of a building into
sections and which supports no load other than its own weight;

"party wall" means a wall forming part of a building and used or constructed to be used along any part
of its height or length for the separation of adjoining buildings, lands or part of the building that
belong to different owners or are intended to be occupied by different persons;

"person with disability" means any person who, as a result of any deficiency in his physical or mental
capabilities, whether congenital or not, is unable by himself to ensure for himself, wholly or partly, the
necessities of life;

"place of public worship" means a building or a defined or enclosed place used or constructed or
adapted to be used either ordinarily or occasionally as a church, chapel, mosque, temple or other
place where public worship is or religious ceremonies are performed.

"planning Committee" means the Committee appointed under 8B of the Law

"professional Engineer" means a person whose name appears on the register kept in the Institute of
Engineers Sri Lanka as a chartered engineer;

"public building " means a building or part thereof used or constructed or adapted to be used as a
shop, office, hospital or place of public resort, not being a church, chapel, mosque, temple or other
place where public worship is or religious ceremonies are performed;

118 
 
'public street" means any street over which the public have a right of way and has become vested in
any Authority under any Law orby operation of any Law and includes the drain or footway attached
thereto;

"qualified person" means any person who has obtained his professional qualification in Sri Lanka as -

"reinforced concrete" shall have the same meaning as in the Code of Practice C.P. 110 "repair" is the
making good of a defective part of a building not amounting to a reconstruction thereof

(a) Chartered or Registered architect

(b) Town Planner

(c) a professional engineer in the discipline that is appropriate for the works of which a plan is
submitted under the Law;

(d) Licensed Surveyor & Leveller

(e) Valuer

(f) Any other person whose qualifications are recognised in the construction industry by the
Government of Sri Lanka.
"residential building" means a building or part thereof designed, adapted or used for human habitation
such as a detached, semi-detached or terrace house or a residential flat, and includes any outbuilding
and other covered structure which are intended for enjoyment of the occupiers of the building or part
thereof or are otherwise appurtenant to a residential building as such;

"restaurant" means a building or part thereof to, which the public has access and used for the carrying
on of any business where the primary purpose is the sale of foodstuffs for consumption in the building
or part thereof.

"retaining wall" means a wall used to resist the lateral displacement of any material;

"room" means a portion of a building enclosed by walls or partitions.

"sanitary facilities" includes toilets, wash-basins, bathrooms, sinks and facilities for washing clothes
which connect, directly or otherwise with a private sewage treatment plant or with a public sewerage

119 
 
system.

"school" means a building or part thereof designed, adapted or used for the dissemination of
knowledge.'

"service garage " includes a building or part thereof, used for the repairing, painting, washing,of motor
vehicles;

"sewage" means any liquid waste and includes water-borne sullage and trade effluent;

"sewerage system" means any sewer, drain line, cess-pit, septic tank, treatment plant, or any
appurtenance thereof;

"shop or shopping centre" means a building or part thereof to which the public has access and used for
the carrying on of a trade or business where the primary purpose is the sale of goods and includes a
building used for the purposes of a hairdresser, ticket agency, pawnbroker, dispensary, or receiving
office for goods to be washed, cleaned or repaired,or any other similar trade or business;

"standard form" means such standard type of form as may be determined by the Urban Development
Authority;

"storey" means the space between the upper surface of every floor and the surface of the floor next
above it, or if there is no such floor then the underside of the tie or collar beam of the roof or other
covering or if there is neither a tie nor a collar beam then the level of half the vertical height of the
underside of the rafters or other support of the roof;

"street" includes any road, footway or passage used or intended to be used as a means of access to two
or more dwelling units or sites whether or not the public has right of way over such street and includes
all channels, drains, ditches, sidewalks and reservation at the side thereof;

"street line" means a line or lines defined on one or both sides of any street, existing to show its future
width or to show the width of a future street as sanction by the Local Authority or as defined by the
Urban Development Authority.

"structural part of a building" includes the roof, column, or main post, beam, foundation, wall
suspended floor, or staircase of a building but not include a door, window or internal partition thereof;

120 
 
"superimposed load"or superimposed loading"means all loading other than dead loading;

"temporary building" means a building which is permitted by the Authority to remain for a specified
period at the expiration of which the building shall be demolished.

"terrace house" means a residential building designed as single dwelling unit and forming part of a row
or terrace of not less than three such residential building;

"Town Planner" means a person whose name appears on the register kept in the Institute of Town
Planners of Sri Lanka.

"warehouse" includes a building or a part of building mainly used for storing mechandise or articuls for
trade.

"valuer" means a corporate member of Institute of valuers which is incorporated under the Institute of
Valuers of Sri Lanka Law No 33 of 1975.

"verandah - way " means a covered foot-way at the side of a street.

121 
 
Part VII - Schedules & Annexures

SCHEDULE I

Minimum Processing Fees, Fees for Covering Approval & Service Charges

122 
 
 123 
 
SCHEDULE II

124 
 
SCHEDULE III

Parking & Traffic Control - ( Regulation 34))

Traffic Impact Assessme

(1) (a) The Authority shall appoint a Traffic Planning Committee for every specified development to
study, evaluate and to recommend for approval the Parking and Traffic Control Arrangements
for any development referred by the Planning committee.

(b) The developer or the promoter should provide a full and detailed assessment of how the trip
and from the development might affect the highway network the trips and/or public transport
facility.

(c) The traffic impact assessment (TIA) should be an impartial description of the impact and should
outline both positive and negative aspect of the proposed development. The TIA should not be
a promotional exercise undertaken on behalf of the scheme promoter.

The TIA "process" consists of three main components,

* the determination of the need for a TIA

* the scope of the TIA

* the preparation of the TIA

ii. The need for a TIA is a responsibility of the Planning Committee.

The scope of the TIA is determined by the traffic planning committee

The TIA should be prepared and produced where one or the other of the
following thresholds are exceeded:

* the traffic 'to and fro' the development exceeded 10% of the two way traffic
flow on the main high-way/road

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 * traffic to and fro the development exceeds 5% of the two-way traffic flow on
the adjoining road/link, where traffic congestion exists or will exist
within the assessment period or ( i) other sensitive locations

* there will be some developments that will be so significant in size that TIAs
should be undertaken as a matter of course. As example, proposal
exceeding the following parameters may attract sufficient additional
traffic to warrant a TIA:

* residential development in excess of 20 unit in the concentrated development

zone and mixed commercial zone

* residential development in excess of 50 unit in the out side of the above

zones.

* commercial floor area in excess of 10000 sq.ft.

* warehousing floor area in excess of 20000 sq.ft.

* retail shop floor area in excess of 5000 sq.ft.

* 100 trips in/out combined in peak hours

* 50 on site parking space

* any development having entry or exit direct onto a road which is

- a National Highway or

- within 15 metres of a bus halt or bus stand or

- within 25 metres of a pedestrian crossing.

2 (i) The Traffic Committee shall comprise not less than 3 members who shall be experts in the
fields of

126 
 
 a. Traffic Engineering; (qualified person); or

Transport Planning; (qualified person ); or

b. Urban/Town Planning (qualified person );

c. A Senior Police Officer (of rank not less than Assistant Superintendent of Police)

d. The Chief Engineer of the Local Authority and

e. The Chief Planning Officer of the Local Authority.

(ii) The developer should submit together with the planning application a completed
statement on Parking and Traffic Control Arrangements as given in Schedule III of
Annexure I.

3 (i) Every plan submitted along with the application for the purpose of obtaining a

development permit to carry out development activities, shall provide a minimum

number of parking spaces within each site at the standards specified in columns 1 to 4
of Schedule III of Annexure II to these regulations.

(ii) Notwithstanding the above, each development should provide a minimum number of
stalls as given in paragraph E of Schedule III of Annexure I.

(iii) In every development where the total parking requirement exceeds 10 stalls, an equal
number of pedal cycle parking stalls shall be provided.

(iv) The minimum plan dimensions of parking stalls for each type of vehicle shall be as
follows:-

127 
 
 (v) The minimum width of aisles shall conform to the requirements as given below

(vi) The width of access to parking areas shall not be less than 3 metres clear of all footways
and other obstructions if entry and exit are separately provided and 5.5 metres if entry
and exit are provided together and free of a centre median divider. For commercial
vehicle parking areas, the widths shall be 4.5 metres and 6.5 metres respectively.

(vii) In buildings where it is required to provide more than two parking spaces, all vehicle
maneuvers of parking and reversing shall be located wholly inside the site. No
reversing shall be allowed from or onto the street.

(viii) In the case where the parking requirement is two stalls or less, angle parking with
direct access from the street shall be allowed, provided that -

a. the angle of parking is 45 degrees or less; and

b. there are no bus halts, bus shelters or bus bays, within 15 metres from any part of
such opening for parking and

128 
 
 c. there are no pedestrian crossings within 25 metres from any part of such opening for
parking and

d. there is no intersection with any other paved road within 25 metres from any part
of such an opening for parking; and

e. that physical restrictions will be placed to the satisfaction of the Authority

preventing any more than two vehicles from parking in such space provided
and

f. there is no requirement for commercial vehicle parking and

g. the street is not a National Highway.

(ix) Where a sidewalk continues across the openings for entry or exit to any, parking area,
the Authority shall specify any alterations to be made at the developers cost, to the
curbs or any part of such a sidewalk to maintain mobility of pedestrians, with special
consideration to handicapped persons. The Authority may also specify the developer
to paint and maintain a pedestrian crossing across such openings.

(x) A minimum inner and outer turning radius shall be provided from entry and exit to
street as specified in the following table.

(xi) In such an instance, where it may be satisfactorily proven to the Authority that the
minimum turning radius as given above cannot be provided for the development, then
a margin lane of width not less than 3 metres and located within the site shall be
provided for any such entry and/or exit. Such lanes shall be designed to cause the least

129 
 
 impact on the free flow of traffic on the street and should be approved by the Traffic
Planning Committee of the Authority.

(xii) The maximum gradient of ramps shall not be steeper than 1:8 for ramps of 12 metres
or less. In the case of longer ramps, the gradient shall not be less than 1:10.

(xiii) The width of ramps shall not be less than 3.5 metres clear of all footways and other
obstructions if entry and exit are separately provided and 6 metres if entry and exit are
provided together and free of a centre median divider.

(xiv) A minimum clearance height of 2.1 metres shall be kept on ramps and in multi-storey
parking areas.

(xv) Security Clearing and Parking Control activities such as barriers, booths and, lifts shall
not be located within a minimum clear distance of 6 metres from the edge of the street
to such barrier. For each 25 parking stalls or part thereof, the aggregate clear distance
shall increase by 6 metres, which may be provided in one and the same lane or in
multiple lanes.

(xvi) Vehicle Weighing areas shall not be located within a minimum clear distance of 20
metres from the edge of the street. For each 15 commercial parking stalls or part
thereof, the aggregate clear distance shall increase by 15 metres, which may be
provided in one and the same lane or in multiple lanes.

(xvii) In the case of sloping floors for parking areas, the gradient of such shall not exceed
1:20.

(xviii) When the road frontage width is less than areas, the gradient of such shall not exceed
1:20.

(xix) No entry to parking area for commercial vehicles or exit from such area shall be
allowed where the clear width of the street to which such openings have been made
are 4.5 metres for a one way street and 6.5 metres for a two way street

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4.(I) Where it is necessary to provide for more than 50 parking stalls in any development, such development shall
not be permitted within any part of a circle of 50 metres diameter from the point of intersection of the centre lines of
any two roads, each of which has an average traffic flow of 10,000 vehicles per day.

(ii) Only one entrance and exit point for sites with a road frontage width less than 12.0 metres is to be permitted:
provided that the Authority may consider permitting not more than two entrance and exit points for sites if the road
frontage width exceeds 12.0 metres.

(iii) Where the parking requirment within the site is more than 100 parking stalls for a residential development, and
50 parking stalls for non-residential development a traffic merging lane, or a traffic holding bay as may be necessary
in circumstances, suitably designed so as to have the least impact on the free flow of traffic on the access road.

5.Where it is necessary to provide for more than 60 parking stalls for non-residential use or 120 stalls
for residential use, or a pro-rated combination in a mixed development, the Authority shall on the
findings of a traffic impact study, require the developer to meet the cost of specific traffic control
improvements as recommended in such a report, provided that the need for such is established by the
increased traffic activity due to the proposed development.

6.The Authority may request the Police to enter upon and inspect at reasonable times, any building,
where there is sufficient grounds to believe in any deviation from the approved parking and traffic
control requirements for the permitted development.

7.The Authority shall levy a service charge of Rs. 5,000/- per month for each vehicle parking stall
reduced from the approved number of parking stalls if the areas approved for vehicle parking are
found to be used for any other activity other than vehicle parking. The levy of such charges shall be
effected from the date of issue of the certificate of conformity or a date of subsequent inspection in
which the charge of activity conformity has been established and documented. It shall be continued
until the space which has been used for other activities is converted to a vehicle parking stall as
approved in the development permit.

8."Mirrored glass" or any other reflecting material shall not be used facing a public street, for the
ground, first and second floors of any building.

9.The Authority may also specify maximum parking spaces for developments in any given area or
street where such streets and areas have been declared by the Authority as a Vehicle Restricted Area.

131 
 
10.(i)The Authority may also determine and levy an annual service charge for each and any parking
stall utilised within an existing development on the declaration of such street or area where the
development is, as a Vehicle Restricted Area.

(ii) Notwithstanding any other regulations, the Authority may on the written recommendation of the
Traffic Planning Committee, give notice of rectification to the owners of a developed property in
which -

a. repairs or refurbishing to vehicles are carried out on any National Highway or part thereof without
providing within its premises, all the parking stalls required for such work or where such spaces
provided for are not being utilised for that purpose, or

b. where any other trade or business is carried on, which in the opinion of the Traffic Planning
Committee causes seriously adverse impacts on traffic flow.

11. The owners of such buildings may within a period of six months, submit a Traffic Impact Study
and take steps to mitigate such negative impacts to the satisfaction of the Traffic Planning Committee.
In the event of the failure to do so by the owner, the Authority shall take steps to revoke at any time,
the permit for that building.

12. “In issuing development permits the physical width of the road or the proposed street line,
whichever is less shall be considered as the road width available for the development”. The authority
may take into consideration the full width of the street line as the physical width of the road where the
access road to the development site is demarcated with an approved street line, if the owner donates
the land within the street line by deed to the Local Authority or the Road Development Authority as
the case may, but without any expense being incurred by either of the authorities.

A. A Plan should be submitted showing all roads and intersections thereof, upto a distance of
100 metres from each entry or exit proposed for the development. The plan should also
indicate the following features using the given legend.

1. Pedestrian Crossing (PC)

2. Bus halts (BH) Bus shelters (BS) and bus bays (BB)

132 
 
3. Driveways and other private roads (DR)
4. Sidewalks (SW)
5. Guard rails for Sidewalks (GR)
6. Road Signs, Signals and Road Marking
7. Width of Roads (in metres)
8. Centre median (if any) (CM)
9. No parking areas (with times) (NP)
10. Intersection (types)
11. Trees
12. Hierarchy of roads
13. Close by public spaces by name
14. Lamp post and road
15. Manholes

B. A site plan to a scale of 1:100 showing the following;

1. All entrances and Exits (marked with arrows)

2. Parking Stall Arrangement by designated vehicle type and numbered with the prefix (S- Standard;
C- Two Axle Commercial vehicles; T-Multi Axle Truck-Trailers)
3. On-site traffic circulation indicated with arrows
4. Dimensions of Parking Stalls
5. Wdth of Aisles
6. Security Barriers
7. Parking Ticket Issue and Payment Method; and locations
8. Area of Security Checking and Parking Ticketing
9. Areas Designated for Passenger Pick up/Drop off only.
10. Width, Length and Gradient of Ramped sections
11. Clear and unobstructed entry distance (without barriers, ramps) from edge of street
12. Inner and Outer radius of entry and exit locations to street (in metres)

C. For Multi-storey or Basement parking , a side elevation of the scale of 1:100 should be submitted,
showing

133 
 
 1 Length and Gradient of each ramp

2 Minimum Clearance Height of each ramp

D. Calculations for determining the number of parking spaces required for type and extent of
proposed development.

E. Schedule of Parking Provided.

Note: A basement used for parking and for the location of the air conditioning plant or other
service machinery may be permitted in addition to the floor area ratio permissible.

If a permanent parking space is provided under these regulations as specified in Schedule III at
the level of any floor in a building, such parking place shall be excluded from the calculation
of the floor area ratio.

134 
 
ANNEXURE II of Schedule III (Parking Requirements)

135 
 
 136 
 
Note:

1. A number of adjoining sites or a complete block may be considered in aggregate and the provision
of vehicles may be considered in one or more parks of the entire area, provided all the site
owners agree in writing and such space shall be vested with the Authority free of all charges.
As such, the above parking requirement may not be required to be provided within the
premises of the development.

SCEHDULE IV

STANDARD PROVISION OF SANITARY FACILITIES ‐ (Regulation 65) 

137 
 
5 Building design 

5.1 Site Analysis 
Understand the site is one of the key steps, which involves in building design.  Sometime this process 
will start with the selection of the land. Since now the professional input for building designs, especially 
architects  and  civil  engineers  is  high  most  of  the  cases  the  clients  will  get  their  consultation  for  the 
selection also. Therefore, it is impotent to understand about the location and the site prior to start the 
design. 

5.1.1 Site Mapping 
Before starts the building design it was paramount that the house fit the land and the neighborhood. 
always whatever the design, it should match with the site geometry environment and the neighboring 
structures. 

138 
 
  

5.1.2 Getting to Know Your Land 
The first step in designing  the building is to get to know the land. Visit the property frequently, walk, sit, 
play and picnic there if possible. If it’s out in the country, camp on it. Get to know any neighbors and ask 
them about the area.  

While inspecting the site;

(1) Where do the local sounds come from? 
(2) Are they pleasant or unpleasant? 
(3) Do they vary throughout the day or from weekday to weekend? 
(4) What directions do the winds come from? 
(5) Do they shift throughout the day? 
(6) Do they differ from one part of the land to another? 
(7) Where does the sun rise? 
(8) Where does it set? 
(9) Where are the shady areas? 
(10)Where are the sunniest spots? 
(11)Where are the best views? 

139 
 
 (12)Are there directions in which you would prefer to not have a view? 

5.1.3 Making a Site Map 
 

Whatever the case the approved site  plan is a must to start the building design. Any  way, it is always 

recommended to make a  rough map of the  land at  the site, so it will help to  understand the location 
well.  

On it show, 

(1) Property lines. 
(2) Roads. 
(3) Existing buildings. 
(4) All existing trees, plants or shrubs. 
(5) Areas where you have noticed wind direction. 
(6) Where the sounds come from. 
(7) Views ‐ good and not so good. 
(8) Any high or low spots. 
(9) Any water features ‐ creeks, ponds, wet areas 
(10)Any existing services ‐ water, gas, sewage. If the services are not yet in, it can be foundout from 
municipal  office  and  utility  companies  where  water,  sewage,  hydro  and/or  gas  services  will 
come to the property line. If it is necessary to put in a well or septic tank, find out what options 
available to have for their locations. 

5.2   Residential Home Design – Zoning Laws 
 

Once the site analysis done, the next significant fact is about the local regulations. That will start putting 
restriction to the design. If the location is not known and if the regulations are not familier the correct 
set of rules can be obtail form following ways: 

(1) refer publish literature  no building regulations 
(2) Contact the building inspector at local city hall or regional office. 
(3) Search online for published residential zoning laws for your city or region. 

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These laws are roughly covers the followings: 
 

(1) Required setbacks from the street, rear and side lot lines. 
(2) Any height restrictions. 
(3) Any restrictions on the percentage of land your home and outbuildings are allowed to cover. 
(4) Any restrictions on the style of home you are allowed to build. 
(5) Any restrictions on operating a business out of your home. 
 

5.2.1 Adding Zoning Regulations to Site Map 
 

Now, on the site map, draw the setback lines for the front, rear and side lot lines. The setback distance 
refers  to  how  far  from  each  property  line  (front,  side,  and  rear)  that  are  allowed  to  build.  Remember 
that the setbacks usually pertain to decks, porches and even roof overhangs. The zoning regulations will 
state  what  must  lie  within  the  setbacks.  Sometimes  corner  lots  have  different  setbacks  for  the  street 
side lot line. 

Next, on the margins of the map: 

 Write  out  any  other  restrictions  for  the  land.  For  instance,  if  the  house  can  only  cover  30%  of  the 
available land, write this down. If the lot is small or size restrictions may be an issue, calculate roughly 
what size house which can build.  

• Note any height or style restrictions your community may have. 

5.3 Drawing Bubble Diagrams for Outdoor Spaces 
 

Once the limits are identified, there are two key areas which need attention. One is the building and the 
other  is  the  outdoor  spaces.  One  can  argue  that  the  design  has  to  start  with  the  building  design. 
However, if the outdoor arrangements are roughly known that will make easy on designing the building. 
Therefore, it’s better to start with outer space. 

This  is  a  good  time  to  make  a  few  photocopies  of  the  site  map  so  that  it  is  possible  to  make  a  few 
different plans.To plan the outdoor spaces, make a photocopy of the site map, then: 

141 
 
 (1) Indicate with X marks or loosely drawn circles (bubbles) areas that really love and would like to 
preserve as sitting places, a garden, a children's play area. 
(2) Mark where would most likely approach the property by whatever means applies: by car, foot, 
bicycle, boat, ski or any other manner. This will help define where the house entry points should 
be. 

5.3.1 House Placement 
 

Based on the size of the land, the designer gets the opportunity to place the building on the land. If the 
space in available, this can be done based on followings 

(1) How close to be to the street 
(2) What is the space required for the front yard 
(3) The type of neighborhood  

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Finally after considering above facts, a bubble can be drawn in the site plan where the house sitting.  

5.4 Needs Analysis 
The shape, size height etc. can vary with the type of group of people who will ultimately occupy the 
building. The function of the building is a significant fact which comes with the indoor design of the 
building. As an example let’s consider a detached house design. 

5.4.1 Household Members Needs 
That can be started with understanding the members of the house. On a piece of paper, list for whom 
this home is for, include: 

• Family members, 
• Friends, 
• Frequent guests.  

For each member in the above list, make a list of their requirements. For instance, one can say; 

• Quiet place for reading, 
• Bedroom facing morning sun, 
• Play room near kitchen.  
• For a frequent elderly guest it may have: 
• Sleeping room on main floor, 
• Easily accessible washroom with grab bars in bath 
• Warm, cozy bright area for reading. 

Below these  descriptions, project forward and  consider how long you are  hoping  to live in this home. 

How may the above descriptions and their needs change over this time period? Make guesses at future 
needs for each person on your list. 

5.4.2 Functional Spaces ­ Design  House Areas 
When designing a indoor space the followings can be considered as most important. 

•  Use  •  Light  •  Features

•  Who  •  Sound 

•  Approximate Space  •  Proximity 

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Under each and every topic mansion above can be independently analyze for different indoor spaces. 

•  For “Who”, list all the people who will use this space. 

•  Under the “Approximate Space” column, list the rough dimensions need for that use. 

•  For "Light", list the amount or quality of light required. For many of the visual arts most likely want a 
more diffused northerly light than a glaring sunny southern light.  

•  Under the “Sound” column, list any specific sound requirements. As an example in a TV lobby the 
sound will be very crucial, at the same time for abed room, majority feels to have silent space. 

•  In the “Proximity” column, list which other spaces should be nearby. For instance, probably want the 
family washroom to be near the bedrooms. Maybe like the playroom near the food preparation space or 
perhaps work area depending on family situation. 

•  Under “Features”, make any special notes for each use. For instance, list storage requirements, view, 
whether the space should be cozy, confined, open, high or low ceilinged, etc. 

5.5 Draw House Plans Bubble Diagrams 
 

Now it's time to create another bubble diagram ‐‐ this time indicating the functional spaces within the 
home. Make photocopies of your site plan but choose a lighter setting on the photocopier so that the 
site plan information is still visible but not as distracting. Another option is to lay a sheet of tracing over 
top of the site plan.  

144 
 
  

Start  with  drawing  a  bubble  for  where  your  main  entrance  could  be.  Where  you  will  enter  your  own 
home, most of the time. Mark small bubbles at any other places where you feel you will need a door or 
entrance.  If  you  will  have  a  yard,  vegetable  garden,  driveway,  or  foot  path  from  another  direction, 
consider how you will enter the home from those various places. 

At this point you are just drawing small bubbles so don't get too concerned if it looks like you will have 
several  entrances.  Later  when  you  draw  house  plans,  you  can  figure  out  how  these  entrances  can  be 
combined to result in fewer doors. But initially mark all these bubbles so you can see where the ideal 
places are.  

You probably have an idea for the types of house styles you like in terms of what they look like from the 
outside.  It's  important  to  have  a  rough  idea  of  this  at  this  point.  (Later  in  the  tutorial,  we'll  discuss 
exterior house designs.) Will the house have one floor or more? This will affect whether your floor plan 
bubbles are all in one plane or whether some will be on different levels. 

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5.5.1 Example Bubble Diagrams for Two Story House 

5.5.1.1.1 Main Floor 
 
 

5.5.1.1.2 Upper Floor 
 

5.5.2 Draw Circulation in Diagrams 
 

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Consider how the traffic will flow from space to space. When entering the home where will you usually 
go first? Where will your friends or guests go? Consider what you want to see when you first enter your 
home.  Mark  all  circulation  spaces  (such  as  hallways  or  even  just  traffic  areas)  as  bubbles  on  your 
diagrams. 

5.5.3 Organization of and Relation between Spaces 
 

Consider what kind of space you want where you first enter your home. A formal space with a closet or 
a  very  casual  space  with  lots  of  hooks  and  shelves  to  place  your  things?  Or  something  in  between? 
Consider whether you prefer a separate formal entrance or whether a separate entrance is necessary. 

What do you want to be looking out at from various spaces? Make sure that you are considering your 
site as you locate your bubbles. Pick any peaceful views for spaces where you will want to be relaxing 
and  enjoying  the  view.  Put  spaces  that  do  not  require  a  view  in  places  where  the  view  is  not  as 
prominent.  Consider  where  to  place  spaces  that  require  privacy  from  some  outdoor  spaces  but  also 
natural light. Also consider local noise sources and breezes. 

Begin to draw house plans bubbles for each space or room keeping in mind the connection between the 
rooms or spaces. Think about where you will prepare food and where you will eat it. Do you want your 
living area and/or eating area open to your kitchen or completely separate? 

5.5.4 Stairs 
 
If there will be a basement or more than one story to your house, draw a bubble for a potential stair 
location. At this point, simply draw a room sized bubble for the stair. Make sure that you make this stair 
bubble on all floors of the house in the same location. Usually, the stairs for all levels are stacked in one 
space  of  the  home  resulting  in  essentially  a  two  (or  more)  story  open  space  in  the  home.  This  space 
must be marked on all levels since it is unavailable for rooms or circulation spaces. 

5.6 Structural Design  
 

Before continuing with designing the building, let's talk about the types of loads on a house and how 
those loads can be supported. 

147 
 
The picture below shows vertical forces acting on a house roof and those forces being transferred down 
the roof and then to the ground by the structural walls. 

The vertical forces acting on a structure include both live loads and dead loads. Live loads are considered 
anything that can move or shift, such as people, furniture and snow loading. Dead loads are forces that 
do not move. Dead loads include the weight of the roof, floors and built‐in furniture. 

Once identified the loads on a structure, it is interesting to know how the structural elements behave 
with the presence of these added loads. Let consider a timber member with a central load. 

148 
 
In  the  first  image,  the  wood  beam  is  loaded  so  that  the  thinnest  dimension  is  parallel  to  the  loading 
force. Note that this beam deflects noticeably. 

In  the  second  image  the  wood  beam  is  loaded  so  that  the  widest  dimension  is  parallel  to  the  loading 
force. Note that this beam does not deflect as much. 

Let's go back to the structure to see how the vertical forces are transferred through the structure to the 
ground. In  the most simple case, a house could consist of four walls and a flat roof. The image below 
shows a cross‐section of such a house.  

In  this  image,  vertical  forces  applied  to  the  flat  roof  are  applied  to  the  flat  roof,  which  are  in  turn 
supported  by  the  vertical  support  (load  bearing)  walls  at  which  they  can  travel  downwards.  At  these 
walls the forces travel down to the ground. 

The  structure  is  supported  entirely  by  vertical  and  horizontal  systems  (and  sloped  systems  such  as 
sloped roofs). Loading forces are supported by either columns (posts) or load bearing walls. Floors take 
loading  forces  (such  as  the  weight  of  the  building,  people  and  furniture)  and  transfer  them  to  these 
columns or walls. Likewise the forces on the roof are transferred to columns and/or walls. 

149 
 
  

Now let's take a look at the different ways to support a house like the one shown above. 

As mentioned earlier, the house can be supported by load bearing walls, columns (posts) and beams or 
by  light  structural  elements  (such  a  wood  or  steel)  which  is  really  a  combination  of  the  two  other 
support mechanisms. Let's illustrate this with pictures. In the first image below, the vertical forces of the 
house  are  supported  entirely  by  load‐bearing  structural  walls.  There  are  openings  in  the  concrete  for 

150 
 
doorways and windows but these openings have been calculated so that the walls will be strong enough 
to support the floor above and the roof. 

In  our  next  example,  the  house  is  supported  by  columns  and  beams.  There  are  many  ways  for  these 
columns and beams to attach or join to one another. For now, we are simply looking at how the loading 
forces  are  transferred.  The  picture  below  shows  how  the  loading  forces  are  transferred  in  a  house 
supported  by columns and beams.  Keep in  mind  these colomns and beams  can be  made out of many 
materials including wood, concrete and steel. 

5.7 Design Floor Plans  
 

This step of designing floor plans is really an iterative process where you will go back and forth from 
your indoor bubble diagrams, your site map, your needs analysis, house exteriors and what we have 
learned about residential structure to design floor plans. 

151 
 
Essentially  this  step  is  all  about  firming  up  the  walls  of  your  indoor  bubble  diagrams.  But  more  than 
likely,  as  you  design  your  floor  plans,  you'll  find  yourself  modifying  your  bubble  diagrams,  trying  out 
different house exteriors and occasionally crumpling up your design and starting all over. Don't be afraid 
of this. It is a learning process and chances are someday you'll look back at one of your initial designs 
and think how glad you are that you didn't build that one. 

Somewhere I have a file folder of all the weird and wonderful floor plans we fiddled around with. Some 
look like they belong on another planet. This fiddling stage really helped in letting the creativity flow but 
the  other  parts  of  the  development  process:  our  site  plans,  needs  analysis,  and  structural  design 
constraints would always bring the designs back to reality. 

5.7.1 Draw Floor Plan ­ Simple Sketches 

Whether  you  will  end  up  drawing  your  final  blueprints  by  hand  or  using  design  software,  it’s 
recommended to start with simple hand sketches.  

Below  is  the  main  floor  bubble  diagram  for  the  1  1/2  story  house  from  our  bubble  diagram  exercise. 
Next  are  two  rough  sketches,  with  the  walls  firmed  up,  for  possible  floor  plans.  The  first  plan  is  a 
rectangle with three bump outs. The second floor plan has a simple rectangle for its exterior shape. The 
second is a simpler and more economical option. 

152 
 
 5.7.1.1.1 Draw Floor Plan Example 1 
 

153