Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 97–105

A comparison between FSW and TIG welding techniques:

modifications of microstructure and pitting corrosion
resistance in AA 2024-T3 butt joints
A. Squillace∗ , A. De Fenzo, G. Giorleo, F. Bellucci
Department of Materials and Production Engineering, University of Naples, “Federico II” Piazzale Tecchio,
80-80125 Naples, Italy
Received 9 April 2003; accepted 10 March 2004

Abstract

An experimental investigation has been carried out, in present paper, on microstructure and corrosion resistance of weld butt joints of
AA 2024-T3. Two different welding processes have been considered: a conventional tungsten inert gas (TIG) process and an innovative
solid state welding process known as friction stir welding (FSW). Micro-hardness measurements allow pointing out a general decay of
mechanical properties of TIG joints, mainly due to high temperatures experienced by material. In FSW joint, instead, lower temperatures
involved in process and severe plastic deformations induced by tool motion allow rising of a complex situation: by a general point of view
a slight decay of mechanical properties is recorded in nugget zone, flow arm and thermo-mechanically altered zone (TMAZ), while in
heat-affected zone (HAZ), due to starting heat treatment of alloy under investigation, a light improvement of such properties is appreciated.
In flow arm and in nugget zone, however, a light recovery of hardness, w.r.t. TMAZ zone, is recorded, due to the re-crystallisation of a
very fine grain structure. Polarisation curve tests and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, performed in this paper, allow assessing a
generalised nobler behaviour of weld bead with respect to parent alloy. In FSW joint, however, the differences between the three examined
zone are not so evident as in TIG joint; what is more, inside FSW weld bead, retreating zone shows a behaviour nobler than advancing one.
© 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Welding; Tungsten inert gas; Friction stir; Pitting corrosion; Polarisation curve test; Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy

1. Introduction preferred ones. What is more, additional problems rise when

The welding of aluminium and its alloys has always repre-
sented a great challenge for designers and technologists. As
a matter of fact, lots of difficulties are associated to this kind
of joint process, mainly related to the presence of a tenacious
oxide layer, high thermal conductivity, high coefficient of
thermal expansion, solidification shrinkage and, above all,
high solubility of hydrogen, and other gases, in molten state
[1]. Further problems can rise when attention is focused on
heat-treatable alloys, since heat, provided by welding pro-
cess, is responsible of the decay of mechanical properties,
due to phase transformations and softening induced in alloy
[1–3]. As a consequence of all above-mentioned problems,
also into a leader industry such as the aeronautic one, which
makes wide usage of aluminium alloys, and especially of
the alloy investigated in present paper, mechanical joints are
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39-081-768-2555;
fax: +39-081-768-2362.
E-mail address: squillac@unina.it (A. Squillace).
corrosion resistance characteristics become relevant: in this
case phase transformations induced in alloy structure often
result into a deep modification of materials properties [4].
In this paper a comparison has been proposed on electro-
chemical properties allowable by welded butt joints realised
with two different welding processes: the former is a con-
ventional tungsten inert gas (TIG) process, the latter is an
innovative friction stir welding (FSW) process, invented at
The Welding Institute, Cambridge, UK, in 1991 [5].
The typical weld bead of TIG joint, according to weld-
ing speed, shows different types of grain structures [3]: the
lower the speed (<7 mm/s) the wider the grains, what is
more they result aligned in the direction of heat source mo-
tion. For the highest welding speed (>19 mm/s) a region of
fine equiaxed grains grows up throughout the thickness of
the weld. For an heat-treated alloy, such as that under inves-
tigation, the fusion of a part of material and high tempera-
tures experienced by adjacent ones are responsible of above
mentioned phase transformations and relative softening
[6].

0924-0136/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2004.03.022
98 A. Squillace et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 97–105
Focusing attention on FSW, the structure of full weld
zone, due to severe mechanical stresses experienced by ma-
terial, shows an interesting variety of zones. The sight of
weld bead, across the section, shows a region of deep defor-
mation that is often referred to as the nugget zone [2,7,8]:
this zone shows a very fine grain structure [8] and is char-
acterised by the presence of so-called onion rings. The thin
zone subjected directly to the action of tool shoulder is re-
ferred to as flow arm. Adjacent to the nugget zone is a zone
that, though has been not directly subjected to pin or shoul-
der action, due to internal shear stresses, has experienced
a severe thermo-mechanical alteration, this zone is referred
to as TMAZ. Beyond this zone is that part of material that
has been subjected only to thermal alterations, this zone is
usually referred to as HAZ. The sight of the top surface of
the weld bead, shows semicircular rings referred as banded
microstructure; the distance between such rings depends on
tool advance per revolution: band spacing will increase as
this ratio grows, resulting in a less homogenous structure
within the weld [9].
Corrosion resistance of AA 2024 has been widely inves-
tigated, especially its susceptibility to pitting phenomenon
[10,11]; to authors knowledge, however, few data are re-
ported in literature about corrosion resistance of welded
joints of this alloy [12]. In this research each of alterated
zones above described, due to both welding processes un-
der consideration, have been specifically characterised, and
performances provided by the entire joints are proposed.
2. Materials and methods
The material under investigation is a commercial alu-
minium alloy Al 2024-T3. Two thickness plates have been
investigated: 2 and 3 mm. Simple butt weld joints have been
realised, in room conditions, along lamination direction, ei-
ther by TIG (2 mm plates) and FSW (3 mm plates).
TIG joints have been realised autogenously, i.e. without
filler material, with a Miller 375p ac arc-welding power
source with a 380 V input and an air-cooled internal trans-
former. Detailed parameters are: voltage10 V, welding cur-
rent 157–158 A (42% of maximum amperage 375 A), argon
as shield gas (flow rate 20 l/min), electrode WP 1.60 mm ×
1.75 mm ISO 6848.
About 3 mm panels have been friction stir welded using
a DORMAC milling machine mod. FU110. The tool (car-
bon steel C40) shoulder diameter is 18 mm and the pin is
a truncated cone (6.5 mm base and 5.5 mm head diameter)
2.9 mm height. The tool rotational speed has been set equal
to 1600 rpm and translation speed equal to 80 mm/min.
TIG and FSW joints have been sectioned in transverse
direction to obtain the specimens. These ones have been
cut along welding direction, to separate the weld bead and
heat-affected zone (HAZ) from parent alloy. For electro-
chemical measurements, specimens have been embedded in
epoxy resin (Technovit 3040 KULZER HERAEUS® ) so to
expose only a single surface to the aggressive solution. Then
they have been electrically connected with a copper wire,
set in a glass tube (it also embedded in resin), by a conduc-
tive epoxy resin (Technovit 5000 KULZER HERAEUS® ).
All specimens have been machined with emery papers up
to no. 1200, washed with distilled water and then polished
with a degreaser to have a smooth surface.
Instrumental Vickers micro-hardness measurements have
been performed through the weld zone at different depths;
a LEITZ WETZLER® durometer has been used with a load
of 300 g. Impressions have been done with 0.5 mm step for
each line.
Two different electrochemical tests have been conducted
in 3.5 wt.% NaCl aqueous solution: polarisation curves (PC)
corrosion testing, performed to assess the pitting resistance
by recording anodic and cathodic, and electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) testing, performed to evalu-
ate surface’s performances. The electrochemical cell used is
a 2l volume flask; solution has been stirred by air (aerated
solution) or nitrogen (deaerated solution) flow during each
test. The specimen represents the working electrode, while
two platinum wires, symmetrically disposed with respect to
specimen under investigation, served as the counter elec-
trode; a saturated calomel reference electrode (SCE) has
been employed. Experiments have been conducted at room
temperature. After immersion, first the potential has been
allowed to stabilise, and then, after 1 h immersion, the test
started.
PC tests have been conducted in both aerated and deaer-
ated solutions. Data have been obtained using a potentio-
stat EG&G® Princeton Applied Research Corp. Model 273
which consists of a complete hardware that measures the re-
sponse of an electrochemical system to dc excitation (soft-
ware package Corrosion Software M352); the hardware in-
cludes a potentiostat as electrochemical interface, a personal
computer, and the electrochemical cell. Potential range in-
vestigated was −1000/ − 400 mV versus SCE for tests in
aerated solutions and −1400/−600 mV versus SCE for tests
in deaerated solutions, both with a rate of 0.5 mV/s. Tests
have been conducted on three main zones (parent alloy, heat
affected zone and weld bead) belonging to each kind of joint.
EIS tests have been conducted in aerated solution only,
using a Solartron Frequency Response Analyser (FRA)
Model 1260 and an electrochemical interface, potentiostat
Solartron 1287, including a personal computer with a GPIB,
and the electrochemical cell. Measurements have been per-
formed starting from the 0.02 Hz up to 105 Hz, at 10 data
cycles/decade, 5 mV ac amplitude and with an average si-
nusoid curve value equal to the open circuit potential, i.e.
corrosion potential.
3. Results and discussions
It is well known that, in case of TIG welding, due to the
fusion of material and high temperatures experienced by
 A. Squillace et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 97–105 99

Fig. 1. Macrography of TIG weld: (1) weld bead; (2) HAZ; (3) unaffected zone.

adjacent material a fairly wide HAZ appears (see Fig. 1),
in which parent hardening precipitates experience a kind
of over-ageing, causing phase transformations (θ  → θ  )
[1], resulting into a general loss of mechanical proper-
ties, as confirmed by decay in micro-hardness measures
(see Fig. 2).
During the realisation of FSW joints, instead, two differ-
ent phenomena have to be taken into account, each of them
leading to different conclusion. By one side the tempera-
tures experienced by material involved in welding process,
though lower than melting one, induce phase transforma-
tions leading to same considerations drawn for TIG joints
and the result is still a decay of mechanical properties, this
situation regards nugget zone, flow arm zone and TMAZ,
Fig. 3; on the other hand, great shear stresses induced by
tool motion lead to the generation of a very fine grain struc-
ture [2], see again Fig. 3, which allows a partial recovery
of mechanical properties, and this happens only in nugget
zone and, above all, in flow arm zone. Moving from centre
of weld bead toward unaffected material, after TMAZ there
is the HAZ: in such a zone of FSW joints realised on an alu-
minium alloys similar to that under investigation in present
research, i.e. in T3 condition, the low temperatures expe-
rienced can induce a kind of ageing, resulting into a light
increase of mechanical characteristics. As a matter of fact,
by viewing micro-hardness map of FSW joint, Fig. 4, low-
est values regard TMAZ; values of stirred material (nugget
and flow arm zones) appear slightly higher than previous
ones, while values of HAZ are slightly higher than those of
unaffected material.
Results of PC tests, conducted on TIG joint are graphi-
cally reported in Figs. 5 and 6, while main measured data
are collected in Table 1. The highest Ecor,A value attained
by parent alloy indicates that such material is the noblest

Fig. 2. Map of normalised micro-hardness measures of TIG joint.

Fig. 3. Macrography of FSW weld: (1) nugget zone; (2) flow arm; (3) TMAZ; (4) HAZ; (5) unaffected zone.
100 A. Squillace et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 97–105

Fig. 4. Map of normalised micro-hardness measures of FSW joint.

Fig. 5. Anodic and cathodic PC of parent alloy, HAZ and weld bead of TIG welded specimen in 3.5% NaCl aerated solution.

one. For all zones under investigation, an Epit,D value lower
than Ecor,A value has been found, this means that all zones
are subjected, in equilibrium conditions, to pitting corro-
sion. Turning, then, attention on last column of above men-
tioned table, the value of difference between two potentials
increases moving from weld bead to parent alloy. Such re-
sults indicate that, in equilibrium condition, the general ten-
dency of entire joint is towards pitting corrosion, but while
in parent alloy pits are generated and then they increase, in
other two zones pits would tend to be generated, but a shield
action, provided by corrosion products themselves, prevents
this occurrence.
Focusing attention in Fig. 6, weld bead show an higher
ipit,D value than HAZ and parent alloy: this means that just in
this zone a greater number of pits would tend to be generated
than in other two zones.
Turning attention on FSW joint, Table 2 shows, one more
time, a parent alloy Ecor,A value greater than the others. It
 A. Squillace et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 97–105 101

Fig. 6. Anodic and cathodic PC of parent alloy, HAZ and weld bead of TIG welded specimen in 3.5% NaCl deaerated solution.

Table 1 as confirmed by Fig. 7; but, this time, both HAZ and weld
Measured main potentials, during PC test, for TIG joint bead show an Ecor,A value lower than Epit,D value: this means
Ecor,A (mV) Epit,D (mV) Ecor,A −Epit,D (mV) that, in equilibrium conditions, both HAZ and weld bead
Parent alloy −690 −714 24
show a passive behaviour, while parent alloy shows again a
HAZ −701 −709 8 well developed pitting phenomenon. What is more, in FSW
Weld bead −701 −705 4 joint, the HAZ shows the greatest ipit,D value, Fig. 8, then

Table 2
Measured main potentials, during PC test, for FSW joint
Ecor,A (mV) Epit,D (mV) Ecor,A −Epit,D (mV)

Parent alloy −690 −714 24

HAZ −655 −644 −11
Weld bead −665 −636 −29

has to be underlined that, also in case of friction stir welded

joints, investigations have been carried out on specimens
cut from weld bead, HAZ and unaffected material, while no
specimens belonging to TMAZ have been considered: this
is due to the fact that TMAZ zone is completely confined
within the joint and it does not show any surface to external,
as confirmed by Fig. 3. With respect to TIG joint, differences
among Ecor,A values of three zones are, now, more evident,

Fig. 7. Anodic and cathodic PC of parent alloy, HAZ and weld bead of FSW Fig.
welded specimen
8. Anodic andincathodic
3.5% NaCl aerated
PC of parentsolution.
alloy, HAZ and weld bead of FSW welded specimen in 3.5% NaCl deaerated solution.
102 A. Squillace et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 97–105

the oxide layer of this zone is characterised by the greatest
number of defects.
To take into account the asymmetric nature of FSW pro-
cess, a further series of tests has been carried out on speci-
mens cut respectively from advancing and retreating part of
weld bead. Results are reported in Figs. 9 and 10 and data
are collected in Table 3. In equilibrium conditions retreating
side, as well as weld bead, shows a passive behaviour, while
advancing side, shows a slight pitting phenomenon. To con-
clude, the advancing side shows also the greatest ipit,D value,
so same considerations above mentioned can be drawn.
Results of EIS tests, carried out on TIG welded specimens,
are graphically reported in Fig. 11. The value of Eoc of these
tests has been set equal to −716 mV, with an oscillation

Fig. 9. Anodic and cathodic PC of total weld bead, retreating side and advancing side of FSW welded specimen in 3.5% NaCl aerated solution.

Fig. 10. Anodic and cathodic PC of total weld bead, retreating side and advancing side of FSW welded specimen in 3.5% NaCl deaerated solution.

Fig. 11. Bode plots of impedance vs. frequency for parent alloy, HAZ and weld bead of TIG welded specimen in 3.5% NaCl aerated solution.
 A. Squillace et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 97–105 103

Table 3
Measured potentials for advancing and retreating side and total weld bead
of FSW joint
Ecor,A (mV) Epit,D (mV) Ecor,A −Epit,D (mV)

Advancing side −657 −669 12

Retreating side −651 −635 −16
Total weld bead −665 −636 −29

Fig. 12. Equivalent circuit for parent alloy.

of ±5 mV. According to values emerged from polarisation

curve tests, weld bead and HAZ zone lay in passive stretch
of polarisation curve, while parent alloy is tested very close
to its Epit,D . Results pointed out by PC tests are confirmed by
evaluation of plots reported in following figures: in Fig. 11
parent alloy shows a linear decay of impedance value for
lowest frequency values, allowing to confirm the presence
of a pitting phenomenon fully developed.
Equivalent circuits, able to simulate, by both a quantita-
tive and a qualitative point of view, the behaviour of inves-
tigated materials, are reported. The circuit regarding parent
alloy is reported in Fig. 12. It is important to underline the
presence of an inductance component (L), revealing the pit-
ting phenomenon showed by material. Rsol , Rox and Rct are
resistance components regarding, respectively, the solution,
the oxide layer and the material itself. CPEox , indicating a
variable condenser, simulates, to conclude, the presence of a
mobile electric double layer formed to the interface between
specimen and solution. In Fig. 13 a circuit simulating the
behaviour of both HAZ and weld bead is proposed: the main
differences with respect to parent alloy circuit lays in the
absence of inductance (confirming absence of a developed
pitting phenomenon) and in presence of CPEAl , indicating
the store of electric charge at the interface material–oxide.
In Table 4, numerical values attained by electrical compo-
nents of equivalent circuits of TIG joint corroborate, one
more time, the results and the behaviour till now drawn for
this joint: both Rct and Rox of HAZ and weld bead, in fact,
are greater than those of parent alloy.
Fig. 13. Equivalent circuit for both weld bead and HAZ of TIG joint.
For EIS tests performed on friction stir welded joints,
Eoc has been set equal to −718 mV, a value very close to
pitting potential of parent alloy. From analysis of Fig. 14,
considerations very similar to those of previous case can
be drawn; the main difference lays, in this case, in a more
homogeneous behaviour of three zones under investigation.
In figure, in fact, not only the curve regarding parent alloy
but also that one regarding weld bead show a very slight
decay for lowest frequency values. In this kind of joint, best
performances are those offered by HAZ.
Same tests have been carried out, as comparison, be-
tween advancing and retreating part of weld zone: results are
graphically reported in Fig. 15. In Fig. 16 equivalent circuits
for FSW joint are reported, numerical date are collected in
Table 5. In all above-mentioned figures, but, above all, by
data of Table 5, best performances shown by retreating side
of weld bead are evident, with total absence of every signal
related to pitting phenomena.

Fig. 14. Bode plots of impedance vs. frequency for parent alloy, HAZ and weld bead of FSW welded specimen in 3.5% NaCl aerated solution.
104 A. Squillace et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 97–105

Table 4
Values of main electrical components belonging to equivalent circuits of TIG joint
Rsol () Rox () Rct () L (H) CPEox (␮F/cm2 )·Hz1−α α CPEAl (␮F/cm2 )·Hz1−α α

Parent alloy 0.692 1753 445.7 2552 86.78 0.77 – –

HAZ 0.795 6567 35252 – 36.89 0.87 135.08 0.95
Weld bead 0.684 2971 10952 – 31.99 0.86 199.92 0.69

Fig. 15. Bode plots of impedance vs. frequency for total weld bead, retreating side and advancing side of FSW welded specimen in 3.5% NaCl aerated
solution.

Fig. 16. (a) Equivalent circuit for retreating side and (b) for both global weld bead and advancing side of FSW joint.

Table 5
Values of main electrical components belonging to equivalent circuits of FSW joint
Rsol () Rox () Rct () L (H) CPEox (␮F/cm2 )·Hz1−α α CPEAl (␮F/cm2 )·Hz1−α α

Parent alloy 0.692 1753 445.7 2552 86.78 0.77 – –

Retreating side 0.433 3051 – – 15.74 0.91 154.75 0.56
Advancing side 0.684 1964 – 9501 33.56 0.95 – –
Total weld bead 0.628 3315 – 45554 17.06 0.91 – –

4. Conclusions four different main zones: nugget zone (including flow

On the basis of experimental research carried out in
present work on welded joints of Al 2024-T3, realised
according to FSW and TIG processes, the following con-
clusions can be drawn:
• Micro-hardness tests performed through the thickness of
TIG weld joint allow to confirm the general decay of me-
chanical properties, shown in both weld bead and HAZ,
related to phase transformation induced by high temper-
atures experienced by material.
• Micro-hardness tests performed through the thickness of
FSW joint allow to point out the great differences among
arm), TMAZ, HAZ and unaffected zone (i.e. parent alloy).
The first two zones are characterised by a general drop of
mechanical properties, even though the nugget and flow
arm zone show a light recovery due to very fine grain
structure, while the third one show a very slight increase.
• Polarisation curve and EIS tests allow to point out that
in both kind of joints parent alloy show evident pitting
tendency, while weld bead and HAZ show a passive be-
haviour, even though, in case of FSW joint, such differ-
ences are less evident.
• Comparison performed on advancing and retreating side
of friction stir weld bead show with a certain evidence the
nobler behaviour the latter zone.
 A. Squillace et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 152 (2004) 97–105
Acknowledgements
The authors want to thank Alenia Aeronautica for provid-
ing aluminium alloys investigated in present paper.
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