L _

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All riPII rt~rwd
Printed in the UniTed SlUes of Amvica
Brilish Library Cllalov.ing in l'ublication 1"forma/ion AYl ilabl"
The . uthor wl$h$ (0 ell:prellli npprcc ialioo \0 Iht following a uloou
aoo pUblisben. for varuing permIssion 10 qltOle from lhrir JNlirials
Co-publi$hed by amMIg.... ,,'uwith !he SurnIMf '"stUute of III llIi' IIodt: Samson Negbo AbarJ&ma from '1710! u~ of Afotk. In
Unl"islics. lfI(;. Denyn l)ucouru ( 1987); Kalharint Barnwell Iron her tv.'/) lexlboob
Bibl~ Tran.,/mion (1975) [lJId Imrod"Clio~ 10 &l1Ianlics aN Tml'lS[u,
Previous edition C 1984 li()fl (1980); Chicago LinguiSTic Society frOO1 Papt:,..from roo Eighth
Volume editor: Boonie Brown kfiqnaJ M U l i1l1f, Elli:! W. Deiblo:r and A J. 1'IYIor Ii'orn T' (JIIJ/mion
1'rr>bI.,.,~ ( \971); Carl D. Dubois from tu, article eo.u.ecli..u '-11
Ub ....,· of ConCr ... Cati loJinc·m-I'. blitalion Data Sarruwuti Manobo; llah Fleming from bf:r Fil ld Goridefot' Co"'m~­
niall''''' Sill'''lio~, Sema.n/,'c ami MOFfmtmic AMI}&< (1 977 ); Ell en
l-Ilrron. Mi!drt:d L. M . Jackson from Rul and /VIetorj{;tl/ Q"" siions in Tik<lr ( 1982 ):
Meanina.basc<llnIrulllion, a , ,,id. to "'....... t.rt, "lCI' cquivalcnt;c I Kennnh and Evelyn Pike fOl' pcnnissi()(l to u~ the n:unpl~ O)!I pages
Mildred L L.arwn. - 20d ell. -49-50 of their book GmmlltGli<:GJ Anal)'>";" (1 977); 1M. Summa
p. CIII . Insrllufe ofLlnguisllcs for f""lnhslon 10 quoo.e from NoIn 0" T ",./U -
Indudeo bibiiouapbicai reference, and ind~. 1(1ll1)n, Note.< on Un&:uisli~, John f)edcrmm ond John Callo",". Tmm.
I. Tran.la'irtg and interprding I. Title /ol lMg Ih~ Won:I ofG<x1 (1974), Knlhlcco OIIlow. rnlCOJUst Con, jd·
P306_U4 1997 4 18 ' .1)2-DC21 97-44626C1P ao,iOflI Ur Tm ruklllq I~e Word of God (1974), Mildred Larson, A
MiJJMJDl for PTObkllf SoMrrg iN Bibk TraIlSb:sIWn (1915) and .lOOn
ISH:"! ()'16 18-Q97().1 (d od! : r.lt . ppr.) BcekIlWl, Jolio C.Uow. 2nd Mkhad K~ 11re St!rnnnIi~ StnH!ture
ISBN 1).16 18-W71-6 (pbk: alk. I'I""') a!WrillU CommUnkillio1l (1 981); TIlt- United Bible Socjg! I ~ frolll
--.~
111, HlblE TrmHlalQr, p"nicu lart~ the artIcles by Darday Newman

(/~'-i...
' ' u ' ~.,.-"':''''''
( 1977) 8Ild David Fro; (l959)~ Weslcm Pubi l!lhlng COltlpaOy fro m
-; . U.d",=/ H i.<roryofll!f WorlJI Vol. 2 by Jam« L.. StdTeosm (J%6);
.•. , .lI:,%.->-.,j and Jam<:! WbcIIlky from his articl ... K_'i,dg<!. AUlitoriJy. a1Iil
\" · s' ./' IruJi"Wuaii:rm "",ong IItt: Cura (9_iri) (1m) lind ProftOUIr$ and
----_..--" Nomi"'" Elemn ./.J Iw Bar.airt OW»urst (1973)

e-The paper 11K<! in Ib is publication meets lite minimum

~I!I or American .-arional StlIndIord for information
S,it"ttl-P~ncc of Plopo!r for Printed Uhl'll)' M .. erillls.
ANSI <:39.4 8 - 19114

'"
 CONTENTS
f<l«"'(lrd . .,
rrd:lCe .
•
Own'~' of th e Tnm.latiOD Task .
l. Form and Meaning.
2. Kinds ofTrnn;laliom. .., .. ".,

"""
3. The Semantic StrucIl)re of Lungu.lge •.
4. Implicit Meaning.
5, Step< in a Tra",;latioo ProjeC1 ..
The Lultt! • .
"
7. SOllie Itelalionship<
H
6. Words as " Bundlcs of Meaning . .
""""HI!
Ll'xicaJ IteU'" ,
""
8. Oi$CO'..mn& Meaning by Groupil1ll l1'1d Oln!mst.
9. Mismlllching: oflnical SY$lcml bellii'M! Unguage. """
10. Multiple Sen= of Le;d Clll ll.elDl .
11. Figurative Senses ofLe)[ica.1 hrtflll.
".
12. Person Ref"'"Dce . '"
lJ. lA.~ical hruIS and Situ.liQual Qootcill.
14. CQlIoc.tion!\lld Con~Drd""", of Lcx lcal ltclm.
'"
'"
m
IS. l..elical Equivalent. " 'hen Concepts are Shred .
16. Lexlco.l Equ;v.ients when Coru;eplS ~I~ Unknown . '"
'"
17. Spc<:1111 Problems in Findiug u xlcal Equlv~lenul .
'"
Pr~il iuAaJ Structure .
Ill. I'lopos:ition< .•.
19. Caae Roles withirl E,~ Proposolions..
'"
'"
20. Rel.ni.OI)S within Sw.: Ptopaositlons•. • '"
'"
21. Sk~jnH bef.>..te\l Propositioool Structure II.IKI
C'tIme SInICtI.Irc. ,.,
22. Skewing of tUoclllklnlf)' Force ",,4 Gl'lIm!fl3lkal Form
23. Fil:UrBlive Proposiliorl!J!.fet8.p/>or$ >IlI<I Similcs.
24. More on Propos itional AD.lIlyt.is .
'"
'"
283
,
-- I

Com .... niall'''" R~lallons. 297

25. Addition lind Support R~\aI;orli .
26, OricnwiOfl and Clarifoo;atioo Relation •.
21. Logical Rdiltions.
'"
'"
3J5
28. Stimulus-RESPOSSE RoI~s.

Tn!s
'"
379
FOREWORD
2~. Groupinp , 381
30. Discourse Genre 399
In the 1M! thirty yean 3 body oflileraturo
3 1. Cohesion. <2, QI1 trAuslatl on theory.
IItmngly Inil UCf\COIJ by modem linlUislics. h", apl"'~ I"SUpport arod
32. PromiDeOCC , .
33. "Tho CoInl'QunlC8llon SilU31jon .'
34. Inf",.,....;oo Lood .
",'"on give ocadrntic ""'ptCl:'lbiliry [0 !be new pmfession of the nonlilcnq'
U'lJII$lalOr. Some of these boob, ootably " .'rillUJ by West .. E.IISI
Germans, ba\'e h«u '00 p/l il<>tOphical lind absirecl to ",1111" at all
cl~Jy to the translator', mul)(\:lO;! probl,"""" Some ~ .v. leoncd
The Tran.lati" n rrognm . 5<17 toward;; contrasrive linguiSlics. Others bave tended In lie tral'tSi.atJoo
100 clooeJy [0 a Iingulfilc theory.
35. Establishifllj: the Pro;':,", .
36. Tmn.slatioa Procedures.
37. Testing Ibe Trausl3lion.
""52'
519 Nida.'. wen: the first 10 del>11II all pta<'lically WIth the w lUll'llI as
""ell as Ihe mani fold linguistic problems of~.lion. Dr. MildJod
L.arwn h... here prodo,nd tll e first 'nlbool: designed 10 iii: used in 'h.
Cl!I.'UOOIll. as " basis for COIII"5C wQri(.
Rihli"1:I"3 I· 1,y

IlMin .
'"
S7l
I am pleased " ,," ftan .....ed (0 be invited to write a foreword for
her textbook "f translat ion method. The book'. p-"pose Is f,rst to mue
the Surrmer .lnstlltlle of Linguht;cs' tr.>niliotioo priDclples and study
prvccdW'tS "'idely .c.ov..... and S<"UlAdIy, 10 offu a tCJubook wbleh
will be generally U3CfiII 10 tr.J1lS1~ ion coursos in universities tond
CQlICllts o f fW1ner and hi&ber ed..cation throughOll1 lhe world, pII"
tielllnrly in the tllird world cou nlricm. where 1l00d English te>;l000b
lOre IOuch in delTlmld.
Tbi3 book include< Il1tOSllllloo eUlup/es from s ,,,,nmably ",kill
range of languages, partlcuLvly As..... African. and Amerindian
languages. rangina flOO' ilIe ",mantles of words, c:oIlocaIions and
J.JI"Opoiltion to Iht <"!ftats. enclilll each .haper wilh a u<;eful SCI of
pmctical exercises which are also a blick_up for learning English. lI er
Inatment Q[ collo.::aliom is rhe nlOjlthorough Md ill umi""ling thaI J
koow. Metaphor and sim ile have III importanl p/:w;e in !he book; We
semanlic ru.$lOtWn, of lileral translarion:tsf: ",,,II handled
Or.1....a.-..n h contiooous ly .x~ised to explllin LInd iU",trnte!he
interpiayofsy.-ax, SIOfnont~ and wmr" uniutlve force through suus
II/ld varintions of word ordcr in th C(lmposition of" 1exl. She makes

vi
'"
good II$C: of tbe still fainy /ececdy established p"inclpli:s of
IeXt-[ingU\>tics.
The emphasis of the '000);: Is on the "alue ef Idiomatic a~ d
UD,onsll'ainoo. language. The abu~n! <Uld ubd~ re.<;QUrCes of th~
EngUsb language are ~bed and uempli6N here "itl>. pt"rvnsiv<:
,."...,. and crnhusWm. The book Is excepl ionally wdl pI_oned.. .. 111>
~ com~hC(ll; ive 1/1&:" and bib!iOZfl\phy, and I have IK) doobt Ih/l(
every Ic:ocher and self_leach ing stndent cf tronslat;on , nd ef English
PREFACE
will fuId nlu<:h ill it which they.;:an lliC: "'itb profit

1'c1\:f Newmarl; ,
I'el ~"'lchnic "fContral Lend"" and UII"'~l'S ities of llradf()Id and Mere:llld more un;\'ersitio:s ar(t\lod Ihe worl d M~ adding OOurse3
Snrrey. U. K. in u1\flSlati0l1 10 t!leir curric~ lu<n: how""fIr. the tcxtboob a~'ai lab!c for
¥uch COIlr&es an: ~w. Tbis vol""", has been "Tim.• , wilb lIteSe coursa
in mind. TIle de$IR of lbe IUthOf is 10 m'lke 8\lIilabk Ibe principle.
of trnuslalioo wMch have bml learned through penonal expc:ricoc~
in ir1OIIslmi o:m and OOOS\l llalioo. ~nd Ihrous.h Interaction wit h coll"'g"'"
invol\"w in InnslBtion prOj«1S in many ports of th e world.
A ~ogicat style of pracnl8l1oo h."U been deJibo!r1IIely ado~.
RqlClilioo;' rcJUliVly ""'-'<I; hquently usc is made of eJr.81.np/C'I: and
Mch chapUI ~ludes wilb ",-ercises 10 becmried OUt by Ihe st~dcnl.
Since il i. assumed that =ny of the S/udclIIs will ~ ipeakel'$ of
minorily lartgUOlleJ. lIIZIoy of those exercises Involve lramlaJin& from
(If irno \heir mellier tongue. "The llW<:ri.1 I, ~ted III ruch • .... y
lhat it can be uled In a scl(-teaciling situ.1tion or in ft c1ll'iS1'<JOrn . An
aJtempl has beeJ) made 10 1<eel' technical lem1' 10 ~ mini,nlJrn. When
tcchnic.'!.l ~""lnry is \UoIOd, evtry effort Is IIIOIde /() clarify III"
tIlCIII)in& of"""h '·onbuiary. This lias been done 50 WI the book can
be U$ed by any tHlIJl~lor. e,'en thougI:t hi' «posun: 10 lingui""lc and
t"""lotion theory Iia.. bcett minimal. Ilowowcr, SOlO. "f the thcory Is
cowplu nnd tKl altemJX It II been made 10 ","rsimp/lfY Il But lbe
audJor has soughl 10 ll':\l 3l:I WlCompliCIIIlod strai&hlforwAf d 'lyle In
order /() tn.'Il"t it e"."'f for lhe user to gmsp the princ:ip/e.; bein&
pr='f1/ed.
Th is ;. Oil introductory texlbook. ]lie firSt five cll.."lI)i.Cl"& give Wl
0",,,.,,1\_ ~ljllJl: Ihe fuOOarnmlftl princil~a ofllWltJatiDfl and the
rut ofthelxlol; ex~ndl: and i!lusua!CS Ihc:se principlo.. The <>verriding
prillCipJc is lhat translation is mcaoing_hJsed rathe.r tlwJ fomt-Oased
Once rhe tl3nsl alor has ldrntl ficd rhe me<lll ill<l ofm" sourc.. 1el'1. his
goal is 10 expreS$ 111>.1 Same mcaning ill the receptor langnag(' With
forms " 'hid! may be ~ditTercnl from !hose of the """"'"' ten. Many

viii
"
exampl=s of CTOIiS-language equ ivalence are used to illustrate this
princip le.
The author is d""Ply inde~ed to the lat. John B«kman. from
wbom she learned m uch ofwml is included in this book. TIle material
presented h",. borrows beavily from his writings "~1d those of Joho
Callow, Kathleel1 Callow, Kamarin. Barnwell. and Eugene Nide. Th i,
book simply takes the tmnsl.tion principles expounded by them and
~ls !hese principles imo a new frameworl: all a texlbook for prospec-
ti"e translators. e<pecially ~pe:tkers of the ronny minority l:mguag ••
of the world.
J also wisl, to thank Dr. P!:1er Newmark for reviewing lhe
manuscript and writing the foreword. Dr. N.-wmark i. vi.IUng Profes_ OVERVIEW OF THE TRANSL ATION TASK
sor at the Polytecl:onlc "fCentral London and Unh'ersit ies of Bradford
""d Surrey, U.K. wflll comi&rahlc e"pcrience ill trainingluru;btors.
I-li. 1981 boot . .~pproach<!s 10 Trans/ation, was espociall y helpful 10
me in the p!'epaml;"" ofthi' led book.
M,,"y persons han helped in th e preparation of tMs book. The
author Is especial!y grateful 10 her oolle.o.gue:5. mem1>ers oflhc Summe)'
lnstitute of Linguistics, who revie'-"ed the 1fl3I1uscripl, m8king many
helpful sugge:<tJons. and '0 tho.e w bo helped in many ways in 11,,,
JlNparation of the manuscript The lis! of tho.le who contributed is
very long a'ld ",och i~ gready appredated.

MLL
September 1997

,
 Chapter 1
Form and Meaning
Whit is trans la tion?
Tram latioo. by dictionary definition, consist. of cluu:1ging from
one SlIlt. or tonn 10 another, co (Urn Into one·s own Ol" anodt<:r'$
language (1bC' Mmiam ·Webitc.. Di~ 1974). Tramlalion i.
bMioollya d tangt:of tonn. WMnw ••pnt.of tht I'orm oc. La~
"'·e lire referring to !be ""IUIII words. P~. cla\LI~'. sent~.
paragrnphs, etc., whieb are spol;en or written. Thew form . are referred
to .. !be su rface se n ti" ", ofa bnguage. It is the suuctunJ pwt of
lllllgU3g~ ,,·bicIJ " actually -"= in prim or hcaN in sptDCh. In
tr.... l&ion the for m. or \he !IOIIf':;e I.onguagc " ,epIaood by lite 1'0....
of tbe receptor (target) IMgIIIIge. But how 1.1 IMs ch;ooge aooom-
pti,bed? ""'bal de!ermines the choic.s of r<l.m in tltt trans I~tion?
Th e purp<>SC of tltis tut is 10 mow th!ll lrnnslatioo con';w of
ITllr\Jfari", tit. " ' lDin; of 1IHI source llllliUDKC into t/o. r,cepI<n
lanJll3&e. Thi. is done by &0;l1li from the f. rm. of the ftrSllanguage
10 Ole form of a IH!COnd l""8IRg~ by wa,/ of annantic $UUClUre. It is
IDcanln: which ill boeing tran~fcrTed and mu>t be beld COO5tanl. Only
lb c form changes. The f(>1'I1I Ih.llo which tit .. tranillation is made will
hi! <::Illed the SOUFlCF: LANOUAGJ::. aod \he for m into ",b leb it is to
be chaoged will be called the RliCEPTOR LANOUAGE. T ....... btion.
then. c:onsiJU ofstlldying lb. le.:lcon, grnmmltlcal strIlClW"". commu-
nicaTion ,jrualior~ and culrurul t:OIlIext of !he """""" 1ol1!5"l'Sc I1:;U.
anllyzing It in order to det<Ttn i"" its meanini. And then reconstructing
tlJilI ....... mc;mllli u<lng the ltxicon and grnmmatios! $trocture which
ar_Ilpp"0rrimeln the RECEPTOR LANGUAGE.1Id i\scullural ~ontaI.
The proc:cs. may be ruagr.lltme<i :os <hown in Oispby 1. 1.
l<!t u~ look II an eumpiQ. Assume tlu.t we arc tnlnStallng the
Span;5b sentence ~ Te~tp ,U('nl>,·· into the Aguaruna language ofPmJ.
ntil Spanisb fonn oonslsllJ of the verb fun\) 'eng- 'have·. the ."Uffix
..() ·fl1Sl pcr$OrI", and 1be word.....,110 ·.Ieep." The combination means
Ihat ~a person, the opeak.., iI in the S\.3le ""bcln& 'l eepy. ~Tocoo~y

,
t.hil S811le mc:anina in Ag\.l.1nllla """ would use KajDlfg pwja_i.
K H
 ~ E't;~~! ""~.~ u§.B ci
\;I --5 0
• l<-;; "' "'~E~ <""I_~S!'j
,00< - - '~!!l iS~.., ....; S ~J2 1:l!~
,- .
-'"
•
~
~
•0 •j . .£~li\
~.d
""cHi." a !
''ii' ',ii
~P"~ ,. I
:;;.,~. ~ j
~
~..,~-g-;
l!I.!sl;li°6.;
- z "Ii':::'f
~i:'B
~ ~
" E - _ 0"

~
~
~
•
. 'Ullor
~"E~Z"~
~ ~o "B~j ~
..s o:s o~"; " '"
.a".i~ -""
~ , lmt!~! •
1~,ljio
d~

~
<
•
••
co !• j.~l~~ u~
§ "
8 ~"U'"~
i,~ ~
;0..

_ '1.
""<I

t·
:$ '
o"'~.}: '" >'E
"'3" =>~"! ,..:,~"81:
0_

g .... -;;
I~-0; "~~o.zZ" ..~:gil
~
~j
IfI
,, r.::" 001

•••~
..c
-9:a.; 2j:::'i;.£ -.Ii' !.=
'Q oil is ~ .. I. !I
•••• -!r·!
II
jj- ~'''~''
~ rnr~
.;~~~ ~
,
rn••
o)i::..'l<"::i
_
• "u h~~~I~"i
!.., g~E81:
~ ~
-
.c it]" ........ o!O '; ~ h;~ j
• ~ ~.
"" !::$ "d'.8~_
'j u
" =HJH
• OVERVIEW OF TH£ TRANSLATION TASK
Ulp \(J fantdic M ......j<> lo./aId. ~ In anoIber pl.""
~ brocln"" ""Y3.
-Ikyond 011 Utou ,hillp. mJoyofrkiidOlu l/tal your pro!",' m;"d CWI
(7et/1t. M(1MjO is ilt.fpiraril)7f, ~ meaning "And. above all. enjoy tht
dc:h&hu whIch your own mind will cre!lte . Mal'!jo w ill ;ru;piro y<I~."
A look at thc Portuguese 011 the other side oflhe bro<:hu~ show~ tbat
the unnaumll English was tile result of following the form of the
Portuguese llOlII'Ce lacgu.~gt) i:JI Ulllking the EIlgIWI rectpoor l~c
rransJaIiOll. T(} do efT«Ilve tf1ll>Slalion one must dl$CO>'cr the m.... ning
orllle source language and '*
receptor l:mguage forms wbleb c:xpross
this menning in a .."lund ..'ay.
II is !he purpose oftl'lil b<lok to fumiliariu tJx, reader wilh til<>
basic IInaulstfc and socloHngubTk facton invol ved in {[",\Slating Q
text from . SOURCE LANG UAGE into a $I.lC()OO IMgUagc, i,e .. II,.
RECEPTOR LANG UAGE, (I/ld to give them enoual' prnc!ice tn 11,.,
IJ'8QOI ~tIO!l process for the o:ie1.'elopnenr of d;lIli in ~""""' · Ianguag<:
ne
tmr:I'If"l". UDderIYlrlg pret1I iIIe upon which the book is t..scd is tIuot
the but umu!IIIion is the <lne ..,bicll (1) uses tu IW)I"I'J'I3l 1ang"'91
f<IJJM of lb. ~""'languII&", (2) eornmunicales, _much .. po:mible,
(0 the r«eplor Ia.'lgul'ge speakers the saine meanl na that was under-
stood by the speakers of the SOIlrCe i:>nguage, and (3 ) maintains the
dynamics of the originnl source language te)(~ Maintaining the "dy-
namks" of the original ~ I~Xl mea"" Ibal the lrnD.'lia!iOl1 i.
pre&en1M in .""h
a WIly thaI il .... ill. bopefully. evoke the u rne resp"n.e
as 1M SOUfC( ie.'l:1 ~ttewpl..d to e\'Ok~
Characttri$tks of lugllllgt .... hicb "fTt tT tnll,lation
ThcrI= ate certain cl>anc\~ri>(ic. of JangUllgcs which 1'(1.\"( a very
di rect bc:lII"ing on prindples of lTlInslal;on. f IN!. 101 \IS look 31 the
charactcr!st!c, of meaning co'"poneot:I. Me . nl0l: compo nents arc
"p" cknged~ InIO le~ical items . bUI Ihey rue "packaged" differently In
0118 1.tllIiWlge than in anoI.hcr. In lIlon 1~1 Iher<: ilo a meuin,
~JI1 po ..... 1 ofpJuralil)'. for eu mple Ih. English -I. ThJJ.often occurs
In !he grammar M I wffix DIlI~ nouns or vutllli or both. In Aguaruna,
flQwC"'f Cf, phtrllUl)' ~ ~ IlOOlponetll oftbt.: ,·qb.'lem ItK lJ"and unoot
be IIeJI01fUCId OUI for many of the more common "en.,. Jfthc lICtor i.
~incalur, tile first fonn wil l be> lIocd, If plural, ~ ~
I. IUpihJ.~ Ite run$ 2.pi.laju oI,.,~
eke/" be silt 2. peUJruaII Ihey lil
l. IO-et< M WC01 2. .JJtiaJw !hey WQI
Form 4nd Hutting
A study of any diaionary will indlcak the am3lJng Mp!ldaging"
of meaning COf1IpanenIS in lexical ilnns.. In OtDllll" (Muico). one
$insle ....ord rnran<....udo shup U)' " igJoI. All of those componetl!l: are
in a ¥insJc lexical item. In Vittn."Wl~e. there is' word w!, icb meoos
"'meon~ ItllWl.f 10 go S01tU?W~~,.., ,,,,d IOmelhilf8 M/'fNl/U tlI ~~ so
I~at he Iorts /0 SO bad: Mme. Many limes a iringle word in !he OOUrcc
languace will need 10 be Irl\l1Sla,oo by sevem words. For I'Ulllple. 3
..n
projNror ...·u called 1M Ihillg firm slwws lJic1"fes on lhe .. by !be
Chipaya of Sol,,' ;""
Second. h Is clrllacterimc of ~'IOgUlgu that the &aII1I: J1lC3I1ing
compor>Ctlt will 0C<:Ur in >ie\'cnrJ surface structure kJr.lcal items
(fol'll1").ln EngUi;h, Ihewonl jJoup oc=n. How"'"el, r.be words /(lmb.
ram, and ewI\' 81so include the m~an lng sMep. They l[}Clude tbe
additional mtlUll ~ 1l componenls of yo<mg (In lamb), IJdr.,lr 3fld male
(in ram), and 00..11 andfunale (In e"I<'o!). In HuambiloA (I'cru), Ic.mb
would r~ ((I be u:aru;lated by M,beep its child. ~ rtfm by "sheep big. ~
md roo ... by Rshcep il3 "·oman. ~
Third, il is funh .. cbaJw;t<::ri:$llc of languages thai ~ ro ron will
be moo 10 represenr l'C\'erai .hClMlive meanin\:l. Thi~ ao:aln is
obv iou$ fr(>m looking in any good dictionary. For example, the
Reader's J)igo,\ Oreal Enc.ydopodic Dictiooary gives fifty-foll( mean-
ing< for rhe English word nm. Mo;r word<> h.v~ more than one
meaning. There will be a ptimary lne~ning -Ihe ooe ",hleb usually
comes to mind wb en tile word is said in iwlatioo-nnd ~
~ _ the lIddill0ll31 muninp which a word has in con~ wilb
otbt1" words. 10 Engl i.!t. we can A)' rM boy tlllU, using nlll in its
primary IDleMlng. We can all<) say rhe 1NO/at"/1l1IJ. the rlw:rrwu, and
M.I ~ nln1, u$ing nm in ""'ColI<1.'II), so::tlS'eS, I.e., Wilh different
mean ings. BUiootice the following comparison with S"Mi~h. Motors
fI1ld noses <lo noI ,om in oli langWlges.
f..NGLlSIt SPANISH
Th<boy_ E1 nl6\l com (l1IIIS).
n .. ,,1000I" I\ID&. EI molO< I'unclor .. {funaloMj
The clock run •. III reloJ ..1d4 (""lu).
His nose I1lI\l. Su nW ctIorrfl (&ipo).
Tb is pt"inc:iplc i. OOllimiu"j 10 ~lk:Illlems for it Is also true that
the _ CJNlIIIW;~ s-tlem !lUIy expr-ess ""''era! qultco differmt
meaninSl' For e:xam~e, the ErJglldr pn~ive phrase ",yit",," may
mean ~the b.O\ISe I o"n, ~ Mtbe hou:Ie I rent." '"'the Itouse lllvc In.M
, OV1':,RYJEW OF l1Je TRANSLATTON TASK F (m.. find MMmng 9

~tbe ~ I w ilt, "tile hOU'lC for ",1\kh I drew up the plans." Only
M 0< Coonp8fC abo !he follo"'ing UiIe$ or b)"
!be Im"gft" context Oetermines !he rnunirl&. t;ori« Ihe followia&
VO$$CiSive Pmoscs rind tile \1IIiOtY of rnc:aoing:s: .John ,,,.. 1Ioppcd by tile polir<:1IlIIrI.

John <topped by the boo~~ Dd

m,= oWlImhip

~ ...... ""'" In the fll'St, by ;1 used to sigmllhe ulc:aning \hat the poUcc:m.ao h lhe
ogot1lf ofllle K im In Ihe seooIId, "" signals iMilhe hooblaDd is lbe
"'1 fool port· .... ho'" (pari or my body) /JxlJ1iD1r.
In the AchoU lmguage of Sud.m. the word Of~ has \'arlous
my .in~nll """"-llCt;v:i!), (J lIng) f1ICMlngs depend ing OIl the word s witb which it oo;cur5 N()(ice the
fol lowing'
"'Y book O'I'ner.;bip or anhon.tiip
(!he book [""'.... or. me book L ........)
r...ru._. The child jz tI-'.
my~il. r~ [lhe ,'[!\ag• ....bcrc I H,".)
A: ulu«<t. The pot U /IroU~ .
my ln.1r> U<& (tho 1nI1" l .ide 00.)
Mac ..", The rue I.t ""'" ""I.

Whole -"'I1u:nces nlS)' also ha,'e ...vaal fWlClKln!o. A quesliOl1

form may "" uud for a nonqlltSlion. Fore:campk>.lhI: question " M ",),.
wiry d",,'lp< .....,. tMdi.<M.1 ? "Jw I.e fontl of. question, and I118Y
In """. OOIItUI be a~king for informBl ioo, but it Ii often USN "'i th
the ", ea ninl: Of COlTlllland (or ~uggesti on). ralh~r lban a real question.
It 1$ th en a rhe lOl1cal que'tion. (The mnner of trandatlng questions
will be discussed In chapter 22.) A simple &.dish scnltncc like "f!,
",/Ilk ,"'" Nd. ~ .nay mcan eill101l" " He made (_ • carpenter "'(luM
(1I;U::c) the bed. ~ ()J ~He PIll the .shoets. bllmkCl, .00 pillow ill neal
order on the ~ "
J LlSI as woxds havo prim;1l)' and MCOOdaty meanings. 50 gram.
matlcal markers have (heir primasy function and ollen have Oilier
seeondary fian<:tj(lnl. The ~ i\\()n Oil is \ISW in F.n£lisll to s igllal ft
,'lIriecy of ~II&" Com!",", !he following uses of on with lhe
_pondilll! form med in Splll1ls~.
We !lave S«t1 thai OIlC form may t:ll1lf"5S ' \-arttlyof m ean in~
On tLc olhfl" band. !IAOlber charo<:teristic of llollguages is ~ •
.11Ii-le me~nln& m~y be expressed in a variety of forms. F"" e~-
3tnplc. the m03ning " the cat il bllld. ·' may be expressed loy Ihe
fo llowing: IIu! cal i$ black, Iht bJ~1r cat, and llul Cal. ",hkh i4
bhut, deP<'nd;~ on bow thaI mUning rel.oces to.> 0100 meanillS$-
In addition. lIIe mc:minp of"14 lhu piau f4ke,,1" " lllhe,.., "")"'lIe
4ining !ten?., and " May 14i1lrt=1" Prt essmtlally thc sarne. The
speak,"" is Indicating a ~ to .It in a UJUi/I II("II. In Pidgin, the
meaning "He gave me a bool; ~ SIllY' csscrnially til e same .....helher
one ~ays "~111 I glv;", Itlonpelo buk lo ~g mi" or "en> i g'~im mi
"",nIXI" but." AIO<l, lbe meanlna: Is essentially the WIle in the
following Enalish scnIenca (uample fmon K...L. Pike):

Jolin found . book <)It ' he floor. Ju:on ..""oml un hbn> ... (on) eJ "",10. O<h . ... blomod.loM bcaw.le of 11><: dimwIt)".

JCM foomd a book oro J,JoilIl tJlcoo1r6 UIl libro J"brdd~ OIb ..... IlI"mcci John for ,be dimc"l1~.
owr..mw<.. (ob:u) nwan&ticas.
0rIIm bLlom«l !he dilf.cul.ly Ill> John.
/otuI found. boot "'" n-d3y. 'u.n onOOft1r"O u~ libn> rl (1he) man=.
Odxn -'d.loM w. respoo$lbk fur II>< difficully.
iohn foond ~ boo&: "'" ..Ie. JI.llIIl enQ)llmlun libra a (ftl) Ia '· ....1lI
(on ~bqi., OIl barallllo) OIbers IIOOUoe..l JoJu, Qf beio, I.. pcn<lbk for th o dlfYiw \!y.
,,
YSE .5 ~ H[,
" f! oS"'.s tJ:i ~ ~ ~ ~~ Ii~ ~~ -l! ~-.1l~1i '1:'.2 ~ ~li-~ Pl

.,. -.
"" d" -'"
il'''''_~''' ! ~_o!'l ~
l~ ~E S ~l §:~8 ~g.§ I;j~ -?,,",~" 'ii:""1~~;
- ~j
oi! ."
~ .~. .;
1S. __ .;3 E
"'1!<l~"':::~~.!1
~~~~~~~l:~~""
" "
~
l. ~~"~t~el~'s~~
~":t-
~:l!: ...,-., .. '"
!It .~~[~
-ioe
~- '"
§~l~ o "
~f': ~_
.. ~]~:~
~

-
~Jj 6"'=-'; !;~;{i~~
.. " ~ a<.2,'E-s·~.gli
"': ~ll~ ".. ~ ~ E ~..2::t:
IS
1<"'1 "'"
:<~!lI:i ~ ~ '" § t}J!.:!
~E'l~.;~-s~~ -!:1]~ "E ..
"-g !:!.!!I
"
~g;<~
l'
~g
t-s.;j ~ .l;~~~1!~g
f -
);;tl , 0

.r "O<l ........
Sol .. !:t0 0 ,:,,:
- ,'<. t" "- ~ '"' l~~ ~~ ~ ~]~t: ~
<>" 5"
~.
~ll
,
f~:l ~ ,~ ~ ~-§~-;i~til41~ ,,~
..., '"

~ ~]>t..s o;~~ - ~~~

.,~
~.s ~ ~'i?
""-S.~.!
g ~]
~ ;:
=
,, ~
r:;
1i-
~
~~~ """
~~ ~i],~~~~t
."':t ~,,~ t
i""'" .. ll-::!.;;" <> -
~
~
~
§
~ ~~.@~ ~.:;] ~..,~:
j<'"1 ""'., i'!U
~ """ '" ....
"'~ ';f-';
~ ro
"i"t'o;
is 8 <> >.
~~
~§
~'§
i~11
~"
!
~ I!
~~";; ~-~~
-<: - " ... ..., ,,'"
.. ~j~§ ' !";::i~",~~ "
§~;;-~E41-i;-S~§
""·-~2""2"-S"gg; ... ~
"ll~<;
i:: l
"-':.Q".§cl,l~
J;1ll~~"IS ~~:;:]
" ' '''''''" <3 '-'" .~ ~:l2j
"!!ia '.!!~"EIi"'~~~"-
~~ .~ .~! ' <

r~.:;;
h - "1 ~'~l;!g -E
"<.0 ... l! ~,,"'''' ... g "' .~ '-'f; "'" '" &.g~6
~
-.; .- ~ oo~o Jl"'~
"'" " " >.."'" ~ '" ~2""5.!:i?""''''-'''tl''.,;<; ii ~ Jl" .g ~E
;~ ~ a_ " "6J!.g):;'ii-~ .. "'"
.. ~q~~ ":;
il.o ;; -~" ... '~"'1!""" il' ~~" ...il " ,-£ ...
~ll~ ~ [
'; .§i~~" ~~§~t-~ll~
~hS!""'is,"5il.~]
,,]~ !: ~~-,-;,~".;l~~
0'0 s
~"" " ,,- .t-- =:;.f'.] " ~
;; ~: ~.~~
n
<)" " " ,,'_
<I-~-
~~il.l;!~ ~ i?''''''''~ "0
~~ ]~
~ "* .E!c!ll~ "-c::"'-~~~",~-c::"''''~
~~ -s§~~~
'""~=.sI-1i ~~ .~§~~~,,~~~~
·!:l~\:ib~~ 0 t: Q
,
, 0
Z-s "'" " " " ,,~7; ..,." .,," E .5 .~] E5 :...1
~ ~ ~'o 8- ,, - ,,"
!f8-5.E
n QVEJWI£H' OF TH£ TIUNSUT/QN TASK Font. "nd M~""i"g /3
along M mddfnly $IIW" ~ry p-rlty liltk Mdloa Jyill601/ 6. ! Clme ; 1:IaW; I COIIIfUO'I'1!'d
/he rood. H~ l~alC/led up .lte lIutldn and thnM it ;"'" hi$ I (:;onK;, saw, and ~
_Ill ~ IMto: ...... "noll,er perM/II ""idling behind /rim
7. ~o........u later he came.
aNI h" diJ/,, '/ ......111 /rim 10 su lire """u..a.
The lfr<J"G"r
Aft.". Iw., ..."fd:s he came.
dido"' obi_ rltat I~ nect/lJa >ow- rn.lly a snak. lie diM
imfndiarll/Y. He dltd ~ /at. dJ,,', rea/be 110.0.1 iJ IO'M" 8. nne iI a l1lhI.e in Ihe booL
m*; /U did" ~ mow NI"'l " sNlke ima hi., _It. Ill/he,. Thcre 11 • book 00 ~ lable.
,1.1111" n""i:lna .
9. The young man had a Greek grammu book ,!Olen.
Anyth;,'i whicb ClIO be fAlld in one laogu!lgecarJ be $ltld In loo(h,. A Greek grammar book W"" stolen from tlto young man.
It [s pos.lble 1<,1 Lransl~!e. The gOili of the tnm,laIOr i. 10 keep the 10. He was awllkened by a thunderclnp.
meanihg constant. Where-,'cr !1eCeSMry. the receptor "'!liUagc ror", A thunderclap awakened him
should be chAJIgo:d In order that tbe source language mcanln~ !\OI be
distoned. Since a mun i n ~ expressed by a particular rOl"m 10 Olle
language may be up,cued 111 quile a differenl form III W1IX/Ia' B. U'iltl.< mIlIlY gramnt.1lical Conns 01'! yout"" which realize Ihe ... me
language, il Is often occessruy 10 ~han8e tile form when translatIDa. mun hl, as tM one given below. Thfn p!lllhe "me "'flAIIlI inlo
• I.ngu.~gec <>Ihe< th:\D ~Ii'h in .... many forn" lIS yo~ can.
Ex. llIe cal is black,
llIe bI.ad; cal
ltIe rnl, wllich is bla<;k
t:.XERClSlS - Form ane! Menia=-
l. the "'' ' eo-
jug
A. Iden'ifying ch8nse of I!It .... lllt \"emI$ ct\angf o rfor • . Some of
2. John bought mcar
!he following pail"$ orsenl~ differ in their forl"ll . Some differ
in m~aning. r,.,dieale if the primary change is in the furn. 0< in ). ~ hOI day
(he mean InG . ... mother', long blue dress
Ex. They robbed the old mat) S. l'elcr 's house
The old III:lIl was robbed by them.
Answer: t10ange of form c. All oC the fO»)lowing have (he same lIJMIl1Iallcal form. Wilh the
dw'S" ot" laical i!emS, Ihere 1.0 • chanae of mcanina w hieb is
I, TIIIO Jludl.1(ll~ lilI~ 10 ~Iudy M:ll)8!llia. aigMltd by that luital it...". apart from Ih. rcf.....,lial rnc..run& of
The ~\ldentl like srudylng lemanllcs. Ibe WOld ;tlele. WhaI mell1ling Is signaled In eIICb ofthc foll""'1ng
2. I booghl a P'oir o f hom-s"'-. ponmive p/lrMes? Ans.....,.. by Il$Iling. How 0lII lhai I"I'IGOlin&
1 bought a pair tlf J~tt shoes. besl be expressed in III1OtlJa" Iaoguage "'loich you Ipmk7
J. He SIO .... !be bird. E... (he matI's car _the man OWIIS 1M car
Sbe heard IIIe cat. !he mAn'S ~ - the ~ i'I part orllle man
<I. PhiltJp W~ ,,'Ill.lr.ln&
Phillip I0OI<. a walk.. I . Ille ~tor'l office
5. Go to t>ed 2. the doaor'$ paliOOl
I "lUll you 10 ,0 LQ bed. 3. the doc:tnr' ~ book
u OVERVIEW OF TlfE TRANSLATION USE r om, {lil d M~("'ing

4. tbe (\0<;10"$ broIhe.r 12. (a) In my opinion. (he gov~nuIlclil is deinl! well a!>d making
"
5. tbe dOClOr', h:.OO many impro.... ments (n the COllnt!)'. Sui dlcn: arc many
people wllo do 001 _srco!hal this Is 110.
6. tile dOClor's hClllSe (b) Opiolons "I'e divided commins lhe government SOllie
tay Ihey = doing w.ll and malinll mADy improvemenu
D. (Adap1ed from B"m",~ll 1986:24 - 5.) For eacb pair ()f ~eot~nce~. in Ihe country. OrhCN do not agru.
$M C whelher lhe I"'" sentences are ( 1) Ihe same in meaning 0<'
(2) differall In loo:mlDl!.

I. (3) I. ralnc"hU nigh t.

(bl RIIIn fcn all nlght.
2 (a) n",,,,,
i$ a boot on the table
(b) That I, 8 (able In Ih. boo k.

3. (a) k>Im ..... as ~~ surpised wilen be heard the news.

(b) 'The new. very m IlCh lImaud l ohn when he beIml n.

4. (a) II W~ II hot day.

(b) TM d:Iy was bot.

:'l. (a) I'elcrw house.

(b) The ~ thaI bd oags 10 Peter.

(a) nc rO!IUined iilent.

(b) He did not say :>11)'lhlng.

1. (I) I bot'&hl dOlh to make Mary a""",' drew.

(h) I OOllgbt a DeW drc&I: rQl Mary.

(a) 1 bCILJghl "cgctablc~ In lJoe marl",t.

(b) J bolJgtu tomatoes aod oni008 in t~ 'Wllkel.

9. (al My parmlS IIJ"e well.

(h) My mo4ba" and fathn:ue well.

10. (al Johll Is il! ; he h". a bad case ofmalnrl~.

(b) John b '·err ill induo:L

11. (&) There 11K fotIT rooms in !he !loose.

(b) The h _ hu fuur room_ nod .ltitchen "'Ihe bai:k.
,. OV1,RYIEW OF mE TRANSLATION TASK
Th ~ £nillsb verllon 1< a lil~ra[ ' n ""blknl. of the French.
F'flIeh: M~ Odeu/!, pasusgrrra d6fillt>liQft rk DouaIII.
t~r d_~ mt l~wpIwM.
An Idiomatic traM I.llon into English would be:
Idlom_lK- t:n ilisll' M 5. O<.lette. plSS«\gtr rOT Oooala. )'0\1
!Irewanted 00 the phone.
Excq::t for Inlcrlinr:ar uaruJations, a uuty literal 1l'aOSI0l1oo Is
Uncommon. Most ITlorulaton who l end to translAte ]it(rally aolual.ly
lnnke a partially modified Il lu a l lrlllsl., ]on. Th~y modify the order
nrul gr:umnar enough to USOl acccplabJe senlmce structure ill the
receptor lana""e, H"",'ever, the k,tical item:! are ~ lil=nlly.
Oecasiol'Lllly, !bcsc arc also ch:mgro 10 avoid complotc IlOIlSI:JlSC or
10 improve the communiulion. Ho ......,.,'er, (be resu lt <till does DOl
9OUI>d oatu",]. Nottce the fotlowlngeJllUIlple fmo • language In POpll'
N_ Guinea:
,., aJoo.ttbo npsifo p""""'/>oyrIndi
I t.... I,can 1_1'a!......:I-her (llunf)
I fomned ..... {o my hton. (modl f\ccl l~....I1)
T he modil\<)d III ~ral Inl ns l. lIoB .hOOf!'" tho:: order iDlo English
.struCIUJe. How""a, me smI~ " m does MI communk:ate In de:\/"
English. All k110(l1 3littr:o.nsbllol ,,-auld ha'"eusedlhc fonn: MEnevI!!"
f<)<lot her,~ 01 ~I"'" l ept h ... mcu><lIY in my heart."
A ~ ,,'hOll"anslales lu II modirlffi lilual mann ... ,,·iIl ell""ge
tl,. grammatical f()!'1lls ",lieu Ihe COIl5lrU<tioIlS are obligatory. How_
ever. if he hfl'l l choice, he wilL follow Ihe f(!flll oCtbco ~ollfCe te.~t e'·. n
though Q differtUI f(llm mighl N m<lfe n~ in \he r~ceptOr 1angu."lgC.
Lil tnl l and IDOd I~d )ilenl tnnsb lio l%!.COI\S ISlentl)' err in th.al lhe y
~ literal eqWv,lents for tbe wo:d$, I.e., tbe Iweal items beln&
tnnslated. IJ'~ ...1 traru"'!iom. of words, idiom s, fia,\lreI o f If'<<Ch,
Cle., result in uoe lcar, unnatural, and sometimes nooseD.ital trnns la·
lions. In 1I roocllntd liler:ll tnllsl .rioll, Ihe lrnIl,lalOr umally lIdjlLSI$
the t=bliort enough to avoid rcalll<lllSttlSe and wmog meaning.,
but the UIlIIaturalnns srill,emains.
Idiomatk trao S)atiOIlI we the ILII!UIaI forms of the re«JXOr
langullge, botlI in Ibe gn>IIIIMIitJll o:lrIStf\>ttlOO$ and in Ihc choice of
lexi<::a1 ilem •. .'I. truly idiomatk t MlllSlalion dl)tS no( round like a
Kimk of T""" .'laf'o""
l'
1nIIl,\atiOfl, It ,ooods [ike It WIIS "'THIen oriJl!!I.llly in tbe re<;ep:or
language. Thoercflft, a good translator will try 10 tntnslate idiomati_
caUy. This is hI:!: 1:0"1. However, tnno:\Mions are oflen a mixture ora
1I1enl ll'llllSfer of !be ~caJ W'lils alon, whh some idioll).t.tk
rr .... J~lioD of ~ rm:aning orllle len II is 001 ealy 10 oollJistently
translate !diomatlcally. A tr.lntlaw may npre.s.s some part.s of hiS
ITMSlation in ycry natural fornu and th.en in other paris r,n back into
.. Iileral form. Tramlazioos f.U on .. continU\I!II fJ'QID _Y li:eml, 10
Iitcra1, II.} lOOdirlCd lilmll. 10 near Idiomatic, 10 Idiomatic. tItld lhen
may e-..., moy" on 10 be und uly free (sec D~play 2.1).
\"ery """,iroed In<>>t1.'' .... '' ~<ar u"duly
Illral I;~l liletf m""Ire iWoo;nat'" idi0'l"'tic ('5
1
TRANSLATOR, 'S
00"
[)is"",y J J
UOdu ly free Ira"sladoU:IN DO{ ronsidc:rcd acccplAble IrIloslI.
tiono fOT 0100It pIl!'JlOSe5- T"",It\lk)m are Dudu ly rroe if tbey add
exlnmeoui; Intorm..fion II(1t In d.e .,.,...,., text. if tbey cbartgc the
meaning of Ille WUR:e tanl\1a&e, or if they diston tile fact. of ~Jt!
historical and cultural Selling of the J~ 13Og\1age Icxt. S<>melimc:s
ullduly INc l rt.I1~lali<>ns nrc IllIIdo foo- purpo«:S Qfhulllor or to bring
.boul a spe.; u.1 rcspcnse from the reccpror langw.gc Spea);:L'rS, How-
ev~. lbey .,e1101 atXeptable ... "",,0).-.1 tmnslati""", The emphasis Ll
00 Ille reaaion of Ib<= !'eliding Or hearing h ..00 Ihe tnr.anin& i • .,..,.
necessarily lhe same as !hal of the i<I\ltU \angUII,e.
In oottrellslalloo. the $(JUIce le:luaid, "/ wcugllllfwhelf SIepllanll1,
Fortunatus and Ac/tnk:us amvtd, bec<lu~ /hey ha\'/l.fllPpl~ ""<1Il>W'
lackingfrom you. For I"qrt:fiu~ed I~y Spirtl (HId >0"" aw. S""h mtll
d~enVl rt:OOg1Iilicft." 11 \\11$ ~1aI.d., " Ir $ "", i. f:OOd 1O..ec ~o:\'e.
WcZy BOd 'B!& Bam'. They sort, IIl3ke up for your MI being ""~
TIoey're a big boc:IillO both me aod you.aU.l.et'. &1\'" lIum a big h;nI. M
TIle ptlJJlOSC of Ihe tronsIatioo wu 10 make lin BnCie<lt luI "''em
oonlcmfX'l'll}'. but (he re!uit ~ an ulldnly fr « Inn~lalion ,
The trarululor· s gool .lIQuld be to reproouu in the roccpl(>I
lMguage a lUI ",hiGh coijllnunk:!lles the sacne message a.o; Ihe source
1""8""8e bu.t usinllhc natural grammalical and lexical choices ofille
rcc;e",..- I'""¥l"'Se. ffu goal Is !loll Idiom . lie tr-.n~liG". In Ibe
cha",en \\flkII follow, the manyde\lils invol""" In productogsucb I
trlnl latiOll will be dJ=sed. The b;lsic ovmiding princ iple is tlIII! ""
10 OVERVIEW OF TilE TIUNSUTION TASK
idlo",.lk traulat>on reprod~ 11M' 1I'''''l)ing oflhe SOtlf'Ce I.:mguagc
«(hal if. Lbe "'''Ming intended by the "';l:ill8l OOOIll1unicator) i~ the
namn! form of llle re.:eptor language.
Howevfr, Ihere is always the ~":r ()f interference from [he fonn
oft/II> .looreo language. The Study o(many tTaf\SlaUI'nlI show. Iballn
order 10 translal:o idiomalically a trnnslator will need 10 Ina« mauy
adjustllK'll(S In form.. Some ..ump'" of III<: k"lnds of adjustment ..."hlcb
will neW LO ~ made are di~ ~II)IV as ~ bcct&rotllld to
sbow !he need for lhe roon: <.\rtl,iled srudy ...·hkh follo ....~ in b ter
chapters.
Transilltill!:: I:ram mlltienl featu res
Para ofspcech are languilKe spocific Each IangU3gC has its own
diyi~OII of dK: lellioon iruo el:tSS'" such as IIOWIS, vtTtll, adject;'"",
e\C. DitTa.nl Ien&Wlgcs will l1li,..,
different cla!sc:s 800 subctasse.. 11
",ill IIOl a]Wi)'5 be posoihle 10 !l'Mldgle " source 13118""80 noua with
a noUQ in tbe fI:«ptor language. For Q!lIIIIple. lodo-F"..uropr:an 18111-
guages bave UllIII}' llOUIlS ",!tieh n::aJly refe.-'" acIioos. MOillanguag..
wtll )'I"Ifcr 10 exprcs-; actions as vaM ralher thoo. naUM.
A t!"llJlsh'lor in Papua New Qulnea (from Deibl\<l" :md Taylor
1917: 1(60) w~ Ml<ed by ~ paI,ol orr,<;cr to tI'll.mlate ~IC Eight-Point
lrBocov ..m...1l Plan for Papua New Guinea (Papu:I New GuI"",,:
Cenml !'Ianning Office 1973). One oftm- poillb moda, "DecmlraI.i-
ZJltioo ofeconomic adivny, planni~g and 8ovanwolll spending, ";Ih
emphasis 011 agricultwal dcvciopmnl. vmage indu$uy. bencr Intmlal
trade. !lIld more $pc:oo:\lng cllaOlleled through local and areoi bodies. M lind th~ l""C!CeJ'Ior language. The artler. for ClIampie. may be comple\~ly
Sucb -IC'D.IC1l<;eIIll"C' vcry difficult fortrnnslalor.l who ,,"UtilI<> lmnslate
Into tI)e IndlgClJ(lUJ langullies of Ihe country. Word suc~ a< (/cce~ ·
InlliuuiOll, (lCIMly, phmning. govenlll'~M rpe7tdi~g, I!lIlphasi.I. dew/-
Opr'Ie"I. lind {rode ...'Wld h~"" to be r=docn:d by ,'C:rb!; in mosI
languages. Whm ve,bs are usN, !hen, the appropti:ll.e , uhjC>Ct and
object orthe "er" lMY ooeed 10 be tl\8lle expljc:il am.. The form in !be
receplOf language is w:ry different fi'om the 00III"Ct! language form and
y<'1; this kind of adjll$tment. UJit'i "erbs nolh... Ib."1I1 nouns. mUSl be
m...:lc in order to communlcaie lht l"es""se. An id iOtMtlC tnmsJatjoa
" ... , maoo which used vcrblt !lS in tho followins:
The goYrmmcnl WanlS 1<1 deanse the wer); It dou fOt
M inesscs and w.... t It plans, and the IDOIlC)' II spmds In lbe
alpit.al, and "'3n\S 10 lncmIsc ..."haI pe<>pk lind groups it! local
__• do \0 help fanners and small busineues wllosc own.....
live In Ylilagl!S., and help people in mi. coumry buy and ~II
thing. mack1 in this OOWltry. and to !>ell' local lUOOpll spend
Ihe Sovcmmenl"s money.
KiJuIs '" T"'IUJ~IIoitJ u
;\-10$1 Iqua,es ba"e a <:!au of words whIch may be called
pronouns. Prvnotni",,] S)"tems "ary greally from laagoogc 10 IM-
guage, and the trWls]nt <x is obliged to LIS(: lbe fonns of Ihe r",,~ptC>r
language c""n Ihougb they may have very dlffurenl me'ming' from
the ptonollDS of lllll SOIIn:e languttg<: . For nample, jfone is IrlUl.!Iating
inro Kiowlt (USA). the ~n.s ",til MVI! 10 Wdi~ale • dllTonmce
beN'em singull/. dual. and plwul person ""-.:n Ibo\lah tilt .ource
hlllgll3ge does not m:»::1! this; lhrotl-wty distinction. Or if .. tr.=lator
l.t translating into Balin=: (S ..~lIetl&1l'bel 1963:15&). be mWI distin ·
g~ i.h degJn:s of honor ""'en thoogIl nolhing in the source l:lI1guage
irldicates lhese dj~tinctjons . He will noo.llo under,tan<l the eullure of
Ihe Bali.... e and {h c cul{lmIl context of tlw lexl he II translllLlng in
order 10 cboose comedy.
In EngJuh. the first penoo pI\lI1tl pronoun " ... i$ otten usod .... hen
the real meaning u - . d ptrSQfl)O". lbt: ruson ror tho ~sc of we
is to ~ empathy and undemanding. 11M: Durse S3)'!11O {he sid: child..
'" It·, time for us to tal::e our medicine now. ~ Or lilt: {....:bcr "')"3.
" W~'re n<}( ao1ng 10 sllmu ...... '11 "'"31k quil'"lly \0 OUr p!oc<:s:' Clearly.
Ihe pronouns do not refer 10 the nurse or the teacher builD the children.
whom slw: is .ddrc"ing.you. [n translating these pronouns inlD "",other
language •• Iiterul lnlmlatioo with flrsl pcr$01l pluml wou ld probably
distort tbe mtaning. The translalor wO\Ild nttd 10 IooIr; for .~ 1l3IW"3.\
way 10 COmlUUllic;;lfe _ d ""DOn. tItId tbe fedingof W\J"IIIlhy C3I1"ied
by the .ooun:c 1ani""&" ~.
Granun3lic31corulructi_ also >"aIJ bcN-"ftn the lIOlurcc:lanf:U3ge
rC\'ersed. Th~ follOWing simple , cnlen« !mm Gahul;:u (l'np.'" New
Guirw:a) is livcn wllh a rnorpheme.by-morpIteme tller~l Iraa<lall00
mdemeal h (daur from Deibler)
....Ji ...., aJ-i~ loto ".""f../,oI:;; ..u.......
I«oono _ act·",,11-i gym • . . . - lJ'H'in.1
It will readily be ""0 that a som cwlull understandable tnmslallan into
Eng!isb <"'{uires a complete rewnal of thc a,der. f will go Ie lown
"")liMS. './";/1 gel 11>"", lemOiU. ·' A more idiomatic nnnsiallon would
rmd: I wll/ ¥" TO rUt.", Ie gel s"''''' Itnt<>lU. In onIcr 10 h.we an
Ullderstandable English form. the Older must be chanted completely
and foO"", Enl1lsb gnmmatlcal ""!Inns.in .cIditioo, the dlroct quote.
... hkh Jlgn31ed p.qpose io Gah\1ky mUSl be d~ed 10 the cqu lvalCl1l
English fonn ror J'l'-II"ilO'C clall';e$..
It is DOl urr~ommon thaI p;t.lIJive oonnructioos will need {o be
tran.lated wilh an Mliv" construction or v~ versa, dependlns on the
" ~\~~~.g§Ii.r
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Z6 OVERVIEW OF TIfE TlUNSLATfON TASK Kind!; I)f Traru/Illion,.

(b) An International Alphabet would inevitably bring about a
spelling refonn, too. And bow many hOI childr~'Il '" tears
han no! be<.'fl shed 00 spelling'
(a) He then rep:>rtoo bis mi, fortune to the police, who :ll"e
searching diligently for tlIc tltiet:
(b) He t1um hi' mi:5hap r<:portedlO the police, who are the thief
intensively .earching.
B. Loot for literalis m. in the following translatiOl'lll into English and
underline the words or phrases that do not sound natural in English.
Suggest ~ mOre itUom atil: way of saying it. (All oftltes. examples
>lfe from puhlislted trans\a.too material. RcferetlCes "'" not given
.0 as not to embrurass the mm slator.)
I . We offers as attractiOl"l" horse trip orear by fields and forests .
(roorist BrocllUre)
2, To move the ClIbin push button of wishing floor. If cabin
should enter more persons. each one should {ress number of
wishing flow. (instrllCt iom in elevalorilift)
3. The archeological matters in Egypt indicated Ihat tbe prin_
=se. in those days had used naturnl cosu.elic to polish their
beauty, (Newspaper)
8. Villagers spend most 'lftheir energies in p-oducing com and
"
beans for their families. Tho~ :u:<! the principle prooUC!:i,
including coffee, greenB and fruit. (Magazine "fan ~jrlioo)
C. T he following <m: ~tcnces ",rifleD by Sudanese wh" are !lOt yet
fluent Engli~h speakers. The form used shows ('l<OlIlple~ of how
their mother-longue language structures have been carried over
into English. The same inf()lTna!ion is th~~ given in f"U"'ru.hesl.i in
iWQma\ic EngJislt. What changes were made in ~ting the
English? Th= chaoges point out SOme of the differences between
Sudanese language! and English.
Sir, the problems of before don"t forget.
(S ir, plea!lC don't forget Ihe problems "'e dio;clI.'lsed before.)
2. If there is any m.,ans. send me a lene, 10 R lwoto.
(If there is a'lY way to do >0, send a letter to me at RiwOIO, )
J. 1 will think you time to time day and day.
(I will be thinking about you often !:Very day.)
4. I am vory gra!cful to infonn you witlt this letter.
(I am "cry happy to be able 10 ,end/write yoo this Ietter.)
5. J .m a man who has boon to luba for IS years.
( I have now lived in Juoo for 15 years.)

4. Since \ 976. the Women basjoined the popular >lfmy. and has
been permiucd 10 joill the armed force. and to acquire an equ.:ll
mil irary ran};. Of~ laws have '''ttended the mother's lea\'e
before and aft ... delivery, and grantoo the m~he r an ndditiott.11
two-year le.v" to take care ofber child under four year.; of
as" (Newsp"JX'T)
5. A ho]d,up (robbery) took place of a motorcycle rider at
Kamvung carly ~terday mornins- (Newspaper)
6. When you feel col d, bocan"" of tlte d inmte, or )'Oil feel
something had in yonr bones. please rub Parnm Kocok Super
Keei!. Shal::e well the wlution beforc use. (DiIecti ons witn
m~di~ine)

Guatemala City ill always full of surptisei. II has a delicious

cl imalt:, for reasons of ito ahirude-1500 meters-but not so high
as to affect people from low"lying "",as. (.Magazin e of ao
airlwe)
 Chapter 3
The Semantic Structure of Language
O«lp and surface structure
Another way oflooking at fa rm and meaning is to think o f them
as surface .truetu re and deep slrutture. One of the basic 1.1sump"
tions ofthi' tnt is thai there Is u ~alid dislinction beh\'een lhe du p
(semantic) and Ihe .ure" "" (grammalical, lexical, phonological) S!TU~
lures o f langwtges. An anaiY'lls ofl he su rfa~ Slru c! ure oh language
does nOlte!! us all Ihat we ",-",d to know aoou! the language in order
to translate. Behind Ihe Muface . Intel " ... is tbe deep . Ir"dure, the
mellJling. It is this Ol""ning that S\lf\',," "" the base for tramlation Into
another language.
A . econd bask a" "'npllon Js thal meMing j~ ~lroCtured. It is
not just an jn acc~ssible mass . It can Ix analyzed and ~preswted
in way' that nrc uocful 10 the lranslalor. It is not OJdered in the
same way in which the s u rface strueture must be ordered. It is a
network of semantic unilS and the relation. bel....-cen these unir...
The, . units and rcbtl oos may be repre,ented in variOU$ ways. The
con"cntioIlS which "ill be used in this text han, been eho ""n for
pmctkal "'''''''fl'.The aim of the book. is n<>l to argue lingulSlic
thoory but to pNsent tool, which will help tmnslatofS. Nevertheless,
it is importallt to nate tbat the procedures are based on the two
"".umptiom givtol .hove.
Seman tic s truct ure is more nelll'ly universallhan : rammatica l
struct ure. l bm ;' .lypes of unitt, the feature., and the ",lationships
a", e""",Hally the same for all languages. All have mn.n;nll ,,"m-
ponea u which Can be classified as THINGS, EVENT$, ATTRJBlJTES,
OJ'RELATIONS, for example. BUI oot al l language, hve til ••ame
su rfate SlruC1Ure grarrunalical classos-£ome have canjuno;tiQn.~,
olhers de no!, some have preposilional p11~, olhers do not. Word
classes ditTer from language to l"ngll8g•. The fou r semantic classes
listed above occur in all languages. Any (x!pupt occurrtng in any
l angu~ge "ill refer to either a THING, EVEt-IT, AlTRlBUTE, or
RELATION.

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31 OV,.:RVTEW OF TIlE l'RAlYSUTlON TASK
ut4in& bel,.,.",," pammar WId leItIantics. Tr«, which is a 1lIING. i,
boeing used as a ~. The EVENT which rook piKe is caused 10 go
up. The meaning of the scnteI1CC is tIw floe dof CtnI.fM llot co>, 10 IP
lip /1110 Q ITU or rhe dog c11<lst'.d Iht cal: theNfon. lire cal 1<'('111 up
in/a a Ir/!t!. l bert is a great deal Qf skew ing betw~1l ~ ,e &J<lITIlIWI"8nd
the sem.anliC$. The IlI"IlUn an: Or""'81<:.£"" l.t5e ,'arlow alternatIves 1(1
uprtsS tbe ilCn\llllllc structun:. H .oogllou\ this lut _ will discuss
of slr.tw\ng whi~h • Ir.II1$b.lor needs to "-.tel!. for lIS he
tilt' kinds
IJ'nI'I';la!e'l.
'The IJDllIiPlI UIll! In the oem:llllic u ructun: is l 1l..... nioG compo-
nent .Menin" (omponcnls group together 10 f",," concepts. (Tloese
lerml are defined more carefully in cnap(c. 6.) Meaning comJl"n ~n'~
and coftcepb .rc cklssified san.:W.ieaLly il1to roW" priDc:iple gnlUp5c-
llH1'GS, EV£.VTS, ATI1lIBlJ'Tl:S, and RELATIONS. nHt"os indude
a1l llllirrulte beinp. naturnl. ... d sup:maturaL. aDd al l inanirn:Ite entities
(boy, g/IMt. o~g.n. $I,,,.... gQlaxy, itha, blooJ). EVEl'oTS include all
actions. cbal1ges of fitate (procc5S ), and e~pe1lencn (cat. nm. ,hlnk.
meil. SITt/d,. smi",). AlTRlfJLnllS include .11 tbooe ~urjbut~.. or
quality and quantity ascribed 10 my TIliNG or HVE~'T (/<mg, Ihld.
soft. rough. slo....ry. -'<knly.frwi. (J1i). Finally. kf:.LATIONS include
IIlI those relMlons pMlled bcolWeeft 811)' 1"'0 of!he abow sem:mlk un its
(with. by. /w!c.:I1~. since, DIId. lhcrQ<>re. aft~. Dr).
In th~ unmples given alxwe. yOll wilJnolice thai for tM Enshsh
examples. only nouns are w;cd to iI1 wtrnle TIllNQS. only .erbs to
Illuslr:lI~ EVENTS. only modlnen: to ilhl<1Jale ATTII.lBUTIlS. an d
RELA 110N"S l~ il h.tSlrale4 by pHpo$ltion>: arid conjunctions. In ot:ber
wonbi, in all of the cX3mples alvm p;i"....c !here WII.'I a one-to-one
C<I1T'tlatim bc1ween the sem.'IIItit m d grarnmatlatl s:tructl.Ir'eS- There
wa. no """",ren<;e of ~~inJ. ~
Boy. \ilhi~h is a nIlNG, is • lingle lCJ<iCilI II,,", in English.
H()wever, it I. milde up of s<-'Vernl mell"int cQ ltl ponenl . - HUMAN'
BEING. MAl.1!, ilIId YO UNG. ( HUMAN BEll'IG belongs 10 the
,ttmanlie elass THINOS. MAU; and YOUNG belol\& to the eL"\S:S
ATfRJ8UTES.) Some languases aI!iO w'e a word which includes
these three m ea nint ",mpo"en !1 in •• ingle luieal item, Howe-'tT,
other langua,;'" do oot. N'dogo (S...:Ian) has • ,,"'Ord dab> whidl
includes 111 0 lIlunint tornpon"'I~ MALE iUXlllUMAN BEING, The
word vi Ln~IlS YOUNG und. therefore, vi daw would be equi~~lell l
to the El'ili.h ,",'o, d boy. In ChIuan= (Me'lIko). each Rlnniult
","'po"cnl would bf a «:pard' word jiuun$ d1CiJ mi', The throo
words meao VOU»G (0i1 1..D). HUMAN, and MALE. The thn:c:
words are equivlllent \0 Ibe English word boy. How 18llgU3gt$
ol'£ani:r.e the lllunin& components into w()fd~ and pIJrascs is R
ehl rac~r; '!lc of ca.ch language.
TM $tm(",1ic Slrf<c,ure of u mll""I/'f
GcnernlIy speaking. the ........, and proDOWII oftlte gmrmtw ~fCl'
"
to 1lI1NGS In the scmandc stnJeture, the ,"CI"b6" of the granmar til
EVE)..'l"S, etc,lftberc Were 00 skewing. !be rewiortshlp would be.,
follows:
THL"05. . noun•• pronQ""l
EVThTS . ~erbo
ATTJ.IIJ\1l'"ES . lIdjccl:i,u.,IIdYabt
RELO.1l<X'S. «JlIjuna:i<In$. JlI'q)OJition .. plntel ...... odilia. etC.
In a simp!. _eo Iike. John called Mary, JOHN IUId MARY bel\ll,&
to !M se~ic eta» D IlNGS and ~ ..oWlS in litis r-nleular &e!l.teoce;
CALLED Is an EVWT st:maIIliI;ally and a verb grammatically. The
"""". - nf the teRlence iodieat" tbM ./011", the . , enl, is the ntbjooct
and Mary. the Iff'crod, I, the ObJect.. lbere is: no sl<ewiflg between
sulf""" Stl'UC1u,e IIIld semantic stmc:lure (pr=ppo:sina rhot 1m un_
.k~wed fonn woold hft\'e all"'11 a~ suhJect and nrr.de([ M obi""t),
But in tbe ...,.llIc.o $Iruc\ures of I""CwtgCS, tit,,", Is n ""SIC
deal of
11\:ewlng.. for exam Vlc, in tbe sentert(c, "[ luiUTI Jolrn', tall, ~ CDJI is
ft noun in the Sl.-f~ .~ tb in this ]lOI1iculnr senrenc:e. it
....1'f"SCI'" It R'IJIMlIk .r:;va.T, call. Semantiatlly, !ben: arc IWO
BVEl'-'TS and two PROPOSJTto :-:s whlcb "'" "'l""'ieI1.tod in the surface
fo"n "11team JOlrn'r c~II. " The firs! proposition is John rolled and
th e sncond, / heard. It Is possihJc to «:presl'llt 1hese 1\\·0 propositions
In EuaU.. h by SilY!n& ",/oltn calkJ me a"d I hmTd M,tI. "This ",·ould
001 be skew<:d Howc-"Cr. if one S<I)'S. '.J ~ JoJut.J ciJI~ tbus, H
cxpm.sing the twO propositions in II single clause I1Ither t.it&n in two
clausn. tbere is skC\\'ing. Oi900~-mng the smtanllc !IUUCtIlre ine luoks
removing the likewl ng betw...,n n-mantic cJas><1 ."d jVammeticlll
ell-uel .
Semantic hietuehy
In ......rllC~ 'lrUCIure, unils. = groupNI into incrca!ingly l.argw
unils. In a ble",ll'by of ~ struc:tlll't$. MOI]lItemeil (roots mOO
affixes) unite 10 forlll words, words unUe \Q form pbrosc:s, ~
unite into clause$, clsl,UCS into a !lCfl!c:noc. 0C!1I~ InlO a paragmptJ ,
p!U1Igraphs into discourse IltlIts of '1lriou~ L:ind;. ood these unite to
fomt a tc.1.1~. tener, ~on. or whate\·CJ",
Although semantic ~ure is ~ or a network of oonfigum-
tiGns, each ""loa pili! of • latger (:(I[IilguC8lion. for dJe Jr.'CIicaI
purposes ofthili book w... "" i1I loot at sernnntic II.:\I<:Iure Ittlrull'h ic:ally
allW. The srnallnt unit is a meaJling CC)INfX»"!"'I. Meaning 0CIIllp<>neft1li
unite Into concepts, ooncept. Into pl'Opruitions. propoiilioos into
 ,, "~O "~"t:~ iii
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,!
 OVERVIEW OF TffE TRANSUTfON TASK
" The Senra~ lic StrlleiUU of Lan8uII8e

The day was beautiful. II was 10 ,,·~1<xk. Jru>e ltft the

SURFACE (GRAMMATICAL) STRucruRES
(I) Yest'JrdAy John went 10 IOwn ""d bought a Car. He drove i1
hom" and shmved it to Mary, who was "elY happy
(2) John bought a Car yestCIday when he WMI 10 town. Drivint£
il home he showod Mary tlw enr, wh ich made her vcry happy.
"
hOllse. The hoose belonged 10 Jane. Next Jane drove the car
10 tile post office. Ne~t Janc sto pped the car. Ne;>;;t Jane got
oUl. Next Jane l00~ a hold of the doorkllob. l be dooIkoob
"'as on the door. The door was part ,,[the post offic.e. The
door WM locked. Therefor•• Jane was frustrated . But Jan"was
nol a"CTY. Rather Jane was concerned. Jane won<kft,d; !~ Mr.
Smith dck7

(3) John bought a car in town yeSlerday. Mary was very happy E. Using the infOllDItI;oo &i"eII in the paragrnph in 0 above. translat.
wbel'_he brougbllt heme and sbowed it to her. Ibis Story into a language other than English. Rev.'rire the I""rngrnph
several thnes willE different forms each lime.
In m.- eumple above, th e paragra).Jh i. firsl written \\.ith all Ihe
concepts. propositions, and propositiooal c!ustm given in full. Then
the !lrrtt surface structures which fol1vw:ue u.>oo to communicaI( the
same meaning. In these Ihree different rewJ ites

What srice forms (specific words) all' used to refer \0

the conceptJohl1?

h. What ,urf""" forms are ulled to refer 10 the = p t car?

c. 'What surface forms are used to express the propositi(l!l

N"1a John dra..., the car home?

d. Whal .urface fonDS = used to ."press the proposition

Y, ·s uruayJom. "'"<VII to /OWfI?

e. What surface forms lU"e used to sbow Ibe relati onship

bo tween the!\Vo propositionsJoJIlI showed IMcay/o Mary
"od Mary waJ" very happy?

C. Using tb~ deep structllre propositions in B alxwe, translate Ihe

infonnalioll inlo a l~nguage olber Ihan English. R",,·rile tn two or
three diff<.-.mt forms, keeping the meaning the .ame.

D. Rewrite IILe following in Engl ish, changing tlle form bm keeping

the meanbg as cOllstont as possible. Rewrite tlle parngrnph sevemJ
times. u.~ natural, clear English semences. (Such rewriles are
called P'\IlIpbrases because the same thing is being ",id In a
different way in the snme language. A paraphrase ch:mges tlle f(>rm
but not th" meaning.)
 Chapter 4
Implicit Mea ning
Tmnslolion, then, i<oommullicalinil tho :IIIIll~ meMlnll ln a ""CO/Id
languag.e M Was communicated in the firsl. BUllo do ro adequately,
one must be aware of th~ fad ibat there an vwlow kinds of !OC8rnng.
1'101 aU Orlhe ,,,,,ming wbieb i.< beifl& communic.lled i. sta,ed o"~t1ly
In tbe ronna (If !be ilCUr« language tnt Disro' 'aina tbe meaning of
t ilt: Ic.:II to be lfandated includes consiocrlllion (If bocb u p 6cit and
h np lidl I. r....mlllloll. lbe ~ of 1~1t ~er Ii 10 g;"c an
oycr;;c.... "flhe importance of improd! rnc:tnln& Ul tbe 1AttS1ator. TIle
mauer oflmplici!. tMat"liog will be mentioned wany 1ifn,e$lhrol!glt<>Ut
thil book.
Kind s o f m ean ing
Ptople usually think of meaning a$ UOIuctlIlng 10 whld! a wMl or
salience refffJ. For example, the word a/,p/~ rde,. Ul the fruit
produced by • ceftaln lree. People know the mc.nlng of aPfJle bc:c:a"""
they luI,"e s«n an apple and learned 10 call it apple. Thill kind of
" ""l(1lnSls cftUcd REFERENTIAL MIiANmO bec.u.oe lhe word refers
10 a certa in thing. event, UnributioD. or Allalion wbich a pef"SOll can
perceive or Imagine. A sentence h..:; meaning because il refen 10
something that happened, or nwy happen, or is imBKined as happening.
RErn'UJNTIAL MIlA}<'"1NG Is whal the communlcallon L< nboul. II Is
the ;nf_lart GOIlIent.
The REFER.ENTlAL MEAtI.'£NCl Is orgmIted inJo a Hlllanlic struc_
ture. ~ inf"nnatioo bit.! :lre Mpachge<,l"; thai is. tIIey Me pW oo,elhu
nod eJipn:sscd by a varitty of combinations. AI they are wpackJlgcd"
lilt" L1J8ft" and hug« unil' !here i:< ORGANIZA TIOt-'AL MEANING in
lhe disootuse " 'hlch rnUSl aL.o be taken inlOttOO;(UIlin lhe IAttSlalion.
For example, if appl# halt beoo ref~ to In the telll and lit.., apple
is ~fernd to ~ loe facl Ibal II it tbe SIlUIC fJpple II part of !be
OROANIZATIONAL MfAN1];G of Ihe I~Xl. Cen.:tln InfonnRlion may
be old infonnation, Some new; certain infomtlllion mly be the l"pic
(whal is \wing talked a.OOui) of Ibe dloeoursc. Olliu in fonnatloo

"
 "
(:ommenting
OVERVIEW OF THI:: i /U.NSU,TlON TASK
the topic; and some infonnatioo may be more central
0 11
10 the rn"'l$uge, that i., more important or more /Xominenl. It is the
ORGANIZATIONAL MEANING (Iial puts we referential infonnation
log&her into a coherent text. ORGANIZATIONAL MEANING is sig-
naled by deictks. repcliti()fl, groupings, aud by many other features in
the grammatical structll1<= of a le~t.
The lWo prOposil ioll< Mary peeled an apple and Maryal£ a~ appl~
include MARY as (he a~nt aud APPLE as the afffftcd in both
prop"'ilioll" MARY and APPLE are boll! referred 10 twice (REFER_
ENTIAL MEANING) , BUI in order \ 0 form a oorrect grammatical
structure , we must also know if tbe ORGANIZATIONAL MEANING
Includes the fact th3! there is only one M'<RY and ooly one APPLE Or
If 111= arc two MARYS <:>r two APPLES. If Ihey are the sam", the
• urface structure in English would be a form like Mary /Neier:! an
apple, a~d Ihell she are it. After the r LfSi proposition is given. MARY
and APPLE are boll! old information and S<l pronominal forms are used.
If. however, there ro<: referenC<':s to IWO MARYS arid only one
APPLE, then the gr... nmatical fonn WQuid need 10 indicatd this wl,b
'ome!hing liie Mary pe€/ed M appl~. ami I},,,,, 'he mlier Mary"'., i,.
All languages ha" e WHYS Qfsignaling the ORGANIZATIONAL MEAN_
ING. rut these may be "Of)' different mm I Mguag~ to language. For
example, pronorn.inal fmm' are not used in th~ same way in all
languages, bm ,,11 languages wtll have a forw:tl way to indicate that
certain infonnation is old infonnation.
Be:.ldcs the REFERENTIAL MEANING and the ORGANlZA.
nONAL MEANING, there is also SITUATIONAL MEANING which is
cruci.! to the UI1deTStanding of any text. The message;. produced in
a giv.,n communicat ion situation, The Jl:lationsbip between the writer
or speaker and the addre.ooe will affoct {he oommunication_ WheJl:
the oommun;cation takes place, when it 1.ak~s pla~, the age, sex. and
social stalus of the speaker and bearer, the re!miOilShip between {h~m,
the presuppositions that each brings to the eommunication. Ule cultural
background of the speaker and {he addressee, Md many other si{u-
illional m8\t('!"S result in SlnJAnONAL MEANING.
F(\r e~amplc, th€ very <arne persOlllllily he referred to by various
Ic~ical items . A mnn named John Smi1h mJY be referred {o a. Joh~,
Mr_ Smith. Professor Smilh. etc_. depending on {he ~itua{;on. This
chOice carnes SJllJATIONAL MEANING. JI may indicate w!tether the
situation is fmma1 or infonna!. A friend who refers {(\ h im ai )o},,, 8S
he greets him in the morning may later in the day call him Profe!>sor
Smith when introducing him at a uoh'ersity semhmr. Different leXical
fQ1lllS will be chosen to indicate SITIJATIONAL MEANING.
A {ext mar be coruplet.ely unintelli gi ble to S()ffieonc who does nOl
know the culture in which tbe language b spoken because tloere is SO
Implicit MlXI,,;rzg
much SITUATIONAL MEANING. When !raml"ting inlo "OOIh", lan_
"
guage, the original SITUATIONAL MEA1'>llNG .nay need to be ;1J(;1udt."<I
in a more overt form if the same toul meaning is {o be wllllnnnicated
to Ihe readers.
The range of impl!C<ltions for trnns\a{;oD which grow om of
the.e Ittree kind, of rueaning will be discussed in detail throughout
tile Tetnnining chapters. However, there is one mailer which is very
ba.i c to InUlSlatlng nnd is directly reluted to tIlese throe kinds of
meanins:: Ihat ~. the fact: that in eyery te};l {here Is meaning wbieh
is expressed explicitly and there is meaning which is left implicit.
TIle translator must he aware of {hese two kinds of information.
Th"'" i. u plieit ~nd Implicit information eonununica{ing all three
kind$ of meaning .
I mplicit a nd 1'X)Jlicil iDform!ltion
As stated abo-I'¢, tile translator must be nware of the Emplioit and
elplklt infol1Ilatioo which is being communicated_ Wben people
speak or write, {he amount of information included in \he text will
depend M the amount of ,h1lJ"ed informalion that already exists
between the speaker (wri~) and tbe addrilSsec_ W1ten we lUlk about
som¢thing. we leav~ out some of lb. information becouse the addres"""
alr""dy knows these fnct. and might even be insulted If they were
included . It might imply t!ud they were stupid or uninformed. And so
in en:ry cotllwunl catlort. some information which is beiIl£ commWli _
ca{ed I. k ft implicit in conversation or wrinen te)(l,
For example, neWS broadcas{~rs in the United States will make
statements like, ''The R~aganl= bill pas~ed i~ 1M SenMe lodlJy. ~ If
the atlllOUoocr said. 'The lax bill proposed by rhe Pre.sfdrnr of I""
UNiled SWles, &Jl1lJid Reagan, was pa=d fnlh~Se1lGle 0[1"" United
Siales today, .. people would soon stop listening to this ""nounce.-. He
i, wast ing tlleir lime telling {hem things they know. It ig shared
infonnntiotl.
All communication is basedooshared inform:ltion. It rnayind ude
shared language stTUCtUres, eulturc, previollS conversations, having
read {h~ ",me material. a common experience, etc. In "'"'=ry te.\{ that
one may want {otrans late, there wil l be information which is implkit;
thst is. it is IlOl .Itated in an explicit fonD in the text itself. Some
information. or meaning, il left impli~it because of the stru<:ture of
lhe soU/ee language; some because it has already been incluokd
el.",,'h.,.e in the text, and "Olne because ofshaJcd infonnation in the
cenlnlunicat;oo situation. However, tbe implkit infonmitioo is part
of the meaning which is t(\ be communicated by the translation,
because it is part of tbe meaning ;nt~nded to be und~r>tooo by {he
original wriler.
L
 OVElWJEW OF THE TRAIVSLA TION TASK
" 1I1Iplidl Mt'Jllinx
EXf.RCLSLS- lrnp~.il Mru inll
A. Idmli/y!llld make uplldl any impllcl! TH!N(JS or EVE/'Io"tS in 11M'
following:
Example: After counting !he books, P.... .,.. D id ~'fllen are 57."
B<K>/c. Is Id hnpilclt In th quotation.
After "oUllling lh~ book. , Pmr sai d, "Then: an: 57 booJ<.s.
1. FOTgivcn.m WAI di/ticuh fur ,(>1llC people .
2. The people ofNl,ilcrll are bard workcrs.
U i•• ooWlt!)' Wh... f I~ are v ioeyruds to give winflmd grain
for maki!1lj bre8d.
4. Testirq; bas been going on.ol deplhs of lt1OI"e" tl\aI\ 18.000 fcec.
S. W _ ~raIly l et up well b.:f<>n: da ..n and I q txfOfe
!bell husband.! 10 reUghl the fire and begiJI making bre:lkfa.f!.
B. In !he followll\i. II pl)p)Stllon. or part of ~ propo:tltion, Is left
implkit .Jdcnll i')' and In."",e 6J>licil ttle implicit ~pos.itio~ . (~
chapt:er 3 for . ,"'flnldon.)
El!~lllple The neXI day Jobn decided 10 go 10 town. He ~w
lbe Jooge:>nd Imd the matter lakrn can of.
[mpllcil tnfon1l3l1on; .JoII" ...../tIIO10WII. he lI/"Ti,oed In IOW~.
1lle tnt says !hal " ht o:blk.ltd 10" bill docs not My
1h::11 hi! KlUl.Uy did so.
I. The Kina iW"IIInOOed IUs wise ll"'ll and a<ked them 10 InlHpftl
!lis drealn.
2. But I never dld have TO chop il with lUI IllC ~ I bad
brOlbet1: 1 only lI/Id 10 uge II king knife.
1. Then mpOOlhcr to[d me to makeroyselfa little head o;overlll8,
lhsl t he "'QUId ohow n,e how.
4. No lime. Lei'. handle it ...itb. tel<#Joroe Cili.
"
5. I didn't te3Cb .flef.n bea,usc: Mr. ./ones arrived.
C. The fo!lowill()lI1lIgI'aph is II r.wbtt lll«aJ ,..., llIIimI from Baka
(Sudan. d8t:I from Wanda Paoc). The IlIl pIIcItOflu.i... tio .. 1I1 aod
,ltulOou l illfocnut ion makes tbe poI"lIgI"ftph diffia.dt for . 000 -
B.lka I~er 10 undemand. Firsll/le ~ugnopb is give", lhe.n the
added inforrnotioo a!I ruppl ioo by a a.h~"'Cf I. given. Rewrite
the plr.lgr"ph into English thai will he clUil)' understood by
SOmCOOe out.;"" the Bob culture. Then lr8n,I ~I" t/lll same para"
1I'l'p/llnto I second language wblch you speak .
Ifkll /hty ~aWif"'i.rlred brltk ~e,,;()lllIIitm!, lhey
t'f/u,~ /tome. TM" they appailll <l dtJy for th . ..., n..,,,
tllty prtpart the-n'fJS 10 go fo<' ",,,,.,.~.
AdOOd Inlonnarion: The negOlj:ltiOnl an: ClIITied 01\ by tlIe
.... ilor·s reblilves. This Is done aI!he borne o flbe
bnde. "The bride', ....I.,lves are the OOCSI\"bo decide
0<1the dale for !he HIIlIlIaJe. However. It I< I be
JIIiW'. relatives who IIlAke!he preptmlioru for
lhe maniage ceremonies.
D The following: nory;"" modiflCd Iii""'] tnwll>lloo troon .Kalini'>
(I'bllipplnes), A p<'r<Of1 who does oot know Klll~ga cult""" would
not understand the <lory. The words aod phrases which arc in italic.
eonlJ:l in implied jRfl>rm~Uo tl. At Ihe end of the story,." I'xpla na.
lion 11 given fOl' ea~h of th~ phrase!. Study 111~'n c:arefuUy and
lhen rvwr ite lhe Slory In good idiomalic F..Jlil1sh (or yo ... mo(ber_
lon&ne).
Kminga Hoodlru/tlillg $lory
(lr.lnSCrilxd by Har! Wieas)
The people &om """''(:1',..110 came frorq Malaya, i[ i, said, buil[
theIr bousn /lIlhe cmn~,..berc the river TfIC(i$ the pooI ..,;tA no
sklu. They were happy I»cau.<e they wcre f_ Mel they did IIOl aI[O\lll
Illetnseh-.::< 10 be: conquered by lbelr feHo",,·.flW[ for thcir men "'ere
"cry big, very l\ron,g, and '.cry ImlVc. IJ\d [hey WetC fear\c:u "''''nOl'$
for ,..Mnever they wem heMJlUnring e3Cb ooc carried mpol and. Ihey
went $i n!:.i ng l>I1 Iheir way. Wbenc-ve! they arrived III the .mlrallee of
tile ~fII(lgt, when they sho~lcd, the rhcll/r Oflhf WQ"'~" ~oo in
.9
 OVER YIEW OF THE TRANSlATION TASK
" TcatII ,cfall 10 I.e poopie who ....ill be ID,'oI"ed in!1>e project.lh
f"'l'OOII II Dcompetent spenker of both the S<'>Ilroe lMguage and the
receptor language, it may be lnal tI,e project ~an be doneoomph:lely by
one pc rsoo:,. flw " , 'en so LIlere ~hould be oth .... ava ilable (Qr cvaluatlon
300 .;ol\lUIWion. Most tnmslntioo rwoject8 requ~ Bream, n nwnber of
peopl~ who an: going to oontribule 10 ,he lraIlS!aIion a l lOme 5lage in the
project. 111. ,,'Or\I:ina n:llIlion:ship bct,,'eft) U- people needs !O be
estlobli>hold bdore the project !ids UI'Idnw:o),. It mar, boWe'o'l'(, l'Iw
change as me p'Oje<:! moves aloog 11114 DeW bcton totne illiO focus.
Tbat are certain esseDtiIIIs 10 HOY Irnn'llalion project. NO! a U of
lhese nC>ed 10 bc found ill QOf;l p.,non. Th"r~ "'" various kind, of
progn.ms whkh may be •• , up depending 00 !he abHhle$ and oock -
groondJ of (ho<e wlln wlU be in ,·olve<!. The (tllm may OOlL'l ist of
(I ) ~o..lral1s1,,1(:n. wbore one Is a 5ptClaUst 10 the IIOUI'l'e lansuage 3Dd
the ~her ; sptCiailu in the ne<:eflI<X ~ (2) • translator "'jlb
capability to hanoi. boIb sourtC> l3ngunge and m:qtorL~ maners
and .. advisor or ooll'lultanl, or (3) I oomnittee ...'<dlng . .\her with
spx-ir~ responsi bilitie$ delegate<! It> each one. Which kind ora jTOgJaI1I
i. developed will depend OIl who I; 8\llilablc and qualified 10 determine
the m(:llli~ (lrthe source lan&uage, who is most sld liC<! al draft ing in
the receptor IflIlguage, and who hil!! ao un!ler.lllnding of mm. latioo
princi~lcs. The I""", may in\:IOOe lhe: InIOSllIWI'(s), . o;:(IQS\l\tA!:lc, testers
.m reviewtn, L'ld lecimical ptopIe 10 do typing and proo~ Th.
p.IhIi~~ and dimiluor "'" abo part of thc ~_ Before the pugr3m
i. fur alonR It Ii: lmportant HI know who will pc:rfonn tbeu oilifermt
functions, (For dc\ail' s«(h'jl(cr 35.) The v:uious manbe1'9 oflhe1.e3m
may I1«(l Sl'octa l training In order to do their part. This Imi ning may
need La be taKen before the project begi ns.
Toob ....refS 10 ~ wrltten Source maurlals whl(h will be used by
the UIMitllon lUI b<lps.. These iocJ\Odc, ill addition to IlK doaJmcru to be:
translated, ~ diaioMries.lniconJ, .... ,.,maJ"Ii. cullual descripl!oos,
e\(.., of both the so>JJ'ce IaDg\IIge lind ~ \angua&e ... hkb Oft
available. The team will WIlIIt Ill< much j"lOrnution .,,'3llablc as ~b1e
wbile tnrIIlaling. All "f th""' fool~ IIhould Ix> bro"BJIt (0 Ihc tr:Imlatloa
sile In ~patlltion for the !"",,jed, For some projects, tllft"lO wi U be a
weal'.h of mntcrlah 1b3t can be used to help in loterrntl ng Ihe OOltrCe
loogU>'lse text ~ in finding equivalents in the = ptor III!\iLla!\e. f or
Olha projects, th= may be a sureiry of mch matcrlal, but whl!te\'Cr is
ovailable thould. be !here 10 make lhe: ......n: ......... Equipmml ,..-d
fll18neC:!l r.re alJo fools needed to (any on an dfcah-~ prosrom.
00c0I: !be In<'UtCF:< of the ICXI, the target 3Udiencc, and the teM:n
relarionlihipS llrC cared for, and Ihe IOOb needed made avallable, ~
project is ready to begin. The )Jr"jocl will foll"w a series ofslqlII whi~h
ind udc J'l"Cparoti<>n. analY!'i~. tram fer, initial dnlft, reworXing lbe
Sups ill " r"tII$lIII;o" Proj«l
initialdraft. Ifltling, poIishini, and ,"pari", !he IlWlUKrlpr for the
53
pu blish..... Th$ 51~p< are discus~d in detail in chaptcn 36 Md 37.
Exegc!is
EUlleshlls \Ued 10 refer to the proc;est of di~co'·erllljl tbe meaning
of lbt: SO\!IU Inn&uage Inl wbich is 10 he translated . It I, the step
wbid! InciudOl$ [he preparolioo and mys:is ..·hkb mll$l. be done before
II!I)thing al alJ can be 'ATiI1Q1 In tbr I'e('eI'Of JiDgwge.. Tbe (CJ(I must
be undemood c:ompleld y. Thl. Is Ibe J'I'"OCC"<S ...I:t i<b ta\;cs place in
moving from d,e I'O\lt"CC lool:U<Il:e fOlm III lhe ... mantlc ,u·uct ure, I.e.,
I" Ibe mcan irli of Ihe te~l.
The trnnsl. tor(s) should begin by reading the lexi 'IOvalll times,
Ihm by readi'li "100 rout.rillls Ih~t may bclp In und.ersIaOOillg the
CUlTUre .... languav of thoo sew« texl As he reads lhe teXl, he will be
loo\;ing foI the alllhor', pwpose .,d. the theme of the tnl He will
look for larger groupings or sealOl\S. lJe may "-:ml to o\lllillC til<' rnt.
1be ~ i$ 10 understand lhc lext as a wllol.e. Once Itt has done
dlis. be ;1 ready to wor\{ OIl the m31erinl • =;on .1\ I liDle.
The anulysl. " f the seu rce lexl .... ill lnclll<k resolving 1mblguity,
idcnlifYina Implicit lofom l'l\ion, ~tudyln& key words. Interpreting
figurath·e iICO!iCS, recocnlzing when ..'on!s are being uud In :. ... ron_
dary _ , wilen &rammaliclll urut(\lreS are being uoed in II se.::ondary
function, etc. II will illl'olve doin& thel:ind of amlym ..·hkb Ibis boo\;
i< aU about, The goal of t~is 1$ to dermnine!be IDC::Illi~ wbich i.
to be oornmunicaled i" Ihc recqxor language Iext. The u ::a'1<lalor
carefully otOOie, the loorce JaogUlge tClli oud. using all the avm;1at~e
lool<, dctcrmints the oomcl11 of Ihe: 5OO.lrce langmge rne&S?ge. the
rda ted COOlUlll!liCl'llion ~;tuatlon mmlCr$, find all olh,"]" fa~ tors which
w ill need to be Wldcrstood in order to prOduce an equ iv~l cnt trarulatioo.
T nm$fer ::a nd initial d raft
After a can:fuI analysis of the soun:e lmIguage «'1(1, as indi<.ated
llbo.,.e, lite IraIIlbtor he&ios dntfting piece by piocc, _Iloo by -uon.
The tran .fn ",",ulu in rbe I nlll~ 1 dnff, In preparillg this draft. the
,ranslator i. l1aru[cn'ing from lh~ !OU!"CC langu.'lge inlo It..: re<:epo.or
IlUll:uage. A. he does !", he lIlU-o;\ ~I w" y. keep his wrget audi ence in
mind.
Be£....e 4IlY tXten, h·c drafting CM be done, the key 1~1lI1n ...tlx>
detet"nliDed. E\"">, IU ( h3s • " ' of .words lIo"hieh :In: crucinl to the
conIeni IItd eom<:1 oomm..uClldon of the rltemc. lbue need to be
decided upon and may need to be chocked ..~th other ~"" of the
r.~cptor la11l.~e,
There are IWo ways uf approoc;hlng d'e 1",lISfer and. Ini1i. l dn f! .
Some rranslutGfS prefer I" do a quick rough translation J() tltat the
 ,
I HP1~
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.
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•
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 Chapter 6
Words as "Bundles" of Meauing
A. dl;cusoed in the previous chapter., tbe ai m of the fran51ntor is
to conununicatc dearly the meaning of the SOtJrcc tut in tlte tmmla-
lion. Tn chapler T. ( h.raeteri.tics of language whkh . ffOC'( how a
IrIInslMor dots Ihis are listed. The first ch"""'teTi~t ic m<>nliOllcd WaJ
that meaning comfX>O<11rs are combined Inro lexJc3l itffil~ b" t th.1t they
are ··"""k~ged'· diff=tly in one hlIlgoogc frOOl aoclll~r. A word Is
a "bundle" of meaning componcnu . The tnln$lator ~ «J be ~ble
t<l analy"",, the lexical item!! (W<>t<ls) of the """,co tut in order to
tmnslate them. This IllQIlS bejng able tQ "WlpaCI:;~ words in Older to
silo"" the m~ n ing tit:!! i. repusented by the lexical form . DlctlollAries
~lIIlpnckM the meanings of word,. TWIt is ,,'by I lood translator will
use a1llbe diCliooari<s and lcxicom: available In his study oftbe source
1IIn&uagc text He wants tQ be sure he knows the meanio; of eacll
word Sinu tangllllgCS combine meaning. different ly, tbcN w ill be
Oll."Y word!! which ,,·ill not have all euct Dfle-word tqlli\"alemln the
r«:qlCOr language.

CooC"e pts
In chapter 3, ,,"htre the structurcof m ...... lng was discussed. II w ..
pointed oot th:ll mu lling rompon enlJ and o:on(e,11 In clas&ifled
~caIly as 1lilNGS. EVE.'-'TS, ATTlUBUTES.1II1d RELAllONS.
THU":OS If. defined •• all anlmale belngll and . l1llYfl lm;n. ~ti!les.
EVENTS intlude all actioo~ proc~, and e:o;)lCri-. AmUBVTES
inchn, all artribu!e; of quality aoo quantity IISCribed to THl ,",OS or
6VENT'S. And RElAllONS include all those rdalioos positC<l bctwe-en
any two ~k unil8.
Con~t"pt i . used i~ this text to J"t"fer nollO Ill' form (word) but
only 10 \be meaning content. A ""'Q ~tP' is a f\lW&I!lzabic unll of
me.'\olng in MY given languag~. These COnctpb may be: brok"en do"lt
imo a number of meaning components (bin of infonnatlon). Fnr
example, the concept ram can be broken dewn into SHEEP, MALE,
and ADULT. A concept is Hbundle OfcompOlltnl5 ofillcanltlj. Si~

"
61 THE LEXiCON Words .. , MB""JI",," 0/ M"",,1"8 '-'
wd can be lrunslatro iOlo Aguaruna with Ctlly the phrase 1/OIfWC/r !lOU" inilllOIMr language. Ills inICles1iDg, howll\·~.11u11 inCQIlltllSling
bein8-bro1:t~ f«liJtg. lanauases 01)1,) often DOles a fuirly l'OOSislcol ~Ialioll bcrwu:o. lWO
In order to analyxc the meanin& of a wcrd In 1'fCllMIli0ll ror dlffeR'llt parIS of ~ch. ~ one language is usia& 1.bc ~·ctb ,..ilb
mmdatioo. _ must first think of"'bul tbe «1Ilr.l.1 ~na:pI Is and In SOUle d~ee of~. "<>OIber taoguaae fUy be expressing \he
wlial way Ibis is limited. It may Ibm be possible 10 tran$blte with a \'ef)' $aI~ meanings by means o f the "l"fbal nOlm. Such ob&cIviUions
word to tbe I"OCtp!:or Iquagc which is OQIl;..lIIent \0 the tefttral abou' the ""'lnl diffcterJ«s booo~ iMgUagcs can be ' -n}' usdbIlO
ootIcepf and Uie • plt.raw 10 WtI the further definition. NOIe !he [he tnwlator. Tl'1IffiIalrng fium 3 langlIage whicb uses many \"erbr;
foUO'Ning examplt# from Aguaruno.: inlQ • bnguagt "lIich uses many "erbs wi l[ bt; caller Ibn ffOlD a
lan&uage ",hieh IJ'lei maRY nouns imo a lan&\lage wblcb uses mostly
,,",,.
w,Jda"no" _ IOC/tU au.o"'a"~_
~. whcro·they-"",-not·pI..,., n,e I kew lng bel:wem >emanlic dll~ nud parIS of specch
occurs fre<Juen tly. Many l:mgUD.gC3 ha"e spedal forms which make
(I piau whete tl>tre Ire 00 poople) il possible 10 U'e an EVENT concept ~ I A nOUn In the grammar.
for example, In English. hwwledll~ is n ooun bas«I on the EV ENT

-.
thoo,..,.· frZit Jqt1mkJ ... u"",," M"'i ,.. ..»ta
houx b;J tltaI-wilt-pbu poeope dI--.,.,
"'~-g;>th ...-ploc ..
Co bI, """... "" hm: poople piha- b ~n-u.ion)
Skewin!: flf d asl ifiulions
"The"""" form may aloo be used as IWO diff"'<-'I1t parts of'pe«h .
For example, n()/ice the uliC of blue in the pbrnses blue sky !!lid "~)I
blu~. In tbe Ii,,!. blua is used as an adjective (() describe tbe ~ky, and
in lbe """"nd, sky il uled lIS on t><Ije<:ti"e to d.=ibe bille. 10 the firsl,
tbere i. no sk""I"1I box.us. bl,,~ Is at) AlTRlllU11! Il'led II on
adjective and sky II a TIIL"C URd as a I\CnII), ill the sc~ howen"
a TIliNG. the Jky is uied as an adject i"e 10 mudify blo .. which Is an
ATIRlBUl'E uUd lIS. noun. Wbooevcr tlwre is i kev.1nc flfthis kind.,
tb= i. lil e1y 10 luwe to be ,ome Idnd of adjllStm<nl In nmslilCion.
The 51<e...-illg belweea me gramm:n and th~ scmantie CBU;<>ries mu.l
be talr:Cll into eoosidt:mioo in fonding tile UDdetlyinB matllng. T~
IIIIO/"S mUSl be aII'm 0(1I>iJ sk~"fing ill tile sour«]a.-.gUlip. Once the
meaning is clear_ thq ClUl lbink about bow 10 teoonslr\lCt the metllling
ill !he receptor INtgll8&c.
"The ,"",~Iator mm! guard Itgain>llrying to mak:b pans ohp«d>
from language (() Llnguagc, ,in~ exb iMg"Uagc ha$ ill own syJlem
for lJ1"nlliing ooncepu: InIO dHTcrtnl pM.< of~. TIlcre I, lilli e
guarantee that wlutl. It • !>Oun in one Laaguage is be$ltral\&!Uled by a
eonctll' k,!Ow. Ability is a 1KI1l" based on Ihf to ncepl 10 Mable
and /,,1/ "pan 1$ • noun phrase bMc:d !)!l Ihe (onttpl (0 reporr
fiJlj. [II , omc llInguages, tbe..., aJ'<' forms .... hleh modify ~ llInl
(0 EVENT ~oac...pu, 0$. for exampl~.I"fling in fall",:: 3far.
!'Cft'!'
Since fofliltg ...,fers '0 an £VENT co" n lll , tho .semara;': 5[ructure
would be Q srar "'/rich is fo!ling_ In Ille ph.rue Slimy cyu Ihe
adj«tivc s'arry ref"" to nm~Gs. 5"'" and 10 ,he: senwu:ic W\Ic-.
lure WOtlld ~ c~ "'hid> loak iiI<. S14r1. Thue il &k~"I beN'""
lbe grammar and the St'Ill3IUic stntcturc.
There: are various n:amrn; "-by nominlllwng. for eompl ... oc=n.
One oflbe malo r...."..... in English, Ind l ome ~ I!II"I&~, is so
Ihal the (Opi<: vnder discu ..ion cal' be iOtroouoed b)I B noun. If t~
topi( is an EVENT, lliea a n01lJl fOlTl), often called 1WI ~bsu.ct noun.
" '111 be u~ . For example. the now-. salmI/on may be ~ to talk
about tho EVENT ro~"w Or th~ noun h~i8hl m~y be..sed to talk aboul
Ihe ATI'RlI)lJ]'E ltigh ortbe nOlUl/he rtMan may be USI'd 10 talk about
the RELATTON rn"'n -re:. ult iflt is 1M topiC oflne .sentence. Skewi ng
cf this kirxl b us:ed for pointing out tbe ICpic of tile ~"""" or
polrlanlp b.
Jf lhm lI'eft no Itewing. the text ":oold IOUntI very monotOOOllS
and unllll_ting. Sk"""ing by oorninalilalJon, ,·t'fWi2aI.ion. and
adjfclivization add< dyn.'min and Mlife ~ to Ill. tCllI. Tbt-y !lie pan of
the Slyle which makes a gi'~n tUI 3 wort (If art. But if tmndat.ed
IItCf3lJy inlO a _olld laogI.Iat(, they " ill soood Itraogc and llOI
II'XOmplish lbe ~ wbicb!hey had in tbe ~ texl
A ll'IlI'Iilator wiU find it helpful to lIIlIIlyze the ~ language by
oom~na tlte pan of speech " 'ilb the ,elrullltic cla~ification. In tI'e
following example!<, the label. aoo,,( tlte wo,d$ indicate their grnm..
rMtlcal clftni ficlI\;()f! and th" label. untk'rneath In dicate tbeirsemautic
closs. Notlce tbe .k~,,·jnl::
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 .-

. I. WUf:T
TilE LEXICON

7. Su~~csa
Wlmls "5 ~8"lUIff;3"

spoilM lIim.
rif Mta"lng
"
2. l~gislallon a. Di.Woncsty ,. bad.
3. plio! 9. The .... .ruth), live hC1'e.
4. diMbutor(of lboot) 10. He', htn: on a visit
,. """"
6. wtlitffi
to
C. Rt'\'oTitc the following ~pb SO tll3l Ill.".., is no ok"",,, ,
bct":een tbe semamk ..oo lIle grammali cal danes. You do DOl
7. to <:nSf"'f'O nC(ld to brea\:: lexiQI items down illl" rBCllrunt oo mpoMllU unle..
&. to dive thl. is nccesSllry to match Ille scmanlk: Md IImmmalicaL classes
9. to SlOne
(i.e .. ;'un/er could be .. man ,..h"
wru-hunling . wit hom Jiving the
components of "ullum and being sinc e b)ll'epnmtlnll lI'Ia1l and
10. to Junlfy \a pt'1'3OO) hunting " 'c now have a THING. man. as R noun M d an EVENT .
I I. to tree ...u /wn/jng, as a verb, a",llh~re 1$, lheNf()l1!, no skr:wlng.)
L2. JWIIl'na; (WIIIC,) 1"/u /lIImer ....... a 5110 ... ..·/til., """" 8'1d;"8 Q/ong j"
Il. fallin! (Sla.) 1M rushing brook. TN ~"lUy of 11M b;nJ $lopped IIi",
14. glutton /J'OfJI Jlf{)()/ing. He _ 1C1Ied ia dutrppeillTJltU _NlIM
flUIINN! tJnd lhe" conli~ued 'us hUI/~
15 deny
16. suboolillillon D. In c:lCh of the following, the fomll of $C\'crnl bnguages an: gh<o:n
11. trulh "'ilh /I lirernl mnslation io(o EngIisIJ of this form . Whar ...-ouJd
rile idiomatic English equival ent be fot _10 lei?
18 «lIl1m~nlcaUOll
19 p<>Slpollc J. AI/utru". ( Puu) , l:aj§g pIlj!,,-al • llIy"leql h-ex i...
20 . postpo nement Spanish, tengo .ueno - I-bave sloopiness
[ IIIt·ish:
B. Rewrite 11M folloWing $0 that there is no skewln~ between (lie Allorher lang llag e you $p"~ k:
semant ic lind 81'11m maUcaI cll...ses:
2. Mankal; (Braul): utura ywn u 'ak - heart sll$ flrmJy In
E.>.ample: II root; . 101 or judgme/ll1O frlld ~ 5011llio~. Aguarlln a (Peu): M<k~capi," I~w;lj · " il-i$-lllrdy-true,~
be says
SonIeon. jlJd&cd well I:IId ..,..cd ....-.ahlQi. Spa nish:10) cree _ it he-belie,·...
Apinal'e ( Bruit): 1001: arnaxp;-;r . thinks "'Ith
En\:Ud,.!
I . I aled "'bcf1 they rold me of the dealh of my motbu. AlMltbrr bn:;aav.

2. The love o f OW ~0\I0tI)' il ,.~ important. 3. Man!;.li (Brant): lim iiktux , CJ ' put tWDy word.!
J. Envy II not pxI. Agllirulla (Pen): Mdutihllljal,~ titl • kl.wiU.do-dltll . H

4. D id yo\> llke your gra:odfatJ:m 's gift? he-Mid

Sp" ol.h, d io "" promes8' grl\'c hi . promln
5. Hcis p li!ll'. Enl!li.h:
6. Nob<>dy rl!:')pe<ts B chca .. Anoth er 1211g Ugc::
" 11[£ LEX/CON

4 M und urului (6nozU): Iguycilg ikhht kug puye - he -i s~""d

because h.,..h.", -ugliness (sin)
Al:uarun ... (feru): aoontii yapaji~waj - his·henn changes
Calleja (Bra~il): illklm mii hikra ·I.,..-go-<:lf his sin
[Ilgli sh :
A nother lan l:uage:
Chapter 7
E, In each oftbe fpll<)wing Il'aPSlaliorts into English tiw italicized
words have been translmed literally and mayor may not be SGme Relationships
i diow~!ic or correCt. Eval uate the Italicized words as translatiotlS.
As nn exercise, chll!lge the part of speech of the word (or main between Lexical Items
word, if more than one word is iovol,"«I) in lh. italicized
constructioo to $O)me ot.:her I'arr ()f speed to S~" whether you can
impr(lVe upon Tho lran<l'lion of the .'lenIence a, a whole. Do nOl Qneric-sp«iflC
change the meaning of the sentences, but suh.1inne words and, if In chajXcr I, it WJS noted tbnt the Same ruean iugcompooml!; may
necessary, chnng~ gramrnalieal structures. occur insewrollexlcal items {wordl)ofa languag•. Theexarrtple was
gi\'en of the word sh""p, The meaning SHEEP is also fOWld in the
1. Befor. dep<>r/!lre, ) gave tl\eln sorne in'tructi ons. words lamb. ram. and e _ _This \s true bt:cause the word ~hup is a
;:eneri< wl>rd which includes (he mOl"<> . pee;r.o "'I>rd. "'m, ""'''. and
2. Ifcosts change in any way prior to del;W'ryof the equipment, {amb, Every langll8ge has whole =as of"ocabulary with this kind of
the rem will li~ewise be c1wlJged in ~qual proportion rcbtioosbip betw«:llth~ words. Notice Display 7,1 which show& the
s emantic oontent of.ollle English vocabulary.
3. It iscommOlli.:nowledgethat the U.S. share in the foreign trade
bas shown a lend""cytoward reduction in ree~'flt yea.,..
=
~'''''

..
SHEEP IIORSE DEER

4. A co/tlpll'IC e/i",;nalion of the general dediM in econom Ic

activity seems almost impossible.
IDm. ~, rom ",,/lif'" -,. ,~

"'"
~U ,~
=ro ~" bUch
5. The gOl'emmelU is taking an nocessary steps f(lI a
the bonIen:,
<kf~nse (If
YOUNG' ,,., ce'tlfoal chid _n fawn

6. The United States i~ committed to a ~a.reless sidying for Ihe Di<plQy 7,1
mumlm~1 ofa genuine disarr1llllHcm.

7, Hecould nOI incitebis mell to mUII,,>,_ ThaI wonld be a cr'-me

8 He rises early.
9. Wlth my knowledge of Hungary's pa~t, I can ,""yiew the past
it 11M tr''''''rsed and a,,,,,,", its present developm..,u,
I O. Today Icatkrs and rtmk andfile laborers are m(lt"e united (han
at any time in the past.
NOIe th~ t across the top, th.. generic word. SHEEP. HORSE, CHICKEN.
DOG, and DEER occur. lben. on the left hand side, the addiUonaJ
meaning components. wh ich are part (If tbe word, in ,he ~UIII<OS of
the di'Play. are given; that is, ADULT. MAL£, FE.I.tALE. and YOUNG.
(Note that th~'"" is no sp"cific word in English for ADULT, MAL E
IXXl.) When looking aI vocabulary \his way. (1M sees how the kInds
of res:rating presented in the last ebajXcr could be arrived at for each
oftbe words on the dispJny, A 'Ill'l is an ADULT, MALE SHEEP; a ewe
is an AD ULT, fEMALE SHEEP; and a lamb is II YOUNG SIlEEP. We

"
 " 'FiHI
15.i --
'" .. -=
·1'-. ~Ii.~i.
.g · ~5! ., 1
i1" ~ !l ~;l "' l~ ';:;
~ ~ ~"h " , ~~ - J -l:
ll=.5~~r:~t ~ ]~i " ~]~.8
i!~_."8"]~a ~,:.~~ 'Il.!lC
- ... E!=
" ." ""'~""'''~
~~~
.1" ¢:'~~~o

"~·~~I=.!!!!
IE li ,"
0 E

j iiliffl 1 ·~.~1 g~']~'i· ~ ~G-i]ii~l~

t

] ," '""
"L:!~
~ ,, "<I
2 !"S>'';;;
.~ ~-...:
• ; oi.!:i-fj
,~
'G ,;: I !
1

a ,
§~~ ~ ~~~-~ ltj~~laluB
",~!j~~~~·";'j'!l
'I
~ ~ ",- . i - ~·· "$ r~-i·~
- -"~~

•~ •:! ,, x",~~H~~ 1S'·g~M~.! ·~ ·r5!!

"q'

j ::'.:5-8:'-.;" if ,,-u ~ ~- ,,_-z~"

~P'H'
.~ 5">,!,!;;£j
,. '5 <;< ".;:;
it: I
, fr
~ j~li~ij i~J W~ill~f
~~~ ~~ $~ ~8"' u ~ !~
1 .•ii~l~ft
"l!~<O>'-1I i ]t':§."l8r~~~!>.~ !5 ~1a"'o
~
- e..8.. " .. i a ~-:] .; : ~ i ::iI~ ~~ ~~~ i ~ ~
~ ~< ·'· ·:: ~!;~lEi
.~·l
•• 1VHi
~
,., .... So!!-
~;;~.5~] ~_
I 1'1"1"
>.'ifJ!.0 -s • .::::: !I!o!.!"iI
ii;-=8~"'!~-;:'~;-s ~:l~u iol~
-.,",
. . ··I".,!l ""]'·"·;'·U'·
"'.'!"!<\i
"E" -'. ~!"'
'"
!5"'"
Ir:"H
..
"''''.9·15 ....
e:'g.lJ~
"
_ li ~ '6,,",
"'l

~
-t'-- ~
<! "i
"j-1 Ii .
~~" ~ ''',= >;;1!!€ '
.... E
",g .l!
~aE y~ ~ ~ ~- ~ =
'o;5..@.~ ~ :H c IHl:;;" .!!:e1!& 1i~~a 1t.

j
 TilE LEXICON Some Relationship< between Lexie..! It~HlS
" 7S

I
man
ulmal
r
an imal
I
bini
1
j<sh
+ w)
_ m

i i L i l l
mao "",ma" roml 1>011 broil fty

"'~Y Dispu,y 7.6

DispJay 1.4 A tran~lmor needs (0 know about the gmltric otl(1 spo.' ~ln(
relatiollships ofwords becau ... this may help him find a good lexical
It is important to realiz~ thai: lhe same word can be uSC<l sometimes eqUiVll'l!Ilt which might be hard \e> find ifhe were not aware of this
in a very g~ nuir way and other tim ~. in a very ,pecifi~ way. Since possibil ity. For e~ampl ., he may be able to use a g eneric w<lId in {he
the generic I'I:I:u:iomhipli of any two languages are u5\l all y quite recepWr language which would include the Source language word and
different, it is unl ikely that a second language would lL,e one form (or (hen add a o:k5criplive phrase in order to make clear tbe res!ricling
all of these occurrenc~ of ".an. In the Philippines, rice i.< th~ g~"1leric components of meaning nf the source language word, F",
e"smple, if
term for all grain. A poss ible way to translste ....heal might be a rice woJ! d id not occur In t1.~ rooeplC>!" languftge, (he generic lorm aniTtwl
cal!~d wh~a1. plus a descriptive phrase likefiercdwild might need to be us ed as was
It is aloo important to realize that EVENT w(>rds. that is. word. done in a translation into Tcpchua ofMe~ic o. CenlUdoll W"'; lrnnI;iated
whi ch are stru}ding tor a serrtilt1lic EVF.NT. may al"" be arranged in into Mazahua of M~"iC<l by using tl1~ generic tcnn 1>1(", and tbe
genedc-:spttilk relationsh ip" i~ 3 language. Nolla Di,play 7.S. addiliooai descriptive phrase who coM",ands 100 SQldiers_
Soonedmos. tile ll'anslaco.-will have difficul ty in tnmslaling asoorce
langtUlge word which rep«sents a ~onccpf which is unfamil iar to the
. p.. k recepiOl language spealctlS, Ile may need to borrow a word from the
I source language, but in order 10 insure that it will be under.itood, he will
I I I - r --- 1 want to use a generic c\8ss word alo~ "'ith the loan word; n <>r<k-T to
comma",} ",I>u~ ask ",ply G"""""U make it verydoor what jg beiog talked about. The A£uanma are tropical

r I
I -~' T
Ix,!: p tud IIDplo~ I'....y
Di.rpl~y 7,5
The word speak bas a very general meaning, whil~ command, rebuk2.
ask. reply, and a,mounce !lfe m(>Te sped fie. That is, they have added
component< of meaning. The ce ntral component of meaning, speak.
occurs in all oftbem. but there are add itional C<.lmponents ofmcaning
that d istinguish them one from the other. At anoth~"'level. ask Can be
delinealed by additional C<.lmponents o f meaning resulting in beg,
plead. implore. and pray.
Not ice, alsa. Display 7,6 where prepare is the most generic and
one way "r preparing is 10 cook, aoo e ookfng can be d one in severnl
specifIC ways; mal is, b)' roasting. broiling, boiling. or frYIng .
I
fores( pwple who have neVer seen a camel. The word cnnlel was
transiated.lnto Agu:mma as an animal cnJfed CIlmeJlo, us ing tile Spanish
l<.lao word camel/rl and identifying tbe generic class of animal.
It is lmport,mt 1r1 notice that langungcs tend to diff~"!" most In
Ileneric tennino]o&)" rather than in sptdfie. When translating rela"
til'ely specific words. It is usually eilSier it find a d03e equil'ulenl.
Sptdllc vocabulary i< more likely 10 cOITC!pond between two lan-
g uages. But wben rille is trnmlating ,eQ~rk words, it may M more
difficul1. Generk \'oc~bulary ill one language will be qUite diff~rent
from thai ofanodler and there wlll be 00 exact equivalent. For example,
in the Aguaruna language. there is no word equal to English bini. The
wordpi,/wkmeans "small bini:' tbe word chigkil1l¢lll\s "game bird:'
aDd the word chiW(1g means ~big nongame bird. ~ such II as b=rd.
It is possible t<.l say " flyIng things:· but this would Include Insects,
airplanes. tic. When one is looking forcquivalent generic "'ords, these
carnl<:JI: Ix: fowl(! by simply a~k.ing for tht equivalent words of tbe
"
• 1
I
~ ·,
• •B
S
j
.'
-.•
~~
"
•H
••
j 1;
<:.1
•- ,:
~ , ..
o·

i' ~
 THE LEXICqN
" chopped 11 and had 1011 of com gro ...ing, $(I much it guw like
cooe in. c.anc:-pQlcb. They SlOid " When 'JOA.Jt rom is gt'CW1I
and "'e SOD it is ripe IIDII )'0\1. arc <:a/iIIg ii, kt us t{f( uiOO. ~
aUt he ",piled, ~Siooc you rcl'uaod to shan "'ilb nle Dnd <lie
all your """" , I refuse 100. When the C(lI7f is ripe I alone will
eoz illiP. ~ .,.
This i.i. story abo:>ut com, Some people had:lll ab~tI,f"!IM.
Socaus.. of thai. when or ~.,. . lci:.e.l. ~ Can we ba\'Q some of
yoor com 10 cal1~ i.bey refU$ed. So one of ~ other!:
chopped a cornfield He prepared a lIl';>i bil field He planted
h~ seed an d il gn:w like cane in a C3nc-pllC~. The pe<>ple
said, "Wl~ 11;< grown and we see that ills ripe aqd t b~t you
we eating ii, lei us have somt! too.~ Bm I~ replied. ~S!nc:.
you ",fus.cd 10 slIMe " ' jlll me .,d lII.e.ll "f f""/'J. I rd;,ue
100. When milt/'; is ripe I will deYQ~r it.11 by mysdf."
S"b5lit ule .. ord~ at .. u..ed when lhe: receptor lanJuage natural
pattel"l'l! prefer a variety of words to refe.- to , be same Ihine or
event. On the other hand, tile revene "",y be 11UC:. The source leXI
may U$e .ub. tltutt wordl which would b~ !lIore nat",al in the
reccplor language if the oritinal noun Dr verb were: used. Subs!l_
IlIl t " 'ordl; should not be Iromlllle<l litenlly. Ratbl'r. the natur.tl
pal\~ms f<.>r u.sillj; sub.lit _lt "" onls in the rcceplw laniunge should
be lJl<cd.
Synon yms
In Iny language, there arc wo:>rds which are ~'CI)' sim ilar in
mellnlna . Ho:> wc".r. tb ~rc Mre very r",,' ..xae l S)"" I),ym$, En " words
,e
wblch an: "ery ~ruilar In mcaniRg will probably not lui".. exaclly
the SIIITIt ..... In Kl\lenc:e ;md pano ...... ph Mru<:tur'=S. The " '0<d9
aftm and freque,trly are ct .... e .ynony mL There will be ",IS of
words which ~ synonymou. In lheir nu clear meaning which,
ho:>wcver, cootaln cerl>tin addH;o:>nal po:>0itive or ntg:.tt-·c o:>'·crtOll<.i.
One m.'y be more f<>I'It\J.l and another 1= foonal. Ooco word ""'y
be .ppropri ~te in ooe ~i hlll1iOll and the o:>(I,.. r appropriate in a
different situat lcm. The words fat. pl"",p. and chubby ftl1 have a
common m<::aniDi' lIowever, tIIere: an only certalll conl"~\lI In wbicb
they (1ft inten::hMgeable. rtf', s.hrid. and.so::rt:o'>l are aoo I,-nonr -
mOIlS b\ll ",ilh a slighl difference of usage. Po:>I{"" offli:Y. po:>Itc.-
rna", alld cap all r~f~r to:> the same Ihing. but cop is tnuch less
(o:>rmal than po&e o:>ffictr. A =:000 langll/lge may nOi have I
specific wOfd for each of the S)'tiIay." of the '«lUlU IlUIll1llic.
Soo!~t l me. the rtCCpWr lanlU:O~ =y ha"e more ,,·ortIs to ch()Me
50_ IlriariOl..ll ips ~IW«" lA::dcaIlt_~
"
f,om Ihn the oour~e language. It is: , 'cry Impo!1:Ull that the lrallS iator
be aware o f the very minute dl/fereQOeS in lDCM1iD& bnwttll WDrd5
l!KI near ,~'no.~·ms so as 10 ~hoose the word lllat has the ri\lhl
connot.~llon. (Connotation wl1\ be d~~ In chaplet" 13.) For
example, when lfiIn~lating Inlc English from .ome other ~li~agc
which has only Ollt: woo:! for poIi«, "'hkh wool $hould be cbosen
in English. pqliu officer, PC/iUWlOlf, or cop? The tmnsillor would
need to know the djfference betwe.n Ihe near .ynoIlYIII I. The
r.f~=~ iii to the some person. but lh. words arc used di1fcrwlly.
AJltoll Y"U
The ~n lo n)'ln of" word l< the e:<lICt opposite, or coo\rulS in
so me particular fW1 of Its meanlrlg. All lMg1J3ges " i ll hnve pam.
of woro. which an: U ' uyn\l. buI different bo&~ -"i ll ha,'e
different $eu. For ~plc. In English, ....e dUl'll!gulsh dort and
/all vertiC/illy. and )'hol'1 and il)ng borlrontally. In Aguorunll. lIlere
.re only tWI) ",,,,ds S11lajuch And €R(Jjam wblch lore used for both
,he \'ertJCftl and borizom al distinction "flength. In F.n,lish. wo have
, he words good and bod ... bleb an: . nloa yml . In A~. the
d~inc!ioo It made by the word gDOd, ~gt~. contmHng with the
sam~ word g<XXi linked to 8 negmive .umx, no/·good, pegM¥clfIllI.
That Is, !heie are nut Iwo ... parole wOJ'lb: lbere Is simply good II!I d
nut-good. Some Iquag... wlll have words for s~ IIOd frw·
OIhen will simply have a WDrd for f l U while Ibe m~"ning for
~slav~ " will be IIQ/-fru.
It ,an lOIDelimes be very helpful to. trlWlator who is tool<ing
for a particular word 10 realize that if he ~ about the •• tonym ,
the W\')fd opposite in meaning, t.e lOOy be .bIc 10 find the desired word
by conmucting a !lcgntivc f.mn of ltw antonym.
~In SOD'" InSllSllCCS. a re«pIOr language may aif.,ady use a
coomuctlon with ncgsrives as a normIII w.y <>f bandling nrtain
posith" COl:lCq)IS. l n Bila'an 0( ''''' Philippme..1lle e~preoslo{\ ill.< 1WI
pru~ihle "'" wjlf ,,01 Is bow ~ mIL'll iJ e:q'reJ;$ed" (B«km3n and
Callow J974:1&.1).
Opposlles are a k.\nd of . ul08)-m_ ..d, aDd /i1T1t!. many and
{t:W. ape" and .hut. Cle. Some languagd have ..... 0Id for Cllly OIIe
of !he pAir Md tbe othcr il ~ negative. In Agu.vuna. tbe mOSI
o;:amplimentary way to say )'0" ar~ ~ulifol is teI.\3y J""f art fWl
ugly, and tlDl _ y iJ a _ Clupballc way to !ii.Y few tluIn !be
wordfew.
ReciprocuJ WQrd~
Most languagea will aLso bave sell 0:>( words which an: lhe
reciproc:.1 o:>f <>oc InolhC1". F<H" ~pl ~, rhe words Rive and ~iw
 ~

" THE l.EX1CON

have 8 ~ecipro<1I1 rclatioruship \(I one Nlolhw. On e eM .IY, "John gave ,

Soml! Relationships hn~"'<!" Lrri""llte_

"'''lk
"
Marya boot .. Of one can I fty. "Mary receil't'd a bo<>tftom Joh", "
The muning is ~ nme sine:<: thf two aCflolli are reclll~.1 ilClioru:.
One ClIO ur, "John rouglrl /Jill," or ~BiJl le(m'NlfQIft .kJ1ur. ~ Teach
, Irnife
and IC<U1I are ""q......,11 ac:1ions. This m3)1 lOOIetim ~ be ~ helpful
In tnmlalion wbere !be I'I:O;:fltOf language does not have a lIPCC'ific
,. ,-
·...ord used ill the ume WIly III lite IO"U l""'III"'Bt . II may be thallbe
same meaning am be COIumunica\Cd by minG i1 !'telproul ~·ord. For 6.
nample, llot gowrm" I!n/ SO " , " fa"B" gram W lire ",itw'" mlpr in
S<)mc tro.n:slaticn lleed to betran.llalcd cOIlwrsely, 1~"'I"tTJ O'<IC<!-iwd 7.
"""
typewrite/
Q /af},'t! gran/from IMgowrnmtm. Style In some lMg\L,ge may make
one phtaJ! ing mol"<: (om;el tball the alber. In Muyuw, !here b no word
for ~ born. Instead of I WIll oorn In 1930, a uoml~li O)!l inTO Mu)'U,,' • girl
would ""ed to say my _,her g" ...-birth I" In, ill 19jO. AI90 In
Muyu"'. h, dtcInrd ,,/I food cka~ WI\S transWcd 110 foods ~
,. em
forbidde n by hjrn,
10. ....
COIKIUl ton

\1,.
II is "cry imponllM ...... lhc In>mlator be a....are oflhe fiw;:I thal lhe
VOClIbulary of1.'le I'<IlItCe langwge will nO! match Ihe "oc:~b~ Wy of
re<:"fll.... language. AwaralCM of d,e way thai vOCi1buht.rie . are
Jtrtlrn,red should help the Inlf\$laWr to find equl "nlenl$ thto ~gh
, '-

12.
."
caule
lookin" for more g,cnerie or . ..""ilk vocabulary, by 1000kini for words
lhal are iynonym&u!I or near Jyponymouli, and by looking for
an'OIl}',"' and for rtclproca l words. B. Li lt IIp to IW ",embers of the d ~ ~linds of game ~ in any
languap other lhan &!gli.!! and m lnle lbc:m in • troc diagram
to show" hid! lie the tooSI tfl\uk and "''fIicb lift' more ' pfdrk.

E..'l:ERCISES - Sorne Rd";oa!bips bttIoIcu 1~l.IClJ Itr ms
A. In front of the word 1I','cn . wrile a more lt ller;c word whicb
include. Ihe given W(lm. ,,, the , pace aft.".,,,,, "'Q,d W"..:oin the
eumplc below. write a more .ptcifk "'Qrd w b.ich I. c'lYc, ed. by
Ih. tDorc generic QIIes which precede it.
c. Study lhe rr.rulallon ~ for the iUolicizM \I\'\)f1j io each 0) ( IfM,
following. WIIlj Ihe change ,node from Jpet:ir1" 10 gu~ ..1c or
ge nerlo 10 'pedr",?
1. 1be wotfJnalch ed them and lcattered Ihem.
n" s,1\'agl>-Mim.olgrabbing lit lhem ca""ed them to SCflUcr.

Iitu!UJU"r cbaJr _J~~'"~"""L ___ _ 2. He Itdc:d IIn'lUIld 10 lic. wbn lind dott, h.
He loolced "I'OUnd to"" wbo lind thrOWlI the.wnc.
J.
- -- - - - - -- - J. ComIdcT the Wier nftl>c field.
nl ink abo;oul the wild 110WC<5.
J.
- - - - - ""'- -- - -
" THE LEXICON

4. His lomb is Wilh us to this day .

Sooni' Rclaej,mships between Lexica/ltems

F, Give an antonym for each of tile following:

"
Even now one i. able to.ee b.is burial place.
1. inside 6. to tie
S. Evrryone was talking about the hr.ppenings
Everyone wn, talking about the Independenc¢ Day 2. 10 "",.11 7. 10 .,alter
celebration.
3. to ndmil 8. to harm
D. In each of the following, a specific TIlING or EVENT is rderred
to fi1'$\ by ~ specific referent and then by slIbstitule ...·OM. 4. IQ believe 9. 10 release
Underline the . ui:>sl it u!e word" 'Remember thm s"bstitU le [() resist 10. to forgive
"'om refer to oomcthing already mentioned in the I~xt bill Wi<: a
more generic word 10 00 sO.
G. In " language where there is no literal counterpan oftl.e leXical
I. Abidjan is a largedty in Wesl Africa. It is located on tIle COOSl Hem UaJici2cd, it may be QCCCIiS"IY to "re a N"cip .... cal lexiclll
and is a tlrr iving met.ropoli> item as a substitute. Rewrite the following in Engli,h Ui;lng the
reclpr""~ 1 action rather Ihan tho actioo it.1licized hON. Then
2 101m rescued a young man who almost drowned, W~en what tmnsbtc the meaning inlo another language you speak using e ither
he had done oo.:ame known, he was given a special award for one equi\lIlenl "ftlle furmgh'en here or Ihe rttiprocsl, whidiever
his deed. SOOIll'l more lltItural.

3. Peter ale a hig In'3kfasl, and haviogoon c tbat.be wenl outside John gaw lhe boot to Bill.
10 watch the sunrise.
2. The peoplefollrm'tid Ibe king into the palace
The Iypewriter broke again. r .hou ld have throvm. the thing
away loog ago. ! bought it on discoWll and it's never been II 3. When he heard that they v.-e", coming, he made preparations
good machine to ",,,,,lye them.

E. Give a $),nonym for each of the following: 4. Mary had recieved the flowers from a friend.

I. amusing 6. sage (person) 5. Someone lold her that the incident wm: not true.

2, monage 7. piece 6. Jolm /wMd the book to Bill

3. fib 8,~s 7. Mary borrowed. pen from Jane

4. durable 9. goodt!i:ss
8, I want to buy a book from you.
5.C<»1llCCl 10. geoerous
9. The drummer led the parade.

10. Please sell me a book.

 THE 1.F.J(]CO N
" I !. The French army wtlquercd their enemies.
SOl1l'" Rnlllion."lfipr betwcell L exical Jkm5

~China is perhaps a '"ast

12. The police pllFSU<!d Ihe criminals .
H. The follow ing contain net~ ll ve stalemen(s. Restate as affirm _
~ti "e statements. Would the lIega ''''e s~1tement or the affirmative
statem...",t be rum" t)J1!UroJ in a trnru'llal;on into yC>\lJ" OIhe-r lan-
gUIIge? Elperiment with both and ciloo<e the moot nnturaL
85
country." Nehru dccl~red. "but India
is ~Or small eUher."
6. He "'liS a lready beginning 10 believe that M W(JIdd slay
o/tve/he would ru"';W!, but he refused 10 "Tite on address 10
his men; he would not engage in pror'"ganda in favor of the
army.
7. ThaI Is all "cry well, bUI it's litlle.

I. He may /WI be rich, bill he is a gentlerJl<ln. 8. He still has~', paid offhi. cal.

2. We CQw/J not d~,y that Ih;, was Ille truth. 9. Applications recciYM af\er the loove date wj{/ be disregarded.

10. Uardly can any piS! generation compare In Slrmsth, talent,

3. He was ....wr unkind. wing, and readi""'ls for the sacrifice w ith the forward.
looking man oftooay
4. Th i' j. >101 a $1>1<>11 mistak e

S, Parking is fIO/fo/bidden here.

1. In the follOWing translaliorn inU> English, the italicized words

hu,-. been translated li!e",Uy and may (If mny J}()\ be idiomatic or
00=. AJl an exercise, chaoge (be italici""d words in such a
manner thaI .. m nnllth'e senten<e. "'" made Dttat;>'. find "el:a~
th·. seolen:es are made .ffirmQf;ve. Do not change the mean ing
of the S~"IItm<:<:S, but. if ~""=ary, substilllte words ond change
grammOlicaJ st!1lCt\lnS, In each ca",. compare and .""[ '-"IIe (he
two poss ible trnnslMions.

Example: Drinking is 1101 forbidden

Drin1ing is (l/{"W¢/.

I. Smoking isforbidde~,

2 Not laki~g these factors i~1O <lccounf in determining our

economic policy would be nnerly .b5nrd

Supplements to tb~ agreement are o>lly valid "'''en they are

communlcalod In writing.

4. He's nOi a bad mechanic.

 Chapter 8
Discovering Meaning
by Grouping and Contrast

The: meMina ofa lexical hem ellll only ~ disa:l,~d by studying lhaf
pnrti~ullll' Lltm In cootrast 10 Oi!ler itemJ w hich"", close ly ",Iated.
l bcTe It no IDcanillfl apLrt from oigni llcan l ditr.,enccs ill conlIn!$.
Dy iJ"OlIP-nlI Inged ... r won b which are ~13I"cd _0 Me _her ood then
~cnw;e.uy looking at the COOInISI ~wocn 1hese ...'Ofds, one it able
_0 ddmnh~ !he meaning. The shared meaning CIlmponmts Md the
contn'Slh·c mearting COlJlpooeDls """ [hoa be dcscrlbcd IIIOf"C precisely.
W1cal IICI1l$ IlIC relaled in .":lIiow: ways and occur in ~:Irious tinm
o f 5mUl1llic KU..
Part-whole rdJoti-onl
Ooc way in which !3nguages gro~p words i5 by the T~lntioruhlp
k nown lIS p.. rt-..·ho le. For ""1III\pl~ In English c/ll~. r,/luk.j()r'tlre~d.
nrur. 1nd eDr are . lI p~ of the /lUI/i. I/"tu/, MM, ~d. /nmlc, Gr"".
/"gl, lIJld !~el are Pl'rt of the body. Th ere arc Inany sela mm up of
word~ In I plrl ..... hol~ TPialionship in OllY langU:lgt.l"hcre will beset.
o f ...ont.s dUcribing pan. of 0 bouse. parts of I mac-li llie. parts of a
vilJa&c, the l lruaural oq;aniza:rioo of a country, f"lIltical OTS""izmions,
and !lIIll1Y oIl\erg. When a tnIrISl ator is JtUdyina tbe lIaM-h'''ok
groupin&Sof _wo langu.ges. il will oftm beoott.. cJearlhOi lhere il; no
aact cqulvllerlt for some ofu.e words. Some Will be mi5siog in ~
lntJ,SlNlile or aoo!her. The nason for mit Is llIal vlfioul; I~cs
cJauify and ""bdivlde broad !If\)$ of mowled&e in differatt ....ys.
Slavie lquogC!l, ror t.UlrDpic. do DOl bft\"e KpaI1Ife words ror tum
and /rand. The Rllttian .........d noka include$ both the _ and lh .. /tanti.
In the same ""y, Ihe word IWga ind~ bo\lt 1(1t IIIldfoat. One word
in RII$lJIIIIIIXI,;ers!be pan of the body which In English IS reprcr;cntod
by two le.uel\! Ilem,.

"
••
H"J
] ~~w Ii ,,
,g Ii ~ i...!
A .. ~
i , •>
,,
"

] I
1,
~

• !!:§~J! ;
n .~ I
,••, ••
d
, i!i~ , ~
•
••
• ii
"!~
! <
f1
}
.,E ~ I ! ~ •
,• 1 •
. ]I~§ ~ -
~ 11 ...~'
- ..6 -e § "'"
.,!l
,~ J ~ ,! :I. •l•
"
.~
• "
~ ,~l!~~:':'
~ "ai;
13.0:- f- r- •• t , .- ]~ •
- • t1
:
i, • •t •,
"

·r, ]. ,>11 •
"

ti •.. i"
! ,"•
"

;I'';:
.~ ~I]:l
• -,!~ • il ,
i- ,l ! I I
[ I ,l
>' .. - OIl • I
i~~--i~ t.
... CfIO_
" " ],

"
! l A ~
c J.
"
~
,a1!-J!,
]:! fI ~ "i !• • i-
I il! f
a• §
~~: !
.~ j
•~ j f f ;
l &h 1r , l
"I ~ ~§~
' H~ i J ~ .. ,
.' !

"•
.~
~ .i!
a- _- ! •J
~
J! "~"-;':
_s~:!:!
! 1 i E• l ~
!
,- ..!l!~
~ 8'; ..
"f ja ~;;
"'.:-
~ ~ 1:.g .s Ij I
.! 1 •~ .1
.i
I.

•·•• it .1i
] , l,! " ~ ! !J
~j1! < -
"",_ .1
I.
j I'

i 1
, •, t r
~
~
I l !

,!l
r !

I
< !, li
.• 1. "-
• ~
~
 TUE LEXiCON D;~(J ~,I"g M~lUIi"g by G'roll" ,'ng Qlld Ct'lnlJ'ast 93
"
~ pari ofl.ystml; IbM". when they ~ r.lokd in.l(lflle way. ~
would be no ","AI in C<lln poorUtg ,,'Of'(\< if u.= ,,~ no! """"'" .b........ ~ ~

rompolK"l1c .. ln order 10 form. set. all of the words mUSl. contnin I

IlfDt riC cOll1.po .. ~nl ln cornmon . For example, IU of the above have ,~,
"'"'"'" aWr"""'l!
~"....a
the sbared mll'poncnl of KlNSIUI'. In the display wltlcb compare,i
tbesetreialingsil«p. hOfSt, ~C., In chapter 7, the ¥"nuk compo nut
tb~t made ;1 possible to COffiIX'l'" a.U the .....·M OOMEsn CATEO
A....'lMALS.
~
LJOnmricd
'".... ....,.,.
tfemal ....illlej
Kinds ef ruunins; com poucDU lMpJ.,u
We ..an mak. a display rn, the English words mnn. 11<>111"11, boy.
and girl, bcca<lse (bey are all h,~n"" beings. TIter have a gucl"lt Notice th ~t 11.= Is an ad<I<:d contrast in Aguaruna fo r ADULT
eQlIlp<l D.to l wWeh lIIey ~1Lan as the .,entral <'OIUPOMtlt, HUMAN MALE in that lher~ Ul'e 11"0 words, Olle having tbe lidded OOIlll'aSlivc
BEING (see Dlspby 1,7). componem of MJ\Il.IUED and tht oilier of UNMARRIED. AI'lO nolke
Ilia( the conlnlsl bet"'«n ADULT fF.MALE and y OlJN(l ~'E.\1AU;; c.an
only be indk-ated by addinlt a sum~ _ud. 10 the word for ADUlT
feMALE. 'IlW luffix means lillie 10 tbnt II\.< wwd fo.FIlMAL£rnILD

..,".
fE..\lAJ..E

l ADULT """ hi Ilnlt woma~, (Howc\'~. Ihe suffix is clearly rdall'd In fonn \() the
"'I)fIj for YOID:C MALE.)
~-
I Y(llING In tbe: pre;'ious chapler. we dlsc~ lti<:mn:hieal ",lationshijXI

Dlsp/D,8.7
"" bcl\O.·ct'!l words; that is. taxooomies.lIert.lI!so, the Wtonorny is based
00 the sbarcd CtMrk ~ompo!.tI\t' .00 com(nJtl~ tOmpollHls
whlth dmingui lh one lexical il~m from onolbolr. 1'01' example, ootico
Di splay 8.9 (Rcclunan fI!ld Co.llaw 1974:70 ),

In additio~ 10 lbe: CI"llnl com ponent, eacb word wHi hiwc

te"'..... li\'t tQftIpoaenl~ "'hleb dl:$llng\llsh il from fill orller words of '.'' 1'1.,..,
the seL Ma" has the conlnslh't COflIjXllI . "U ADtJ'LT and MAI.E. ..J.& ";';r ~ ~ ~.-
"""""" 11M the con(J..sti\'t componmts ADULT and I'EMAlE, boy hal
tbe COJlU11Slivc romponenu YOUNG and MAL!:l. and girl ha, the
contrutive COIl'IJO"ftIl!; YOUNG and FEMALE. ElOCh "'ord eo~trnsu 1- '-, 1 I
with every other ""ord by at leaS! one ~"'i"e comportl.'lIt.
n n.etal. rockln .. cnl lr c1 • • k .h .l~ baby .~.Ir
The mtallm , ....... p<)tIui which ,mild l1li)' scmaruic: oet of Ihis
id nd l§uUed lbe: Ctnuil: tompollul or the «nt .... , com ponent. The Di>pla, I.'
IDUllml: corapon eaf5 which d istinguisb than QIlC from tbe oIbor, and
U,.., been u"d as label. for the displays. ~ conlr2Slh' t com polltflli. Notice thaI aU of Ihe ....ords in this set bel"'g!(l the eenenc class; of
1'hese are the compo.ne\lt~ which help in diotinguisbing ",""word from fo ....1n.re, 1he ronT,.tll~e eomponUtlS .... hich "parale 'able. clwi~.
UJl()!ber in the set. W(JnJ~ cabi"e/, and cupboard wi ll ha,'c to do with the >hare and
Very often two languages will hne the same JCI as far as the the use oftbese Jl'ITIlculu pieces Qffun:titun>. Chai~ is then Iht 1:' nerM:
~D"'k tempoaen t ill ~nKd. but !be aontnsfin (ompooentl COlllpo..ellt for armchair, rocki", eMir. deck c/l..1ir. and babJi chair.
will he different. 'I'hcre may be m~ leJtleal ttans (If IC'SS 1eJ<i<:al items 1be Q1ot3nlng Olf ~ ~ apin depends upoo conlrastivt tOlD·
in Ih e set. ood the •..,ntrnt;'·. Comp<lMllt l may not IlIIItch. f nr jXlncn l. which have !(I do wim shapi: and U.'le.lf a translll<lr Is ",·o.!king
exnmple , the set for ltUMAN in Engll.h i~ given in Display 8.7 and on a le,;t wllich include. IcrrnioolOl/IY relating to !be genc:ric elM! o f
lilt set for Agu.1mnn Is given In Di splay 8.8 /wrnlmn. he will need to think vOf}' carefully through tbo .0n l .... 'II\'t

"
~c>mpou llu
TlIE LFJ(JCON
in the 5O\lfce lanSlUl£<' voc.bulary and in the .eceplo.
langu:>ge vocabulary in onk. to ,boose the besc cqIIivalent.lf tbm: i.
00 exaa cqul\'a1mt. he may n-l1O include d H' riem
COOlponenlS by
"'<taring, K indieatN previouJly, when the ~ is focal 10 !he
meaning ofThc II(;I1lence or panliI3p1:J. 1f ool. be "'ill simply choose
Ihe nearest «julvlIk'fll without fUrther delail.
In look;n, at the mcnni ng uf lbe lexicalllcms which belong!O
the same $.C1natlllc~, one needs 1<> rrn;t identify the d4S$ to which
it bo<loop \Ihe cmerie term). 1l!e" tWo individual lc:Jo.icsl IIcms
belonging to that cia", can be stud ied In COIlIIUI, the "",e with the
OIh.r. For t:AAltlple. COIrI",ontl, prom",z reb~~e. ad; reply, Md
annaunceaf e way. ofsl"'aking; that i~> they all beleng 10 the generic
class termed speak. BeclIWC they belong to ft common , . 1, the
meaning of ~"",h can be idenllfle<l by conll"Ul . Anofher lanSUl18C
IDa)' also MY., 8 ~ ofle.l;col llem<> which arc p8I1 of the semanlk
dom.in speok. but !bey lOlly be \"1'1)' d11f~ from this ~I in
EogIi$h . !'or elIlUllple, tbe W.h...al IllI1guage o f Guyana (dou f, om
H.wtlru: 19(2) doe. 001 bavo verb< me;ming prom/f;<!, p,,,l5t. (>I,d
deny. Th m..:mlnG i, s imply included in the con:cot o f (h. IIUOlPII{m
whkh goes with the "crb Ny.
Th<: gell crio: . or cea lra !. "U llillg compoflfllt can be said to
be more ~~OI IIwI the Olbef wmponer!lt. Within the word
boy, the meani"& compou<:nI HUMAN DEiNG is more prorn lnc::rn
(h:lll MA LE or YOUNG which Jimply (!<,limiu IIU~iAN. In Lhe
sentence "17r~ boy is /rue. .. the OO,"poncnl ofH UM,I, N is ,>Sed with
nalUral prominence. However. in certain oontexlS. one of the con-
tr.l3tive OOfflj'lOMllts may come in to f~ and. theref(JfC, alrry
marked proml/lCllCe. For example, in !he SCIlfence M'JM boy, _
1M girl, lost the """', W IIWkf<l prominetJce it 011 MALE whkh b
a oollcmtral o;omponc:nt: Ihm I~ Ir is • <XlI\IItiti\'" C<lmponenl . In
the sen tcn<:es "If b<>y """",,, <>C«J",plull 1111$ 1t1.<k. II ...i/llau "
",an /0 do it." morted promi nence is on YOUNO (lmmatnrit)'). the
olher IKKlccntnol compotlfllt.
The components of mcanil!g footld in the woro boy aUl be
d iagrammed as st>m-... in DUpiay 8.10:
9>-="
,....
Display 8.1fJ
DiJC(J".., i llg Mea"i", hy Grouping ~"J Coul,...",
T he ,elatiomhip between !be twO cClltnstl\"~ component. at><! lhe
9S
tt.tnl component, flUMA."I, is om of dclirnillltion. thal is, HUMAN
is delimited 10 rtr., only 10. tillMA N tb~t ~ VOUN(i and MA LE. 1l>c
n:htkxuhip befWI!l<'O tlte <'l'lllrai comp<>nenl and !be c.. ntrlOSli"e
co mpollenl!; iI ~Iway, on e of dd lnliUttioo; tbe conlraEli>'e compo-
nen" delimit (narr()w down th~ m~tIIlini of) Ihe ulltra l cO" lponem .
[n additicm 10 the rentral tornl'O".nt and the e()nt r.ut in COm-
""g.... u. there are often illddrn ' AI ( 0.- .uppI<:mCDtary) conlpoHntJ.
Tbdr ~1lI:C at absetI:c: is inddentJ I for 1M COIllrS$l needed to
differt:oltWe B tenaln set of tmILS. At anotl~ 1C\~t or &tudy (J1'IC«
specific), thelle same romponcrtU ,nay be confrasli v. tornponnll.
What is genulc, tontra.lin, 0.- Inddenlll dcpcndii on the level o f
focu. of the anaty~is. It dcp<nd., 00 wbllt level of the tnxollomic
hkrarcby ftt whIch one is i«<tn,.
For example. in COlIlrUling IdmI" offumjJure. It ~ DOl m eo.1lnI i f
the objea. ha, ,,1"/11' or not. Clrt!ir II ~lrarlllOsii "" in oonlnl$l to
labk, bed, f'IC. lI""',",'er. if.,.,., is describing lbe ,emanlie _ kinds of
chair'$, Iben having anru b 00 l00aer Incidenml bot is oontnl<;tivc.
Alsa, in 1llO" ing up from k;m/$offomi1>lre til a ,ua,c I:cneric cl!lSS of
h",,,,,,, "nifilcu. tILe component I<) sit on which ....'3$ COrltnlStive for
/ wrnllure is no lonaer eomrasliH but only iocidelltal. Sioce tbe
lran.J.awr is C«IC:cmc:d .....ith the mCllfling of words, he ",m oft~ n«d
10 jnl'Uligate: m ioote d;fferetK:eS berween .....or<it in . scmalllic $CI. It
111 the " ontrastive COCIpor>etlU that he will want to f""" on.
EXERCISES M Di_I-ering Meul .. , by CtOUpiDI: and C"nlrllK
A. Compare th words fOf pans r>/ .. houu ill Iwo ["',""gel
which
you speak. If possible. get I'Omcone else 10 Ii$! all the panl they
can think of in one language. Ind a different pcr$on to list al l the
pam they Clll think of in a _ d l,,"&ualle . Thf.ll (ampo.re the
IWO lists.
B. Diagr.om tile l>"fern or (arurusu for~ kinship trons of anolhcr
language wb ichyou ~peak. ComJlln: tb e. 'yitan ..... Itb EngJish am!
Alluaruna rnsentcd in this ch~~et. What diffen:nces do YOlU lind?
C, In English, the word!: -m.. ga:c, S/QI'r. gl~rt, put peer. and
SlllllCC art aU ""ys (lj1ootilll al rJrings. %at '" the eonan..l i,',
con' ...."""'''' (dllferenc.eo;; of mulling) which 5ej)8r1Ue lbern in
meaning?
 -S ~ .~
.5O go t! "f..$
~ e
~"' -
·5 E ! ,-
i!;:" E~~ l 1~~
~
~J i
1~
;, ~ ~ ,go ~ ~ 8
•8 § ~.; e
..
~ " -.:I
~-~ .~ "@ l;; =
!Z.. ~ E

-" .'.,. ".!t~'a

~
~
E~
~
~:li~ :(
" ,-"
i ;;; J!\
.;:: oS t:
". a
~,.
;:;-ti
~~ "J E
-=~ :a
i!10 9::
~" ~
.; ~ . '"
.. ;i_ : ~£ ~j
;$ "-;0: 1;
l~
!i~ ~ - e
:l 'O .l e !l~ 's
• d ~
 THt: LEXICON MismQ/chIJ'g of Lu:ir:o./ .'>ysu1rU ~twetn La'llllages 99
"
8
in ~11 from En&lish inW TzclI8l, !he ITlInsblor will h3II\' 10
Eot1kh (1't4 Mbrmlw ~ from "lithe words for carry eoc:h I1II'Ie be is 1nIlSl8!i ng IlK ODe
EngllJh word. The text will Dttd 10 be studied c",..,fully in ord ..... 1(>
~""

e
yflJ,.", choose the ( orr«:( word. lICIWl!Ver, when IrMs.l:!tinll from Tze1laJ ;nt<.l
EnIlUlIIlbon k only ODe wwd 10 choose from. tbe word CQrry. This wUI
be USl'd IDlless the manner in which !be Ob;«I is being ~ ;s ~laI

®
r~~ e
l>I':ck

lin•• M~
to !be focus Of theme oftbe COOItXt. Then a ~ipli ..e ph,a.., will oeo:d
10 be !!dded In English to ul.lh dfaf the r-onrrnsfln me.nin ~
rornPl'"ent, foundin !heTultai words. ForcnlllpJe.lrpach occun: In
the Tu:ltalleJl.t, IllI1 00w the objM is ClIll'kd is DOt focal tbi:n ctlTT)'
"'Quid be liufficltnl in !be: EqIuh tnlml~tion. However, If 1M tnaIV1«
1}"1~ in wIl!ch the object is carried is important to the pAS>llge, tbe II'aIlSlutor
i",tid;
""ould:><ld thcronlrastive munin: compo nent, 011 the ~ead.

",-8
The Tlingit of A1ub I,,"f no gcnmll word ror .no'llll, bui jnst~d

~'"~
Ihcy ba"t many ~if"" \vords, dep:ndlD& (III tbt kind of swimmIng
invul\'ed, the plll'1leipants in""h'ed. and t""ir !lingulMiLy or pJuml ily_
Nore the roUowlnll (data fro", Comtat>ce N~i.h ):
"'i/<!

Gnek~ ~
J/-IQQC}, (si .... ) (orb.."., booInl)

EngIi& h 8 O'IOPYTl d~~~

M-<iot>-Y.Haad! (plu.j

y<l-X'f/aJ; (.ioa.) (afl'"'ie fisb nr .... mamm.1 , wimrn ing

"'--400-)'IJ-:.·""t (pi" .) "'00 waler)
Disp/IIy 9.1 r--M~iI (of IhoaI or I\sh JWiftm .... """'"' _ter)

Th .. following U8lnple shOW$rnu\ for lh~ one English word carry yo-I.<><> (1Iing.) (or .nlm!>l or h,,,,,,n Nlmtn't\i on \he
J"I-~_ (pI .. ) 511ff..,.,)
the TzcltallaJlgtlltgt' of Mexico hIlS many spedfoc t. n ltS. Howe" ct,
!here is no genft31 ,,-oro for cony.
ji.J1_1tco (1i""1
jI.Jzi_/l:waan (p .... )
(of .,....1or """"" ~'im",itli On. !be
s.orf~ aimlCS5ly. In tircl ..)
j<i"P' jn to carTYaero» {h. """'idei'll
...,
"'"
10 eo.rry in (tHo palm of 11>0 ~d
10 <Nry La • ~ or pOIloOb
10 c:vry In g ~
si-AO(>(tinS ·)
si...t_n (pJu.)
(of blld ""the ....-1..,.)

"'-'"
loIS-

.,
10 ClIfT)' u"""' II>e:qm
II> <::m"y on I~e head
>",4:;_ (SIng'1
)'d .. j-u>o~ (plu.
(of bud or r,.b 1~Im"' itli under .......
wilh head em~rg ' nt)

.,.
,... II> <an)' alol\
10 ClUJ)' difJoreJIl ikrnl lOJtf\er
10 earT}" with IOtIgs
10 c:\N)' In the arm,
dlJ.tuu (mg.)
b~ya-U«#(pla.,
(of.omtthing SIOIrnmiI'II fau a'Id
pow..-Mty, especially .... mantrIlOIl)

""rou· '" carr)' bclwcetl "...,' , tftIh Y"-}"-g<>o (l in!.)

Y" -II-~ (pill.
(ofporp>tses swimming"''' KI1oo I)

".,. 10 cxry on • 'PO""

10 earT}" ifI • COflIai:ta-
10 entry 011 \he: b:d;
In \J1lIlSlating from English into llin£il, Lhe tran>latorwould ntt<!
to be "try careful tocllooselhe lukal items ....hklllla\·c the m n n;1I1:
""'"
'" THE L£XlCON
component. whieb malCh the information in tile text being trnnslated
A persOfllr:lnslating into his oWn langaagc would know inst inctively
which "fOuld be rorrcct. but he would need ro study the source
language English text :mel situation to find tbe corrttt word to U~e in
the translation. He cannot ignore these distinct ions even though
English ha. only One word for swim
Misrmllchi ng of stmantlc Sfts
Th. lexical items of a language ~ a great network of
itnerrelat~-d meanings often caUed a cognirive networt. Different
approaches to Ihe analysis of th is networl<. will highligbt differont
aspects of the semantic structure of tlle iar!gUnge. We have already
looked ~t Som~ of lbe ways in wbicb one can 1001;: at pan ofthe "',,;oon.
Basit to all study of the lexkon is the print iplt that meaning can be
di5eovered only in terms of semantic cor:tlr1lSl. As trnnslators stlldy the
meaning of words in either the sourc e language or the receptor
language, they are dealing with a sys1em
~ital ilCttlS may be rolatedto one anoth:r in various ways. They
may ha\"e no meanIng compooent$ in common. being related to one
another simply in that they oe<;lQ" IQgether when pe<Jple :m talking
about a certain topic . The ,,"ords are grouped together in the minds of
the m=bers of the commWlity using Ih<m. because the THINOS and
EVENTS referred to are often ll$socintM with one another. For
example, each language ha<; a vocabulary which will be u ..d w!ten
talking about the topic agricu/mu. The English words plow. pl(f~I.
han¥!sl. wheat. corn. hoc. hinder. thrasJiillg machille, etc., all belong
to this topic. 'illere "'iIl be snbgroups when talking about specific
kinds ofagriculture. No two languages will have c()!upletely matching
vocal:,.daries wbic.b. are used to talk about agn·culmre. There "-'Ill be
many more le~ icaJ items in ooe language than in anmher. The
relationship between lexical items which are related in this way i.
rather loose. Nevertheless, thi! loo.e relationship is one of the elements
of cohesion within a text ..... we shall discuss later in chapter 3 1.
In addilion to thi ~ rather loose relationship. thew ,,"ill be :;ubgroups
of vocabul.ry which are very dooely related to one another and tied
together by some o~erlap of meanIng components. For example, a set
of words ""bieh would occur when talking about machinery used in
agriculr"u "'ould include plow. harrow. rraewr. combin~. dC., in
Englisb. "These words make up a ruhsct under the broad topic,
agricuirure. When discussing agr/cu!mre. 3nO\l,er snbset would be
words &uch as bratl<'h. rronAc, 1"00/, ned, andfrui/ which all have ft
vcry dooe relationship to one another in that they are all part of a tree.
"There is a pari-whole relatiouship (see page 87 above) octween each
of these words and the word tree.
Mismalchj"8 of f.ujeDJ SysteMS UlW,,,· ,. Lallgl4l1gC.s
Bm even s ,jmpleset ofwotds refming 10 parlsofil ireew ill not
101
match e~actly from one language to another. In isnag (Philippin ....
data from Rudy Barla,m), (he mmk of a tree Is thought of:lS two parts.
rother than only one as In English. The lower part is ClIl1edpwrgu/3/ld
the upJlfi pan orutang. In the I'angasinan language (i'hHipp ines), a
remboo plant is divid~d inlo Ihree main pa rts -lam"l ' roc>I&', si?lig
'trunk\ and bwik 'Mir', Th~ "hair" consisr! ()[ bu/aw'-I 'branches';md
boluf) 'leaves',
Som~ languages do not ba,'e as many specifi c word:; for 'my~
of speaking as others hav• . Often direct quotat ions "'" usc:<!, and
the form of Ihe quollllion cRITies the rncmtlng rather than a more
spedfic "spell};ing~ word. In some Amerindian languages, There are
no words for ca"'",,,na, beg. bese..ch, ml:, tell, proclaim, P'lbli,h,
qucs/iM, discusJ, mal"l'£/, deny , pennil, desire, etc. Radler Il,ese are
""!",,s>ed by dire<:t quotations . For eX3ml'le. in Wa;w. ; (Guiana).
as ,lOt"" in chapter 2. " You prom!j<!d lO mme.·· would Il""d to be
lranslated " 'f wHi ~fr/ai~ly ~ome, ' )'01' gaid. " "Ht praised the
canoe." wou ld be trnnslated ,. 'II" a ">I'O!!derfol rollO<'. ' he soid"
(Hawkins 1962,164).
The translator needs Lo match the system of ODe langu:!ie. against
the system of the second language. Even wben there seems to be a
WOld which i. eqUivalent. there may be SOm~ comronents "fthe word
which nre dilfen."IIt frem tbe components of equivalent words in tile
SoUre~ language. For example, Nidn (I97S~; 58_60) us"" .... an illustra-
tion the set whiJper. oobbM. mu,""",r. sing. and Ina.,. He says ' hat fo r
.....hisper "there m.y be very low, scarcely audible wbi~pcrs, in coot mst
with v«)' loud whispers. but all the variOlls degree~ ofloudness are
s ubsumed und~r the designation of ....hisper." Hwang ( 1979: 1) says:
... the most closely corresponding Korean term for whisper.
!NJbakira, ha<; .... its JDQS! imp<>!"UInt compon<:nt "m i" us
loudne<ls. ~ in addition to other components &iven by Nida,
"verool;' '"nonmU!iC:l.! pit~h," and ~voiceless. ~ T hus . 5010-
sakail im plies t~al the ~p""lcr "'ys somethi ng very softly.
elose to the hearer's ear, so that a third peTS()Il would oot hear
what is being s~id. Likewise, the serrumtic com ponentS of
babble and murmur!n Englisb are not equivalent to lh~ of
the Korean terms. Ongalkl1lillI 'l:xIbble ' and fi"'g<1lkI1IiUl.
'munnur' may both be verbal and picudoverbal, combina-
ti""" of cOUS()Ilants and vowels. but without me.ming, while
in English the former i~ pseudoverbal 8Il d the latter , ·.".bal.
In Bom (Peru, data from Wesley Thiesen), there are a number of
verb roots which are all used to talk about coming and going'. tha1 is.
 '"
~movemenl
THE U x/CON
from one place to anoIbco-. ~ Ho...-",..,.., 111= words do not
IIUIt~h the English USIIge of ""me mgo. They mUll be IlllderslOOd;o
,.,
rellt(iOll5hlp 10 oue 8n<')(hff in ordeT t o disc:ov~ the rneaniD&-
.. -
""ftt·
~
W>"
!""ng ",,;\,eat
--
""".
""'lu;
-I"
,,~
""''''''0
",minsamn0:
"""'"' b:ocl: 10
1n llora. verbs and verb suffIXes of direction must be: usoo In
.elatllXl 10 Ihe speaker's locatkm. Come is used ()Illy 10 refer 10 lbe
pJ oce from where you aTe spcakiog. Go i:; used in . ... ery other 5itUiltlon.
$() you ~n <lilly say wme 10 "'y house if you are speaking from your
holl.'lc. If you are oomewhe,. ebe yo" m ....! oay !;O 10 my 1u:>o..K. Wh en
you s~y thai someone """'E to a gjr'-'1l pi"","" il implie. that yQU were
then:. This mt'.J!S thai in PlMY plill'<:S whele come is used in English.
it must be IllmSlated go in <>rller w make ~ in B<mL I{QwC\·«,
wben tM rpc&li:er (or writer) i. reporting what happened, it depends
011 tile location of the reponer as w which feno i< used "The trund:llor
will nlll trntl'llalt COllIe from English w ith Is_ each time. but will
.uudy the conttxt to be fUn: whkb Qf tht: WQrds in the Sd dwuld be
used. 1l1e "'ord which a nom opeaker fltld!t "'0$\ aa:urate aid DIIt..nI
is II ... COIT«t QrIC.
Moodur1Jl:U(Bnzil. dIlla from Matjorle Crofts) h",,1""<> ~~rt. for
COllIe. Xe is used wben Ihe speaker is at bome 811d aji", ;. ... cd wbftl
ilic .peaker Is !lOI II home. MlIXacalf (also Br.tzI]) tw. three tpatial
.K11!np w h~ O:t=-mIDe the IlK Qfrnolion ,·crbs. These scn.illgll are
home ruu. pIao:e--in-paniog.1lOld tile areaoftravel bcfwcen these (I«
P<lpQvkb 1967 rQ'dcu.iIs).
AlllJOSIlII1y mlll1llllic ~t wblcb we might CO!npII"C bc:iWttn two
iMg""F" "'ill ba'·. $Orne mismatch. IGnsbip teru" "in no{ only
mi'ma"h, lIS $em in the ptC\"i<ru.< chaplCf, bw kimhiptmns alwoften
b;,o,·t eII.nded m.,.nlnp which cause addillonal problrms in kao.sla.
ti()l). In lIOI"De language" kinship terms refer only l<> blood ,el"Il ...CI;
IUld arc nc'·u uied in I:>Clcodod ways. Hom''"''e!", in &til isb il il not
ulKOIIlmOll f()l" wmrone IQ ",,11 a boy .roll if be de>es DOl know bls
name. Rut Ihe Firo Qf PHU do oct ~peaI: In this mannc:r to those not
,peeifieaU~ thei ' own childtm. and woo"" would Imply ft bl ood
relatic>luhlp. [n a similar circumuancc, wlter<! one wan15 10 addre)s a
yO\lnger perlOll in a loving m~nll<'r, the I'ilo would USe tltdr word for
,.,...~g
M&.atd,ing of La.ictd S)"Ste.u bawulI Ltll{~"f#t!$
mall. Some languagc:'l "'ouId UK ~ word COWUl, aod OIhcn
1I1 l
,,"OI.Ild &impl.y use the wonJ /nnrd. One ....,do to Iwo",' bow kinship
"'' )'l<
terms lire used.as \'OCal ",'e&: that is. In "'hat ex,mded they Q~
"'" U<ed to oddreu peopl e.
Hwang (1 919:2) IKlIes!be following for KOfUll:
Kiruhip term s in Korea .. oftm have (Ir1 e:<Imok<! ";',e
Ollt<idc the kill'lhip 'yslem. Thus a male friend ,,{the f;vnlly
(or the povent) may be called an un"le. aft,.,,;, and a ftmale
friend on BUIlt , aj~m ..n;. Korean! do oot nonna/ly dl.llinguish
8C); for younger siblings, tong$iing. but .ex dislinctJon for
older slbltngs Is obligatory since there is 00 <;>:)V<:t: tern. for
them , In fact, ther<: are four tmns forolder s ibling~depcndirli
00 !h~.ex oftb<: ego: oppa 'older btOlher (when the ego II
female), ' illmi ' older sister (female ego), ' /lima 'older slsrcr
(male ego).' lIJld h>""ng '0100 brother (mak ego):
Cu ltur"l mi.maj"h or IeI ",,,1 items
We have already ' tressed the me! that differtDr laoguag" have
different cOI>CeIUrations of vocabulary dcpc:ndillfl 00 the eullu~
geographical location, IJld the wnrldvlew of 11111 people. Decau se
o f the diffen:ru geographical situaiiOll, in one IMI\LO&e th.r . IMy
b<! a great coocenlfJ.tion of vocabulary \hal har (() do with asrlcul·
lUll'. in 300100 /I creal (ooce:ntl'J.1icm of VOI:lIbl.llary tblll Iw to do
..·ith fi. bing. How these I'et< or v<>Caw lary relate to ooe another
a nd C8<l be: lIIlo8Iyud has alnady been discuS-'Cd. "111<:", is. Ilo....cvCf.
an additiOR.1I ...poet to this ,,·hicb is very imporum [(l tile
,"""wor.
At fim glance ,... ords in one ian&ua&e 11111)' [<dt lib !hey (:(JI"n.
spond to ..·onb in another and may even /w.·e the AIllII omtAl DOd
CQH\n!I$lI''e OOIllponet1~ of (I.leooing, and yet oot be: equil"llm . 1"mla:.
for cr.ampk. til<' thtr:e words whtch are roughly c:qui...alenI'n munin&
I'iClU.N\ If) DISplay 9.2 (Strange and Deibler 1974:11).
"=~l
bouse oikos
::
~~
~" ,~
lX,play 9.2
.tat
",
~ r~11:'o'o
! ~ [I
•
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,il
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n
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c:: !I ..
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g ~.!'O~n~!i ', r"l"]"~!.~
"00

;~~ ~~.M~!! e~ .(i'

g "0 ~~ • i ~ !'"~'
• .!I!-e ... ..s """ .. ., ' ..,. ...... ~!!I&~
~e~~~
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h t ,of
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t-" ~~ t; .... $-:] t,~ " !1 ~~ .§ ~,,1i ~ ~
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...

..,• ']~~ f3~j~ :~~ ~ gi ·~te ~~~~~"o.~~! '

.
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i!l =
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r'g-o - u '8 Ii
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~·~·o t;3·gr
t· ·i.! "~.~ lEJ"-
t~ 'i'~ O'
~ ~.oiJ",- "' ~
't,z'~ _1 ".5·'1
" ...'= <:$]
! "'~ - il"'-a~ o~8 "
[!.>-.Il
"~" -~.I. is
;, ~
~H
t!.l"]
~.!!~~~
Eu " ·~l~i'!-o
il:J £t
,,- ~ .g~=i ;JiS . , . , ~";:
,, .... ~ u

g<'o'§'~'~<l G.s £H~,bl'o ~;s i: " ..i! ge '~ ~

" • u
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1"9, ""1
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8 :~~ ~ 'u~~~ .,!
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-j ~-.
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fi! =il~ ";; ~~ -~
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t'~""ii
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 Chapter 10
Multiple Senses of Lexical [terns
Dennin, "Kcondary !Sense"
[!'It h. pn!viou-. chapters, lexical i1cms have \>een looked &t from
the po int orview of tile meaning compooeflU o r which • given word
II compol$«!, f'", th~ most p;lrt, this mcanlns II dixo\'ere<i by
cooll'llst illg OIX lexlcil ilan "'ith aruUit, In . system. Pairs 01 word!;
which bPve !!<)me memIng ill common may be contrasted; """Ie
scm3!~ic seu IlVI)' be CODtnlSlw. Tuooolllic studiu, componcolial
fIOal)'9l!l, lhe.rudy "fanrooyms IDd S)'DOIIymJ, Mel IIIe "unpocitingM
of Ihe QOIIC~pIs or mtaning W1IIpoomlS contained in a word all deal
.....11ll (he fact Ihal [be same meaoiDg mil)' oo;o;w IU port ohbc me:IIling
o f ''afIOllI wonk. So 1M, we have hccn lAlI:ll1$lIIIly ~bOUI one oen!iC
of a si,'on word, Ih., primary meaning. Hcw.'cv('t. 11\051 ,,'Of'ds b.avc
mono 111.'11 one "" nse.
Al " 1>$ noted In CbaptCf I, 11 is dmrncteri!Ollc of worM thot 8
~lngle l~~ ica1 item may ha\·e """crnl meanin&, om« then thaI
which most <tadl ly comes to mind. ThilSe meanings nre often
" ailed neolldary meanlng$ or secondary I~n""'. The I'ri .. ,ary
~cn~e is (he mUlling Sl1ggested by the "'old whm it 1_ \lScd alone
II I, th. flrsl moaning or mage which a word will $U"~" to> !ll(lst
people whtn the word is said In 00131;00. h Is the meaning l earned
carly In life 0<Id Iii llkely 10 have ref.:r<:n<:e 10 a ptrysieal . ituotion.
BUI III<: &lI'l>e word mfty h.o..-e II diff~1 melnlnt when med in
"(I([IC.t1 wilb oth.. words. For example, the word "m in lsoiMion
will mean $OIllelIoing [ike """... rapidly by moYillliM I~J rapidly.
Bot If the Jacot word i . used in the COOlut of rivv .. In Ike river
11I/U, 11111 Iw nodting 10 do with l"gI or I1Ipidity. Illhou&b tI ... Idea
of motion b Slill lber... RUIf ill the ooml!Xl of rlW!r means: 10 flo w.
St«IlIdlry il'tUt:$ nrc dependent 00 the contexl In ,,"'hk:ll II word
Is used. it. i peaker of M""mbe (NIgeria) will tdl 1(111 that chi
m eAIIS ttl', ]lIio i . the primary IIlcn i_;. But " speake, of
Mbembc w!l1 . I'D u>c this same ",·",d in ph!"", like (from BfIrn_
well 1980:32):
'00
 1i
•
~ :e :e· :e!
j f. ~
0 ••" j ~ ] ,S 1 •, ]
· c
~

,•" .i' .i' .i' •z ~ ~ ~

c

~~ · ~ c~ ~~!~ b ~fi~t· t l .8£t'

•~ ]'U"i
1!"5 .11'"1' ~ .'" ,,~a.
"",j§';; 15~ ~
c:" -;:
"" Ii""!;:;,~,
="" !:"5!!! ." ! ,"
~
,:> i• ' ..' " ¢_ .=il~S! iO_S
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c
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f ~.s§9- g

.
=~2~ c ~c ~ c~i~
~ ·'aa
=~
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<
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e I ¥
0

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f~~
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it
~ :; ~s.IiC ".!!i ~~112
..... "
>~~ > l~~·aol~
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13 ...
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'&:""2os'" ...... g ,,-._-- .. .g -;
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,, ,, fl.
S
.
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0
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• I -~~:<~t:!!8
'"
~:s.5g .~5' .. i1.£.z,,~
• - ,.., ... ClIO ,,"'~ .. i ,~~
",, -~·- .. f ~ =Bj!f a 1l- E~[t' ...
OJ ii ~ '!
j dt
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lJ jE ".,
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-=<115 · .- ..a ~ :b~ '0 .
o~
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;,
 THE LEXJCON m
'" Mllltiple &IJse$ of Uxic,,/ Items

n.. bfrd rum. The pain! run., I. Anim.te beings with I¢g., e.g., bini, des. iwr>e, boy. ""'mall

TM boy run.<. Tho ""lder runs. 2. Liquid., '_g .• .tnam. paint,jauul. """,. =<, $ON, jelly, sold"~
3. Villes, • .a., ivy. be<>n pianl
~ c~, "''''_ The ""r< IUD',
4. Knll1ed d<>lhin& • .g., J/""kjng
TIw <ye ruM, Th ~ "'''''lting run .,
S. Self-powcrtd mechanical object" ' .i .. (;Q;r, »'alch
The d<>g runs. The "''''''''' rLlno.
The faucet (lap) " "'... The ivy rm. Step 3. Regroup t he contexts OCC<lroing 10 Ihe collocates which
belong (0 (he same generic classes i, follows:
TM jelly ",n.. The walCh ruos.
rhc~a.. nms. The woman ru ...
AoilDa'c bdn~. " -itlliegs: Uqqid ..
111. /;W"''''', Th. """" ro",-
Slep 2. Sorl lite collocate:'! iol O generic elane •• Each gram- rho boy~ ""'s. lir<!auct:f",,,,.
m:llical form shQuld by atlalyzed sepal'lllely. In this exampl~, We Th, dog "'.... Th • .OIhJtmI ""'-'.
have used only Intransitive verb fOlID •. If the noun nm occurred, 11Ie ho,se """, Th, sore "'n.<.
this noun fonn woold need to be separated and analyzed separalely. 1M "wn"n ""'S. TM"",,,,,,.
One begins by ma'< iu8 best guesses, refining the analysis as he 1M paint ru ~•.
Vi •• " The ",Mer 'U>U.
g~.
The ivy ""'s.
The jeily "'....
1M ~"" plant '~IU.
1. Animal. (bird, dog, horse) Sdf-pow.... d m«hui<al object"
KuiUcd ~lollll"l:' TIJi, WdlchJ"llJU.
2. Hum""" (boy. woman) TM. nodri~g 'h,... TM.C{II"nlIU.
Pan. of Ibe bod~ (<:ye. nose. """'J
4 Solid. (jelly •• old.,...)
Liqulru (fau'""t. »IIint. 'tmtm) Step 4. Lisl I ud bbd the sen .... of tbe "·ord. Once the data is
O. Vine. (i'Y. bean plant) roorganiz<:d by the generic clrlS8ell of the collOQltes. it is m~ch easier
to ""e tbe sal""s of the wo.d. For nnlmate I>e;~gs wilh less, the
Krull<d clothing (stocldng)
8. Mechanical objects (car. waich )
meaning ""= 10 be UJ mo,"" aneselj [roM one pl~ UJ another
rapidly, fot JUJu/d.., s imply /ojlow; for viNes, the meaning ii ta grow,
<".
Notice that, although animal. ond hu,"an~ are given as l\\!0
different generie classes, the sense of 1"1'" is th~ same for oolb. Sen .. I. to lJIO'" oneself from on< place to ~ber rapidly
Therefore, a mOre generic class may be given - Qn iQlat~ beings with (or to """'•• rapidly willS foet) (of ""'maI~ bemp with leg,)
legs. A lso ">",, HOSt. andsort! are clasmfled as parts of the IHldy. But S.n •• 2. to now (of liquids)
in cOlmectlon "'11b nm, It is not the Pllrt of the body but the liquid
Senl.3. to grow In 3 tpr<ading "'ar (o[v;"",,)
dm! comes from the e)'€. no!I~, or $Ot"e which run.<. TheI<)fote, they CIIn
be grouped togeth e r with liquids. Jelly and .wider are liqllhls also in Sen.. 4. to devdop n defect involv ing movem<nt of thmod,
that th~y r~1I even though they become solids later, lb<;refor~, they (oHmt <\OIh,ng)
are aI." grouped with liquid1. Thi! new classification would be lIS S.... 5. to func tion dfectively (ofmecllanicol objec!< or mol<>r"<)
follows:
~

",
.,.&.~
.
£ ~"i'li!"!
~ll. 1!,1 c:... "" i!'~
-s :; i>'Q.t~"'· ;; "'ii -o
.. ··ep'
i~"~ .-~!
~ ]i~!H.e .18,:~ !;,~~,~~·!~'l~ .
~ ~ >
."
~l!
=
~
1
~ ~O~]~ ~~ o~lo. M ~ ~~~O~ ...
<0
~i;tt]l ~~ :l .a ~~:I:.!"il! · c:i~t:<,.e~-=
U 5 i!.£ - ;...! i.ii!~- .:;" .~:;;; .~ "" ;.:; ... z~"::l

! ~~
.5;:: ~ ]I ..~ ~

~1
!t~"'~j ~ 'l t~~ i~~~ j _~
-~~ ~~~~E- g ~~ll

1i-5~~4J!-!i::r~'o~~2~:"I;..
i~!B-5~o
li.'o¢ i- '
]~~O~
J!1!
a"
_1:<
•• ".5"''''' ~ ~~l~J!~~~ ol']'~1!c:"
! ~! Hl :~;~i~J!~~EJ ~-30
f-.()" -
jE ' > ~~"r,, - J!;-s " O::l_~ ....E!!! .. li(S ~,;.c~

"J ~=.;1
5 ~ ~ f~ ~~:-~ l~ i ~~" ~~,-l~ !hl ,; fr!J-!1;ti
..::rl>.~:;i " :I"-:<ii .... ::: ,::.D]lliii5
1
O
~~
~ :a~ ..
• ! l
~~'o~a!= . : r ·~<l."i.;HLr o.~".l!I!J jl~~
~i tll~l~ I! 1111! '§J~! i'i~j~ ~~l"
.:;~
:!- - ,. j !•! ;;
i Ii
~~!~illl i!~ dH';i l,i ~~ !~:~~ i
~ ~8 ~
'"

~~1l
~ 'il
~z~
.<;

It -, ,
> > ~1.
,

•! -• ... .3 -
H I!ol-l;,) fr.!
)!
U~.5
1
.~ ~-:;5.E ~'Q -E,:; ,,·~ .:1 >- ~ :a~} ~ i!'
.S !.
,IJ!'i:11
.s
Is ·= ~~ §. ! "'; 8~'::'o'E!1!!;]~;~
u, Ul'-
-I~ ~~'II
'II
".
"..2 oS
I=.!-;
...: ~;
• •"
<~
~-50 liI~
.5-~.ff;e';5
a"
t::'!!~~~ ~J !-Sl:5-"'i"i-
o"i .... ..11: .• - _ _ .. <0-
'"2 5 l<:! ·!f..:i"'s..s8"5~8<>0
tic --.., -5"
i ~~l~~.i~a ~1 = a~~
1/8 THE L£X1CQ/'I
",hele this wOS use.;!, the IIlM "'''' uot God. The pcooplc said It, but it
W;loS r>OI true. However. wbOd the lTonsla(Of did IKIt know W!I$ tl"~l the
" "or<! sayin its primary senw irK!Udcs the eompooent of l~ lrv/h. The
word I(J)'in OmJ roeam /0 SQylM ,rulil; tbnt 11. the IIOIUllltod Dl~ing.
In O[dt: to indieate thai what they said " 'II not tnIC, say mIlS! be
olarked So jIhad 10 be traru1&tcd '''The }'tOpie Jaid/(J/uiy. '1111 i3"
God, • - (" avoid wrong lIle3lling.
No equivalent JelClcal helu! wlll ha"e the "",lie oenoes from
language to bJlg~,ge. Even primruy meanings thai look. the same &1
rlnt may have addltioual OOInponml5 thaI can ru.1Oft
the meaoin& if
\I<eeI. "'itbout ewe. One oft be mO$I imp:>fWIl thing. ill tran!llaIion is
to be I~~ !hat the ~OnlC)U 11 sufficient to mart the mciWng desired.
Amb1llultin often arlSII wbro the tnmslator 1<00",'$ only one or two
oc....e5 of a word and doc:s DO( koow the conIext .... eded 10 signal !be
I:Olrect meaning.
Notice thc three A~\IIInllla sentence. belo",:
I ~kp""",,(txoool;")
2 . POliti ....,,}It-; (boo 01.,,&)
J ""iii Q)......... ; (boa !hoy •.,..,)
TI,e first means thallh.re is Q IlO<l ~nokt. the <CCOI1<l lh~l lhere is
a raillbaw. and the third tILlII ~ are warer spirits. AU of thtl!\ use
the w«d pi1gli whlch bas the p-Irnary scmc of bo<I. This II; the
unmarked melll'ling wt-Ith aU n:llive speak..,.. would P'·. as the
lIl<:I\oinl of past;. Hut as J<)O[I as the word Is used in other conle:<I<.
the ""UocaIeI p,·e !he other '.Pttl. A uan1i3:tor "'.od.:in& OIl the
Sibllc."Il1oCW1.IPI of Noah was uylog ID tnmbte the stateruenl ,nade
by God, ~ I will K"I my bow (rnJnbow) in Ih c100d.~ The only lexkal
Item In the laujuag. fOf rainbow ;1 llIe word pagki.ln otd<::r fur It 10
mean rainbo"',!he wnnl","{Jjtro;W($laod) must be In tbe camut. The
fi,..t ruggestioo for """stillion was ~ 1 ",m cao'" a bQa (0 stand in the
clouds:' but t~e addi !iOO of it Clllutlve malk: it rerer to an anlmalt
object.. n:unely a snak.,. Alio. ...inbowl cannot ~ iX"><C,,,,d in
Agollruna. "The ftnal solution came in uslna t1l6 ~erJCe. "1 w!ll c:ausc
yell Ie ~.., it, the nllllding boa:·The comext ""MinS had to be present
and other possible muundemandlngs eHml.ollled.
M"Il"pie SUI~ "i witfl/ lit'., m
EXI'.RCISES - Multiple Seuu of Lnicaillem,
A. In each oftbe following, the "'Om wblc:b is ill IIllla is being used
in a se<olldary ~CIIH. What I~ tbe mOlLning,lIIld wbal is the d lfend
"fmeaning IIIat links it 10 the primary sen..,?
1. HeclIrrks many b~ppy uxmones with bim.
2. The eovcmmenl has <.>n<;e againjocked up tIte price of <lil
1. ~r,·c &0110 CQICIt a pialle, ~ be said, fool('!Il at his walch.
4. Children ndopl val"". and auinode!; of their pIltCrlls.
5. H., had to Cll1ry tile Immiliatiol! willi Ilim t~ rffi of hi!: lif.,.
6. They 111"" Sllppose<\ 10 drill the loldic,," rcR~I(lrly
7. The warl: SIOJ>IIIIie by mW"lldpBl ~ployet:I virtually Cnp;NuJ
thil; tity.
8. Thtworkfngconditions ofGranilj(J1I bdiNdthoseof lhc more
modem El Reno.
-.
9. An js{1l1>d for nev.·born care ~td be provided in tbe del j\.ery
10. They amI'l Sllrrtd."p euoagh ibwl inflation .
B. I" me following sentences, Ihe meaning is In'lIiguou because
the w<xd whicb Is in itali.;s bas at 1eusI1WO ""nses. Re-,o.·rile ,,·jlb
N ·O set1teoo=<. ODe Iddin& Cft(Jugh coutut II> . lgn.a! OOe !pCMi"l:.
and a seoond addina """"gh context to lig.naJ .. $COO<td me,.uing.
00 no{ " hallie th., words given below, only add e<>nlcxt
I. I boughl II boot.; 0" Broadway . (location, subjt<:t nuutcrl
2. I raw wbat he was talking about. (object, idea)
J. I,.,.,. into ~I.r. Joocc yesterday.
~. Jehn 3tr)Od "P for Mary.
s. John ~ rapidly.
C. Show how the oentm<;es ill B wculd ~I be trnnslaled into llnOrhcr
IanjU!Ige you ~peak SO 11$ 10 commuqic3lc the two meanin".
 ., , ~ 0
J!] 3
:= '"
¥"
I's,
!il
~
i'o i
-p
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,I
~H
0 "

. ,...t ~i
l~]
i~
,~
_f~'
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• i• ~ -r"- •• "I
-5~8

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!q]
0>::
, , , ,• ,•
~ ~ ~ .~ .
= s::l~
:g..,:
]

§ r;
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p, ~~ :! :! :! :! 0
• !~B ~
· • Ij ~
~ ~

•• .
- ~lI:-
~";-A ]
,- .5 " ! t ... ~ ~ 1 •
•~ d '"
iS~ ,, :i, ~ t ,
" .~
:a...r ~
i~ ~ ~~;;
!' . ,go~~ ...
, , , ••
<1 ;
!!!'.!!- ~.g

11;· ! ~
,f
o'!
"'E~
-.s~ ::c:
, ~
1 l I ~ ~
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0 0 0 •

~r
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0
[1 .... ] ] ]
~§fi
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.2
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0 0 ~ l ] ] ] ] ]
;.y .. s"
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9
-i.B.. Jl£ 8...
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ci ~
111 THE LEXICON
tM floor. The words kelIfe, head, and floor all h;",e a figurati ve
meaning -waler. brllu,s, and people !l:sp¢Clively. One word wos
"SUbsUMing" for anolher. Bul \hey are not sytlQn)'llls. Keltle is not a
synonym for"'''ler, nor hc<Jd for bmiru. Keltle hIIli a figuno.th"e Itll.!Ie
which oeeu.. in collocalion with the word ooil. The fig urative ,eQ<e
is also based Qn collocation. It lias tbe figurative stose only when
used with certain OIher word •.
Association may have to do with temporal relation,hip as well as
spalla!. We say in reference 10 a holiday, "We'>e wililed for Ihls dlI}'
with IJl1licipa/ion. .. Day referring to Jndependen<:e Day. is used for the
holiday which they will have on (hal day- A student may say t(} hi'
friend, "Your hour has come, " meaning "1M: lime /(1 lalie)Ow emm
11M arrived. "
There are also rtgurathe Icns .. which are based on " logical
contiguity rather {han spalial or temporal. for example, one might say,
"Moses Is read every day in IheJewi8/r ~ynagaguu.·· Bu1 one ca.nn(lt
read Mo=. Mow.. is used in a figurntive "''lIy (0 stand for what Moses
wrole -the law. There is a logical n:lalionship sinc~ Moses is Ihe wriler
of the law. A IraJlslmion might ,J<)td 10 say the laws .....lIIe" byMo.st"s.
It is oot uncommoo 10 hear people say !IeI1lences in English like, "1
listened 10 Bl1Ch. .. or, "r read Shake5pea,." . .. Bach is w;oo 10 menu Ihe
m'lSic he comjJQsed. ""d Shakespeare is used to menu lhe pla)'$ M
wrole.
S<>rncl;mes an object is used in a fiJ,>urnUve way 10 stIInd for that
for whkh it is used. For example, MarliIJ &ni Ii",,", by hi' glolle.'i really
means, he makes Iris IMng bF boxing.
A statement like Ibe foll owing may be oompletely misunderstood
if translaled literally Into some languages: The Pro,'-nciai Ccmmi:r-
sianer jailed alllhtfighler~. 111<> Commis.sioncr probably did nOI j~il
Ihern. be simply ordcr~-d the police to do il. Allhough he did not do
the ""lion direc1ly, he Wll.'l reo;ponsible for it The p/tnI.e may need to
be traroslated differently so lI.'l not to leave the im~"ion lhal the
CO!lllI!issioner hi.mllelf did il. It migbt nood to be translated IIre
Provi'rdal Commi:;sioner had Ihe pcUce jail allihe fighters
The ""","Ien~, The Prime Minist"" barred unskilled Inborers from
mtuillg Papua New Guillen. mighJ also be mi.~undenrtood because
the PrIme Milliliter simply Initiated Ihe action, but the immigration
officials carried It OUl.. An adjustment might need 10 be made in
trnnslatioll.
An attribute ","y be used for Ih~ object which has the atltibule.
For example, Do,, '/ substilwe the g<XXIjor the beSI. Good means good
\1"0'* an d beJt means the best ""'rk. The meaning is Doll 'I surulilllle
good wo,tjor /I,e besl worl:. Or an obj<.l<'1 may be used for the attribute
il symbolizes as in TIre arm aflM law reached r.>Ul1O all ,Xm reT5 of
Figurative SmseJ of UxKalllems m
lite IXJtlnlry, '''h~re arm is used to symbolize amhorily. A Iile",1
translarion using the word 0/11:1 would give a \''-Tong meaning in SOme
receptor language •.
fn each example menTiooed aoov", the re)allonsbip was one of
""<oclallon. Therefore, Ibey are exampl~s o[ metonymy. ~fcton}'my
occurs in most languages btu will 001 malch Ih. specific e"unple. of
th~ mewnymy ofanoth", language. Where the .Iolll"Ce lanj,:uage uses
Ihenrune ofa city 10 refe:rtothc inhabi tants. many languages In Papua
New Guiooa will eliWinale the mflonym y by IrimSlating the full
meaning. F(lf eXllmple, l.orodon had ei«tiOIl!! lasl wuk is u an<lated
the peapi'" oj London h{1d eleello~r las! ,..eek. Translalors transJ..lting
the Bible from English inlo Motu atld Pidgin (Papua New GUin",,)
adjusted the metOll,'m)' in tho seotm1cc f am UrnOCf'lII of/lois man 's
blood by using Ihis man'$ death since blood is nO! used in this
figurati\'e way in IhOS(l\a.'lguages (De ibler and Taylor 1977:1077).
Synecdoche
Figurnti"e <e!l~ ba~don part.whole relationships are a lso quite
common ill some languages and are called sJ b'<d""he. 'lbis figure of
spe0cll is very common In Gr«k, so there arc many occurrences of it
in the New T estament. For example, in the Lord's Prayer il says, "Give
u, this day our daily br<Uld." One specific lUcmb«, breod, ofthe class
food. is sub,tituled for food. The prayer is really talking aooutjood,
""Ijll'll Mead which i. one part of the wbole d.""
oflood. Sometimes
a part of an object i< used fo r tbe wbol~ object. A "","on moy oay, "1
am nol go ing 10 let him COOle under my roof" lWof, which. is a part
ofth e hou"t , issubstitUled forho"u. Roo/is bei~g used ina f"ogurali..-e
.t n~e. Word is used figUflltiYe'ly in th. sentence ~His ward can be
trusted." which means .. W~at "'" sap can be lro$ted" N" oIlce the
following addi!ional examples of II part being su!,minned fOT the
,..h" le:
Only 8 hardy .o u lo ,~ up for work.
P"'-
2. Ther2 are a 101 cf km<1y b •• rh <>Ul then.
She said It '" Iny face. '""""
~
T rlln 'l lating m eton y m y and syuecdoc hc
In discWlSing Ihe translation of secondary senses, it was 51.lggested
that each "euse wiU probably be lronslll!ed with a differwt word in
tile roceptor language since there is Ilsually 00 match of secondary
sense. betw«n bnguages (except perhaps belWae\1 dialect~ or Ian.
guages oflhc same family). The same i:! true offlglll1Ulve senses. The
 F;l''"'t;~ Sr.~s 0' ILXiNllluM,
'" TilE LEXICON

figuroll hle erose ofa wordalmox! invDTiably will ne<>cl 10 be translatcd
with a word (ll" pbrase which l~ n'" the lit.ral tmrulwioll o;>ftk word
in tbe 5001'1:1: language. MA dll&le word In one IMguagC I~ Ukcly 10 be
trnnslated Into another langullgc ~!iIlg almost as llWly different
reodllh:ms as there arc scnses. M (Bockman and Callow 1974,104).
l 11ere are thttt general .... ys In ...'hieb rnctonylllY Uld ' )"1\«-
doc:he are 10 be traIISlaied. F~ the SoenK or 1M word may be
UUIl$latal !IOIIfiguntli'icly: that D, the ioteOOcd n)C3()lna 1I\Ol)' be
m8£k pI~in so that ~ Is roo lOllS'" :0. rrg.nl;~e teDse in the
=p'Of language n:an.siatiQII. Tile 'k,ml~ i$ />oiling would then be
1r1Ulsll«:d lilt waler " boiling. The rrupo,."e!rom lilt floor ",...uld
be trllllsihlO<i with something like 1M people iJI lil t audience /"f'-
spondtd .. lie lias a good ~rtld would Ix translated he ~ Ii good
b,,,i,, or ~ ~ ""'Y iNellipnl. Mos,u ;, ffl:JII i~ lAc J)ftagogwe
The goal oftnonslatlools not 10 eliminate 1111 UCODtIary IIId figc rative
'"
senses. It is 10 lIS(: only ~ aod figutaliw sense., which are
peculiar 10 the .teeplo, languagt nnd cJlmirLllle ~ny strange oolloca-
[iom or wrong meaning cnuscd by a lileral translation of lOUrce
language liCCOfIdary IUld figurativc senses.
Idioms
ODe cllL>S of fiSllr1live ex~ion$ which OCCUI$ in .11 lan-
gunges. but which i! \'ery 13I\ guagc speci fIC, is id i...... IdlOl n. are
",-~p= i ons of ~. t least tWO ....'Ol1ls wh ich cannot be understood
lilernUy and wblch function "" • unlt I'Ctn aJ]lically~ (DeeI:mnn and
CallOW 1974:121). In EI18!illh. we SQy. he has a /ulrd h~art. meaning
" he is indifferent 10 the needs of otbers.~ But thc same expression.
/0 /tat.oe a Itard .~aJ>f. in Shipibo of Peru !lIC3DS " he is Ma\'c.
fl

would bI: lrarIllated ,he I"", is ~1Id i" lire S}..~gogu.t. TIle ann of Shipibo doe.!. howcYa'. hID·c .. idioll' "" bkb mc:am "be bas • bard
tM law ""QUid bc Ute awlhorny of Ihe law; he .......1 /0 IIu: gallows hCBfl, ~ but tr.uulalcs" Au Mrs Mw "" 1toIo. In English. we lay •
...-ould be M...u hallged; and Martu. &~; Ii,,,,,
by 1I.Ir gllll-'f would IrlN;Je of a diffae1l1 calor. tu in Spanlsb !he corrcspondin& idiom
bc Martin Betlj makes Iris liv;ng IIy boxing, would be Itarina d~ un cos'a/ muy dif~nt~ (flour from u ,.~ry
A second posSibili ty, which lMy be retter In rome situations, Is different bag); Engl ish uses itemdl af a clod, but Mbo:tnhe u~ the
to rt"lllin tlte word in the origlMI, Wtto add the scnu of the word. I01lSUe of a cloct.
'fb il should be used ifthc~ sc:cms to be a component of emollons or Thc Apina}~ l&ngUlIge of Bnl1.iI 11M nlMncr<lU'l idiom. besod 00
impac! whkb might otherwise be los!' iii in poetry_ f or examl'l~_ body parb-eye••)1!lId. 1rMtI. Mr. etc. Eumpl'" are given bel(l ....• by
Mo.m is N:Dd III 1M: ~ might be Ir3nslaled 1M Ja.., (book) giving 3 "ery lil«:ll translation in th~ ftJ'lil col "",,, and an idionul ic
- ;tUtt byM""u is ro>d III fM s"",~gue. HejliJl gaw lire_Iter EngliJh <'qulnkntln m., =:nnd coIlIIM (il am 1965:2).
might be tnulSlated irejlu/ 8''''I!I '' ><'I!IQIW ,eporl (or .flm!t:tul). TIle
world Is mad migbt be tnlllsh./cd by the prople o/!hc ""fJI'Id!Or world;
Wl'r ho~r hIlS (XJI'f>I! by Ih~ /rollr for)Ol" U<lm hIlS <:f)IM. He dmJ!i LIT ERAL ENGLISH lDIO:'IATIC ENGUSH
three elll» migbt be !r.mda~d It, drank Ihrct cups oj /ea: and Ihe
ftO,'utlmcnl wtl1!lro /(J rt:inlrod~CflIA~ ~lectrlc eM;, could be tntn~· 1 J<>n " hOI.., "'Y"Y" on r<"'- /do~'t~~""'"
laled I~ go\",r..-nl _nltd JO 1V!ltt,l"Odl.et llJt#;CUllo~ by ... i~g 1M I'", a/nflJ)' burllll my ~lt. f'... ~~.-.-iy"'''''
~«Iric elMir,
I'll p"1l,.,.., 9't1lJ. /'11 aU. _/trW>r o{J1OU.
The thlrd ......ibilily is to robltitute a li gtnli\'e t:lpesion of the
~or bngIuIgc fortbe figwnti\'e expression of tho JIOlIfCe Iant~ My t:ye " IttvrI "" JOIl. /~ ,.,.. .
11 is importanl llW Ihe same meaninals retained. 10 Agul runa ofPem. My hNd 14 ~t0lti. I '.. ~, Ins",.",-
pan. mean ing " b<ead, " would 11Ol amy the figurative 1IUIst: of~ fQOd. fl
I'U do it with '"Y Mdd. 1'1/ 00 it ,Iw ,,"t!)Il think /I
bucYlljumol;, which means "nUltl]oc." ,,-,ould. In one IIIngua,gc. lOngtl" 'Muid t.. dOJU.
may boI: used wIth " figurative meaning of ·-.I'" ech," m an.oIber
langu.lge lIP. nlay have this figlll1'lth'c sense. In A&u.lf\IN. ,"""In bas 1/"",.,./81'01_ lit: 14 .pt>ill'd.
"figlll"lIlive _ o f -'peecb,~
l'lIue ",ill also be limes in th~ lI"IIn'JIaiion wbm lhuc is DO
I ,,~ Ur your _ . ~aWJy. 1/11. III,.,.., ~

fl.gUlal ive expre«ion in the sou.ce IllI1glIage. tu th.( best lramh,ion.

will be tile use of a figurati ve e~rnnion in the toCCpIOt lanll; OIag'C, For III EngIWt. tbete are many figunWn wage~ of ~ wbleh will
example. he gal'l! I~em srrlc, tmJ~rs might well be translated in be>! be Irnmlaled u.<lng 1l1'e' in iIOmc African languilgcs. No!l,~ 1M
Mbcmbc (Nigeria) with the figurntivc expre..ion M pl<1Ie4 lhdr ear.! fo llowing eXAmple (Nida 1955:59),
116 THE LFXlCON
To Identi fy psy~hologLul M:Me:s lhe Niloti<: langu:.g.:s
make conddoe.lIb1e U'/e of words meaolog either ~~rt" <If
~liV<T~ (tile laun II; more CI,lOUIIOO). ln AouaIr; til""" ...... iIeOfeI
of 5UCh expressions empI0)'iD3: cwilfg, 'Iiv.,-'. of whicb 1M
follo"-Ioa an: I)'pkal: he has Bo;ny(hc is ,GOd). hls N'''y
i. good (he is gClla'OU'l). his cwil/)' is bitd (he is Ull'lOCiablc),
his cwilr) ' is shallow (Itc geu angry quiddy). his cwiny I.
heavy (he Is Ad). his ~.... lny is stubborn (he is bro\"e). his CI<'iJry
is white (lie iii 1:(00), bit; c,,·inyi. cold (he wiU IlOl be impolite
in eating ilhclSd of othm), hi.! ",,'illy is burned (h~ Is irritabl e).
and hi. , w/lly Is sweet (he;" happy).
The same lransLaL[Ofl pl"inclples apply for Idioms 11$ for ()Ih~'T
flgu~s of speech. Soruelimes it will be ~cssary to translate with a
oonilgUflllivo expression, but SI)IMt ilfl"s D gO<.>ti rtc 'ploT langU.<ljtc
idiom may be used. l bc translmor nero,<; to I~am fO r«:ogni~ tbe
idlon .. alld 0(i1er flaun::s ohpeech of the .ooun:e lexl. The real danger
comes In uans.ll1t'.n1 M Idiom ji.erally,.ince lJIe "",utI will usually be
~ ill 1M rocqXOr lan£IIagc.
The In,ns.b!Or alJO r.-!i! to de"" dop a sensitivity 10 the laSe of
'0:.
id ioms in the "'"P'or 100'.... lIIId ~ Ihem 1la!U<ally 10 make !be
translotioo 1i11ciy and keep the ayle of lbe SO\IroI: languago. There wlU
oft.., be woro. ill die S01ltC'C langllllge wbich are 001 idiom s., buI arc
best IrlImlated .... ith lin Idiom . For e:cJIlIIple. the word IJ'4Ce is ofte.t
trnn!iloted wit~ the Idiom 10.111 do ...." II/1M /re<ll1iD Africa (soc Nidi.
and Taber 19M;I06).
Euphemi ~m
A e llph~~"ll m ig a flgumti~'e exp:ession which i~ in t;Omc ",ny'
iike 3 m~tonymy. There is tbe substitlni<m "r one word for /I(1¢1.h~,. or
<me exprculon for ;mother. But a ~uphem is m i~ USl.!d to ~"o ld iln
otrens;vc expression. or one rilat is socially ll.tlOCo;:cptable, or roe that
Is unplcasant ($COe Beeman and Calklw 1974: 119). All hmguage$ 1In,'c
pupll~lII istlc Upretft(1111 which substitute for certain word.\, dPl"
oial1y io Ihc: IU'eI of ""~ death, and tile SUpenl"II.nI. The .lews avoided
IMJltion oftbc ~ of God by u!in& 1M Wor<l""' ....II. MOOII llngl.lll&cs
ba~ "11)'$ ofsaying dk wilhom \l$in: Ihc: ....ord ...hid, has Ihc: priDwy
meanmg di~. Eoglisb \JSCS pass II"""'Y wd many otltcr terms. Hebrew
used gone 10 IMlnt~en. GOM 10 Meep and u sr-pi"8 In.)' Wo be
\1$00 fordi~. ln M:angga Dw.ngofPt.pua New Guinea, the eupbcmbnl
)'OW" dawghlu'J eyu anr c/os~d is prefenblc «J J'O"rdtl"ghler i, droll.
In Tbe Twt1:lllillage (Africa), he has gone 10 hi.J village mean. ire dl~d.
Sex In lIUUIy languap is refetTed to flIphemlsllca lly, SII,;h
cxpreg;iorl$ ali' 10 /mow, 10 louch. to come fogether, and IO lkfp wiJlt
Figurer;"" Se,,~. of uxi",' fit",,' 127
are lJ.$ed. OIher things are ",fend 10 ~upbtmjSllcally ... ",.",1. In lhe
United ST~U:", old people"", 00\\' c~lIed R~ior cil~It•. Among me
0101 ofMcxlco. a new baby II always tal)..C(I offn neph" terms l uch
ISlIgly in order to dea:i>.~ the spilits KlIMy "'00 " Wlnttlle baby. In
Cho.lIal, the de\'il is eupl>l'mISlk~lt)" q Uod oId4r bnNlt~r btcau.c
Wlins hi. o.1roc mighT make him thiI»; be was belns""lIed. In Finnish.
Mis sJlIillB ill It" houl ntean&"lIe is ill prison. ~
F.u plltmkms will often need 10 be translalll(! by II CQffiptrabie
c~phemjl" In the =plor Il\I1.gmge. The Impol"1all! t~inl: is for the
Tr3nli,"00r to mcognizc the eu ph emistic nature oflhe 10ll1"re language
Cl<p",""lon. and lhen translate with on appropri ale and !lCCe;u,ble
exprCl'~lrm cf!h rrceplor bnguage wLClher ClJpbelll l.<tk: Or direcl. For
elwml'l", the G=i: expressloo he i~ .• I<"lIpi~g wil/l Mlfa/her•• might
be lJ"'l$l~ted h~ """III
to hi' .illage in Twl. Howe,·er. ""me languages
!nillhl simply My /", di~d. and to them it would be inoffensive.
Hyptrbo~
"A hyJK'f"bo~ Is II melOO)'lll)' or 'yltCCdoc:hc witb mo,e SIlid ,han
lh. "''I"i,"" Il\U:Ilded 1Ix: reader 10 undentood. TIle eJtllggcroUOll is
ddibmlfely uucI for etr«1, and is not to be ullderstood ... if il W<:re
II litfllll d.cs.:riplion" (Beekm:!n ~nd Cillow 1974: 118). For ex:unple.
the exprtSSloo Ihry lumM rh.......w upside down is an ~ion.
World is IUed 10 stand foc people, In Illis o;:ase _IIY people bu, probably
JlOIl all 1m. pt!Cpie ill lire world. It is l deliberate ex,""""'ion. I.n
EogUsb, we $1Iy tIIings like l"m S/an.·'''!l mcanJna I"m ""y hI/II!:ry. {"'"
froun to d~(Jlh n~ani,,& /'", '"e'Ycold; and M'~ mad meaning lIe's
doing $i»ftl'fhins: ""'}. fooIL,/r. Such delibemte e:o.aggcnulotls in the
source langu'lgc lexl m3Y be understood ." unt""h~ If Tbey are
Tmn~lnl~'<Ilit..... lly. Much care must betoken I" be lUre thaI thedesire"
cfl"oet i, retained III the reccplor iangu.'l!e but Ihnllne C<'lm>el meaning
is 111$0 n!tt.ined.
NOli« !be foUo ....ing additional eJUltnplf$ "f byperl>olet (from
Simons and Young 1979);
Piji.:
=-
!k.f0!61:o/i """'" <UIItg evn SlJ$l> .00_ I go i=>Id.
-=>n< ' - pW all"'" AlP' (ft
,\ l u tl, EMn:; ~ """, I:Ulp<Jbul. U. ~ ai.
tbc ""l:Ilid m this
h', not • gvn "'.. &00. "If.,)"0\1 <:an Iooat 'l (LUera!
""",I"ion wIlich """",lIy mean" ~It is ~.ry qlli .!. "
128 TIlE LEXlCON FigllraU"e Senses of Lexical )rem, no
5. He drank three cups
E..XERClSES _ F igUnilin SeJlJe5 of Lexlcllillems
6. He went 10 the gallows.
A. In the follQwiog. 'InC word or pltnse Is italicized. h (h~! word or 7. D<>o't hun his good name.
phrnse used In Us primary sen5e, a S«<I I!dary ~ense, or a
figuntin $cn~ ? It wh. forever 10 cook this meat.
9. The world i. mad.
l. I've got to calC;' 8 plane
10. He was 1081 in ac{ioo ln Vietnam.
2. The OPEC minl,teTS had once8gainjacied up !beworld price
" foil. C. Study the Apinaytl Idiom.listoo above (page 115). How w"uld
3. Children adopt values and ammde, ofth~ii parents. tkse be said in a language you speak (other tMn u.gl ish)? Is u,el"l":
an appropriate Mllom with the same meaning?
4. I' m s/llJWd. Let's grab . bile to eat.
S. They have the custom "f lighling wiodnw; at Christmas. D. Thefollo,,·lng idioms are from Supyire ofMfll\. WcstAfrlc3. (D.ta
from Robert Carioon.) [s there an idiom in aDotber language wtlleh
6. lie was obviously taking heavy betting action.
you speak which has the . 1IlI1e meaning?
7. They wl'1"e ... pposcd to ring the office regularly.
8. California seems 10 have solved the problem of iJM c1os;f/gs SUn1Ri: IDIOM ." '!ANISe

9. Who knows the secret memoriC'! he and many of his contem, My .fOm.un gol blad lforgot.
poraries carry?
My tW<nachfell on it. I,",,~mdj,.
10. Gazing across the green, rolling llll\dscape his "",ilefaded.
I]. Caner '~nl the Founh of July w;lh his family at The Camp My s/ctrUu;h" sweor. I"m Iulppyko"lent.
David retreat.
My n omach Is ~Ol. l"m In Q hurry.
12. They areo' t sri""d-lip enough about inflation
My .tomach is ccld. }"'" lronqr<;l.
13. She wso born in Ihe hearl of one of the "'Of,t slwns In
Argentina.
14. The eyes of the world are on those two. oot 011 Collins . E. Multiple sense, project
15. We did not know a soul in lbe ~la5S.
l. Find three examples of each of the foUowing in a magazine
16. i'mooilil!g moo. or n~ ...'Spap<r.

B. Identify the figura1i~·e usage in lhe following. Restate nonfigunt- s. secondary sense
tively. b. figurati'·e sense
I . My 1M i. peeling. 2. Give the following infonnatioo for each e~runple:
2. I enjoy liSielling '" ~Ihoven.
ft.the primary Sense of the word
3. Two hundred ~oub perished in the crash b. cl"".ificalioo "" '" wll<...h~t it i. 8CCOIldary Ot figumt;"·c
4. The arm oflhe law reaches tbe whole country. Co 8 Irnn.lation of the cilation u.ing only primary senses
ofwol'lls.
 •"I t <-
<
- e- --
i •
{- -
• ,
} - l ~

I--I--
!
,
I
•• ,[ 1.t l
"

,,
.,
l~ ~" 1• :>
H
]! 1•• I <,• ~

•i l t ••,!g ...~ ~•
~ 'il'"

i~~ 'i ~ ~ .,
t
...
~~ ."
~,

1M .,, s ~] "- • .
, "·.
~
.... ::.j~ < ~.'!i
~
0
~
.- s, i; if•• 1] i ,,], ~l
1< e:, •
00 '
.::: ~(:;
.:
~ ;g
~~
~
~

~,
• .. •. 1·• ., .j ~
~

•
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it:
J;
>
Ii §:c
<..
·
.~
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" g~-~ !i d t, ·~f~

8'"
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6' " "
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i ~~ r~ >~
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Ii" 0
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., " ~~~ H r ] ' s:. oJ ~,~!~

~,.g
- 5·!'! ~ ~.

~l
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~ ~! ~ ~!
] =3
<OJ_
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 c_____

HZ TIlE LEXlCO,..' J'en;on Ref~re n ~ w

Spltnlsll dis:in<:tion in l.>o!h SINGULAR and PLURAL TIURD PERSON, but only
distinguishes MASCULINE and FEM ININE. NOIicc thlll ill the SEruND
.illllular plur.1 PERSON, Spanish distinguimes FAMILIAR fro m FORMAL. In
Aguaruna, THIRD PERSON SINGULAR is funher divided by NEAR
ma,culine
,"- feminine FAR, and OUT OF SIGHT.

2""I"'"",n
fumiJiar
'"
•
"""''''''
>osolM!
_m
.== For "",eh language, the .... will be a system, and ,hi•• y.rem sets
up obligatory categories that must be used in translation ""ven if
they do not =1 in (~ ~ source language ~ffll, Basic to all
pronominal sy.tems is PERSON ; lhal i •. (he speaker, the one spoken
,,-,r.d to, !lIld other ~rsons. Additional features will v~ry. bu t it i. very
"'"'" uSleriu
common to distinguish NUMBER. NU MBER may inclu de SINGU-

3'" per<O!1
moseuline

" I
I

.
feminine
, "'ru I ~II.,-,
LAR. DUAL, PLURAL, aoo COlLECfJVE. Pame of Mexico has "
pronoun which is alwayS used if the person or thing refe rred to io;
DUAL. Th is is nO! m>common. Howe\'er. the SlIIstorunga language
(PNG) is repoNed to have "iugular, dual, trial. quadrunl. nnd plural
D"play 11,2 distinctions
Othercatcgorieswhich are often found in pronominal systelllS are
Ihe d istinction berwem At.I t)..1ATE and JNANL\{ ....TE, GENDER, IN ·
Al:lll1ru na ClUSIVE "eISUS EXCLUSIVE. and HONORifICS. Honorific. r efer to
In<:lu-~Ioo wi(hin the cOInf'O"""rs of "",aning of disllnctions which
.ingtl !or- ","" relate 10 soci al standings within the society
lot peroon ~ , Before a translator hegins hi' work, he ,hould study ca refully
the pr()nomin ol &yst~m of the source language OIld the receptor
2"" ,,""'011 language and make a careful comparison oftbe 1\<'0. Thtre may he

-
om'
~.
in sight
3'~ p..-son f. ~ dir.
out ohig"t nii
Display 12.3
You will notice from DI,pl ay~ 12.1. 12.2. and 12.] that EngUsh,
Spnnis!t. and Aguaruna all distinguish between SINGULA.R and PLU·
RA l , and also all distinguish FIRST, SECOND, and THIRD PERSON
(except for English SECOND PERSON). FIRST Pli'RSON refers to the
.peaker. SECOND PERSON to the one bciug talked to, and TIlIRD
PERSON 10 someone other \han th~ speaker and heara-. Eveu tltougb
there is considerable similarity in the distinctions made. there are some
:Klditioo.1 d;'tillCtious which are differ-ent.ln Eugli.b TIlIRD PERSON
SINGULAR, tllere i~ a furtherdlv/sion ba~edOD gender (MA.SCULINE,
FEMININE, and NEllfER). Spanish, ho,,;ever, makes a gcod.er
~m
meaning oomponen'" in the sour<e language pronominal 'y'tem
which are not found in the pronominal system of the receptor
J:lllguage and "~Ie;: V~rSa. The meaning component. found in the
receptor language .ystem will have to be used even lhough they
are not indicalffl in !],e $ource language sys(em. for example, there
is no ~ompotlcnl of meaniog in English which distinguishes FA-
MILIAR from fORMAL In the s«oJld person. However, if one r.
to translate into Sp;millh every time tile Engli$b j:fQJlQ\lIl)-'QII ~urs,
the (mIl.I",or will have 10 decide which Spani,h fom, he ,hould
use. iii or ""sud. He will ha,'c to mak~ thi. deoio;ion On the basis
of the use io the receptor language and not OIl the ba<i~ of th e form
in the source langnage.
On the otlter hand. if a tr.nslator ;. trawlullng from a I:lnguagc
Which has a scrnalllic distinction in the pronouns relat"" to the social
cl""ses, and h~ is translating into a rt(;cptor language which does not
make these distinctions, he will 00( \J)' to anificially introduce theie
components of meaning. but will simply use the nonnal pronolln that
would be used in the receptor language, It i~ inevitable lMI ""me
components of meaning w ill be loot or added in lbe translation of
pronouns
'" lbe whole ,_
THE l.EXlCON

oftbe use ofpronoon~ in the receptor llnguage

Penon R..re .....,..
'"
;, Ilboo.:pcodc:nt On tbe di..,...uue !il.JUClure of the Ian:u'\geaod tbese
Empb.;. Sul>jot' <>OJ«< .........i ••
l1\.ll' eQ will be di"",,<Sed in thaJUr 30. Althougl> it It\IIy setOn lib i- p«.•ing. .'" .
"' .•
iya' .... .A';oo' two ·t
. ome ~ b bcil\l: lose or added . as • mailer of f!lCt, in 'he 100ai
lnt tbls Is: noI Ir\Ie since pronouns are simply $\lbi;;liluring fur 0000$
IIIld the nO)\lns thelllS<:h-a contain the fuU range of muni"il comp:>-
nentt. For ~xample. the English woro 1M ca.o. be ~s.d 10 r<:fc r 101M
girl next rJoo,. In tran..lating into a iat1$lliIge which doc. DOl di.ting,,]lih
1- fW. d",,1

I - per. pi. indo

I~ per. pI. u d.
da'/ada

dab,.,1
"
'<zd"
.bd.!""
..", ... "
"'.
-,
gOOlkt in til<: pronQuns, lIS fQI elUllllpll.' in AgII3I'\IW, the component ~"' W~tm>ol

of meaning. FEMININE, would be lost when using the AgUUIIIr'LII ~1"'I'. siHi . .". ~ ",",
prooou.n ~iI . HQw(wer •• ince " Ii Is ref","ring to girl, and gir llncl ~. "'''- 'm
th. feminine com ponent. 1\0 mcaninz (omponent is lost, Ifone look! ~ p.r. pi ddlocyu ~~ ""dobY"
ut 1110 lolal l e~\.
J'" pa-. ' lDg. aggina 0 kagginD M
Inciusi!)!) and udllsi<1IJ
Maoy languagu <l istioguisb between indush-t an<! nelll.in. 3'" P<r. »I
This Is '"cry com mon In Austronesian language. and In American
l"dblll la nguaget . F.nglish has simply one wbject prOll<lllll fot FlItS1"
"!<Sid,,
'"
Display f]A
l:dggidl1
"
~IDISON PLURAL, we. We may at tim~ ~ Ullking ooly about tilt
speak",. "tid ,,,,.,..."" elw Olhe, lira" 1M he",,,,., and at (JIhe. lin,,,,, lI(lmeone else ~t the o;un" time. That is. YOll would not use ...y rMchIY

lboul tbe and !be /oeJJr'l!/"_ However, in NalJuat of Mexico

Spc<lW
111<:", an! lwo words. remamelt mean. we and ,.,..; \hal I" It is
iMlas lH o[ l ite M<uer. NeJrlJ1MtI means _, but tIOl ><"'; thet I••
lbe IlEARER is n<ll Included, and Ihis fOf1l\ II, lberefon:, called
udu in. 1 ~<hl1in mearui that the HEARER i. includc:d in the
~iRST I'EJ.Sl()N !'LURAL form, and u tlu. in mUM d~1t Iho:
HEAltF.K is nol Inch>dod.
Display 12.4 o f the Isnag(l'hiIippines)p-oIIOOIl ~tlD ~ the
prescnc:c of illd ..i" ..00 ueh"i.-" woog with Olhc:t distinWons (data
rro.n Rudy &nun).
in Innolalill3 plio a language with an i"" .......·&6cl...;'·' disWIc-
lion. the lnInSlawr h ... 10 decide eaclJ time a FIRST rERSON fUJitA!.
proooun (lCCurs in !be !I(I1JI"Ce tal whethel me indusi\~ or udusi,~
IOrm ii 10 be lISed in the ~plor text. For tumpk in a ~ lib
God OW Fallrer. the ind .. sl\~ form would n«d 10 be used silK" be is
F"ot~, of people In general. However, io the Lord', Jr.IYC'" where h
says HfuT&i"c", our sill5, ~!he f<lrm ,,"<luld have to be udusnll l lnc-e
the p"'yer is to God, ~nd he sltould not be included 8$ (l11e woo hI!
,i nn~d.
MOOit Iq~"8es 'llso have a set of f""OOOUM ",hleh are usually
cilioo poac$~i"" p!Wl()W\i. The.~ pI'OOOUJI' may bave an DC!ditional
COnipollntl of meaning o f beill$ Intrin<icslly exclus ive. FM exampl~.
ill ChuJ (lfG ualemala., whm~ver a person !peak~ (If an item as ~in.ii
poue$~cd Il)' ""<lther PC"""', it implies thut il does nat belooil t(l
In ll lkl"8 to 3I1y other member of the class bccaw;e it would cxcl»de
them. tI"" giving 8 wrong meaning. My uacllw would be ~pproprtate
only when t:oll<ing to persons not in \he cia&&.
lD Aguamna of PftlI, the f.... t pefS(IIl. sinsul..- )lrooollrl wi is
a iM inlrimically e.lclllSi~e.. Lf It pm;on says, Tilt going. ~ this
c l<w ly irnplie~ 1b8t.l<'" """ ItOl going. In Englisb. Ir we u y, ''I"1It
a"A"",ri=1t, ~ it doe; no( imply anything ll>ouI the po:rsOll to whom
is betog spoi.:e:n. Or if a penon says. HY"" <I~ a Om'MimI , • l hat
.... y. nothing aoollllhe .pea.i::cr. The pronoum in English are ncutral
.. 10 any rcflUnce 10 anycnt other than the pers<Il\ lllCrIIiooed.
I lo",e\OCf, many American Indian languages have. pronoun system
w hleb includes an additiOOlli Wlllporomr oftxd"doD. For example,
in Huasteoo (Mexico), if one pY$, "J 11M M Amtri(QII, " \I aUo
IDc"ns. ~ YQ~ <Ire nol <111 A_,i"""." Th e use of fir.; \ penon auto-
madc.s lly exclude< SECOND PIiRSON. Implicil uchlJlo. is 001
found in lndo--Europc:JJ1 1~"Uag ..., 001 is very oo(m""" in oellel"
languag....
Th" follo",ing $/tows the impol'tll!lce of Indu$lon-udu~lon In
Mu)'llw of Papua New Guinea (Lithgow 1967:14)-
In En.glish ~n. tile focus ofmeaniog ill 00 perSOnt
who !Ire IlICluded, .00 the speaker or hearer mayor m,y 1101
be included. There are also idiomatic ulage, in which the
fonn wed does not include the penon in fnew.
 '!] , ,! ~~ ~l ;t[j! ~~~S!~ fl~~ ~l~
-; ~E
"' .- ::. i .~
; :§i ~- " ] ~" I ~.§.
'" :t: ~J!~l:t~~.ia ·J.~';; - · .. i~
B] ;.
E":"
~!.i 1 i ~:
0I01 f!"".,. " Ej
•• is 1! U ~
1 1, 1 , ! "II '·1'jI0-'._,~ I.'---.
I ;II·1
I~ '
U''j"1"1" ~-
! ~"' '''....;S
.. t b t l" ' I . i~- "··;;i"
.' < •
,~
.t',"1 ·uJh;'~ ••'~ •~I dW~~d~i 1il~ l~hj;;i
l; .;:: :§ ~:::;. ] :- n .... ~ :. J!-S "- "'8 Q
Ii tl ~ i":U ..
"8 "j l; ';;:tI l~·
11'6 Y 2~_ U§E~~~ : 1~ " ~~ ~U ~ I
"tt
.....
II"~ 6
I d ~I ,. !~;;,~ ~~ ~]~ ~ ! ii, !~~U
I; I ...,c
r"
§ 'H:;
!!! ~ ~~ ~ a
s~ s-
~
~ ~" .. ['.
t..: lUI
l!~~~ ~t~
~
• t t
t
1
vic;"

O!~
" ~g8o:E
~~< '.~ a! .l !':'<'~ !i'.~ ~!~
!! i' ~~_ ~"~i:!;
,>~~mJ !l'~~'
. -

I
.e

J:l§~~ .. .~- ~t-:

:,.~~hl
j'" ""
~
", .....
I., J!'!! §i~ lr"
.... ::;.~=

l"f" 0"J
' ll - ·"'~·'
"·- r""c..
~i~j ~~~j~ ~ ~]]~~~~~~~2~]
lJ~

·.!li!.!iJ ....0._~
t;:a.E~i!:.8
·!l
.' .

·'1-' j!

i
'C.;.:; <>. .
~ .Ill:..a~ ~.
~'!I~fJ . . ~~~I ~ ~!~~ ~ ili l=l~
I ~
.)0

o>~~ca.g_ ·:
... " ,..,
•~ ~ .sot
:l;l~ ~ S I
.. "" '" ! ,
E
~
~

~
~1~~2~~1(!i]~
- ~ -5< 1e~~~!
-'i' ..,~= _ o,:;_~~~ ; ~~
']
I E ! ··'I-§B~·-iJI
- '"

~ "" 11
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~= ~_e)~E.~
 TilE LEXICON
'"
poy my 1M"", .. " It w.:u Iht aOOien.;c 0\11 of fo<:Wi and i$ a way of
bei ng sUrn without bdrlij too direct. "If)<>U don't pRy your tax.,.."
would be '<>Q dj~ and impolite.
TlIere no, oumerous entnpks in Shakespeare of extended U$e, of
p«Inouns. In King Rklwd (1.1.141)-4) tile klDg u~ ..~ 10 ralk Moot
hln=lf:
K. Rich. ~We w~rc n~ OOltIlo sue, oolto rommand;
Wllkll $ince we alMot do til' make yO\! Ii1elllb,
Ek ready, as your II\"~ .!tall .nSwer it..."
There are also cxamplc~ In Shakespeare of n URl) PERSON being
used for FIRST PERSO." M in Henry VI (IT.lU.24) w h~re KIng Henry
JaYs, "Henry will to bllitSclfprotm<J1 t.. ... ~wh"" rcfenin&tohimsclf
S<xne tT3llilations would require a FIRST PERSON Indlcallon in a
p/lrase like "L Heruy. wll1lO m~lfJ>foteCIorbe ... NO! t>lll~
M
h"'" the ....,.., sceclKl:vy ,*,ge of 1)OUJl'l al>d pronouns.
Translatmg pro nouns
"There are ""'0 ItIllItCfS 10 Wll.5ider wilen IT:lnSbUng prooouns.
FIrst. tb • .ollle. langU:l8" and /Cceptor hmguag. $ylIClI\S will be
dirr~rellt. The trnnslalO1 needs to know !h. mettning components of
tit. IWO systems ill order 10 tran~lalC using lbe right reccl)tnr 1ansuag~
felmS. I! is importanl that he nOI I.t the .",-"". language ferms d;"'on
hill use of the COO"il'-il'OOl'P'''' language form,
Scoood, the trllllSWor must rancmbcr tbil IbeR an: el\tendW
usage:< (lll'«IOdary senses) or pronouns as ",ell as ornoons and verbs.
WhClle'>'er a pronoun in tb" ~ laBgll3ge Ii' bcill& IISOd in a
secondary senu, there is. potential tran:d.tioo IdJI>SImcnI ,,-hkb "ill
1Ia...: to be considered by tile translator. Th~ in the n,'. ~xarnples
ahove, the FIRST PERSON I'LURl.L proDOUIl of English """"Id prob-
.bly be translated wilb • SECOND PElI.SON pronoun. For "",,",pie.,
~It'~ !lIT'" ror ,,' 10 «.oke our mt<lklne.'" would be, ~ l l's time for ,WI'
10 take ),<,,'1' medlctru:."'
Indefinite [YOI1O\IJlS arc also often u.oo in dilft/'Clli wny. in
dll'furent laosu ~S!"i, t.:ngli9.h nonnally U<eS Ihe smaulac each. """ry.
OM. wifoel'er. and tJJtjJ. b.n many l""guages of Africa "'ould uo. the
plttntl form for gtPa'al kinds OrstatemenH. For example. in English
one says low your ""igirbor as youmlf; whereas, In Shillnk one
"'oo1d \IX a form Lm>e your ... ig~bort I1f your:w:ll'es usin& llJe plunol.
EogIish Be kind to _ a_My",'UUld be & kind to all ~pk In
ShllIuk (Nida 1955:58). Thetr1lmhtOJ' mml be: careful not 10 lI1IJlSIate
genen.l statements literally but to use !lie pmper r«epcor language
fonn for such statcmCJ>(lt, TIlis will often invoh.., a change: of pronoun.
Pt f$OD Rtffrcn ~t 119
FI!i:urallw. uses IIr person
n itre nrC II wop!., of figurcs of $p<lOClI, which. allhough Ihey do
nOi always Invol"" pronouns, In\'ol\'e a ~a1 figurativt U~ of
I'ERSON. The fi~ of \bc:sc IS penonifiulk>. in which iDd HgeoICG or
life is attributed 10 in:uUutafc objocts or I bsIn<:! ideas.. FOE" eumpl~,
in Enf:.lisll OPe ~YI fk Ita ..w ""gry. the growrd wru thinf)'. or 1M
S1/W s"u"l#d. [n each o f these ~ an inanimate object, Ita, gt"OI<nd.
and JWI, is pcnonificd. Many languages bl"" person if",.l iDn lIS n
figure ohp<-«b In !be bnguage, but In SOme laogwges, th is panit:ular
fisure of Ip.:ech caII only be used in legend, and WOIlld need 10 be
ad.lw;\oo In ;til other discount types. H~., .. the componenr. of ANI.
MATENF.SS i~ being added \0 the m."n;og oflbe object. resultinll in
a figurative us~ge. A nonfiguratlvc fOllll may be needed in the =eptor
1""&11480 - Ih, Sf!<> was w:ryslormy, 1M ground"""$ w ry dry, and Ih,
...,~1100...., bnihl/Y,
TIH:re Ie Il/SoD a uCODd ftp. nf spc«h, apostr<>ph~. in whit"
iona!.imat~ or .!>stral;:l: lbiDg5 arc !lUted u per.o:>rIS. but in 110. SECClt-lD
Pf'.RSO~' and willi di rect addreH, This ftgure II often Il$t>d by Shak...
speare, as ror example In Lb. rollo-.<.'ing from AoIlloo)' and Cleopilr1t.
(V.I.45.o);
Wile" alt Ihou, deolh ?
COI/fchithcr. come.' COIIIC, come. and I(lUe. queen. ..
Notice that tkallt is addressed in Sl'.(X)ND PffiSON. Not aU 1311&113&1$
b.,"ethll ngurarl\'e use of SECOND PERSON, and il!1ll)' be raoc:essary
10 c!lan&e to FllI.ST or n-tlRD Pt:RSOt-l in Ihe translatiou and lay
SOIMfhins lib W7ry do T 1f(Jf d;.? Oil 11001/ might d~ I who am I~
quun kmgfw 10 d~...
Referring 1(1 persons by their r ole
Il ls nGt uncommon for lrutguage~ 10 use role rather 111M J'JKST
I'ERSON pronouns. For example, al a b~~I""SIi meeting the chainuan
of tbe meeting tn.,>, sa),. "'The clMlrmG~ rules tltat. .. " r"'tber than
nylOj. "/rule tltaL .. Or 8 man may ~>' 10 his wife, " Yo ur ~ulband
fl
is hungry,fl He i. really saying, " J:IIl\ hunsrY. The ct>mpOnelII of
fl
I'OCliS jl beiDa added here by addlrl& tbe role mber than the pronOUn.
In the GoIPC~ Jews oflm ~f=od to lIilJ)SClf in tbe Tl Il RO pt;1tSO~
as 1Iw!.so.. o[MM rallleT thM in FIRST PERSON, T. Thls WHS _pin 10
focus on hill role. If role desl~ion is !)Ot used In Lbe ~or
larIl!lIaic In Ih~ way, til<: firs! rer-oo JlfOOClUll may Deed to be: u.iCd in
~ "'-nslallon and focus marked In onolhcr wa)'.
110 TJlE l.EX/CON
The Parne in Mexico avoid tile use <lfproper names by the use of
role designatlon_A WOman will refer to her husband as til. elduOf lw(Jd
of/he hoUSt!, or may ,dcr to the temporary r ole; that Is. wlw he 18
doittg at the mOffi<l1l, for example, ClilleroJwaod (Gibson 1965,3). Here
again. role reference is preferred (0 pronominal reference.
In some languages, it Is 1101 uncommon {O oontinue using a
lem porary role in referring to an individual, even though the role is
00 long<:r true. For example, t!J,,, Biblical record talb Df Simorl 1M
leper a.'1er Simon had been healed of leprosy. h also talks about lhe
blind man after he had received his sight. In Greet, a temporary .... Ie
can be used f<.>r designation of a parlkipanl even after it i. uo longer
rrue. However, when translating into ;moth.,. language, one should be
'-cry careful that the receptor language "Iso ~ If mpo rary role In
thi' way. In Aguarona. 10 say Simon Ike leper would m""n (bat he still
had leprosy, and il is necessary tollllnslalC with the phrase Simon y..ho
had bun a le~r. Bhnd lIIan ",ould ha"e to be lran~1aled Ihe mi<n who
had bun blind, and 00 forth. In some languages, once a perllOD is
introduced inlo a narrative, he i< referred to, n(J( by naw e, nor by
pronoun, but by lm n)le ~latiQn~hip to the one in fo,llS. Tbi. is true
in t/1e AmIJCSha t....guage (Peru). If Ihe main panicipanl of the &tory
is thefather, then the SOil would aJWll)'~ be referred to as h~ SOli. If
the mlin parUdpanl of Ihe Slory 1& the ,on. (hen the fir/her will be
~fened 10 as hi. father.
In Sbakespeare '~ play. King Richard tbe Sccood, King Richard
refers to himself by hi, name or ev,," his chonge of role (lV.1.218 ·221):
K. Rich. .
Long maY:;1 Iholl live in Richard' s soat to :lit,
A nd soon lie Richanl in an eanhly pil!
God sa"" King H""'Y, wud ng'd Richard says ,
And <end hIm many)'WI' ohWlShi,.. d ay.!
Role dtsij:nat iOil may need 10 be adj usted In lran<lation 10 fil the
oMural US<.'Il in th e recepror language. Ibe wbole matter of when a
/JOWl is used v~'n\lS wben a pronoun is used versus when ... Ie:
des ignation is used is different for each Iatlguage. The translator will
n""d to N familiar wllh Ihese matters. }Ie should not autornalica.Uy
translate nouns. pronouns, ood roJe deslg na tion literally, hut use them
according to the natural panern. oflhe receptOr language. It is alwft)'ll
important 10 have in m ind who the lefe:unt is and how Ibn! referenl
would be I81kcd aboUI in the receptor language, (For additional
discuss ion of extended use& of pronouns see Beekman and Callow
1974. chapter 7.)
Perso9 Rdp.... nce w
EXERCISES - Pe nDn Rtfennte
A, CDmpan the pronomh.~1 systems of ""0
languages wbich you
speak. What meaning co1Uponell1~ are .ignaled in one whicb do
!lOt occur in tlte other?
B. In eaclt of tile folloWing. Ibe first version i. the source tn l and
tlte second Indicate! the =plO! language fOml. What :mjuSlment
w"" m.ad< in the tnmslation and why'!
Example' SL : The professor said. "We",.., going 10 talk
about .>1rology today. ..
RL: The profe.sor ,aid, ~I am going 10 talk
aboUt astrology today: '
The fi rst plural prooO\lO is changed 10 singular
"mee only one person IS speaking.
I. SL: We have a ],:)\ whic h ..... want to teU you.
RL: [ha"f a 101 which I ",an! to tell you.
2 SL: Why sh(>llld my Uberty be detennined by <)Ihe. people?
RL: Why should <>w liNrty be <ktetmined by other people?
SL: Teacher. lYe are going to Ii.ten to a story now
RL: You are going 10 li,ten 10 a SIOf)' now.
RL: (What addiliooal9djustmenl was made in the following?)
I'm going to read,W1< a story now.
4. SL: School principal 10 teachers: The adl1/in~lnllion ha'J
decided to carlcel classes on Friday.
RL: I have decided to cancel classes on Friday
S. SL: I 'm going now (implying thaI tlte addressee is going to
waul to go also).
RL: Let '~ go now
C. How would the five sentences in B above ~t be translated inl<>
another language which you speak?
D Rewrite the follOWing, changi ng tbe generic word or words to
PLURAL, and adjusting olher words affectoo by the changes.
U1 THE LEXJCO,V

L Be kind to onc /lItO/her.

2. Wnoowr Is rudy may come with us.
l . Give to~" as much as 1Ie~.
4. £\oeT)O:>/IC wbo «>nIes will hur a grt:ll $pco.:ocb..
5. If, fJ"fSon !o"e$ me, he will da what I IISl; Chapter 13
E. Would t10c . lnaular or plural Ibn".
be !be best way 10 translate Lexical Items and Situational Context
tbt ua!~,..,es ill 0 into • secoo<I language whkh you speak"
T mnsllltt Ihc:x tent<'I)(U, Whai other adjmll'nCnt$ did you J'K'ed
to Innkc1 In cha pler 4, Ihnoo kinds of meaning were di~""" - REFER-
ENn AL MBANTN(J, ORGANIZATIONAL MllAI'ING, ""d SIll]·
AnONA!. MEAN IN(I. We IIa"e now discu .. od o:eferential m Cllninr; in
some dcuiL The . itualiOR in which " 'ords ~ used is also aucLtl110
!be full mt:illling of worok. The particular word Ihal is chosen will
dt)l'nd OIl variO\lS f!\CIon of II.., . ll uation In which thecommuoialioo
is m",10. The tl"ll " . lfttor must be a,,'Me oIthe 'rIe\lI1lng1lofward l whlcb
arc co nditioned by the 5it"lIliDu .
Cun nolation ofkxic..1 items
la lIddition to cort\~8 factual infonn aUon by reFer"!>CC 10
1l{INVS, E:VE.'HS, ArTRlBl.flllS, and REI..'. liONS, words abo ",Oed
attitudes and emoTions. For example. the wOld motlrer hs 8 1}OS!li,·c
and rnlCJ{iona] reiJXllU" fOf most people. The word """"'''' on the
Oilier band, is m<n Mutml. But the word "'iuk would be neauJ\le ror
. be mljority of EngIlm rpealen. Words brl08 fonh &II mtOIional
r~5f'OO~ in people .00 thi s = POCl5e has somccimc:l been ",ferr~d 10
as ~"'0Ii>~ m~(1"i"g. In th~exa.,.ple nbc",e, the wonls ..unh<:r, '''''''''In,
IUId "';It~ might or rui&ht oot be leferring to the iWIte person. However,
cvm whal a ...-ord doe!; refe.- to the lMlle mere-III, lhere may be various
luteAl chokes based on conUlJoI8livc or emotive meI'I1ling. For U&IJI-
pic. lilt: wonh/m,,". daddy, dad, pop, and lloeold "''''' are aU loxiQI
i{ems whlcb refer to ~tbe kin who is of the prt!vioU$ /i:cnerntiOtl, male,
IltId HneaL" lbe wOld /Miter has a ennnotalion of respect; wh~r~u,
daddy has a eOllnotat1on of intimacy. TM oi.d "'dll shov.., _ l:><:k
of n:sped fOr most ~peakeJ"5 of EngIiIob or misbt be U>ed In jc$tin&-
People do "'" Ihink of wools acc:clfding to lhelr RF.FEJt\:..,'-n,,, L
MEANING only but Ilso react to t11<'1 n em<>l.ionnil y.
C nn"o.alh·t muninp !1l"C often. clIltumlly conditioned. A word
whiclt has a po5 111v~ eonDot~ li"" In one cult"'" /TIlly acruaJly hAve a
ntt_ i..., IOCIllIIola!loll in MO!heo-, lIS for aampk. the EnxlW, woro
Iri«. In some parU orabe world, "hnic groupr; .-:I very pMllh<ely

'"
 146 THE LEXICON Laicallrcms and Situational COntext
'"
walfl milk (>r Daddy loves )"u, W~ immediately know that the speaker EVERYD ... y LA..'<GUAG& "M OTliER· I S · L\ W ~

i~ addressing a very . mall .hild, Ora.! oommunication wilh young ..... NGUAGE
children may iOl'ol"" special grammatical construc l!on9 such as the """jn (oo"cr) dyalngan
examples (lIed ab<.>v~, (II it may involve the usc of sow'" changes Or gunlxm (cut. pi= out) dyol~g~n
the choice cf special words. A mong the ASl"'runa, it Is common to banyu, (.plit 0 log) bu.lxJIlu<n
hear ~ woman who is rolking to a baby change all of lhe voiceless
sounci'5 (0 ,·olced. For example, w,mlTU, which meall. "banana drink, ~ Di>r:'dY B.!
would be prooounC«i chamau when talking to a small child . When
one hean an adult making this sound change, one knoWll immediately T his languuge presenlS an extreme example, but It is 001 Wl_
lhal n small child i~ addressed. In talking to a small child, the ""ord corrunon to have vocabulary which is u.>ed in speo;ial situ.alions Or
M<idywould probably be ch<>sen rather Ihan !lIe other lexical chokes wben !alking 10 cenain people. The translator must be aware of
mentioned above (father, dad, the old /tUT1I). Mo"""y would be usoo the.., restrictions in cboosing I""ical equivalents to avoid w!"Cog
in English ruther than mother, In addi lioo. voubulary would be rathe, connotations ur tnisundetstandin~.
limited to suit tbe understanding of the child. I.e,·eli or PUlllt'flc!IS an: very Imponanl In rbe Jopanese culture.
In many wcieties. teenagers de"<:lop a .pecial vOCIIbul!ll"Y ",bicb "Japan~.., has a oomplex imer-corutecled system ofltxical selOClion
(hey use ",ben talking to ollC :melber. Allbough under:sl00d by the IlI1d verbal constructions " 'hieh vary depending on who i. speaking,
adults arOlmd them, this speci~1 vocabulal)' would not be used by the 10 wbom one is speakirtj:. and about whom one is lpeaking~ (Hinds
adults. Also. in any group, there wi ll be vocabulary wbich is still 1(7):)55).
Wldewood by 010.t oflhe population but only ""00 by older [>COple, In his article, fI.lnd" gives lexical item. which have thc sanw
since the words an: 00 longer part of the vocabulary used by Ihe referential meaning but differ by the added meaning components of
majority. It is, of COline, obvious thallhe IracSlator will "'11lIt to avoid humble, honorific. aDd neutral (.oc Display 13.2).
vocabulary which is age-speo;lfic an d use the vocabulary which is
lI!lder>tood by the majority oftbc people without any ~I:e c()D notati<.ln. El'GUSH HUMBI.!'. ItONOiU~ t C NEUTRAL
uoleu thesowcc lext aUlhor intends to show ~ge by ~le ~hokes in the
origirol . "'if~ kana; ~hm'" II<ma

In some languages, there will be diffe,""""," between 1l1Cn 's

speech and women' •• petch . There will be II difference simply
'0- "'0;' ~tabl ..
~" ~."
because men talk: about different thJng.s than WOOlen do. Men wi\! ha'·.
specialized voc"bulary !<) m\.k about the won: that they are involved D1'play 13.1
in, such as house construction, business, . hanWlism, religious rites,
and so forth. The Wom"" ",ill have specialized vocabulary for talking The humble word is used to refer to oneself and to someone or
about the WOIX Ihat tbey do in the g.arden, sewing. cooking. lind so something immediately connected wi1h oneself The Ironor-ijic fonn
forth. 11>cre are certoin words which bave the connotation of being refers to another person whose status i, meant to be eiented.
a!lsoc inted with WOOl.trJ and other! wb.i¢h will ha"e the COfIlIotati(ln (If Levels of politeness are also used in Sl'lecting veroo. Note Ihe
being a,wciated willI men. Cocama ( rem) has dlfJeren t pronominal following examples (H inds 1973:1S6)
.cts depending on whether a man o r a W(lu' an is speaking. Dimn
(1971:436- 37) r~pons a difference betw""" overyday speeclt and =",g£/"II \0 give 10 an equ;l] of higll status I)[" tu 8
SUperior of high """us

-
mother-iD-law Ian~llage in north Queensland, Austmlia. Every
speaker (If Dylrbal kn ow. both languages, !he r~"gular language mtd 10 give 10 all "'l0.t or superior
!he speo;ial language us.:d in the presence of relatives who are
considered taboo . (Th" tenn Mmother_!n·law" is used \0 refer to all
""'" 10 giw 10 an lnlirrJal' or 31\ inferior
1<1000 relatives.) Completd y different vocabulary is used. For al'n -
p ie. in Display 13.1 there are threoe word~ wbich express ways to cui ""'=-
~~
to !iv. 10 tho opeaker (deferent;"t)
10 give 10 the spea1;er (noodeferetllial)
( Dixon 1971'437).
 IS' THE LEXICON
Diff=t cu llu res have diffprenr foc u,(lS. For example, the cul-
lure. o f New GUi nM focus on garrleQi'IJ;, fislling. food .. trees. plants,
and cerernonie.l'; wheren•• [be clIlture of America focu~ .. on working,
HIDing money, sports, schooling, ;md marriage. Some societies "'"
mute technical and olhers less !ecimlcal. This difference is reflected
in the amount of vocabulary wb ich is available to talk aOOm • particular
(epic. ThpJ'e may, hO""ver, . lso be both tecbnical and nonl<lchnical
vocabulary to tal k about the ,arne thing within a given soddy_ If the
. ouree language text originates from .. highly (Cchni~al .ociCly, it may
be much more djfficult to lraOSiale it inlo the 1.1nguage (Or a tIOnl«h-
oleal soci,ry. For example, to tran.lat" the Hebrew Scriptures into tbe
languages of Papua New Guinea or 11,. languages oftbe Amazon of
South America, there will be many problems in \'ocabulary havi,,& to
do wilh <lid thing. as priesl, lemple. "acTiflC~. and 5J"'llgQgu... If one
.... ere translating a book on social science, dealing wit h African
culru.res , it might be \'e1:Y difficult to fInd equivalent words for items
of these cattk cul m!es when nanslating ror Papu. New Guinea
bmg uages or for Amawn jungle groups. Tile same would be true in
lTan<laIing documents about the Eskimos and about SIlO'" for the Arnbs
who live in the desert. Y,"'en the ctl lrures "'" similar, there is less
difficulty in translating. Th~ is because both languages will probably
ru",e tern). tbat are more or less equivalem for the vluiou. aspects of
tile culture. When the culn=s are v ery different. it is often very
difficult to tind equivalent le:tical Item,;.
The ""llUre Is oftcn n:t1e<;to:d in the figurative usages of words.
FOJ e)(illnple. 111 America we u"," sheep ill a figurative SCJ]se as " one
wlw fuliows Without thinking. " In Papaa New Gui"""... people use
c.asw"'/l/Y In tiguratlve ~peech, but lIlis would never be uSC<! figurn-
tively in America because there are no- """.",,·aries. TIle matter of tile
ftgurative USes of obj<'Cts of til. culture wHl be discussed more jn the
cbapter on . J1elaphor •. The Importanr thing 10 note here i..o thaI the
object is tbe ,ame; that is. jfwe are mlking ahmt aplg in Papna New
Guinea or a pig in the Jewish culture, the objeCt is the same. H owever,
tbe meaning is quite different since in Papua New Gui nea pig signirtes
food and wealth, but among Jewish people, il has a connotation of
unclen/1 and is .. norifood Item.
S)' mboHc :octions
In every cul( ure, there " 'ill be certain action. which will be
.ymbolit. These will OCCUr in th" SOurc e 1~'Uage teAt. usually without
any indication of what ;., the significa.nce of the action. If t.be action
is simply translated litemlly, it may resu lt in zero or wrong meaning.
For example, various movements of the head are .yrobotic in most
IangQages. If the \ext simply says he nodded hi" head, without any
Lexical Items a",/ Silu"I"'''''' Come-XI
indication of why, this ' ni gbt be m;,sunderstood; if in the soun:e
'"
language culture, nodding the head meant ye~. and in the r eceptor
language culture, nodding of the l,ead 1wI no pankular symbo ll c
mutdng. It might aloo be thaI in .ome other culture, nodding of the
head would indicate n~ati\"e rather than ~ ith'e response. For
ewmplc. among the Cbol of Mexico, wagging one's head from side
to side indicates an emphatic 110. and w~ging it up and down signifies
joy. In ..""e culture s, wagging thehead is used as a symbol of derlsioll,
bin to show this ,anle kind of deri'ion among tile Witolo of Peru. a
person would Slick out his chin. In most English s pealing countries,
a person points to himself witlt his ftnger towanh h is chest when
saying t. first person, but this is not true for the Chinese. The word
for I 01 me in old ChInese was L<eu which means nose. In China. one
still puts his flng.,. on the ~i<k ofhls nose when saying I (Encyclopedia
Ame~kll"a, Vol. 12).
If the fonn of an action is amady associ:tloo with a different
function!n the re",,!'Ior language. it is difficult sometimes to know
I!<wo' to lranslale sym bolic ut lon •. lflhe intended meaning i. simply
made explicit !Uld the word ",,~'<Sing the action is kept in tbe
translation. It still may not make a 101 of ~se although in some
<lluaU"",, Ihis WQuid hdp, For example. if tI)e oource language te xt
,3Y" :shau oNe '~ [lSI. the transl ator cou ld add i~ angu in order 10
clarify the meaning of th gesture. However, if shake one '$ [lSI i..o used
in the reuptor language for some other oy nloolk tne~ning, this could
J:,., very confusing to the readers of the translation. In slIch case!:, it
mlgbl be betler 10 drop lhe speclfie reference to the sy mbo lic attion
completely and simply make explicit the meaning of tile action. It
miglll be poosible in some inSlaDCeS to u~e something mOT<: sencric.
For example, instead of .aying h£ ,,/too! hisf.:;1 at him one co~ld say
M showed that h. W/l.T ""'Y artgry. The important thing i. that the
translator be aware of the fact that . ,-nloolie acl io". often han
dlfferenl meaning' in the receptor language and in the source language
An adjUSUncul may nced to be n",de in order to avoid 3 wrong mCIIlling
or no meaning at all.
m THE LEXICON Lexk'" "_& ""d Situ" tion,,/ C<!m <':tl m
7. chest OUl, shoulder bad
E.XERClSES _ Lnkfl IUe .... J .... d Sihlat;oll~1 Context
8. wa"c ofhand towards oneself
A. SUite lire fmoti\~ eonlnSi between the foUowina lislS ofluital 9, "'I~ ofhand, no direcrmn
items whkh have !be sam.. undorlying meanlpg. In wtw _II I
<'GIUel! mlgbl each be..red? 10. IMIllippioa hio hat

I fiUher, daddy, dad, pl>p, tb e old Ul3ll II . .:hill ptotrudin,g

2 die. kkk~hc-bucl<et, pan 3w(ly.ica"e lIS, expire 12. amlling

J. speak, preach, 1e<:11lrC. .hare, talK
B. List all of the ",ord~ which are used forJather, die. 3I1 d spt'ak in
a l;lJlgu..~BC OIher lrum English which you 'I"'ak:. W tllll IN Ihe
dilf~.....::n.c~ In «IlI nol:llllon beI: ....~ member.i within cae h ~tl
which you have Ilstcd'l
I ). I4lking <>Ill of tile ,id/.: or the mouth
14. Stomp oflhe fool
F. Whic.:h of !he at.c!"c symbolic action'! are ulOd In your culture?
For ~~~h of these, wrile a Sentence you mlghl IRy with ncb of
these symbol;" ""lIollS.

C. How ",ouId )'OIl Ica.cl \0 the following word1l Rate the'Ul 1· 5 Q!l G. ExplaIn ",·by there are three dilfcrmt ways In whieb lohn Sonilh
• ",ak: "ilh 1 Mln& good and 3 being '"«'1 bad. It addrnwl in ~ foll_·ing:

blood I. Hili nclgh.bor p<ISSed him .... ith ~ quid:, ~Oood nlOlfl!ng. John -
child ""<h • •n
GOO school prosIilule
""'....
vQlnit
2. ·fbc C~JI1l3I1 said, ~I f Mr. Smith Will pI_ come forward
We "ill pmcte:d M

""'" -"',
mother
colonL'Ili,m
'"'"
= tmitor
3. Thl! pmldcnl of!he ooI.lege 1OddW. " I'lofCS$()f Smith will be
presenting the 1000ure:'

D. Find the dlffcratl l;C:IS orwords in a langulge olber IMn Englisb II. In what tOmnlulIlc . lioD ,ituadon mlghl -000<'1 morning" in
In whic.b the membero of the selS have essentially the S~III( Engllsh be 8c-.:ompanied by each of the followina:
ref.rrntial mc-anlna bill one bas :11 1:<'00 connotalion, one n bAd
I. n s" I"I~
(OIlIlOll lklll , and one 1uI~ a ltulul con notat.lon .
2. u hand sh."lke
E. Wrile a senlenoe you might say in English wilb each of thcu
s )'J'Ibolic Ictlons. You may change tbe lense or
the verbJ. Use
3. l$mile
narund F.naJbh: 4. a stowl
I. wrinklingup!lOSO! 5. a bow
2. r.>ise<i eyebrow 6. a ".101:
3. stuuaof$houklcrl 1. "W:l\'e ur ibe band
4. nod of head
I. Would tllC$C Joarne actlom (H aoove) IICCOfI"IP<'O)' the veetini: in
5 clmchlJd lteth lbe O<b.er Iquage which you ~peak? In ",,11M 'llu~lionl
6. had!; on hips, reCl aport
l
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 ,
THE LEXICON
'" For e:o:arnple, We mentioned above that Amuzgo has l>W words
for low, on<: fo r higher llalUS 10 lower muus and (ll1C for lower st at~
to upper status. If the sour<:<; loX! has one word /eve and the receptor
language h.as two, the two words w ill nttd to bo used correctly In th e
cootexi t(l ~onv~ IIle rigbt meaning eve n if there is less ~oncordanct
as a result Greek ha. >eVer:l1 words u> ",fer to the meaning included
in the English word for love. The translation from Greek to English
ll'i!1 be mort eoneordanl than the w uree text ~3use ooe word will
be w«l to 1IaI1S1ale senrnl.
There will alway, be some loss o f concordance in tmnslation
However, the important matter Is that the meaning ,,(the translation
be equivalent as nearly as possible to the meaning of the ~urcc
langu age and that words "'hioh arc themalic and inteooed by the
author to be concordant be kqll cono;onia nt. if doing so docs IlOl
distort the meaning. Thcr<) will be some gain of concordance In
ca:;es where alternate woro. used in lhe source leX! have more or
less the Silme meaning and are lr:lllSlalcd by a single word in the
receplor languas.~.
F.,.'l::ERCISES _ Collontion and CODCOrdUce of Lcxiu l Hems
A In each of the following, there is n <ingle form in italics, bul wilb
different meanings, signal ed by the linguislic context (the whole
senlence). Whal ls the meaning of each usage? Which meaning Is
primary?
T he bill dropped fro m his wallet.
The bill was "eJ)' small fo r such a wrgc bird.
He received a bill for the rent
Th e bill passed by a small margin .
2. The hOllse passed lhe motion.
H i:! hou.se is 011 the ooge of town.
I belong to the haute of I. rae!.
A boot was Olt the lable.
There is a good table In the book.
'IlIey want to table the motiOll.
Collocatio" ud COItCorilDlfce of Lexie,,/ IUm.<
4. I stop by the bookstand in th~ ~v~lling.
'"
I "'9S stopped by the policem.an.
I sat by the fireplace.
B. In each of tlte following. the word fired has a different n'eaning
depeooing on the words it collocate;" with. If translated li ternlly
into anoIher language, il is probable Ihal a coliocation~1 clash
would rt"w1t in Ihe recepior language. 1bink about how each of
these ,enlences could best be transbted intO the secon d lnnguage
which you speak.
1. The man jired his stove/furnace .
2. The oossfired his ~etary.
3. The manRgerjired up his team.
lp<eparation)
4. The bookfilM Iti. imag ination.
S. The hunter jired his gun .
6 A. 1. Foytjired up h i' car.
7. The stu<\altjired offa letter to the editor.
S The catcher fired Ihe boll to second """e
C. For each of the aoove in A and B. lell what collocate in the
lingui<tic conleXt belps Identity the meaning. What is the relation-
ship be1.ween th~ word and the tollou te?
eX. The bill dropped from his wallet
Bill refers to money because it occurs with wallet wbich
is used to carry motley (is in the same semantic domain).
D_ T raMlate the senlences in A into a language other than English.
E. The following lranslation into English has many colloxational
dashes. Tlte wrong Englisb word was chosen in the translation
into English. First, ,""write the paragraph changing <)tKb word thu!
bas a number by it, using a word which would collocate better
and be mOre natural Engli>h. Aller you fi nish, read tlte notes below
the lext 10 see If you found all the changes needed. (Data from
David Stronge_)
,
• i,,]l
-~ ,• i .'. ~

-o,'
"
~
i,-
g ,,
"I
;i
~i 1,>XI
~~'§!
'i!!::;-

-~~'
~
1 0.:t"'<9
, "
[8
~,
~
~
'>
~"
~"
]=
:E~
,~
,, 1
~ -' ",
,~
!,"0
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~~~j
.~ .

] ~!1"~ r' L it -' " g ""~

r'-
.
'0
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..
0

1
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0
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"" ~.! ~, .~ g.]
i
~.'i"
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:;-:1
!~
.,
"' ,
, 'or
'. .- .,
c: "e

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g-li]- l. ,,~
~
, 0 ,",

]~ "I 'I '

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,~ .f
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8 0 o· .~ ~ Ji ,. "sj . ~~

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, . : i fl1;'
., ': =~, .H =, ',]1 t
i
0
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Hn
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 ~j
THE LEXiCON
'" trulment, In this chapler, the first will be
of the lex! and ueed spe<.:ial
discussed. i.e. , luk.1equinlcn t . ..... holl the concepts are shared by
the two laDguages. In chaplers 16 and 17 the otb.... f\\.'O matters will
Ix discussed.
NonJifcrnllcxicai equivalents
As pointed out in the jmVioU$ chapters, even tbougb most of the
concept! which occur in a panicular tex! are also found in the receptor
l ilI1gIIllg~, they are expressed in difH:rrol ways. There is an cxtcnsil't
core of meaning oom ponents which are "h~red between languages.
However, total matching cannot be assumed There will be some
concepts ".-hlch occur In one language which will be Ill'lknown in the
;eoond lllllgu~gc. But.. even when the sam e concepts do occur, !be way
in which Ihey arc eX{Kessed In the £\<'0 language. is often very
different.
As already discussed. languages combine meaning components
dimMuly, and meaning compomnls are di,~ded ond grouped difT.,.--
.... lly in one language from another. Til.,.., is usually complete mis -
match between the secondary == and flgurative SCflW'l of lexical
iterm; between languages . A n idea may be expre.'<.<ed from a di ffen..~rt
perspective; that is, figuratively in one language and nonfigurativdy
in an(){her, or posilively in ooe and negatively in ooothcr.· lnl ight of
the 1Temendm;s diversity in the leXi""n ofvariou< languages, how is
il possible fOI a transla.or 10 choose the best luiul eq uivalent fo r
tile lransla(ion?
First of all, il is essential thai tile (mnslator accept (he fact Ihat a
single SOUI<:e ',,"guage word may be translated by one word Or by a
number of words in the r""cpto. 1""Bunge, and that what is se,""ml
words in the source tex( will sometimes be translated by a single word.
Oft"" tile <OUlCe laugw ge words will be mmslated by a completely
differenl sci of words. That is, the transllllor mllSt nOI expect that the,e
will be a lit.nl equ"'.lellff. There will be times wbn words will
match bem·cen tile two languages. Thi. is most often true when a
;oun:e language word is being used in Its printal)' Sense and the
receptor langu"g" is lilely \0 have an equival ent word w ith that s1lIl\e
prima!)' SenSe. Even "'hm d.aling w ith primary <ensel: there is not
always complc!e IlliItching, but there is likely to be more matcbing.
The translator should retnrnlber thaI "how many ideas and what
combinution of ide ... may be combined into 001' word is a longuage-
specific fealU~ tIlat only occasionally w rresponds between unrelated
languuges·· (Beekman and Callow 1974 :1 76). lL should be remem-
bered lhat languages difT'" (1) as to tbe number and ...lection of
mcanitlg coml)O(1~"ots combi ned in a word, and (2) as to the seUlanlic
inlerrelatiom.h ips that may exist between words. The translalor should
wic(!/ Equiva/ell/S when Ctnteept;.· art! Shared
IlQt a~pect concepc$ 10 be represen (ed the same way in tbe receptor
In
ianguage !IS they are in the SOUrce language texl being t:raflS!81ed. Since
the lexical structure, of the two languages are different, the way the
concepts are e ~pres sed will be differenl.
Descriptivc phrases
In chapter 6, the semantic cornpl e~i !y (tf word:! was presented and
tho ne<"ssi ty of ~unpackjng·' the meaniIJ{l componerns of a w ord in
order to Ir=late in(o ano!.ber language using n phrase or da Ll\e was
discussed. Ik<:uuse many of (he words in any (e~t arc setnant ically
complex, il will be expeeted that many limes a single word will be
translated by seveml words, tliat is, a d n criplh·e i,hr ..., in tile
receptor language. Th~ meaning is.till equivalc rrt. The single Greek
word =WOJlO'f,ao.J1o; was lranslftled imo English as recr;j""d /.>y
rradirkmfrom your ja.rhert. The word glulIo" in Engli,h mighl ned
to be tramlmed o~e who ears roo much . Or pNJiye might need 1(> be
restated to read, say.<, ··It i3 gooJ. ,. The =00 example ,h""" lhal
word.> which im ply speecil may sometimes need to be res(aJed by
expre"" ing them with direct speech in the re¢eptor language.
The lraru;lalor net>ds to remember also that the ~ess of "un_
packing'· (res(ating) semao(ically complex word.> sometimes w(lrks in
=.~n;c. Seve",! words or phra,es in Ihe original may becO(l)e a slngie
w ord in the translation, i.e., they are ~bundJoo" wt.. one lexical item.
W e hllve already gl'·en e.>;amples of !hi. in tile previous chapters .
F inding equh'alent (raru:l~tion" for motley term, i. (1ft"" difficult.
For example, uickel is a CO;l! wonhji'l' ctm&. It is no! hard to Iestate
the meaning using words of the .ame system. The com plication ~omes
wh"" these need to be equated to word:; from another money ry.tem
Sometimes it is possible to give the equivalem in an amount in the
other syslCm. For "xampl.~,five dollars oould be 1",",,11IIed as One
hundred pMOS, Iftbow lIJIlounl< were equivalent Th. problem is, of
course, Ihut the value of monetary units changes over the years, NJd
it is very difficuit 10 be sure of lUI e:>:acI equi".lence. The alternative
is (0 borrow (be lexical form fro m the source language, w t lms wOIIld
m~an almos( nothing 10 tbe reader of the rerep10r langnage in mOllY
cases. In some cases, even thoul!b a opeciflC ooin i. named, the. ,·a1ue
is not in focus. The name in (he source longlLage could be kept, for
example, a ty~ of money called peso. When the value of the money
is in focus and it is imporlallt to Include this, it is sol11cdmes poss ible
to equate the valu~ in (he receptor culture by talking in term~ (lf~ so
many days· wages" or "(>tnc other reference (ha( will make the value
r~latively clear. 1Il this cas., a dfl crlpllve phrase clarifies the amount.
The matter of money is simply used as on example of the kind.
of problems the trnnslator finds, and delO OllStr.rtes the impossibility of
 ,
m THE L£XJCON
Ihen) fqui,·a!elltt. No ooe-",onf·f<.lf-<lfl<l-woro tnn:;:lation is possible.
Such . literal tnlnSb tion would DOt tarry the meaning. The meaning
must ~ ktllt tbe AIIlt "i1ile the form ....ill cbange-ooc ....'Qrd for
Ill'-'Y, many words for one. a IIOOfigunll;\,c expression fora figur.oIlve
O~, a ftgUr.ltl\·e expression for a lIollfigllJ'3live <Jlle, a ro:i]ll"OClll form
for a dirtet form. etC.
Using rd:o.1~1 words as eq uiv.. lenls
til chap!cr 7, equivalents involving 'ynonym~. antonyms, ""d
roclprOCllllcxicaJ items WeIC discm.oo, T wo t""guagcs often do >lOt
huv. a rrulIch lng ofoYllonym. related to a given concep! . For example.
Engli$l\ has a nUOl~r oftenru such as g~. hali~ess. rig/lleous-
N!'.!3. and v/rl~, i;oJl "guaruoa has only one word, pt'gk~g. which
\Ii"",l,' be ~\e best eqUivalent for ally one ofth~e Ii)'llooyms, On the
0100 w,nd, if 000 were translallni Aguaruna into ~isb, one would
,II!ed to eval uate (deh COl1to:?l:1 of pegMg to decide whkh of the
IYtIOIly'~ II.'oul<l be the bcstcholcc in English. Thcchotce "'ill do.."JX'l'ld
on !bo collocnlionaJ range ofcacb of the synonyms. Although LhC1'c il
ovC1'lap ill the munlng oflhe 5ynollym5. lhC1'e may well be ralridloru
of ooIlocalloo wbicb will MOld to ~ """"Wewd in cbc«ing among
the 'l'.oll),ml. AI50, Ir5 mcmioned in chapter 13, thl: wnoolations (If
tYllOllymt _ dlJll1IoCI and need to be till", lnto consideration. The
words pol~ omd oop arc synon)105 but CIIIIIOI be ~ Inter.
ch~bly in most conICXlI.
It is also w:ry common'" fInd synonym<lUS word. or"Xpn$.iom
used tog~u ooubi<!b. A doub"" coos;sts 0(110'0 near synonymous
",·otds or phrMcs " 'hicb 0CCIlr a. a unit, fo r Q;ample. spols wid
bkMlsitu. holy altd righillOld, and !UrlJl'gtn and fi-<ignt'N. Tbo:
SOlRC ll108uage MedJ to be $lUdied to dUro"cr me nuron fOf the ~
of do lib leu. It may be simply to cmpMs;zc!he idea or to modifY !he
lIU ofm<:anlng: sUghlly. It may be !hat doe uu DCdollbltttl is >imply
for stylisti" ~JOJlS. It will not 31",...)", be poii!iiblc or !ilylisIlc:ally
lpproprlate 10 k«p bocb.
Some Ianzoraccs Ilso tlO''''e doobku ",bleh arc bo>GI on ~neri.,.
tpec-Uk rdationshlp. f or example, """" Ianguagoll.likeGm:k, will usc:
two $ptoking wmislOj;ethe.- such M tJ1U>wrillg ~Id, " .. here tJ""'-'I'f'iI,-g
15 more tp«1fk and SIIid Is more I:furic. If this is chara<:tlristic of the:
!Gun:., li11lgUo1gt' but 001 of til<: ~por language. the tntnslator should
not rtialn the doulliet btlt ~ the naturol quotallon opener. and clo~rs
ofLhe rec<:ptor bmgonge. II may be Lhm. fo r .ome =ptOf l~gC$.
doublet~ will .......:I to be Uied wilen the source IMgllIg., doe. not use
them, in order to follow the nalural style o f the recepor language. The
mCllnlng <lf tile dOllblet Is lo be trnnslaied failhfully, us1ng wh~lcn.,.
form is n~t natural in Ill\: roccpIQf IMgtI!Ig¢.
lLziaJ "" ........kf,ts ....e" C~{IfS ""' Sioam m
Lexical ~ui\'ll1m1S may alw ilOn1edtne.- be found through tlte USC
of ncgltin~ latony .... lben: may be 00 dirocl equlvnlmt In the:
receptor language, but tbcrc may be ~ lC);ical item with RIl e:uet
opposite meaning, and by negmllIg ellis, tile desired mcanln& lnay be
omlned. We have already u<;ed the exampleofbod being tnIIISlatable
into "'guarun!l only by pegugchau ' not good. ' When \ISing. " ",al ecl
anlony nl as • IUieal eqUivalent, It I~ importanl to cbeck OUI the
collocation to be sure thM it will be IIPlWprilite ill tbe COOU:~lln wblch
it will be used, For exampl e, in IheCoIo:m,do languageofEc:uador, ,he
wnrd good is n highly generic w<.mi and collocat os witb Ioeallh.
Howel'er, when good was negated it could no longer be uscd w ith
/".:a/lh; th1t is. it W!IS oo! natural to> "IIy 'W/ good ~allh In Colo mOO.
In E.ngU&h,. we 'illy good htalrh and poor Iwrllh. The collocatl(mal
r-ang~ of. wnnl and its antoaym (and tIIu. it. n<galod antonym).a~
seldom id... lical. Neverthele<., being a w .... e of an tunym. (and Ito"",
rqattd anlOl))II1l5) in roth lIonguagc:s may ltelp the transwlOf fine! 8
oooded equivalent
Tho use o f it r«iprOl'al ,"xi""-' it. m II!l PIt equiYlllcnl is .uo\bcr
po5lilbility whicb .. discul:<ed in chaper J. For ."umpl.,John gao..- ..,t
Ihe hal!lf'ld f rrot:i~ I"" hat/rotll.ItJhll wOllld be 'KipNiul eq u j,..•
Inls. The translato.r needs 10 be open 10 the poiSibi lity thlot tbis will t:Jt,
the best lexical eqOJi~lIleot inxomo situstions.lkM..,..·cr,!he ' H.iproul
IIll1Y M.v<: " difT...rn torU;IoOt3liv~ mt31ing. B diffcrenl collocational
range, or a ~h3::igc OffOCUL for example, in chau&inl; 10 the rK;p r9Clll
the: grammatical form is often ehartgod from a<:tiv<: 10 s-oh'e. Ho ....,.,."..
l*si\'e may hl\'e a special function 1>01. i,meoded in the!lCl'JrOe 1m.
G4:nnie--llpecifi" word.s
l.erlcal equj,'8lCtll$ involving teaU'it or lptlC'ifll' t(t'IIQ is anothc:r
por»i bility 1>'1ti<:h ";e u..-.., mcntioocd ....-crnl times and whlcb f;OO be
extremely UiCfuI, A 101 has already beo:o sNd abOllt tile CC'...,nc...pccir",
ft'lalioruhlp of ..'OCtk. 11t«e are three problem!; in tranSlation .elated to
~eric-specifit words (lkoekmPn and Call"", 1974: 185-86F
I. Th~ IOUI"CC 111ll"'V' lui may use Ij!merle ........ bill lIle
receptor I... ~e may only ....·c. true .pct.ir.. _ In I!w
.arumtie oma;
Th ."""re<! longuage lOSeS a .ptdfl. te .... but 11>0 ~pIOr
lan" ... se only lou a ,e.uK "on! availabl. in ti'lot .....,..."i.
=;ttr
3. Tho reeepror~. word ll«d in the 1nJI,Iation I. inlc:ndcd
to be understood in a ,ellen •• n ••. but is int"'"P"~ by tho
<ecep\Or longuag. speak .... in a . p«iflc •• n~ .
 ~

'" THE LEXICON

(otlowlna idk)lR,ui., f1gurati\~ phnIses in fOUl N'lgcri.>n languag<'ll

t.u:kirJ Equi.-aknts ...~tlr CONUpn al. S~"m

6. SL: She g/ancm III !be teacher.

'"
(1'Iida,100l1lre ""'lOS); RL: Sbe looted quickly at the teacller.
IH(1II wllh Iwo hMrls
7. SL: Someone in !be depwtJtlmt "",bezzlfdTlH; money.
_" Wifh rwall~1f /ips RL: Someone in lbe depmtment M<! The moocy.
mil" ....ith rw«l mouth 3. SL; The baby's ~ Wa.'S nV!Ming.
man ",h~ 1I1/b wilh rwo _hI RL: Hi e baby's nose was dripping.

In the TOiorw: language of Mexico. a word meaning a nw--wtmi.,d
~'$()n 1, u.ed for a hypomle (Nida 1947: 132).
When corlcep!~ lIe . hared bdwttll the soorce and receptor
languages, tbe important rule for th I1'amla1or i. to find ' he mO$l
'\IItl1rn] and ReCurate way to communicate !he .arne meaning In the
receplor bllgUag" CIS was intended by the author in the 5OUJ'I;e langUllge.
Thi, ll\lIy mean that I very differ<=m form ",ill be used in onIer 10
insure «Irnct ~ OIl<! ualuoU e;t,prcssioll.
9. 51.: The boy wa. sitting at thefOQ/ of the stair'.
11.1-: The boy WilS sitting at the boltom oflhl: stain.
I{l. 51.: They were suppo,ed 10 rilrg Ihe office alkr nine.
RL: They were supposed to telephone the office DIRT nine.
B. In each oflhe followingpair<, the SL Is glvm Ulenlily Qnd too RL
is an idiomatic English tmrI:';larioo. Describe the odjusmell' II)"d"
in tb. Ir~rulation. Hyphen!l in the S L Indicate a single word. (Tbese
are no! <or\$e\:Uti,.., sc:n(eno;cs from one text)

I . 5 J.., One penon fish-hook Ihrowing-in su"goinS-OOwn

£Xi:RCISES - wk:tal [qun"I Lclltli ..... eu Con~s
A. Below an fWO"cn:lons,!be SOUIce Lmguage (SL)and 11111 ~OI'
1:>I181.111g," (RL). Due/foc .m- PdjU6~ Ih3t ""'" o-'e. in thl<
tnlIlSbolioa.
J. 51..: Th~ ...oeaJlhy li\lt ber<:.
RL: f'eopI~ ..-Ito ~ IDu o{MOI/ey Ii.... here.
2. SL: The....:>{(snatcbcd limn and SC3Itcftd them.
RL: The UI"IIg< !lnilftQJ SDilkbcd!ban iIIlIf ~ them.
3. SL: No f_ 'Ittut .... people """'" Iaol night.
RJ...; AI/e(m iero people CJlJlX lUI night-
4. SI...: MIllY bo"owto the boo!.: from JIIIOOS.
Rl.; lnmcs l""lfM the book to Mary.
S. SL: cVtryb<xly 1$ talking about what Is ~QPp"ning.
Rl..: Everybody is Ialklng about Ih~ high e"rollnre~t
IMeol/ese·
(Understood from the <ontQ t)
lire SlIvtd hc-"oIo1f:!"lI.
RL ~ WIl5 a maD "bo ""erll d<w.... to the river on. CI-"<:fI.inI\
to roo.
2. 5L: Toad bnulhing...,rrafter-lhrowine-him-iWl-"lIler
he-left_llIm.
RL: He brusftcd the toad off into !he waler and left blnL
). SL: He forg~·about·iI bouse goWg-up1hal fi-os after-utlna
ooe....,bo-dcsired·~o-slot:p (oad---fIlso ~llng­
person arm'ing he-weot-up-W-hiln.
RL He forgO( aboul il md "all up to bi'l h~. Af\erutillll
lbe fiog, be tried to filet p. 1b~ toad Nmed inlo a person
""" came up where the man w"' lI)'ln& to 'I~p.
4. 51-: Fo~ quidly fl!;b grabbing_Iou CIlIning-oul he·lald·
tbem-doWII.
R.L: Fex came up quic];::l~ with a great I1lIIIl)" fl$h .....hich he l~ld
OIl !be ground.
<U

'" TflE LEA7CON
Fo rm and function
As ~he trans lator is col\fronl~ wIth words in the soun;c lnnguaSc
which have ~ocquj\'alent in tbe receptor language voeooo lory, bis firil
I'I:.\ponslbUlly will be to urxkJ'Sland clearly the nw.IOiI'lg \If lhe word
and tile usc: of Lhat wOld or pllJ'1ISC' to. the COOle>;! in u'hkb il <l«un
He will ask hirn~Lf; ~What IInl lb~ most impomm meaning cornp<>-
oelllS of tbe word or !Druc beln, traosiated? Wlut j, the original
a u d tor U)'mg lo COOlmUIIH:atc in thai parUculOl' con1U11~ Same1imes
me auth<:>r ;I.:onccrned with lite fonn of the THWG or EVENT, bu(
scmetlmes the fionaion i~ more Importam, lbere will also be limes
when the IllC<llling oflhe word 1l~~lfi~ nO( as in,porulO! as the effect
which tlie aU/ber is trying to emt". The nandaror will Want to find a
way to ex~u the impol1arll meaning. COOlPOI)(!IU oflbc: word lIfId
phrase; ,hal is. 41", onc:s ","ich are in fOcus in the context .
THI NGS and EV9.'TS can "* looked at from the pcnpect" '" of
thc (wm of Lbe llUNG or EVENT, or from the Pl'f"Ipox:Ii\"e of its
function , Thb distinction I, v"'Y lmponalll in looking for Lukal
equl\'. lcnts. For example,~ncil htU lite form ofbelna 1ong, poi'lI~d
al one CIld, made of wood with graphite in the rnl<.ldle, and usnally
Iuwing an ctaS~r at ooe end. But the flllldl .... of~ pencil i~ to "Tile.
A quill ...111ch Is used fOf ""rillna would have the UI1>P flladi.... but
a very dllft t"tnt form. to desaibiDl the (orm of. dot, " 'e "'(\\lid talk
ahruc lIS Jiu. obape. color, koc3lion of eyes, ears, .:te. The faimoDS
of. dot!: In some cu!tura ....ouId be hunting aDd parding properly. In
0Ib.er cullures. the (u"~liOl' m iglw; be sJrnply 8 ~I to keep om
company. Form ha:!i to do with the pbysical "'rects of a particular
THING or EV!ONr. but the function has to do wilh lIle significance,
the re'1101l for, Of" the purpow of thc TI IlNG or EVF.r.'T.
In previous .hIoplers, we h~ soown how an cqun"3lent ll13y be
found by SIDling the meaning compooeots ofa word in a d~crlpl;n
phrti4l' . For CJWDpIe. island ml"'t be ~ 141m mrroruukd by
"w.".. In tOO lnlbWoi of the I"bilippir>c"i, tile natInI u""",,ion for
island is small place i" tltt: Ua. One possible way of ftndinS equi'.....
lenlS for w,known c"ncep' l~ by Slnt ing lbe mCllIini CQJJlPOIlellI. of
the "DUm: IUIguage word. When th i!! is done, a scnerlc wotd plu~ a
d<:jcriplivc modification i. used . For cXllmple. the word anchor does
not """'UI" in the vocabullU)' of lIIIIt1y Iaoguq~. The phn.sc> rfuo}'
weighed arw:ltor migbt be IlUslaled loto one of these Lan~es with
a p~ ruch as lire}' Ii/ted Ilre /reo..,.;,."" _iglr/7 ,lot}' .-d 10 teep
(he boal nlll. Or. if roQIe anim:ll slICb as woif"'I!J "'" Icoown in the
CUlIDU. die 8~;c krm u"ilftQl.od tbe cleso:rlpl"e modJrtcnfie"",
Or ...·11d a" d clcg-lite might be u>ed. Thi~ kind of e./jui\"ftlmt ha~ amady
bt,en disCUssed in pm-ious chapt~'!"S . However, 1fl deci din g to use thl~
-
Lexiclll Equ;'"flk"u ..~n CUIIUpfS _ V.ol"U)'K·"
punlcul", IcJnd of equlvalenl, it is very IlIlporll101 Ihat the tnNlaI"r
'"
' Iudy the context 10 SOl! whether the fo rm or Ihe runctio a of tlte leJlk: a]
Ilelll I. the foem in Ihe pa,sagc. A descriptive modification "fa generic
lenn IIl3Y include a dcscrlpti<.>n or thc IQrm . 11 description of Ihe
fu ndilHl, m" a ~riptioo of both.
Sotnelllnes 11 eanoplrisol. wlll adequaldy carry me IM3Iling . As
alrelldy mentioned, Ille fo rm bas 10 do "'illl any feature or charlc-
rerisLic of 11 IWII& ruclJ as its size, Jhapc. quontity. ooIor, tas.le.
tempcn.ture, subsllln«. lind !Ilamal, Of \he vl.lblc "",,'mlWIS of ""
e\·rot. The tuftclion .... fm 10 \heslgnlf'l;llIlce of lbenmm or EVENT,
Ihal. Is. tile reason for it or iI. purpose, or In SOTn e cases. the usage of
the TIUNG. Not every component of the ,ouree language con«:pt will
be slgnilicant in the context. "The dncrlptlve modif,cation will not
ulllke explicit aU of tile compoomt'l buI &imply those tbIIt art sign! tl-
C3lIt 10 11K ~.
Ul!dersmnding correspondence of fGr1ll and falleticn i$ crucial 10
finding good lexital equi...al~. (We are IJOI talking about linguiMic
form. Il'l disc\lS$ed in chper 1, bur. phYSical fotm.) Thne an! rOUT
possi biliti",. First. a TIliNG or EVEN1' In OIIe language and wltun:
may bave the s.me furm and lhe same f"n etion in onodter limgu"lle
For example. car wilh lh. rll nctlu of /u;{ui"8 is the same In all
cuh ..= and lmguages. Second, the form may be the wne but the
flinch .." may be difl'w :nt. Bread may be foood in two cultures en<l.
word ft)l bffad In both. n",,'e"\<cr, in one cull_ it may be lbe main
food. !be nopIe that is eatco 81 e"\"Cry rnQl; ...-hcreas. in anoth.r cullure
il m ny be a lpeclal trest IlIXI served ""Iy u dcosert or as a food fOT
parti • •. The form Is. Ihe s:.ne but the (""<"1ion Is different. Ina conc:c~1
like the Lord's Pr~yc:r "G ive US lliis .my our daily bread," the WOld
brwd with the tunctlo" of"pany food" .... ould not be appropriate. It
w(M1l d be bdttr 10tra/lSWe with 11>0 morO ~~rie " ..ord fOD(/ 10 av"id
• wrong signiflC1lme.
A third pouibility is that the same 10/"111 does noI OOCW", but
11DOthc:r THINO Or £vm.T wiih !he same fant1:ioD. doIs 0CClI". rOf
tJ(ample. in roe 1:Ul~. />n!ad DUly be lhc "stafT of life," tIlai is. the
......10 food. In anOlher, u among t!)loy langwtge groo.tpll of tile trop lcnl
fO«lSt area. tile "sta ff of li1i!" is ...""ioc. Bread and ...anloc have
dlrt.. renl fornll, bul they have lbe , arne 1undlo_ in the m'o cultures.
A fowth poHibilll)' i~ tIlaJ there may be no correspondence 0[
rorm arA r. . etlo. al all. 1l!e "'"" In the ~ lext may ",fer to
lotndhins wllich docs DOt ~xist In \he rt:«JlIOT culOlre. rmd \bm) is 00
OIber Item whkh has the II3f1lC fanctloo as Illis Inm had In 1M SCIl.In:e
cui",,",. For nample, s,"""p m: rcfened 10 in texts from !.he Middle
EaM. In s.omc instanees, ~~eep bas I~ fundiott of being a sacrifICe
for sill. HowevCT. amung lbe tropical f~ I1fOUptI "fthe Atnnml., the
 1&2 TUE LEXICON
OIIlimal shcep doe. not occur Dor is mere II comparable animal sacr{(=
f"~ ~ill_ The~ i~ no e<>rre<pondence of c itb.". 1orm or funttjoD. The
transialioo wHi nred to use n descriptive phrll'iC fOl both the form and
lne function.
So far, aU of tbe e~ampl es ha.'c been " fT HINGS in the source
language. The correspondence of form and funclion also applies
to E;VENTS. For example, ron in i.t:! primary SCIlse has lhe same
fonn and meaning ;n all langw.se". The form is /lWving oneself
from OM place to anolher by rapid mOvement (If the leg.<. The
funcl ion is 10 gel from OIU place /0 anolher in a hurry. Form and
fnnef;<Jn are the same ill. all b nguages. The ;)Otian of be(llillg Q'''' 'S
cheST has 'he function of showing remorse or repentance: in Jewisb
culture. In another, as among the Ofomi of Mcxle<:>, this same fDnu
ha~ the fUnction of sh(lwl~ anger. The form is the same. the
flmcdon differem. The Korku of India have a woro meaning to
carr:folly plant g rain in rows; wherem;, $Orne omer b ngWlg<: may
ha\'e a word whieh meanS 10 semler gmiN OlW rile [/CUI. [n both
C~', the r.. action I. d,~ """'''. to pkml lhe g . ain = that /I will
gmninale, But the form is different_ The two ways of planting are
not the Same.
There are, h ()\!,'ever. $Orne i'>Ctions which do nol occur ill OIher
cul!Ur<li nOr is Ihere any oIher action with the ••me funct ion, F"r
example. in some cu1U1res, Ihere is Ih e EVENT of lallOOirlg a
person's face a1 a cmain age. and Thc flI nctioa is to sbow that thc
pel1lon is now an adult. But Il,ere may be other culUlrts where
tal/ooing doe. not occur and there i. no word for it. Also, there is
no special event which occ= to indicate thai. perSOIt has become
of age. There is no colTtspond<mce of either form or fun d j on of
the action UlII()Q.
The funclilm of a THING or EVENT is ofton C\I!tum[[y unique and
,mknown to other people.<. If the ror", is retained Without <brilYing
Ihe function, wrong meaning may «'SUIt Wheru"'er there is no
corresponderJee of fotm orf'u nction, =adjuruncnt wfll beneeded
in tlHl tr:mslalion. The lJ1l1ISlaror mll!>l: keep in mind the following two
principles: (I) the rorm tOOt a word makes reference to may be
subonituted, omitted. d<>s<;rlbed, or otherwise adJusled to avoid wrong.
ZCIO. o. obsrure meaning, and (2) ihc funclion that a word makes
rd e = to may be made npllcil 10> avald wrong. zero. ar abo;¢u,e
m"'llling, The implications af tile .. principles are now discussed in
detail and illustrated I><:law ,
Eq uivale nce by modifying a g eneric "oro
We haw already seen in previous chapter<; how il may I><:
oecessary to translate by using a generic term and stating Ibe Olber
locica} Eqlli."I~nt3 whm Concept1l"N! UllknO ..-/I /83
meaning componcots dearly; that i., by paraphr..ing_ When words
falUld In tho ~= language do not <>CCUf in Ibe receptorlangulll;e, il
may be espectally belpfu[ 10 analyu the source language word to
discover its gencic component. the comra<\ive com]X>llents, and the
funclion ofthe ward in its oonlcJ;:t Then from this analy.is. an adequate
equiw! cnl may be fmmd In the receptor language
When a generic ward is to be usOO .. the cquiva[ent lexica[ item,
and mooiftcd sa as to carry the COITOCt meMing, tbere _ fam pmsib!e
modifications which may be made. Theoe are
1. by making e~plldt 1h< form of the item,
2. by making .~plid' tho f'lmctlon of Ibe item.
by makin, explidl holb the (orm and !he functio n, or
4. by modifying v.ith. com_JI'I""'" \0 <OJneTIliNGo>f
~>'ENT v.-h!ch do<>< ~ In ""0 receploc lan~u,ge.
The US<> ofa gen<:fic wald 115 a bas<.> for constructing an adequato:
equh'oJenl is e~LrCm~ly useful. Sometimes lb. generic term by itself
will b<> rufficiCflt if tbe f<>cus is not on other !1Icanlng romponrnts ar
on funcl lon. B~ many Urnes, IJK>re nee& to be added in ard~'T to mak e
clear the IorIO or f .. nclio .. , or both. Notice the foU""ing e~amples
which have been used by translators 10 trnnSlaI~ words which do> not
haY~ oqulvalents in the second language (selected fromikeknian and
Callow 1974:1 94-98)
MODiFIED WITH FEATURES OF FORM
((he g"'''ic word i$ in italiCS):
I",. of ".luabl. thlng< (Maznhua, M""i«»
-
Ire<IJ1ITIl
n ", \<Ial~r (Wan\O;1l.. New Guine.)
....j'" f..,...mod g'"pt: juict (Hopi. USA)
...-iM "rong dTjnk(fri""", Muico)
"".
illUMe
grounddry grajn (Sierr. 0 10011, M."ico)
1/1111 which mJOkes ond i. frogront (If"S'''''.
Philippinuj
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..." .. "II.. r-H.,

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< 'i ~ g~ t ~"Ilr5 ]>
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:13: = ""0 I ':;:.;
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,
~~ ~.
.< .!!'l~ i~ lit'
!;! _to

:;
!1 I t t
! ii
~'o£!"""~~,,
~?' p -{I ,e 1 I
']~~I ' ~
e~i"Q ':-5
•0
I• ~
I 1
 . ..t p._]o='H.i
] ~' ~ ~ UJj ' i!
'i :i " "'<>15 ~ ,< ~
,, :I
Ktao~ ~]~ ;'j ~; 8" -= I~ , J~ Il 1
],j' l~ooUl'-Bj,
" ~~ . '-]
;
.... ~Q, .. ' -

~~':~ : ""i~.e]16 .s
f~" ·- ! !
! l , I ,~ 1 •~
~;
,! ]
! II. nj,.."~ "H
~. -~_.o! •, ~'= 1 ]
!~
• i i]
i • f~~ .°• ~ =
8
§
~ ..):i
c ~'lc
°t -5

~ ~l ~ ~::2S ~~:l"l"
..• .J!-S t~~
.lJ
~.~",~j ~ i ~
~ • ~ ]1
I ! i •~ ij-to h
~
J ~i
~ ~ 1 ~~ !B~ ]! :g~ "1l
~"~" = "u~ 1i",g 3i~
ffi ~ ~ ,
~ o. , II ~
]
~ • I~, ~ " ~ • tl
"
.S
?"~1 ~ ] ~' ~ ", i
'g S'Q ~ ]J l g 'OO1li,i 1l'
E "'; b S ~""
.. 3.] <;; ._~
~ :I • ~" ~~ •
"" ~ 1 1 h<§ t~ H • I. •
.
],
fl o
j
$'~, !o~~3B'-["'-l!
<

•
0

.~ ~;~_~ "
-~.-u""il•at:~i~!'
.. ; se.;":3Iii~~a-.!'8~ Q'

~
•
~] ~ ~ i :~·~- ·!li
,
-- < ~ .; 5§,, -
0 . . 0 o~ 'II ~
t' ._ ...
~:s:
~ :<
0
> l [
~
I
, ! ] Ii t i i 1
•
;I ...,
'3'
~ .:"<>"",-<>-
192 TilE LEXiCON
D. The two paragraph., below (b~ foll ow;og li 't (a-o), represent a
n
~sourcc language tcxt~ and U SUpp<.l£OO "translalion oftha! tnt
into ~ome r"cepIOT Iangulige. Certain words and phrases arc
italidzed in bolll JWllgroph'l', and in the receptor langu~ge para-
graph, the,. is a blank: after "ach italicizod word or phrase.
Referring to the list below. put . l.ner in each blank toshow what
kind "f trans fer has laken place betwern the source b nguage and
the f'e!;qJtOr \angllage at thal poillt For ~"=ple, iftll~ particular
ilalidzed word or pilIWI<' is an e>;:nnple of a loan word plus a
gen<.-ric term, mooified 10 show fornI, then put j in the blanl::. Em,h
of the leners will be w;cd atl""SI: once.
a. a generic 1C11l1, moxlified by eompariOOll
b. B nonli tc'J'!Il equivalent remlerlos of a COtlCept already known
in the receptor language
c. a iOilll word with no modificatioo
d. a culturnl su bsUtute
e. a 10m word along with a get\~ic term, modified a.< (Q
form and function
f. a generic Icon, modi fied 3S to function
g. a generic tenn Wlcd for a specific tenD. without modification
h. a literal equivalem rendering of a concept already known in
Ihe receptor l:mgu:>ge
a generic term. modified as to form
a loan word, along with a generic term, modified as to form
a lo:m word, modified a, to functIon
a loall word, along with a e<:nerictcnn. modified by compari-
'00
m. a generic term, modified a~ 10 both fonn and f~nction
n. a spedfic term used fo r a gen.eric term, Without modificulion
o. a loan word with a classifier
Uxic..( Equiwdelltr wh"n Cot/upts are UnkllO""n
SOliRC£ LANG UACE:
'"
Oall<!, a respect...!, groy-haired rnunog, arose and spoke: "Broth-
ers and sisters, OUr Wlcesior3 canw h= from Kolango, guided by tilt>
mUDa&". 1bey plaJU(Cd wifeat and vlncy:mls, and also brougllt in maws
and gU/1ll and made pasrw-cJ/ for them. With their 5ickl~s tbey
harvested the crow, and the wmc valS w"", fulL But, as you !mow.
Ihe Duricharch.s have a1~ oppo~od Ihe munags. and now Ih~t
opposition has developed Into open rebellion. They have r<>fused 10
wcarllle IlInic.o, and they have broken into the l'(Jultt8fid renwvcd the
tolem poles, which none but properlyco:msernlled monaS" dare tOllCh
So," Oal ifi conlinued, ~my judgmeot i. thai all Duricharchs be fined
twenty beshges, and that their !e:mcrs be put injt1i1 for six months:'
RECEPTOR LAr;CUACE,
Oa/in ------'----' a ~pected, grey-hailed munas. arose and ~poke'
"Brolhen a~d sisters _ _ our ancielfl grandjaTh ~rs _ _ , ~ ,
bolh
here from Ih~ counlry ojKckmga _ _ guided by Ihe munag.s. They
pl an ted grain _ _ and grapes, and also brought in mabel (0 n'de
., _ and 1M'" cow-liJoc animals called geela1 _ _~ and mad.
pa<1"rt!~ _ _ fot them. Wilh their machete. _ _ they harvested
th~ grniilllM grl1pe5 ___ and the hole5 in l he gro~nd ....hich Wert!
U5ed 10 slOrt! w,,,e in _ _ were fulL But, as you know. the
Duriclwrch political parfy. compoud ofpeaSI1n13 a~d dedir:aled 10 the
ovenhrow ojord(r -------' ha,'c always oppose<! the monags. and now
thai OPPOSitiOfl has w'eloped i,,(o an open rebellion. They ha~'e
refllsed to Wear Ihe fo~g garme= _ __ and they have broken into
tile places where ml~ahie;; art kept _ _ aoo removed the ontalely-
IX'n:ed images called 'wtem }JOb ' _ __ ",blch none but properly
con~ated munags dare touch. So ,~ OaHn continued, "my judgment
is tbat all Duricharchs be fined twenty sllvu-dollar-liu coilfs _ __
and Ihst lheir leaders be coofmed for six manllls in thcbuiJding ,..her(
criminal. an pul _ _ _ "
 Chapler 17
Special Problems
in Finding Lexical Equivalents
For eeoch pgrlkular lfWlSluion I1"Ojed, ~ will be: 5 tJ1n~ unique
r-obIellls ofk~cuI equh-alence. Ho.... ever, Ihere are aIoo soone UJIIUCrs
which Qle likely 10 present ~J1cdaJ problems In any trat' s1;llion. E,"try
I./"IIIISlalor i. faced wllh rmding adequateeq~i,""lm!S for !h. key-.wnis
!n the soura: CellI. Th.re wiU be: some worm " 'hlcll at rust sean 10 be
adequaae C<I ~iV\llctlts ....hlch w!ll tum CIUllO be/ Ill" pills. TbeJe \l;ill
be Ibe problem ofJoso of some mCMi", coUlpunmts IIIwl the goln of
oc.hCfI - 1M problem ofkttp1na I OOJ:ww;e be\ ....eo:n ....hicb eompono;nl!i
bealo;nc implicit and whi<;b arc made: upliclt . Matlon 111Cb as thc§e
will be di5(:USse111n this chaplet".
KeY " 'ords
Almost ""Y lUI ""hlell or'" miglll wish to 1r1lll.lJ.tc will have
some key ,,·vrds. Key WVI',h are words wblel, are u~ eVer and
over In the lext and are "...elolIO Iho Ihtmc or topic IIndtr di3cus-
orion. A tCllt may ha,'& sevc:nl kt")· ..·.."h. The tnMlalor IllU$I.
Identify the key ,,'01'<1. and as much 11.1 possible U•• 3 .ingl e receplor
lanb'lt:l.ge le:rical item <m each oocurrence of the key w&rd. Kty
words are mo5I oflttt word!! "" hich nI~t an --.tbl or btLsl<:
COf>UpI o r lhe IlIlIt . lbcy ' " ollal tbematic. Iu the> uanslat.or studlt$
tlIe source te~t, he sboul d nOie the 1,:")" word. and glv. spocbl
attention tn finding adc<jualC Jellk:~1 equivalents before bea:inn lnll
the aetual dnfting proceu -
For exalllpte, If one i. tralUlalin& an acricllllunol buUctln about
Irrigation fOJ a IUl:""ge in which IrrljPlion 11M never been eon ·
ployed u a way of doing agri~u1tun:. Il1o le~i~ equ.lvnlmu for
the ","OI"d5 of the .aurcc ~ nll alf:d 10 the p'CJCe6 of IrrigaliOQ
,.,1lI ne-cd 10 be worted on carefully. There will be 8 number of
= 1ISt4 "'peatcd/y in Ibe source tellt for wh ich leXical equl".-
Imlll should be dtltTmined ""fon be¥innin& 1M translat;"" of the:

'"
 r g,J iJ
•" ;;
• • ;'~ii H
S 'il l1 jQ _'::
i !
, J ~~! j fl! ~"E ~ .~ -~ 1
~
j
~
~
~~ r'
~ ]i I •• ..
~~~'i
~
~~ e&H:.
.~! ·!::·- %~g. 5
t l•• dlt· 1, 1
~ I
1
• I it: u- i,! if.&g ~
Hf ~
.,
.! ,! 1]] J!I
-s!i! _ fl
ii ""'C'
!fo';....: ~
:.
]
~
J ,
", "
" ~

"'11 -r·-
"
~
'~
- ~ .. o;- !
":'il il>.;'!

~., 1• 1• 1 lit
~
••
1=
~.
!
j
,,
~
hd
8':;:';']
r~]'~~Jli~
,!o -f.s Clg ~,
1'*~~]
8j .:'l'~ ]·~s
~ 1l:!!;t.8
L It
, h ,If f
.II
"
.i:
11
i, •~ d ,., 1~

1 I
""H
I, ,t ~, It n
• ]
~.
~

,.
e
"'j
E ~

~~
9
~i
"'l°6 11 ~
;~~ ij~
.. ;1ij~.B8·:;: 2
5' 'OI 'o_e,,:r-
Jl Ji I
xl 11 ~, ~J
~
••! • •I~ 13I, e~! g3 h
&. H~1H.'
- .. ~~~
.!
.~ !
"' O "B'·§c~ ~ , ~i .'1 1
<. "_ ·_';O';;o",.g
," ,-
0 ~

"
- lIJ!1~~~ .sQ
; ¢:.,!! "-S .5 R ~ Ii .'
~t ;J
'" THE LEXlCON
"I'l' word, which ",moo 1"'"" urtJ,e materj~l cUlture are umally
not tOO difficulllo tnl,t)Slatc. Socia.l and pollUcaI Il'lat iQllships may be
more complkllled. However, lenm which deal with !be ~igiQ\l$
MpocIS or. cullin ~ urual1y die most dlfllcull, bod! in malysi~ of
the IiOurce vocabul:iry and in finding lhe bc& receptor language
equivalent$. The real(l/' ~ thai these words are inbnglble, and many
"tlhe practices an:so automatic Ihnr the speako:n: orlbe language an;
nol "'I" CQus<:iou, of II .... ,'lIIious asl"""t' of meaning In""'\-oo, Here
"sain, it i, ofkn helpful 10 corui<kr words In $MS rather than
individually.
In lookinc for !he bes: equh"lllent for ptWl. lbe trnnsIlI10t would
roruider the whole ,,),Sle:In or relit!iOll$ activity Mdlly 10 march up
Ihe fU!'>Clioru: of each pcnoo ",II() hu a religious role In order to find
the one thaI "'ould DlCISI closely eq.oatc willi priut. 1\ Illi,lu be
neeesruy to make a modi fication of ""me 1:100 to the ..."Old ~ In
order to ~ more aCCIJ",Tcand oonvey the same Il)¢IIrting lIS tl~ source
lUI word. WMt at finn mi~t look I ike a ,oodC'i"ivalent, may acmally
re~nI 8 pcfS<Jn with. '"eO)' diff....,nl roIc in 1M 'w<> wltures. For
"""",pie, the fun<:tiOllS ofa Jewish prieJr in (srad arc oot Ihc 1'Olne OS
those of " llrahrna prial in India . This would probably oot be too
impol1:llll In IJ'an<lating "'" word ~ in ~ lexl$. Howe ...:r, i.f
prW.$/ Is a k~y .. on! in the soun:e lexl of . II3O!.h.tioo belDg made
from Hebrew Imo a language ofl"dia, care ful attenlion wouM need
to be given to the teml used.
In Ihe JRVlous chaprcr, tbc: possibility ofllStna: B 10811 w<lrd (a
word from another language) wu dlSCU4.SC'<l. This rnay 5Otnel:ime:s
need to be ,wne
for key wo rd.. Loon word. =y be necessary
when the", ... great Ikal of diff<.TmCC !let"'em the Iwo o:ultur~t.
Tb.Js ~ be D$peCioJly "f'P1ic:!.ble for nJch ";o"b lIS the names 0(
"'''gll)W; and poIi\lc.1 groups III'Id fQf ,ei i,iou. <>mecs. 1\ is ~.
tlUlCli better to use II loon word. IUld moolfy it so as 10 communicate
lbetia,lLl meaning. Ihan 10 fry 10 U$C I reuptor \an& .... gc lam .... hlch,
a1tho..gh. pa&1ially ",·.rlapping in meaning, bas COOIpone<lU wbicb
will ,Ive" vcry "'Tons
m~W!ing, For uamplt, if the word for pritst
had ImplIcations o f 5OrCC1)' or Idolatry in !he recep:or lanava,e, it
might be: bener 10 II.., the source l...gua&e word lind indicate 10 the
cooteXI through rnodif~tion lilt: role of Ille source culture p~sl.
Somcthnes il is pos.i!:>le 10 use the re<:eptor lanluage tCml and
modify 11 to COl'Rct (ad; of ""«peablc equivalence. "UnguagC$ can
c(Jmhine Icnn~ in new WIY' 10 tltPfC'i' new coocepu 0. 10 H\'oid
neg:>tive denOWions and COImolIItions~ (Bukman 1980:38).
Whenever a 10lIl1 word is used. o r a new combination <Io: .... lol"'d,
f()]' a Uy 1"""1, even lilougb the lnn"l or IXlmbinatioll Is: new. it m~
be: com pletely natuml both "maolica!ly MIl gramm:>tically. Thai is,
Sp«ifIf ProIJJeHlS;1I Emili"g Wic,,1 Liui""I~,, "
even Ir the CO>!lCqJ\ I. new, the IlWUl<'r in whkh the wonls are
'"
w OlbinN should be completely rotural. O<:CllSioMlI~, it will be
necessary 10 ..... . rocq>Ior language II:rm wbich j, mis!<lng some
<.\c.irabI, compooetll$ or wbkh bas $OIlle con'IpOI>erIU of llIeaning
which are not dc!:lrabl•. When this is (rue. the difference in loul
meaning will need 10 be cared for by tho! correct!"" inllUCll<;C of Ihe
COIltelCt. lbis is prderred 10 1o,," ...-orUs for most kq IH"D~
In lOrn" lexlS.!ben: will be ~tokc u "·onJs ~ which II1C besl kept
os loan words. These "rouJd Include 4llCIt th.inis lIS ~ lhe clilnlC(erlsUe
""'ords of a time period thaI dcnoI. a f;lC\ of eNUizBlion. sucb '" the
IllIIne of. fashioMbte dress, • oew product or in~·cnliort. or • ClII"nI~
fad" (Ncwma/x 197":71). ~T<>kcn .. ordJ~ "'" 01\00 IJMSIi ICJtltN in
order to rC"lllin II sense of time tn h;"OI)', This is often done in novels
and sb<Il1 .. ories. For example. in tnnolatlog Span,"", nowls mto
English. words like pla-..Q and ""riD I.R often wod 8:S ~ll>kell "'ortb ~
10 give a Spanish fl avor 10 the traos]:"lon . HOWC\'8, words IholJld 1101
usuall~ be: transliteral.,.,J In ",11&100 •• pol itKal. or bmorical document,.
Nf-"l-': makes the following Sl1&if-SOOll concerning kll'Y w<>rd,
(Nc ....mm 1981:U)
...The awopiate <'qul"a1"",o ror keywords sbO<ll<l be: SCOl-
puloul)' repealo:d Ihroggltoul a 1eJ« in • p/lilosophicli lUI;
Iheme words are the wrlle,'s main C<Ir!C~ Md \elm! ofar!;
in Utenvy worb, the styliscic nJRrken I.R Ukely to be an
author's chmo:cerlUic woM!: ... iD lIII.d"emsetnalL..1hey may
be roIr.en.won"l$ .• . In a \JorI·lilct/ITY text, there is • <;a$tO for
lranocfibing M well ... translating any k"Y-"'OI'd fot liDiWsti c
siptificanoc.
SymboHe word ~
In lMIly texts, there will be: !lOme by ...om whi<;h wi ll acquin:
oy..1>o6. \'aI .... The)' <XIIDC (0 I'I>l1Y figul1llh'. or lnc&trDorical
m~aning M w~ 1I as tne basic meaning ofdl<) word, When this OCCut3,
It may be necess.ary 10 adjU'lt il in tbe trMslatioo,
Ne'AlDW (1981: I 53) >!ales that:
In imaginative writins ftli k.y ...... orM acqlJlre symboUcai
val"", and becomt poIenliai mcte.pb.nnl a;roundc:d In tbc:
culture. Like koy-"'ords In B ted\nology, thc)I ""' 5vdden1)'
forced 10 boar figurativ~ lIleaning, When such words are
translated lhey IMy ha"e 10 be $Ilpported with M attribute
unless ilIOn is .. ~g Cll!tural overlap be!wCCII SINIU and
target languzge countries.
2" THE LEXICON
Special aIlention need:! to he given to key words which UTe also
,yrnbollc word. >0 thai the me(~pb<>rical Intent of the source text
author is 001 obscured "These SYlo bols may be retained in th~
translation wlthoU! =rificing meaningfulness by giving a i ligh! due
10 the sense lmended of by aocompaoying Lhe imagery with its
nonfiguratiw sense" (Beckm:m and Callow 1914 :\36). Religious and
political documents are ,'cry likely to have key ter ms which ha~'e
sym bolic mean ill;aswell as liteml menning. This may occur in other
liternry dOCWllet1tl "" welL and the translator hoods 10 b. <;QllScious
"rtllis .ymboli( mUll Ing as be tran~lale< ' " as 001 to diminate the
symbol by translating ooly with the direct meaning.
Word combin ation s and falilt' litual tra nslation
In mW! languages. th . ", are grou ps of WOI'ds whicb function in
the same way as a single word. for c",amp]e, the French phn..e livre
de cia...,,, (literally, "book ofcla,sH) Is "'Iuiva lent to Etlglish le.ubooA.
TheRu<.<ian expression for desk is pis 'mennxi s/OI (literally, "wriling
tabl e'"). In languages wim a literary history, many ofmose C<)lJlbina-
lion' come to be entries in me dicliooaJ}' of the language. A glanoo
down a pageofan English dictionary will reveal sud entries asminor
premise. mint ju.lep. m;tws sign. and h<m<e of repre"'/ltatiws. Eacb
phrase consists Of lWO or more word, and may involve various parl'
of .peech. Ilene<:. 11""" are oombinatiollS $lICh as miracle play. home
loon offICe. pale blue. and lock up.
Words also combine to fonn compound!; in mHny languages. A
compound is a new word wbieh is created by 'trlnging log_ther simple
word<, which are me constiruent parts. There is almost no limilto the
kinds of combinations which can be fonned. Some \lXatnples in
English are armchair. driWlWOY. horsepower. pickpocl:el. outloo.k.
kindhearted. baby5;/Icr, II1!del'1ilkr, and overlak. German and Hun-
garl"" bave an unn,,,,,l propensiry for comJXlUflding and pUrSue its
possibilities a good deal funher than English.
The aoove IlI"ntioncd types of word combinations deserve the
dosest :rtIenrion by tbe transistor. The meruring of a combination as a
whole cannal always be detemlioed by the meaning ofth<: iodhi dual
constituent )X\lts, For e)!lllIlple, a translatioo from th~ French fX""m€ de
l€rre would be palmo in English "lid 0"\ the: lileral apple of earth
suggested by Ihe French. The Dleaning of lnany word combinations
must be learned. as if they were individual ~imple wtlrds. For example,
a lr"JIlSlation int" English SUited lhat MBtllgoria is D"'" a sYl1Oll)'Ul of Olll"
inclu",rial might. a rrmjor center of black melal/wrg)'." This combination
is meaningless in English. Iron OJId S1eel industry woold be better.
Sometimes a translator may settle for th~ Uloral mmslation of
a wotd combination because be d<>cs not know that thore is aDOlher.
Spcc;ill_Probktm i" FimUng 1",.xU"l Eq,.jJl(J/tnlJ
'"
mme idiomatic fonn. If tb. literal lnmslati"n sounds plausib le. me
tran.lmo, may miss a bener rond"ling. For example. the l«era!
Iran.lalions tUlml infantry and ",,,r jleet migh t seem all right for
English, but the more correct translation would be marines and
IIt1vy, respectively. In lransl!lting tuchnical terminology, where many
word combinations of this kind oceUI. the trMSlfttor must always
be on the alert so Ihal be does not fall ioto the error of a fais.
literal translation.
False frie nds
One of the major causes of translatIon crror on the lexlc...1 level.
whe-n lranslatlng imo relat~d languages, is Ih:It of f. lse rriend •.
False frie ndli may be <kfined as word~ in the source language
which loot very much like words tn the receptor language because
they are cognate wilb them. but in fact mean something diiferent.
F"r example, the Spanish word t1$istir is a fabe fr;"n d to the
Spanish -English tran,lator because its ",al meaning is te a/lend and
nCll 10 Msisl. But to tlSsl.st I. the word ""hleh immediately OOmcs
to the mind of the translaTOr when he first hears or r~ads """tir
Dut it i:! tbe wrong !neMlng. The Russian word v;zit is a raise
friend to a Rus£\an-EngUsh lranslaTO' because il Ieully means of-
ficial call (as by a dOCTOr or clergyman) IlOthcr tban any ordinary
visit. The trlll).lator must be careful not to assume thai because tbe
words in Iwo lall2uages look alike Ihey have Ihe same tneanlng. In
the development of languages, the meanings will change. S(lme or
all of the semantic features of the source language word may be
los~ They may retain ooe .pedal feature or may change m eaning
completely.
False friend. are most often thought of in terIns of languages
which are historically related, But in addjtioo, m"", may be fa lse
friend. "" a result of oorrowing. For example. many of the Amer_
Indian langunges of Me xi"" ha ..... oonowecl Spanilih woflls but ofieo
t he loan word then shifts in meaning from the original Spanish
word The Spanish ""ordplaza refers 10 the 10,"1' square. But alnong
the Mixes It bas been oorrowffi and rders to any group of people
gelfiltg Ii'ings. This Is becaU!;c moot of the selling of goods tak es
place in the TOwn square "n market days. In the .. me way, the
Cbols have borrowed thc wcrd p<ll;o, wbicb in Spanish r~fers to
nn opm C(}~rly(}""J. [n C~ o1. it refers to "pl= for drying cojJu.
Th is is because Ihe wealthkT Mexican homes "ftep U!;ed the patio
for drying ~olTce. "The t!>lnslator must be careful not to <lSSlIme
thaI a loan word bas the sarne meaning as the sarne word in tbe
lang uage from which it was oorrowed" (Beekman and Callow
1974:198)

'" TilE L£XJCO,v
There Olay abo be some coooeplS in the source 'ext wilich I)toert\
to be ~imilar to lite concepu; wh ich are I<.nown in tile rt«pcor ",Jrun;,
1M whkh. 01\ closer u:u:ninalion, may be fomo:! to h3\'e ''erY different
funaiollJ or slgnl ticanc:e.. The sprakeR of !be r«~ptor bo~ "ill
interpRl. these in lithl of thd , ""'"0 culture. and llIe meanin& may
bcaJolle distorted. Hen, aglin, the importaJJee of fantl and fIIn.ction
comes ilIlo play. The form may be tIM: same, bill i f !he filnctioo It
diffeunt , the meaning Dlay be lost ill the 1rallS13tion prooest. For
example, II t ...l [ wh ieb lalked about CUllins bronche4 j"roIr! " fa and
sJJ'Mding IMm o~ tile roadlO honor an Dppro.1;chin& persoo was eMily
trnnslatcd InlO n entaln Afrk:an language. CullinK bronchQl aNi
~pretJdf/Jg lhem "" 1M roadw"" a /amili3Cconcept. But in tho African
culture, It Wll.'l l.$$OI:inted ""th blQCklflS: Ihe rood to pn111t'"t " "
u" ....onlt d perMm /1"(;m appmoclti"$' Hew....·.... in the . ourec text the
significance had boc:n 10 itollor and ","'come mmeP,", comins down
1M road. In rite Af.iC8ll I~nguage lrandation, the wisundO<$boding
Wl1! tinnily ""meted b)' $fIyintl pal", broncha and lndi01lt blg tbe
furn:lioo.
Implieilllnd u:plk it eompoDen b of meaD ing
ThrougIJOI.II Ihcsc cMplcrs <l<I lexical cqai,·a1ern. it has bcc:ornc
dear 1Iw 11:0. IQlcaI Il~"" nf t/oe \lOlQ""Ce t..>guoge .. ldonI mootcb
euctly II:o c te;cieal irCQU nfthc mcepUl1 lang1.18gO\. II would :oeem tlw
then: i. more: ml:lmatch thm matcb. Hew. llIt,~ is it p<)Sllble In
tr.lrulial O 81 ttll? Tbe lIIl$\Oo'er CO\llCS in ~ fact that it i$ noI the word
that i. be;", Ull1,sllliOd. bul the l,ot,,1 muuill!: nf Ibe wu. d. in
cumbillllilon . Tllln 1$ " 'hy, aft .... having ~sse.d lMical Uiuivalenl!,
We have only begun In dlseun tn...,lation. The nO:XI pIIrt oflhl t luI
will deal with larg.... unlt9-Comblnatl<lfls of words into clauses, SCI'-
lenees, pow,lg<uph l. and lexlS.
In di$cu~' lng claulc~ and sentences, Ibe mauer of ImpU.it IIIld
uplidl In10'"lltioli will come into fOCUll agai n and apin. BIJI it
i. aliilO Important to m~linn, befOOl! leaving our cmphasb on lexi-
cal lIems, that In the trmIslahon ..-ocess. sane cootponcnla of
meaning of !he: $()Uf"I;e leltl wl U 00 looger be expll<lt IIIId lOIlle
compoIM!"l\l$ whleh a:e 1101 nplicir in doe ~ Int will be made
uplicit in the tnII1S!adoo. TIo is i§: becawc of the YU"j nMIIrn of
languages. Ca!.eg~ irw:luded in "arious !OeIP3IlIK- lets will be
diffem:;1. SOll.e wilt be obligatory in me Ian~ IlIld dift"en.rn
otlflS obl igatory III nnotI>eI". In ord.". \0 fond an eq U;YaJ~lt IU io;a.l
item, u'c lran.blOl" lIUIy need to mab rompooenlS of mt'DlliIlg
uplidl whic:h m Implicil in tho) 1KIurc<: doc\Jmm t. Therc will
alw~ys be some: Iou and some gain of meaning. No two l1lJlguage
,ys!e",., mlltch eXllClly.
Spn;wl Probl"lIt~ in Fi"di"lJ Lu/to/ l;"quiWlwnfS
Howr:ve:r, a ,,,,,"da!Of, woo desires to CQlnmUllicale III<' same
10.~
Infonnalkm ru; found in lbe SOIItcC tut, will CQR\I: close to I'QCttIng
hi$ goal by ~ oonscanl. ""'arwess of !be d.l ffm:'nC~ he!v.'em. languages
by • card'W analysis of tile $OOGC !eXI n~ boIb refcrr:nlial and
sitUlUIonJ,I, """ by choosing ooIy n:IIllrat and dear fo rms in the
r6CrptOr language tnlmllllio:m.
EXERCISES - Spttlal Problem. In FII,dlng Luk,,1 &j uint,"lS
A. Find three s\Ioflarticies. olle In J m a.ga>;ine. onewhich is a chapter
in a boote, nod 'lne In a ncwspoper.ldentllY t he key word. of the
articl e. 1I0w wight tbese key "orlh be trumbled in a language
which you .peak, 'lther tlian English?
B. In each cfthe foUowinl!: lr<IIl<l.tJoru; Into f.nl!JIs.h. th.., I!alici:l.ed
words have been translated lih<rnily and H,ay or may nOl be
idiomatic Of correct. Evaluate the ItaJlcil'.ed ,,·oul:< ... ~atiOO5.
Improve tbffll if you c:m, Ilibstituling ,,"Ords and, if t1I:CCSSary.
ch:snlinC e.rammatieal otrucrures.
I. The agrarian reform ~.:oIled fDr 1 ~ dUlrWuJion of the
land.
2. 1101. WII$ IIIf./ilfor drintilfg wille, .
3. l..e1u< late • look into the fuTUrt. Tbe)'C-ll j, 1980. VilooM.
the immonal oo.:.utiful t>don~nent ofS nfill, Bulgaria, has boon
made Imo 2 national park with numerous hoi$/..J. four bares.
hOlel s, and n:sUlurant •...
4. In 1961 Galati $Iatted OOildiuS n "",obel- of com pletely new
micm-di$,ricts. We WCOl 10 _ one of thml, Tig l ina, noted
for the wide use of ind\l.strud build,,,, methods .... Two )'eaJ1
after IOOIIwuctlou bcptn, QTIC 18,000 families wert Jlr=ly
1I" mg here. And aIIolhe:r $ucb ...JcrrHIuirlcl, T iglina 2, is
goina up nrarby.
C. In <=" of the following 1fIIn!lllllions from Frencb into Erogtido,
the l!8lici=:! words han be<:n traoalllled li~n.U y and may Of inay
not be idiomatic Of CQITOCt. Evaluare Lhe ttalic:i.tcd words ft.'I
1fflIli'lllkln!!, in each ease, compariDg tIlftD with \'anOUSnl1cmative
tmrulltions whJch are given III P"«'nl~KtS. a"xu the best
1rans1allon. Improve them i(you eM, substi1111iug words, and. if
neccuary, changing grtIInT1U'lll",,1 str\\elW"".
 T
PROPOSlnONA L STRUCTURE
'"
S<.'Jllanlic un!! CP1lSisting of concepcs, Qne of which is central and
the others dirt<:lly "'\ntcd in the central concept. For example, the
concept' JOHN, PETER, and HIT may be combined to form propo-
s;tion •. The action HIT is th~ central EVENT concept. What !he
pro[>OsitioD communicates will depmd ()f] the relntion.hip of the
other two conocpts to flIT. If JOHN does the hitting and PETER is
the one who was HIT, lllen the prop<.>:'I ilion would be John hi! P~ler.
If JOHN was the QIl<O who was nIT, the pl'<l»Ositloli would b<'! P~Mr
hil Jahn.
Even tII ough the difference In English is signaled by order, In the
semantic structure, the order Is unim portant The important !.bing is
that w e know wbleh oonceplS combine to form the p .... position and
the relations between the concepls. Th.re are many ways in which the
semantic structure ofa proposition can be symboliled for e~amp1c,
a formula like the following might be used to . how the difference
betWOOll the two proJM>S;II"n J above.
a~nt:JOOn .. atthity:lIIT. affc<1ed:Peter
Ilg~DI:l'otor ... aecivif),H1T...ffH lfl1:Jo!m
In the first example. JOHN has an ageDt rdalion t<l I:IIT; whemlS.
in the =nd, JOHN is the affected and PETER is the agent. l l ,e CJfoo.
in the semantic structure is IJ()( important but the relations {a!:"n!,
affr«cdj are. Some i:lllb'llagos will hmd to encode Ihe agwt firsl,
Qlhers will tend to pW it atlhe end, after the adivity. In the grammar.
the semantlc a~ Dt is mom oilen expressed as lhe suhject of the
scruenCe. On( knows who hit whom in English by the word order in
tlJc grammar. Otha language, will ha'-e the opposite order, and
perhaps nddi1 ion.11 mar!;~~ to indi~ale the ~gfllt and the .ff«It'{!. Fo,-
example, a nllmber of languages would lise the order John PCle~ hll
when JOHN i" the lIj!eol.
[n order to talk about semantic structure. it 1. necessary to
choose a form fo r writing propositions. Since 1h is lext book is in
English, we wHl arbitrarily cboose the DOnnal English f<lnn (0
indicate tbe ptOpoJltloru:. In more technical matelial, fonnulas
could be used. The Engli"11 f<llTIls a... simply a way of displaying
the lnfonnation. The tran>lalor must choose Ibe naluml forms of
the r«er«>r language in the IfIlD, IBtion and not IClUlSlate
I'rop.nllions literally.
Anyone propositi<ln may be encoded in vMious ways in a given
language. The translator will look for t~e best way; (he m<lst nalural
Prop'Millo""
way. For example. the proposition John hit Peter might be l1:1!1slated
'"
into Eugligh "ilb any oflbe foUowing forms, depending on the oontext
in which il OCCUrs
Job" hir Pe,.,...
Peler '"'' hill:ry Johll
The hilling of Fela by JolUt.
Pela', who ,,'", hi! by JOM .. ..
-~ -'
PeUty, 1M OI!e John hit....
Wbic.h grammatical fonn is used In (he trnn:slruion will depend on
tlte relaHon that Ibe propos ition has !<l other prop<l<itions and how
the receptor Jomguage (in this case English) will most nalllrnlly exiT"Ss
tbe p ropositions and the relations belw""" them.
A 1.ropo.ilion. (hen. m~y be desc. ibed aJ; a <. manticu nit co>n<isl_
ing of coocept:s (TliINGS, EV!1)'1,'TS, ATIRlDUfESj In which <Inc
coneePl i~ crntml and the other{s) related to it through a ~ystem of
RELATIONS. If the central concept i. an EVENT concept. then (he
propoJilion is an ~VtDt P roposition ; if the centralcoocep! is a THING
<lr ATTRIBUTE, then the prolM'Sllion is a State Proposition (Seel .
mnn. Callow. nnd Kopesec 198/:52). This difference will be di!cus""d
after the method for identifYing prof1Oslt!on~ within a te;t( is
discussed.
I d e ntiryiltg C\'ent propositions
IdentifYing e"eol proposhlons begin. by dassirying the COn -
cepts that are represented by the lexical item, in tile lUI. For
exrunple, me following ~ntence i~ firm nn ruyzcd by do:termining
whkb words represent EVENT concept<. which represent THING
concepts, and ",bich represen t ATTRIBUTE and RELATIO N
cooc<:pts.
E T EA
1h de.1rucIic~ ofthe dry WtlS piG"ne" -...:11.
TI.en, Ihe grrummtical ..,ntenee can be re-expressed in proPOSiliotlS
with the EVENTS 1IS the center of Ibe proposiliops. There are (wo
EVEh'TS. deslro)'and piaJ! . 'J"M two proposlt10n. ere:
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1U PROPOSJ110NAL STRUCTURE PrupositW",

L <.. ,p<IfitIMOd-r."Nl"'~m The referenli.lll ""'anlng i. tbesamc, but the usage i, d,lTerall for each
'"
2. do, rido IUtOC-<>Wll<T proposItion. Both E~rnllllld Stale Propositions may ~wilb any of
3. diru:lor l!I.-~oe-Mr_.Ion<» hi..-....ne these thm: ,ilUalional meanings. These ....~ oftmcalJ.d the il!oell l;".-
4. John t.o...-in 0Ia)'S
a.,' forotf!S (>frt.e propositi.,... In writing proposilionl. simple English
&eI1Ienoo: and Engllsb word order, and plU'lCl\Wion may be \ISed t(t
5. loIuI bi,-;J IndlcllI! tin, Ulotullou ry rorce oflbc propolitloai u ,,'X doo.e above.
11l1(lnlOl;Oll ofi"" 'odic.l.,.. illox .. t>Ooary fonf in onol EoiIish. N_
lbex same propoutklnl ..ould be expressed .,.-llh 1M fol lowing Ihe follO'Nir1t! exampI",,;
in OImnl of Mexlco, and Gahulu of P apUa New Guinea
SIruC{\Ife$
(dala from Rlclwd Blight aOO Elli. Deible!):
SIiIIO ~Ii"" v.1licb <OIll",.atIl" YOI' b. "... byl
OTO.Ilf G,I.[JUIW
San. p:opo<iti"" ",hleh '1Aost;"." Is Mot')' your ,;!II.r?
1. This i. my cor, I. My..;., .. ,,,•.
SIIILc prop<>Oition whicll SIal",,· 1l1e dc>$ il in '"t bam .
2. Dog ~il .. "",«i tho !''do. 2. Dog ",,,uo-(,",,.. -do'~""k.)
Fidl>-'" 1:_.,,1 (1<'llc nJ pr-opoo;li<>n "'hicll (You) run fJill!
commalld"

.....
l . 0; ........ b.... IJ·...-roed!he ""t. l. O' ........ ..". D1P!n .. <losure-
onarkerj Mr. )OI>O, .. -he. E,..", CpoccssJ prop<><iIion whidl
~-""."
DId !he milt liour'!

~. Jolla hY... !bere iR tho IrooIt$&. 4.

""_-Il
Joha~_..;losure-muIc ...)
is-bc.
E,·... I (e.o.pai<lOCc) proposiIioQ
"hidl stll""
W. be:R dlc:-.ncI.

J. bill tho jollA. 5.lddor~) ""'"

.."
Tho .erna:\lie ~ruclUl"C, WI is, the propoJitioD. remain! the SIU"M,
In lite grammar of """ue langUSS<l$, tile UloClI\o)na.,. fone is
0110"'11 by wotd order. i~ othen by speda! panicles, .lfIXes, 0(
but each lllttgua&" w!ll express Ihe p .... position "'ilh dlffercUi Ij.I1IoIn_ word,. TIle Illocut ionary force I. often eu~ by m!>Od. Each
"'''Ileal fonos. proposition I. eitller a STATEMEI'T. a QUESTION. 0< a COMMAND.
Thi$ will be reprelented in the tranllallon by the Mtural fonus of
SifUlllionlli me~ niftl,!9 of propositions the receptor IMsn_ge. A propos ition ha:I (01)' referential menning
So fur, ,WI ha~ been di5CUssi~ Ihe . erue n!ia l ".calliIIK of tI,e until the IH DC ullon~rJ' (01"<:. i. added. No real communioario .. can
proposltlnn. SuI" proposillons al so must be looted at rrom r~ point be Cllnied 011 without tIIis .itualioro1 meaniua bcinl/lnduded al
of vicw of Ihe "tution in "'hieh they an used. Whnl is Ib.. anlhor ... d . It Is po$lible 10 mow the coocepu which m!lO;c up a )ll"opo-
(~peakg") try11li [0 do with the proposi!ioo? Whal Is lbc autbor'$ slt10n and llleir relation [0 one anolhcr and Iilill not knnw what the
purpnse1 TlIc autb« uuoy be: ...Jdng 0 q"ut;o~ O. wakiQa • 1f1l11:_fIl. . pcako:r mearJ$. Fot" example, we might Il.a,'. the EVENT eat. the
or Vo'in& a ~lItlMNl. The propoIili«I "web is d;"grammed below i. "QF~~T I~', and th>: AffECTED /Ta",,/e bo..I stin n()( know whal
Ihe same for eaeh of these Ihre8lW1ges: the spuhr means. llIll= ..... know ",hetoo he is auerting ,. f.."
(The /iV' lite 1M tTowkr) or asking • qUC$tion ({)id Ik rige, ~I
Hd"crutial .. ~.n1"S' lOID<... .ae...L. JIIT_ ...rr«leol._.1IAU. 1M lI"II,ele?j. lbe itlfent of Ihe .~er In .'lIOylng $OIDtdti" g ;' .
therefore. pari of tbe communicatiOll..
St.tmoeat, JoIu! Illt doc 1:&11. SooI.etlmes the HlMutio ....,. rn~ II stated by \he ' peake•.
Qu.,.rico~: 00 Joo o hi' lhe wll1 IJl.'JIMd nf sImply laying. "Go!" as • command, l ptrlIOIl might iIIIy,
'"] command ~ fa go!"' In this ""'Iemo. IOC Illoxulln.u ry foree Is
Commud: Jolon. hit tho ball! actually staled by I COfltlMltd. Noti"" tho rollowl"S:
 j

I !
I
I
]ji

,..
i ¥
;J ~ $
....: .. ,..,
 Chapler 19
Case Roles within Event Propositions
PropOSiti""" arc combirJ.'Vion. of concopts, lIS WO 1uI,'c noted In
!lIe preccdlng chapter. The conlbinal ioo ii slgnificant ~callSe die
~pcs are lUliled by $peC\lII rdatioQ:$. They ue .. unit. A grollp of
C(JnCepIS utake$ IIj) I proposl!1on. 10 E'"<SIt Propcl$illons, !he nliNG
""" ATrn.I BlJrE concept. I N! relaWd to Ih crntrn] EVEI-7 ooncrpc
by relation, which 3re often ClUed u .' " ... Ies. In SW~ IToposltloru:
thete ~ "'l~ rd' lloGs ....h ich rela!~ a TIlING 10 anod!er THING or ~
THING to an A111'UStrn::. Rdllti<lRll found within E\"CIlI I'roposItJons
will be d.iscll=d fo.rst. """ 111(:n those found wUllin Selle Propositions.
Cne rok. defint'd
I. The It:en1 iJ th~rnlNO wbic~ doc~ lhe ilClion;that is, tbeperSO<l
or th~ object which I, the doer of tile ~VE"'T. The _gent i.4 ill italics
in the following propoUtiom:
John ,." fl$t.
.Jt:JM read til< book.
1he ilea- }mlp«l 0\"01" the f<Jl«-
11 .. ~"<ll'" flowed .",ltll).
Tho d"lr ate tI>e mc;lI..

A. CIIII be Seen in the abo... e .,.,amplcs (when there l'I 00 mismalch

of5<>1Wd ics and 8J1IIDllIar), the Igell! II encoded as the subject oriM
S<!nt~n"". The _gent C~ ocellrs when tile EVENT i. an ";(1 01}. R,,~.
rttud. jumpt:d over. flo .... illld tu l """ act;oos

2. The u lln r mlY 5tQ1l very much like 1!:tD.t It first. The
difT""",cc Is that tile U ilier i.o lheTIill"O wbich Insdgatu the EVEJ<.'T
TltJ"" thao ilCIuaUy doing It. A person or obje<:! caust$ lID ~ion or
pcoeeu to b:;tppeo. Th .....1IS(:r is also mcOOo:d as subject of !be
~11l
22' PROPOSITIONAL STRUCTURE
sentence when there is no skewing boetween grammar and semanlics
Note the following in which the ca user i. in italics:
I'uer made Mary cry. (Pele, ~ MOly 10 cry,)
TIu! pol~ strengthened lIle h ildini. (The p>le caused the
building to boron>< strong..-.)
John made Pder leave. (John cau>ed Perer 10 lem:..)
MalaTia kiUe<! h .... (M:llo.ria c.used her to die.)
Cas.. Ro~.' wiI/,;" 1,,,,,,,1 PrOpo.'iIi(JfM m
When then: is no skewing between semantics ""d gnmltn.ar, the
affected is encoded as the <>i>jecl of the verb when the EVENT is an
lIelroD. v,'hen the EVENT is IlIl expet"ience or procc,s, il is encoded
as the rubft!cl of the grammallcal.sentence in EngIloh
4. Th e beneroclafl' is the TIflNG that is advantaged Of disadvan_
taged by the EVENT, The benel1da'1' is not affected os dtre<;tly as the
Illfcc1 ed. For eXllmple. in (he proposition Mary gaw I~~ boot If) her
molMr, the book is the aftecled and "e~ mOlher Is the btnerlCiny .
Note the follOWing e1Ul1Jlples in which the ~ndldary is in italics:

N<>Iice also {he following eU1l1ples of tllu ~er from Kiangan Jobn ""let Ihe ""'" for .friend.
lfug"" (Philippin .... dam fr(lffi Richard Hohulin). (The ,10" "MK~
Mary bou;h! ~ present foo: r"",
Stands for marker, The font! marks nOun" fo. certain syntactic
information not crucial in these examples.): Jane .''''. the flow .... to Elizabeth.

.. ]mpabai. "'" Pedro nah ~'" klnaJi. 5. The acco mpailiment is tk lHlNG whiell partici~ in dose
CaQ,o·o!lam o you Peter MK you ,aid-It. assoclatioo with the agoo.i, causer. or affected in au EVENT. It is like
You c""oed Pet... ro be shamed by what you ...id II lttOnll ary .gellt. cnnr, or ulrect .... Note the following exnmples
r..... i< the ... u•• , and Pe"'-', in thl. CMt. I. the arr<ded. In which acoomp.nlment is in italics:
i,e" he become ashamed
PalfiJaMim la p<l11Vll14.. .., .lruJn all 1oho "'en! (0 the park wllh hi:! dog
Pi<:.."..you oo-thal you""awe-to--<oow MK Jobo III,!
The ice cream melted .tong with Ihc hutu, (the i<:e cream
_1JiiOgO hi ina "" and also (he bun", melted).
i,..,icI: MK moI"-, his.
PI<:as< in form (lit. you""oose·hlm·!o-koow) John th'" his 1 ato dinner with mywik.
moth .. [. sid.
~ fori< w", on the table "'iln the *"if~ and SjI()()n
II",. again. Y"~ i. the uu •• r and Joho i, (he a rr..,ttd

Wil}, is a oonunon grnmmatic,,1 marker for """"""tnniment in l';nglish

1. lbe Mf ected i , the THINO that undergoes the EVENT or i, gromm •.
affe.led by the EVENT. The aJTected refers 10 the one who experiences
an EVENT or the person or object wM.h undergoe, the EVENT, that 6. The re.ultUI is Ihm which is produced bytne EVENT, There
i., "fnls the dted or' fl. The dfl'ded i, in italic, in the following is always a dose rdationship betw ... n doe EVEI\'T and the .."",han!
ex~mpl",, : For example, SOIne languages have Similar fo rms for The a<1ioo and
the I"flllttalll '" In ~ang a SOil", howse·mlMk a hor"u,/enced ajeJ1ce,
Tho &.g At< the "",at de. Note the following proPOSiTions In whleb Ibe ~"Uanl is In italics
and is tbe result of the EVENT ,
The tr« fell "" tile Iwuse
The buue' melted Mary sang o/Wn:
The waler e"oporoted ~ boy. ran 0 r~
Mary smelled the omoke.
JaM bec.me sad. The ",telie", fougb t a ht:rtk.
TOM ••w the mate They playoo 'game.
112 PROPOSITIONAL STRUCTURE - Cas, Rilles "";,101" Ewnt I'roptMitio,,~ m
Whi.'fl there II no d:ewing berw ...... g.r:uwnar and scm~tics, Ih" John prnyod LQ God.
rcu lla nt is "lICC)<\e(! lIS Ihe object ofthe verb,
I hh th~ aid: .piMlll>efo""',
7. The i.s lnu.." nl is the THING used 10 carry 0111 an EVE/I.'T. It
Peter IbClO' "'" rod<", Ib.fo..,. po4
is usually an Inanimate object. Note !be followtrlg ~:mIplC& in which
!be lnltrulDCfl l ia in italics: J<>ho Iiaogh"d lit f't:tu.

Mary wrcle with " pene/I. 10. The lime ldenlifies tbe Tt mpoml placement of 1M EVI'~'lT.lt
td b wbell Ibe IlVE~'T took pl4U. Or it may indi,ate tb, dunUon of
)o/m Cullbc ... ~ wilb. h.ffo.. !be EVENT. Nole the following e.l'.3lnples in ...hich lime isllt italics:
M"')' CO\-~!he ohild ,",lib 11>/4nk1d. Jalul ......" 10 coIl<ge IIIF«.....,h .go.
11)(> ... o(truen widen«lllllo rood ""ltIl a bull~r. He! moth« "Iy«l for r/lr« ..uk..
J ..... ""nod 31 the piclw. "'1Ih her fl~. They ...iR co.... at u.- "·dod-,,.
r"""""",,·lh. _ ..ill ...1nc.
Willi i$. COIlIm"" ~I.al markar for Innl'llmeDI in ~;,;h
IV"'Ilmor. NQ(J oe In number S above thlll It Is aho Ihe fotm tJ>Od 10 Soo" """'<OtIC will com. for u.s.
indicate :Kcom p lni nlut. Tbe one fonl'l, with, bas 1'010 scnulRtic
furocTions. I I. The ,"unn is IbequaliflCalionof the 1o"VEN'J". It ;$Ihc manner
itt .... hith the ACTION, EXPERI IiOCE. or PROCIlSS """ turied out:.
3. The locattou i. the T1UI'Kl whicb idcnliflcs the IplttW pIacc:- "'()I.e tM IOU""'1ng examples In whicb the ma n n", is in halics:
'neIll of an FVEroIT. Ihal II, Ihe IOUIee, !he pllIU of, or the deslinaTion
Of llll EVErn". Nollee the follC>Wing examples In whicb the lotatio .. i. The m." run quiddy.
in italics: ~ butler melted ~

John "'.-- !be len ... r-frdy.

Jane 0'lII Po'ay fr., ... ""--
Jolm new in from Chkl!f(C. TIle baby ~ .r..py grl>li"olly.
POICr w.lk«l 'b"""llb the p.vt.
The "'001 "ew ,..,pidly.
Mary alttycd in the IJoo<H. 12. ilK: /2IUJure is lAc: qlWlllflC31ioo oIlhe EVE.·...,.. /'I!ollce the
follOWing examples in which mtuue i. in ilalltl:
J_ ..·.. II!() the .1",",-
Jan. ~' f~q""ildy.
h Is abo poMiblc to divide Ionliu. and be moll: 'pcdflc as \(t
",helber It It the ;ouroc 10000ion, the <kscInaIion mc.tioa. or the They W\dmcd me road by MNy foci.
1000ion at whicb an event i' (lCCurring. tl uwC\ler, for our I""J'C"ItS in ",. com Iuod grown lltn~ fll(-M..
Ihis Ie..~t, we )",,'f I'll! them togeth",. as loutlet n,

~. The goal is IhenUNG towards which an w on Is dit'tCIed. For Skewin g betwee n c\'enl propo5itio n s a nd
,,-,ample.. in the proposition hultol t he arrows allM l:Jrgel. 1M Q17fJ'In grammatical rornu
,,_ld be the afJ«ted and 1M llUftCl !he Coal N~ Ihc.it ad;!itiOQll] In all of the examples given above, Enili$h ,m1enca In wbich
e:wnplr;s in wMel! lhe co.l ts III Italic", the JCntcnce i, cquallo the semantic proposition are used. That IS,!he
m PRQPOSJT10.lVAL STR UCTURE
agent is the subje~t "fthe sootlID:C, tbe a«:ompaaimcnt OCCllJ'S OIl the
object of the preposition with, nnd the location occur. a. the object of
the preposirion from. in. and through. But as we have poimcd OUI
before, there is a great deal of skewing between form and meaning in
any language. In addilio;>!l, the forms whkh eooroc the same meaning
nre different for different languages, $.0 there is a dou ble problem for
Ihe trnnslalox - the skewing betwc<''11 form and meaning in the s(mrce
language Bud the differem skewing between the form and meaning of
the reo:eptor langllfige. In analyzing the source langullge. the trallslator
i. straightening out the skewing in tha t langtJagc. But once he has oone
this ond has a semantic analysis, he is faced "'ith the job of recon-
structing in the receptor language, and thai im'oJ"". again incorporat-
ing skewing betwcen tbe meaning ODd f<lnn by using the skewing
which Is characteristic or the receptor ~lIlgua!:e. which will probably
n<>I be tile same as Ihat of the sourc~ lang""S'"
We look now at some examples of the kin ds of skewing that
occnr. For example. one case TOI<: may be encoded in several ways
in the source lnngnage. depending on lhe wnlexl. and in. sewrnl
ways III tbe receptor language , The fonns mayor may nO! match.
For exampk. Ihe agenl in Ihe proposition Pelu al~ Ihe banana is
Pc"". Nolice Ihe different way. in which the "gelll is rncodoo in
Ihe following:
Sh bjed: p.,.,. aI. the bon." •.
OL>j ect of " !'Cpo,ilio. by.- The b<mana ",as eat"" by Peler.
Th. e:diog ofm. b<in""a by Peler..
•\ l odllitr' P~IB '~ eating of th. banana .. .
Sbbjt<l iu ... t~ ti " t <tau"" Tho banana which Pel", ate .. .
The above t~ampl os show !hat Ih. proposition may be trn:odcd
in different form, and. therefore. t he IIllcnl will be encoded by
oc<:urring in dlffetcnt gt"Jmmatica.I positioru;. This ;. IJ'U<l of all oflhe
nI.., roles presented atMwe. Notice that banana. which is the a ffecled
in the proposition, also is encoded ill U <'arie\y of ways'
Objed, 1'<0;..- ate the bano"".
S.bjw: Tho ban""" WItS ealc:n by Potor.
Tho banana which Petor ole. ..
Obj."" orIh. prcpQSi ti~n: The .~ I jng ofth. banana by l'eIa.,.
Pet.".'s eOl i n~ of !ne 00mma
Cuu Role$ wi,hin £ ""nI I'ropos;riollS m
Whidt form is chosen for English. il lUSlIatoo abo".; will depend
on the COIlteX( In which the projXlsition is t..ing encoded, The poinl
Ihal is Important here is to understand thai there are s,,..cral fonns
which encode th. same pfOpositioo
Now looking al il fwm anOfltcr poinl of view. languages will also
sometimes have one fo m , whieb is used (0 encode seveml caSot roles.
Notice, for ~ample. the following (examples from Frantz 1%8:22)
ill which (he preposilion wilh Ii used:
1. I Ole i« cr<am ",,';th my""""".
2. I Ole i« c«om w;lh my wife.
3. I ate i« ere"", ",,;/h my pie.
In this e.xample. the wCtI'd ""itk is u,ed 10 signal thru different
RELATIONS. In the fi ts!.. with signals ihat myspaoll is the jll. tr .. m~nl.
It tells wbat Was used to do Ille ealing. In the second, with 'igruIl.
:licrompanlmu t (lfthe a ge nt, It iudiCMCS lhat my wife ate ice C"",m
IIlso. at the same time and place as I did, Le .• J was accompanied by
my Wife, and we bo!h al~ ice cream. In tlw third, with signal. Ihatpie
is an aff~~ted and that the pie was accompa nie d by ice cream. 11'31
Is . T ate pie. and witb II I also ale ice cream.
And . 0 we .oc thai one ease role may be encoded by seve",l
forms. and that ~ fonn IIl"Y ~ used to encode several case roles. It
i . this c()IlIplexity in languages that makes trnnslation a complicated
task. The skewing of the source language will be diff~rem from the
skewing of the receptor language. This cau..s double compl icalion as
rnentioncJ ~fore.
It is Impossible in this book to give examples of all tile pos;>;it>ilities
Or even mention them . But an awareness of this skewing should alen
Ihe tnmslator to be ready for multiple etlcoding of the semantic
&tructure and, the reverse. multiple meanings of grammatical forms.
One of the reasOnS why literal translation. do nol communicate is that
1ltcy keep the sour« Inngll8ge ~k"w ing. The skewing in the ~oun;;e
language will not rlUItch the skewing (lfthe receptor Innguage. This i.
w hy it is helpful 10 think of the ""'nanlic Slructure (the uleaning) rather
lhan the grammar ( forms) as one trnru;late~.
For example. the tluu sentences above, whic h contain "'ilh
encoding different meaning<, would be tnln,lated by Ihree different
f<lnns in most other languages. In Aguaruna (Peru). (~e forms would be:
J. t Ice cre.lt1-{objecl marker) "'Y"JX><>!l'(in>trulnem marker) j .al • .
2. My-wonum-{aecomp:tnIm",,1 morter) ice crnom· (objeC\ marl<..-) I-.te
3. Pi."", cr • • m-{objeC1 marker)_.I.., I-Ole.
 ~g ;
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i~t~~ ~-3~Si£~
g~ i ':~] ':; e~ .
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< .o:ii :E;,:]~ g ~"'-= .... .-
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11."''= ~ '3c tll5.,
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1 .1.. ] F ~!
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m PROPOSI TIONA L STRUCTURE
Go..., Roles wil"i,. EL¥'" Proposirio",' m
A / "'w 10 nm/ugh<.< to rip ,<>Ok Ihree da)". Ilefi
V/;fl. 1hii B Rcv.'rite the following propositions wilh as many grammalicM
Wawa,,,, a.d wen( up ri= 10 TUn/up. There J ."wlol. (}f~opk
",/tom 1 hrui """'" ~ beJon structures as you CUll lhink of in English. Then write them in
me peopi~ tMn mid ,ltall ,<""ll:eir reloli ..... J "'m ""i,E7'"
jtaylng ,J.., ... ,with them. 17uy gaw '" tau () "food an<! t",,/<
MOIher languag~ which you speak in !IS many f=
in thar language
~s yot! can

<an ofmy wife. They drank IclS ojm<lmoc

didn 'I arin/; fl.
tj.r,hll "'Y w; ami I L John ale the apple.
When "" had jiur.,hed visit'''g. we rY:l..,."eJ ""'"",, killing a deer 2. The little boy ran away
on !k ""Y- f w". happy 10 b.; Itom~.
3. John saw the big blaek horse.
R. My "'-ifoand f we~' '" ~isj, in /h< r" ..·~ ofTuntulf£lau. W~ lefi "'" 4. The butter melted
"'''-'n whICh " cali" Wa_'m. "",nt up ,;wr, unp"'8 th_ H",u ""
tlu! W4)'. a>td arriwd In Tu~., W" saw many peopM whom "" S. hne sang a WIlg.
had not Ju1l previou<ly.
W~ we", very !taPfY $/aring tM~ with /h~ people of r~~I~g",,",.
"JMy said IMt _ a", fflQt!""'. "JMy ,oak go-ad can of"'y '"iJ~ a,od
g~ '" bOlh lou offood. Thq ~I"es dn>"j; a /"1 "f ",on'<>e
c. What proJX>Sitiom are included In the meilning of each of lhe
bu~. ""I "'Y
Aft",.
~'lfe a..a I did. ~)cin i~ 'he drinking.
""i;",& """ !"",,.,,d M""'- OM Ih,. WD)' " " - I killed"
following?
My walch is from SWitzerland.
d_. I arriwa back 1M W""";,,, wryAappy
2. My watch i£ from Scm.
My walth is from my Dad.

D. How would you 1ranslate each oflhe _I""" .. in C. above. into

a language whleh yo" ,peak, other than English?
K."XERCISES - Rdalion. wllhio Enol Propru ition.

A. What i, the case role of the word which is italicized in lbe E. In each of the following sen!~ identify the semantic role of
following? the if.alkized words as agelll, affected, or ~nefldar}·.
I . Mo.ry likes fried bananas. I. She heal/he carper.

2 John opo.ned the door "'ith a by. 2. fir.. dish broke

3. hl(r wa~hed the Car in Ihe garage. Mory >ang for Tom.

4. Jane s!Ulg a $008 for h€~ mother. 4. Pr:tcr wn>hed hunied!y

s. Th~ Cm"pC1 has been beaten.
S. Jane ex=ins twicf:" Jay.
6. I re«ived 0 leller.
6 Jan e SIlJI!! 3 SOMg for her mother.
7. Jane made lrer~lf a dress.
7. The candymelled
8. Paul boughl 0 Datsun.
8. Peler went witll John.
9. Ll!ler he will com~ back. F. Translate the Aguarona text eaUed Trip It> Thnl1lgkus given at Ibe
10. John opened lhe door quickly. end of Ibis chapter, into a language other tlum English. Use tile
natural granunalical forrru; ofthal181lguage. Cboose those form~
..... hich ..... iIl must clearly oommunicate the content of (be story
 Chapter 20
Relations within State Propositions
In chapler J 8, we dcfiood and i11ustmtcd Stille ProposiTions. State
Propositions do nOl bave lin EVENT concept as me o;enlra1 concept
Ralher. they eonsI" of THINGS and ATIR1B1"I1U; whieb nre ~Jated
tilt ()M to the Qlher by variOU'l s t.t~ rdatiou ,. Eoilim U5<'S fom~ of
d", verbo>bc and hG"" W upress m.... y Ilatc rtlatlo.... Other looguages
11$1 affilln or spocioJ le~jcal items. In analyzl", Ih. JoUrce 1eXI, it is
helpful 10 11M: lnInSIaIor W idtntl/y It.. il ~lt rellllG.i can:full)l since
they are M' lilody 10 be tnmlaled inLO anotI.eo- \aniuat..... ill , a literal
form of tbe vab be or M~. For exanpl ... In F.nglisb, one ")'I Job
is i1t tlr« " - whm !be ~Ialion belWeQ] JqM and """'" Is localioo.
But In .....UUUM. !be ' ·ert. is could JJOI be used. rill ..... tile ,'m ....h ich
means //whuIywould be ascd. """ the for", ""Ollid bcJoJ... iIowe-in
SlD}"- Be. in Agu:tnIIlII would be lIS"" o nly 10",f"' 10 1Qa/\lma1e DbjecIS.
The purpose of this chapier i~ 10 acqu:tlDt the 'NdMI .... ilh the vllrious
shU ,..,Ialions and point 0111 JOme of Ih. 5kewlna betwotrJ StaI"e
Proposition. and Ihe granunaltcal fom,s wblch encode tJM.'U\. (MOllY
Oflhe eXllmp]cs in thi s chapter arc fn:on ~' ..mjlli ]977 ,)
State rdalion, defined
A Sl.IlIe Proposllion con,iOU of lWo rolln V.rtl and Ibe relations
\>e(we~n Ihftn. Tbcse TWO pam arc the lopic "lid the (o ..,n, .. nl. The
10pic: is the THlN<J or A1iRIBlfT'E beinS talked aboul The ("",nllllni
Is wballs bein8 uld about the topic. A number ofutllllpies are givtJI
io Display 20. 1. Notice !hal ~ topic €onctIplls given in thI: tint
column. IIIe ,dan.", Ct>tINpt .. the ..,.;ond, and 1M roInment €Oltupf
io !he !bird. An EogIisb SIlrba:: fmm tefn'Smting (be propositioo is
iI\"oo .. \be fourth column.
For !he \A1l$11UOJ". the importllnt lhi", 10 mo<:mber k that "
nrIl'ordlng of fonns ~ State Propositioll$ will be ""'Y
IttIpful in fmding Ihe ~ Ir.In<hllion I'qIlJ\"aleru bealu$C il will make
up/kit the rfJ3t ion between tin topic IIlId the ronlmcat. For example.
the [ollo"'J", all have the ""me gDll1ll1atlcal foon In F..ngll.h ; (bat Is,

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UJ I'ROPOSITIONAL STRUCTURE Rt/.lio", witll',. Sfi:lt! ho~,ili(JlIJ UJ

Smten<:fl 2 ~gJ"" with the EVE.'IT SEE b\II does not Ind!CO'Itc; in 1. n.. owl I•• bird. It I. ~ bi! bini. POOIlk do no! .... ,...:10 w11m In.:y
the Aguanmu who does the seeing. The EVEI'ITS WALK. MAKE .re "<lIking ..... un<! in !he "" /IDle. The,. _ tJ.ro\ at nlY'" They
NOISE. and HEAR aU lack .~nb a.I well. D ~< play 20.2 fR$en1i a 0100 hear them when lbey I>00I.
SIIJ!iCSfcd lis!; of LIllO prop:rsillow oc:cwring III tIM! texl grwptd by the lb . ....1 io .. ..,.ty bhd ond ,..". pI~ I, li,-........"" Of ft den",
WOD<lIt .... nn. in_I>, ~d ~ h lou big eyU. II has a
Scnlcnce in " 'hicb lheyoccur.lflhe propos ition jsaState Proposilion,
Ibm !he reiatiOll ill indicated 00 [he right.
_ beat. A"" iIS featb."
ar<: opa;u..i
2. Th. owl I• • I... ge bird whicll ill IICOn only,.1 night p~< harthom
hoci bUl I.loon _ tbem.
Sbt. PI'Oj>OOiIioo R.bo ll.. 'T11ey .... "Sly ldd plain ia ~ wilt. bi& 0)" ..... """,cd bcK,
III\d speekled f<al!.ers. They ~vc in ca'·.,. or in dmoe """"" and eM
L The owl I. . bin! d.amfj, • ....., .-. tn.teou.. :tn:I ~trOOdICO.

.
..... i<;h II bi~ <IotstriptWn
2. (I'eo!~.) <l<> !lOt ... owl.
VI-hon t ople) ..~I '
... lie (n) to day ttm~ ,- L'{ERClSES - R.:hotiolll " 'id, ,n SII It. fTopostrions
(People)"" - _II
..bon ~people) walk
" ,ile (iI) i.,,;sh' rim.
lh<oplo) " - 1>01..
,- A. Roruming 10 !he (ex. jllSl ~od Ilbaul lhe owl.. font ~Ie
o:ach proposllion into a 1""lIu~ge you spc<lk CItb.,. th otl Engti..n.
.. hen (owl) nw.\:'.,. m<)j.., Thfn. uiing these proposilions. rewriteiniC) llIc naturaJ i11ll11111llti-
cal forms of the Iquage. Fino! U'rite to n . cy lf Ihal would be
~o"'l lul;,;n1 doa ifi•• ti..
....lch 1s;:f:1>'
(_-bc:>ulifi.".. "_riptioa ..joyed by {hildml. Then mmtelbc iI3IlloC iofCJl"Tll.llion 11'1 11 ..yle
..... Ith 1< "'" ( .... deoorated) d_ ripM" suitable for .dull$.. Do 001 tmfl!:13Ie frotn the English lnn~b,k>ru
~. Owls lIyc in OIVO' bui rather frtJUllbe iem3/l!ic suucture (propositions)

---
Owls II", Ii•• in woods B. What i. the ~!31e relation ...1Ikh tlSSOI:ial<::s Ihe twc words in imlics
..ru,h an: d<me dacriptllHl
in """h c fll .. fol tllWing:
5. Owls ..l ..... m...ru.
E>;ample: ~ broncJr o f a rrtt
6. Eye> aro big dncritti .... a branch is pan <1f o ~ (partnivc)
eyel .r~ part of owl po rth ,'"
Beok 10 <I.IrV{d ddcripli.. I. A dog is lUIaninral.
8cak I. pI'ItI "r 0,.,[ partitiv. 2. A pel", is • kind of ~.
F....... In!~ <"'-<¥ •• J. 101m is my Uml.nr.
foalh<n O<e port of owl p"rmin

4. 101m is /all.
DisP/"l ;10. 1
5. TIle mon Is JtlCkson.

The Aguarma ttlt oould be tran.dated into fIIglisb In a nwnber

6. n.e car Is; ,,·Mte.
o( waYI. If it was to be read by childr&ll. ooc form might be us.ed; if 7. B hott.r~ of /)rick
it w= for a 5ci~Lltific magazino, n differenl style .,':oold be w;erl. The
S. Bglass of mille
in fonnniion would be the same, but Ihe fonns would be: ,jilfuetlt
bec:auH of the audience.. Noou d~ folio...·kJ& two tnorlSlortlonll from 9. the IN CJN.or:' $tU<kn1
Aguaruna into EDgIbb. The lim mlgbl occur Ill. boot foroew readers 10. the vill~ 1C!wJoI
aud the IiCWIld in I mOre iI<h..n«d book.
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 PROPO.';JTfONAL STRUCTURE I'ropo",'tio,,/d SlrHct",.., flIId C/Jut~ Srr".,,,,.., m
'" Btcam;e of the vcry wid<: range of different mcanlnB~ which can EX ERC ISES - Skewhlg be(wfl'n Proposltillu l Slnttture
be ~prcscn!ed by a genlliVc <on.tn.dion. spoclol ~ must be taken and CIlouc: Slrq« un
by the InInSllllor \0 idet\lify the rn.emins .,flhe SOlIrI:e le~t. SOllie of
the Implicit infortnMion mil)' be nttd«il(l adequately IJ"Amlatc rotC! A. Ea.:h of rhe following is a paOli.., tOIlJ,tr..moll. R.....rite !be
the rca:plDT ~. Om:o lite meooing i~ ldentlfl«l, then nslural senlences using lin Klin r.... m in English, Tbnl ttmlSlale tlrt
fOl'll1'l oftbe r«epIor \angIIIIgt shoold be used in Ike trmtslatiOll- NoIiex sentmce$ Ioto I seoood ~ WhIch you know. Did you lise:
tile follmfing. smlcoce In which a pU:!Iln conslrutlon, a ~nllh'e an ""II~ 0, a 1_lvlO coosUUCIion r<l' tIM: tnn;I;otloo? ArlO bod!
COIUtrucll6n, 1\ PIIII('",'"
occur within one smtfllCC
fClnllnetion, and ~Il'flnld nou s all lIC«pIlIbI~?

I. Peter Will lll"m'1M.

~~ 4 t~ ~tr "W fC>'tOled by hiJ ~1fI1 1O hl< ,,",pit
2 TIle lerte'!" was wrilfen quicl:Jy by John.
W(l,I" nM.'CIl~d is pBSIilvll. noe AGEJ"f' of l"tW!aled Is tile leader.
Resllllcd actively, the $t!ll.COCc ",wid read 1M lroder IYWI>I~d his 3. It WlIs rcJlQl"t.d that h. was at hom•.
/XIIIU"" TheCOltCU1toftht /j>1JIkr I•• eenllivc .... n$l.r_lo" meaning 4. The lion WIkS tillod.
1M kQdu ...... conot:mtJdfor (Ihe ~plc). The: ~c p/Ir.>'Ie hir
JXOpie stands for rke peopk ....,.,. he INd<. The word CON:t!!nr i. an S. Two llamtf Wetl! SUf,geSIOO by tbe commill ......
absmct IIOUIl. II :illl/1Ih for IIIl EVENT. The word I~ litands for a 6. The rnsiOOnl "ill bI' I(,,'e(! for hili &entwility.
PERSON and liVENT, \,e .• ,he _ who kods. and g!/ls slll!>O:b for an
E\'E:'oT and some llUNGS, i.c~ g<f"" (JIOMelltu.s). The &mtcoce io;
B. Each of the following is an adj, ·, tOIl$l rllCllo~. R~Tito the
""""';t1~'1\'" propo<ilion< below. NClicc that in writ~ the ~itions,
!he pIIS.'Iivc constnlCtion.. the genlti.., tOIlIlrIl«lon, !he: possessive smtmccl Ullin, a PL',,;,.., rorm in &llliioh. Thou translare the
sentences Inlo ~ ~ language wh.iclr you kno" ... Did )·ou me
plrrasc, and tiLe ab.stnIC! noUII" I>Jl) all el imiMIcd '11"y Me J;lllu unat icai
an acti\'~ or ~ paur.'. constmction fo, the translotlon? liboth art
devices ofth" """roe loxt but oot p:>rt a fthe semMlic stnIcture,
(lOJlible, whicb .1tCrns more nalunol?
( S o _) lead. tb.o people.
[. The! J~ summoned Mark.
He ..... amt ........ b lIK people.
He "".... Ied ibis to !he po<>pIe.
2. E\'etyOOe will hare you if yo\l do that.
He P'" (tbinalr) IQ ~ JICO!'Ie. J. W~ 00 001. restrk:t)'(lu.
... Tb6 hunrer3 killed ~ deer.
NOI;ce ihal aIL of tIM: pBrtkipanb i<nd evmts Me made explicit In
!he &cmMllc , ,,,,,Tlfe. Howl1\'CI', when the transilltor puis tbts I" forma, 5. The poIi« took ./<:lhn fO th.c jlil.
1100 into the receptor lnnauage, sOme information w!ll again be rrt3de 6 Jonal.... n wrote Ihe leu~t to fh~ mllyor.
lmplkilli m.y not bol fhe ume ~s fhat whicb is implielt In the source
l&l1gu;t2e .. IlIen,,"- For CKIlmplc, ~ natura/ tran.lalion into Aguaruna C. Underline the .bstract noa ns whleb 0IX:1lT in Ibt.: following
sen/eDC:es. Thfn rev,7ite cacIr ~1C1le(' witboUlabmact noWt!;; that
w<luld be as follow. ,
n.. billt...foI~ _""thJ~ .".,,,... -n-. iJ., dlan,.\be form u.lng ,~,bs 10 n'J'R.'Sml EVENTS _ using
od~i~ .. aad""'orbo to rqn_1AITJUlJtJTES. In additioo. chaQse
J_ b; ~ .. ."............iQy.-U-«il<i!..
f

any PUSiH OOI\$tnrtioos 10 let h ·t MCS. After you MVC rewritten

The ....·ord big i!I wed for any lmkJ. NoIiee that the reci~ of leadu the . ... f~ In Engl .... wilboot lbotrac:r noans, transl3ce them
is laSed for lbe people, I.e./ollowen. The smtalte il nctivc. And the illlo anothe' language whi<:h you spe:'Ik. Think about wherh .. Ie i.
rwson, i.e., to sir""" Iris CClfc-crtl, is translated by a d~ qUOlallon in D:lluralto use a IlOIIn f<mll or a ''ef'b form to ~prest'nt the
II)Ort!

Aguoruna. Each langunge will have !Is own speci~1 gratnltllltical forms words )I<)U Wldcrlincd in the ..,nteoces. Mru:e your tranSblion
wbich will beS! comrnuniCllle the menning of tbe S(lU'OOIC1U sound as nlllufIIl as possible.
 PROPOSITfONAL STRUCTURE PruposUionQ/ SlruCfjl~ and all"u Sm.cf"n
'" l. Her beauty wa. noticed by evayon<:. F. Imagine you.,., preparing to ttanslJtc into ft
!5S

language which hv;

th. following ~haractcri!ti cs:
2, T hey = nfrn.id of dealh,
.. nO preposition ..... IIh ·
3. Do)'011 have thltlt.7
b. DO pNosi'"e f<mIl
4. I ha'I'Cllf•.
c. agent role must alWftj'S ooincidc: wilh gramm:tllclll sub-
5. Sle~ljng i. ft SU<mi temptation . j(ICi
6. 1b purlficatioo of !he temple WII!I dooe by the prWSlS.
Recast the ro1\owina imo . fonn wbicb can be readily trarufcm:d
1. The dcsIlUCtioo of lite clry Watit.ml'jing.
lnIo such IIlanpge. ..:!d whicb CXpre!S(:!' !he UIJodmying relatloos
8. We"""'" wimesxs \0 Ill., d •• truclloo "flh. d ty. cleMly. 1b<K mlY be JD(>re lban ooc ~oposilioo in~oI~cd (from
9. The I'lIpi.:lity w jth wh~h he fled !Urlll'i•• d .,·cryone.
AaroweIl 1980:176j,

10. His ,emlT\'Cl.kln froop death was dilcuoscd by many. I. Th"Y buih a hoosc willI I fI,d roof.

D. Re!otalc each oftbe following as a proposition or as propositions, 2. The dish ran sway ..'j!ll the spoon.
Add My Impl ie<l conccpU expr<: ••iOJl "" EVENT or STAl K ~. She rna<ic a <Ires; Wifh I~C cloth.
l. j:rrOf"'Bltr 4. He diml:ft tbe hlll with [he I~back on hi:! back.
2.. garment or ~r, h..ir S. lie dil.nb:<! (hcc bill with tl>e lun m his eyu.
3. lb. hour ortl1«1l~ 6. li e cliwb:<! the ltill whh ~ Ii"" ofcblldren behind him.
4. peQple of Hong KOllg 7. He cli' TI ~d the hill with rIO bope of ICllchin& the lOp
S. assumne. of failure 8. He <limbed Ihe hill with. rope:!lld . pkb:<e.
6. pvmlse of his . eI ......
7. th ••uffcrlngs ofPe1er
8. IlK' ell), of Abidjan
9. 3 ciry of Africa
10 lbekinduessoflhelutles

E. The followingparagl"llph contaim101l,e .b~l nd Doun llllld . omc

ttnlth'. colmrlle/ Iolu . Flrlil, Wl<icrllncevery won! .... hlch St<\l"lM
for IIIlI:;VEh'T. Thc:o rewrlle the io(on:nation In propoaIdon:<. Usina
this rewrite, tnll.Late !hi: pangr;>ph into a Iaosuagc O!lter IhnIl
Englioh,
111, S1if/mng in 1M "jilg.u Mmp ""'*'f wilh 1M nmval
ofdonClticfu offood from 0 ....'4<',.,. n..
mpervisory 001II11<11-
lee orgMlUid 1M lMa/)ilClltu ofllw COII<P inlo sMDIlu fP'O"/»
10 as It> j"1/I.~fQirdistribldion of{ood mtd dotlru.g 10 meA
fom!!),.
 Chapter 22
Skewing of lIIocutionary Force
and Grammatical Form
11.( 1M endofcltapter 18, the importance of t/I<: iJioculionary force
of I proposUlon was discu ...n1, Each pr(lposi!ion ~nd each ~i­
li o tlal chlltCl' e~pte'l.es rither a comraaad, • q .elt~ • • or ~ Ital~m.,nl.
Whnl llIe,e ~ "" *,.,.,10& tJtfWttll lhe smoantlc $lroCIUI'"' and the
gr:>ll1l1uUcal foem, tile 1lI0CU!ionary r(lrot ....ill be tbe &:II1>C ..., tile
arwnm!ll.ical mood of the sentence. A semantic q aestio .. win be
en coded by an ilJUrrogaIiw: U"Il'''~• • l enuontlc ItlteIMa t w ill be
mooded by a d«/aroli>'t! KrUma, and a commlDd will be I:nCO<Ied
by "" ImpMJln. ~. H/JWe\.'tI", IquagCl ate' rompllCltcd by
the exlcmi\'e skewing betWttll (he ;IJocutioo:>ly rom:
an d the gram -
matical rOll11.
s..,e,;mdary fllDcilons of interrogative se nte n Ce!;
Th~ labd . .. hel(lr;".' ques1101l1, ha. often beeT, ""'" I<! indi..m
Inlerrogatlve uammali cal fonlUl wbich are used wu to H nonq uestion
me;l!llag. 11re 5peaker uoos a gmrnmatlcal fOOll which in 11.9 primtli)"
ullaGe wQUI~ indicate a questio n. but the lpeaker's purpose Is I<!
OO<l1IlU1nd or 10 make 8 Slatement. Whrn thi, kind ofik""'ing ocrun_
the qUC91ion form is called II rild (lrk aJ qu~llo • .
The purPJlO! of a rul qU($1101l II to oW! for infonn:llion.. fOI
CXIIIDP!B. .... e ask "H'1teu i.! )UCU" ~ower or "What time are )IOU
comi"SIto_?" The question f<>rill ;$ 1J9I.ld, IoI\d the sP"'*er-. p.trpose
i.s to uk for ;nfl}lTJl3lion. Th<n is 00 sb:w~ Ru l qU""ioH do root
Ufual ly 0I1.ISe problems for lrnn!iIatonl. The tr1Ir$IllOr fJods the appro-
prillt fonn (or asking fur the ~ inf~ in Ihc recCpool
l~. In leachlng silU3llons. raj 'I lI'$lioo are also used 10 find
wi jf lire $ludcn~ m"lIcmber the infonnalion ...·hidt they UVl: bceo
Iaught.
Rhcl<>o-kal quc.tio ..... 011 lhe IXherhand. are M\ 1'...1 qU ...tioM .
They arc qUt'llon farms Uiled whb a purpon otlrtr tblln to ad: for

'"
 J'ROPOSI TIONAL STRUCTURE
'"
infOJmalloo. They may look like r".1 (I Ue5llous, s~e the form is
the ""'"~, but the ~iD8 ~ IIOl thai (If a queslion. for uampl ...
lhc: question Mill')'. why linn '/ YQU .... <lsh the disks? has !h~ form
of a qlJCSlion and mialll in IIOOJe contelCli be osking for lnfomllluon:
tlud I$, it miglll be \lsed In ils prim<l1)' fuocliO!l. But lllls qut' lion
in E.t!g1Hb is often U$Cd as II way of making a frimdly $UUestion.
f1 jj nul as strOl\g AS "" imp<>rallvc fooo. Mllry. warh tile di.Jh~$.
but neither is il a question. 1t l~ a j uggestloxa. TM proper IIr'ISWCT
is, Okay. f will. If II were a ~I .../ly qlJCSlion askin& for inronn~ll on,
tho IIIlSW" would gl~e a reason. , omelhill.lllike, fle<:al<$c I'm jusl
/00 tifN.
In mnny laoguallOS, the ,"condal)' \lJage of Ihis type of question.
thaI of makm, • SI1j!8CStion, would need to be traJslaled by an
impmlli~'e seo:lIencc or oome odJeI" . pedal fonn.lf1l"lIlS!arfii IitCBIly
with ..,loy In mil.llY Amerindian IlIIIguagcs, il would indic.'l!t drhu a
JUJ quCSlion, or if iMorprded "" . rhetorlc:al quesfion, ......... Id indicate
rcbuke.
Rhelorl(:lOI qll" , ]on.... oJ.., ......1 in En&!ish to doow ~k.t,
bUllbc f()f!ll b difft.1Te!lt. To !ihow rebuh, Ih~ whe" question,. otlen
U>Cd . A motl!er wllo Is ~ wilb Itcr lOll for not doing his pIUl oflbe
fnml1y chores may de>!re 10 ~n him 10 ""'ply th~ g~. ShI: bas
lold hlm 10 00 il bcfor~, be knows il is his duty. She wants 10 convey
all 01th" IlIcl\Iling-lhc comnl3Dd and the anoIioo $be feell about it.
To do.so ' he will no! use l command fonn but mther 3 questlon-a
wltDl ..-ioo-lf'ltetI an:)'iN going to u.ply Ih gama~? B«:a1.lSC
of th e c mDllve meaning being cQmmUll icRtoo. Ihere is a id<ewing of
mJlantic illOI:IItlonary fon:e and snmmali<:al fomI. 1bf: $t:1Jl.III>I;C
iIloculiolllll)' force is one of comMand, but 1he 8rnonmaT;cai form is
til ... o r a queftjon ",1li<:b wQUld normalJy be used 10 asl aboullinu:. lf
lransllll.l:d Iilmlll\y witb a M·IIe" qutstlon, in man), I~g.', it would
be Wlder.1OOd as II lui 'lUHt!on, and Ibe l peaker'. purpose of
catftllttUldwould be Ion (!.:non 1979: 14-18).
Not al l laJtKuage5 use quf:St:ion fornlli with a srcondary funclion
ofcoounand. "Tho! tran<lat.or must f,rst ~Ytc ~ soun;c quotion.ls
it a rdl '1u Ktion or is il ll rhtlorlu l qUe$lion7lfilIs 3 real '1usllon,
lhe tromJlllion will DOl be difficulL Ifir Is rbdoricaJ. II<: must dhoo\'er
the mean ing, the !iloculiooary f..roe of the speaker, BOd tbm ~ide
lIow that S/llnC p.IIJlOSC c:m best be COIIllIIunicated. F(II elWlnple, m..
1ICnIcnc:e 8"'I!U .bo~ /f'he~ art! you going to ""'JlfY lhe garba~?
would IKII be Iran.<lated with a wilen questJon in Ag>.tatuM. 1lte IllOt'<'
"PI'I"QPriaIe form " 'ould be: Quickl,.. quidly. "'iry o"')'iN.liU-iloar?
(lttickfy gorbag~ YJ~.'~row-oulf 1lte form is C<)mpletely difJerrnl
11"on> li.nglish, blu !be information I>Od tQlOli\'e mcanin& communiCIIIM
~lhe=e.
J1/OClttiolt...,. Frwcl! ~"d G",,,,..1IlictU FOl", m
YalYq'Uba of Papua I"ew Guinea would ~ nelthel an i"I""""'8'I-
Ih'e form nor an imperative form but ~ nq:alive $tD.lcmcnt (adcebra.
live [unit) to ,ommullicalO th~ tame speaker's p"r\l(l6e. dld,,'1 r""
t:IIIfJly1M prboge " 'ollld be the best form. Allhoup the pnmalic.l
form i,that of .. !lC$!I1lve declanalive seMern:e, the meanJllM is Ihm (J f
8 , omll13Jld. You -pty llllt~! If you didro·' emply tl... g<VOOge
...11$ lrIIns!McclJitenoUy inlo another language OIh ... than Y ..wcyubl, It
wOllld probably be under$tood os. stalement rather thart.1 ""ttUn3I>d,
An adJu$WImt lI-iU I10Cd 10 be made in the trowlJla1ioo SO lIS to
coomnmicatc both Ihe Illocutiorwy force of C(lInrnand and ~
nnotional frusIratlOll M"lbc~.
In ~parln& for translation, il may be ~r:ry heJpC.:t1 for the
In\nJIator 10 flflll study the functions of r bttorlui '1~£$tionl in the
sooree !angmgc aootltenln the receptor IMf,UiI{le. The functions need
to be idftttifted, bui ;1 i, also importanl: to foo;us 011 !be fonn. ~irw;e
different fortTlS nllly ba~ differ<:nl kWtIdaty functions. I'or e.umple,
Ibete are thr"" dlffe~t question.lln E!1W1.h wblch can b< used with
Ibe illoc.uittmry Coree of C<lI1ltn3Dd. One sI!<!"'S inlpati~ ooother
;$ ooncrilicol (polite), and the Ihird II cril;"!. Note the following
conlras'I of lOOn and n>catlin&'
l. 11''- _ you oouring?
2. 1J1!y"'~'I)'Oucorne 1
l.y"" ........ """_l
2. Yoo <om. widl mo (i f)l<Mll iko)1
3. 11'.,. dJd you corne? 1. Y011 oboold "'" 110,.., cone!
Noc.ic:e thlll Ibe ..."~,, silo... , Unpaticocc.\he .. ~y plus a MflOIi ... II a
/lOItCrilical , u!\I!C!ltlon, and wiry without the "fIgOliWi ~ Cl;ticotJ. ( f or
man ClI..llpla from f:.uglish, see I...Ilwn 1!n9: 14-!8.)
Tbere aren'oo.y f~nctmnJ M" rh etorlul 'I _i."". Eao::h lanpage
will have il.l own list of fimc:tlons III!d $pCC ific question forms which
may be used tbe1orical1y. Some f"wcIloos in f.rtsIim are: to empllBJin:
a kDown fact in ordc, to conununicate • l usgclllioo or command, 10
indicate doob. Or lmC>07Uim,. lO lnlroot.ooc: a "P· IOpk or new lISped
ofa loplc, toshow slJJ1lTi'<C. to admonish 0If u.bD/t. and, m~l common
of all, 10 «puss \he spcak~ evai..:olion.
for ellllllplc, . le3Ch... might say to ~ SIltd~ "'If!)w £'I'" I pan
.)OU. I/J'OU do,,'f 111m ill yow as.sig~I>U!,,"7 ·· The l/lli!rTogal(\" form
i. used to _pb tiW: • kllo,,'11 fXI, .. , M,,'f fJOS'l ytII<. if )"w doIt ·f
Ilirn ill your a.<~I"g"m~nl$. .. TIle fo rm i5 ioterrogat ive but tit\. mtaning
is 3 S!3tetnt:<M of fac~ Somrooc: mighl Ioar.
~Wloa, are we goi"g 10
" al?" as ~ "'~y of e;o;:i""sin& conea"II or uncenaimy about lhe high
c OS! o f food. TIt.. meanipg is "I 0IfI ~ abool/ ~ I ,,'i111«Ne
1!"""gIr rtI"""Y k) buy lhe IJri1lgs we !Iud "
160 PROPOSfTtoNA L STRVCTURE
[0 SDOle 1aI"""a, such as ~ish. tbe illt roduction of II IIt'll'
lopk or ~ ~ginDing or II ~h to;: ofl ... a\St In an inlC:lTOgaliH'
form. The .pc~kn 11IfIy say, "Why is 1~.tO much """mploym~1U
these daYJ?~ pnd tbm. not "",lling for an an',.,. ...., h. begins to tell the
audlence about the reaSons forunernploymenl. The interrogativ<\ forln
II simply a way or~ginning the Iopt<: IUId ",.Uy """'"I '" am gci"8
10 wi ~ ...lIy IM~ ir so ",..cit wnempWy_nl she#. "")'S."
In Vaila of West Afiic3, 1,",=,* are tenD! type\! ofUDrks ",bleh
llI1!alw2ys bllloduced by ''00)I00I boo",lrowillr"ppo>ed 1IrIll...?- Th.
topic is introduced by II qu¢$tlon. If the reeeplor language does 00.
use questions as IOpic irnroduccn, a ditJemll and appropriate fOlTTl
will nwd to be U$Cd in the tlM5lltJOIl from EnsJI~h or VagJa Into
IIIlOIber IHl~
Englisb also IIses rbc,o rlc:a l quest ions 10 . bo .. 1l1fllrlse.. For
cumple. SOI'IN: gue.ts may arrive .. bit early (or .tiru::In and the
bous_~ f. wbo is p<epariflg \he dinner •• eo; them ~OIDing up lh.
path and "'l)" ~A " " rhey here. so soon? I Iw"",,, " C1O!n gone" dlyued
>"" " Sbc I. nat ..king a r~.. 1 qU"",llon. She k.nt.>ws they are Ihe. e.
Sh~ i. showina htr .w-priSt: and really ",ying, ~l"m su']Jl"iseil IAe)'
<Uf! lien 10 lOOn. H Rh ~ .... k:al 'l. eJl lu.s are IIbo u:scd 10 admol\ub
or exhort in English. For uample.. II motile. "'.'1 ~y to ~ child,
- Wiry are -'""" alwDJ'S bollferi"K grafld/(Jlk,r The r=I meanl n,
is -Yoll ,Jw,..td,,·, bolMr YO"" grand/aiM,. $0 much . ., NOli« rl.at
Ihe form i. K "'/ry \ll'eStlon In Ihe affirmativ~ wbh;b is II ~.i ricul
Slftlernenl in Engli1lh.
Afte. the IflINlruor h"" dclannillcd the mMnin, of the question
fQIUI (inl..-roglltl\·t) In !be KIUJCt language, be m= aim C(If"IiIidcr
whether or noc I"'" rt«"j)!Of Wt&uage ....iU ~ D '1~ form;1\ lite
oolllc~t, an d If' quc.tion ~ used....-bccber Or noc the COI"T"tQ me::u11~
will ~ con\"ey~d. S<lmeti mes a rh etorica l quutlon wH\ ~llo b.!
Bl'J'I"oprillle, but Ihe fO!TII oftbe questloo will ncOO 10 be quile diffcn:nt
from the """"'" language form. The fonn. of the IIOI1I"Ce languase "il l
1101 DeCeSSariIy I\WCb the forms "flhc receptor l"",ua;e.. For example..
a wlty qut3lion in E".Ilgfuh may IIIvc quile a difl"erenI form In Oaloul-u
( Papua. New Guinea, data from Ellis l:kiblcr)eo.·eo when a quc£lion il
oacd WIly af"f }'Of' ptUring)'QU' ",Midy htvlds ()j1 my ror? would be
lmnslated Thi~ k,'ng my car. Ill"<! you pulling yo!<r muddy hands un
it? The tmn$lator wlU .... e the Mtura1 fOl"m< ofth" =~or langWl,e.
Sometimes an interrogMi.~ smlence will be trans18tcd by a decllll1)lj\'t
lentence, $(IIUe\imes by an impcnl;"v !lll!ll.mCe.
In Korku "r1ndia. it is nol UDcommon 10 have a nries oftltrte Of
four que.ti<lM 1~1>cr. They .... r hlotiaol :.nd lire U.,...,.<lOII' of
Indignalion or ~rp1cx.ity . Rhdorlu l q uestion arc al,o uo;ed to mnkc
• sm tcm erll , 10 aro\lOO thoUghl or gl't attention. or to e~press aUlIlJ(\c$
/lIpcutfunary_Eqru an d GralJlmtlliclJ/ F lWm
of"'"OIlder. admirru.lon, daub!. "'pro/Ich, indigootion. and other em0-
'"
tion, ($eC Kirtpcoarick 1971:2&-..32).
This uewing o f form "lid 1lIC1W1.i", will often lcod to misundtr·
standing if an adjllli!tnmt is not IlIII<.Ie in lratL<latlntt. In Vie!rI:ltJI, a
Rrilishcr who 1000 lbe custom ofhavittg a cup of len in the middle of
Ihe morning askn1 his VietnamC$e frim;!, ~W()"ld ~w 1* 10 arin/(
1/14?" The fiknd looted pcrplued tIIlIiJaid. ~ No. " The question. m N:le
tht Vit\DameSe frltndtlolnk., "Moyk Ire rhnn'l 1M'" 111/1 /0 drl";"l~ "
The form ill Vietlllll11C!e ...oold U~ bc:tn -Take 1m', 100 ana annk
W" an l"'pcr31ive smtCllCt'. This would have b«n understood clearly
&.i a fri~ndly im'il"tloo 10 drink Ie. lognhcr. This wo uld be: d o .. , 10
th .. scmanlk otruC!Ure si nce Ihe "p<!"ker', pur~ w.. 10 sugg(:$t III a
positive way thlt his friend join him in drinl<in3 lea. "l"ho imponant
thins 10 DOle II; Ih:x if",",~" trnnsl:tlilli a SlOf)' in which an En&lish
$pcaIw "'ere qUOIN u ....yiDg "Would J'Of' fiJ:t 10 dri1Ik ICtJ ?H "10 lhe
VIC1n:l1UC:5e IIDgt~'gc, be would nor ~ an irucrr<"l&3ti vc fonn. he
..... ould "". th e appropriutc imperalive lentence. Only by unde ... rarxling
Ihe function of r"~otl c.1 q"",rloos In the :iOurc~ langua~c :om! in the
receptol languago ClIO IJ"IIruI.t011l be free from Introduci"g ",,,"rullll
m eanilli: throu&Io UtcmJ lrnrI:'iJa!iom of q""'tions.
Seco ndary ru,,~tiolls of d«laul.iI'e 5en l~nees
We Just OOlt d lhalin Ya .....eyuluo of Pa~ New Guinea a negative
Slarelflml (declunU'"e IIe nlt nce) i, u:scd 10 communicnte n oomm ru,d.
You didn'l >Wl<h 1M di~M~ is u<ed "'1110 the meanin, of rOIl ...a..h I~
ai4he.t 1 which is Q commnnd. "l"ho .c.ramm.atica1 ,!rU<:IUte is that which
II IlOnlI;\lIy used 10 eIJCOdt, a Slala'l«Il, bul 1M proposition in the
5CI1larllic SlnlCIIII'I: '" a corrunaod. A lnuulator ","'I nol assume that •
decb",ti,.., ..... Ienet will be uanslllltd by a d,dar::olh'~ H nlen ce. He
ruUS! nnt be ...... of the function or the scn(~. Does It have !h~
ma'nin, of 'talc"'~nl? [f so, il " 'ill be I/1lnslated u a S"'!emenl. Uul
if il ill used In a , ccondaty f,.-,ctlon. such as 10 command, lhen 00
..djusrmml " 'ill need 10 be made ,II 1M trmosIalion. A lilml tl"al\SlariOll
of You dnhr ', wash w dishu ftOtll Yaweyulta Inro IllOSI langll3gfS
would giw a "'ron; mnw~ !Iincc d"", larali>'e ",.IU (H <Ire nol often
1.I!ltd [0 romrnllni<:llte the me<lfllng of command.
In I'ijin (Solomon L!lands), a i<\9tcrnc:nt may be used M a questior\.
Th e sentence AIi~8 pI<tIIdc hl>J /eng iundcl'e ble/lg I" Uremlly says f
Ilzlllk lhere an: !ollofhorses III ,.,~r COfmlty, b", Ihe meaning is A""
then lOIS ofhcT3Q ill your rowII/I)'? A derlaratln ... ntence Is USoCd
10 rommunio:::ale I question.
In Denl'" (ClI11eroon). the past indicaltvc mode (I dt'cl . .... l in
lenlcnce) is the lIalW1l1 m<IIk forev""ls ofa narralivll. Th~ wo uld be
Ille oor",,,1 prinlll!}' fUnction of ]XI~I Indicaljve.. But Ihe pas! indicaUvc
'\ " "
\\/ \/,'
.. \; ~:
"';' ,"l
,'"
", , ,,,"-x
:,,'/'\ \,'/"'.,,~

.,• •
·i

I
166 PROPOSITIONAL S TRU(.TURE

In wrillco d<.>cumenLS. there may be insuffide!ll ~ignall to Itt the

flk>c."jlJ"ary Foret /l/IJ Grammatical F~nI
'"
lr.rul3!or know tim! !he W!{t:nlmt I~ irony. Uow~r. thUOIaJ CO!lI.UI E..' \ERClS£.S - Skewi ng of lUocu\;o u rl' Fom.
will usually sbow the In:opp-opriat<neJi8 of jutl'l'JT"ling the ruucrnO\l( .nd GUlQm. liui Fonn
dlredly and ~bow thai the opposlle is rmant
Some languages lih Triqac and OtDml of Mexico, I<Id • m<>r- A. \Vha! is lhe purJlO'¢ of tile speaker in using a r loetnrital questiOil
phcme at tbe end of !he kopie ai 11Utmell.( wbich ~,.~ the In each of th. foBowhlj: J.iul;lliOWl?
meanlna. Languag01 ",ill often hllve l pecial devlcc:s lO man: Ibis
slLc,.:jn,g Of 5<'lll!lll(iQ ""d gnmrnat. EJulIhe tr ..... !ator PCttis to WHtch L John trie~ 1O tell his coll~e m ood ...!la:t 1(1 do, I lls friend
for irony in 1M $OUn.lC text 1IIld know tile best way to signal il"O ~y to replies. ~ 11." JI"U 1M prim~ mini.Jler?"
llle r;:"PIor Iftllluage. A diro::t Ulm! Irnnsllllou \!Sually carUlOI be
"""'Irony
, is used In SluIkcspeare III ~uch passagc! as the following
2. Some dlildral are p.laying around with • car tbal il port.:ed
neanhelr !muse. An <>dult <X!IUe5 :>Ions and says, "/$ thal YOlLr
(AnIon)' and OeoJ{lOO'a 1I11.11-3<4): car?"

3, TYlo WOmal &iftlds; !In' chatting '" orJOe. Mary. is rodc.ing

Th" magical word of war, ".., hlv, cffcded: dlnner. MOly "Y' to her friend, "WII)'don 'ryo":rtllh~",bltl?"
H_• .,.jlll Iris _ on.! h.. ",·..U-pMI nook..
"The ....•... -yet-beaton """.. <>f l>M1\," ~. MOlber comes tzxo the k:i(CbeD attd fill&: hI.'! (hin ...... yea/" old
We b.o¥~jaded 001 o' til<. /kid
son ruchlll( II1l0 !be cookie jar. She says, .. Wlwl do)'IN l/riM
yo<I art! doi"t:'~

Here Vemidi~ t. ~;!ljj \!'OIly in lho phra.$CS "",glcal werd O/"'(lr and
hLJ _II_paid rtlI.ks. 111e real meanlng II the opposlle, lluor. is, he I.J
r,fening to lhe homn oCw", and 10 the ill-paid soldiers. AI one poinl
SlukeI<peare USes 1tOh/~ in ilS normal K1l!;(: 10 ll'fer to AnlOIlY (.... molly
and Ocopa! .... n .o. I4--S) In tbe pmmeH~ romu TM nobk...cn""'y.
[luI at a lal"," point he uses il ironically in Ilu: phrase 'Tu a noble
r ..pidus ... iQ a specclo by Agrippoa. (Antony and Qcop<>Ira 1I'-D,~).
A Sln>igh( 1I1era1 lrnUS1QlioD coul d ei¥e (b" wrong meaning. The
uamlaIor i$ ehoJlen&ed to fmel tile Daluml ..."y 10 indicate Irony In the
receptor langoage
S. .... (eacher ha, br:«lme u~ with some boy. til the 00cl: " nile
room who k:e<:p making ooise. She h... told lhem to Slop it. or
.h will ""'-0 10 >l'4:: 1MI!\ to !~'e, They doo't FilUol1y, ,Ite
says. u When 1.lJ'~.wu goi1l£ [0 $IOP rllm noise?"
6. A woman i~ trying 10 fix a brok.en chair. Her hmiland walks
into the: room...J Is "~Ini her, SIooc: SOl)"., &WllytiOll ~)'<IIi
help mefix: it?"
B. EacIl of l~e follov.1ng 1$ an inlt rrOllllh', senlCnCt . Assume iliat
it b a rhetorical q uestion and chan&e the form to . d«-Ia ...!h'e
ICDrrnft,

\. DidIJ'l l glVt you tbe book?

2. lm·,it·rwlngtime?
3. How ("" you believe bim?
~. Who·. afrai d of him?
5. SlwuJ.m·[yoIl8Dh~5OOIl?
'" PROPOSITIONA L STRUCTlJRE

C. Each cfllle following Is an hllerrcogatin M'tItellU. lusume that

JIIOt.:III/(mary FOI'c~ 'lnd (jru,.,m<Uic,,/ For",

8. A penon Ocsa-i~ a mlIjor dKision IIw he f'ac:ei. He ")IS.

'"
il is a I'fIHoriul questiol and change the farm 10 an im~",'i\'e ~W1rm palII thalli ~1aIId ill?"
~ tl l etI«.
9. A bird in a folk tale talk.s 10 himself 8f1er losing hi. nest 10
another. He ",y. to him.e lf, "WII. ",,;s 8iro j,'Oi~g /(J slup
When lire YOII going to $ludy? today?"
2. Would you like 10 "U down7 10. One par.W wmmn>lS to ~ other when thd. chIld doe.
J . Wlr)I opm the v.iOOow"! ~_thina ~trao«Iitwy. ~WN.rl k<nd ofQchild II !IUs?"
4. Why IlOI open !he. ,,·!ndO\O-.1
F. In cacll oftbe following. the form i'J a dec:lt Nllh'f sCnlet,n, but
5. Wby do you do it that way? the 1l!()CU\lonary force Is that of. rottUlIUOO Rewrite Ibe se nlcnce
'" fillimper.th'. scnrence.
O. Study die ~l1trnceJ; in part " 11Jcn.-e. 110...• would yoo m .... late Ihe
"",,",lion inlO a language " 'blm you !:noW od ler than EngtiS. " I. Y<HI OOn'lbclongin here!
Would it be ~ter If> lISe a d«:l.arath " JeDlenu OJ" an ""per'It"'. 2. The doot u opm.
scnlen<>c?
). Your haLr Is a mess.
E. The following rhetorical qllcsl iollS were found In teXIS in tile 4. You Il1C walking 00 my nOW~TS.
Tiku llllliW'&e of Cameroon. The <.>QIltext in whic:h they are ~
is DOItd. Whal ......,.., (0 be the functlon of the i:'«:rn>gIIIlvc 5. Tha110llP IS &ood. (s:lid \0 .. chUd ,.,110 im', ealing his SOllp)
.emcnce? RC$UIle rithcr M a dftiarative or !Jopt",I;'·~ oml,,"".
How weuld you lnWlafe each I)f Ihesc In(1) .. secood language O . Rewrite each of llle following aegatin !laIUL.... IS w ith IILL
which you speak? (Examples from lacboo 1982): amrmnli,·c st.lePlut. (NOIe Ilu'l you may hlLve 10 use two
s~nten~cs.) Then decide whclher • "<"Il~Ih"e o. ~mrmJ~h"C sta le_
I. A small boy mecU" bigGer boy d=~ Ln "8' bill ;making lIlelll would be the best trnruJ.lllon into the ,«'end language you
a dp1ft(e. He $II)'S. "Will)lOU suca:ed fly "",,king?" . peak.. T f"3lIlWc the SULtemmU into that lansuaee.
2. T wo pe<>ple diKIIss II rn)'JIcriOllS suici<k and one COfIVIIet>li.
I . NDl one o ' them .... rn go 10 town " '{lhoJU IIL)I pcnnilsion.
" /1'1>0 kMws the rw m:uo~?"
2. An}'OIll: who does"o/ pay his bill will llOl be able 10 <lay In
3. A penon ' CCOHm" ft dispute ef!hc day before. He tum.! to a
fellow witness and ")'S, .. f"m speaking 1/11 Inuit. Im'n '/ I ?"
school.
3. He did fl(Jllpeak wilhoitl e~~raling.
4. In the Lnlroduc:tion 10 II ipeC<:h Cl1I.Ul"ICI"3llng problem!l ill the
_"il\a&e, II chief says, "Will,.,.. iUInI or """,', ),ou7" -4. You will ""! !ICe me wlltill fini sh ,.,OOng thLs slOry .
~. One penoo asLu; _t-, "~ is Elizabeth?" The oLM' ~. Unl.-.n be earn. more money. hi: etJn ', 110 to school.
""ponds, "Did,,', JM. goo /0 I~~ dispe,..ory? ~ (indica!ing Ihat
6. John hal "" brolher UCtpl Bm
the fin:t i;p<!<ller Lmow~ thill she did).
7. I n.:l"e is rf(Jtlling hidden ~~plIO be re'i,""led
6. A pcfSOll ~ys the opposlle ofwh8t he intended to say. lI. IMn
says to hilnsdf, "WhaJ 0., 1saying' " 8. He does ff()t n~d ro wash, o:ct'pI his I,:mds.
7. A woman explains how lhe has run oot of money to fi nish 9. 1 will 1/01 blow the whistle:. ,,,,til you rmish.
bulldlr.g Iter house. S he!illL)'S. ~ W/lal slt,,1f J dar 10. We ha,'<." 110 le»<ler tXf1p1 l'etcr.
 Cbapter 23
Figurative PropositionslMetaphors
and Similes

Dtlininl; meta phor and si mile

M«. pbon BIIII slmiles art cQlnmon ngwes or $peech foiU>d ill
lDany l:m.g\lllees. Tht9t: ngw'eS of ' I_ch 0,." conlpulsoll'. for
e.umplc, llIe following an: sinlilH:
He ".I~ the ,,-iad.
The IOOOn is lih bItlod.
Renj;lmin i. liU. rav","""" wolf.
Notice lhut in """,h <lfthe aoo..'c «omplcs . tne wtll'd lit.! is llsed. In
r:.na! ~h. I .imlle nlway. h"" lhe word fib or as. Md ap bon do D(lI
have the w<Jl'd liI<~ .... tJ.J. but rhey:lll"e also <oll,p arloolll ithat can oftm
be rcwrjtten n~ similes. The oOlllplrl~ . is alwaY' tho! of some
lil=ltss.l'I<>lio;.e me fol klwlng mO I. p llon.:
That <iliid il l cr-lY ltak pi..
He· . .. "~
H. ·• • r-oel<.

NOIK:e that these could jus!: 11 well be ...id 8!llimilos:

1'hM dlild ;./ibt a sr:oody little pia.

lie is liU J/I 0>..
He illiJ:e • rock.

MeI.pllon lind s im ile! W"C p-ammaIic.al formt whleh "'~

' ....'0 PJ'OPO'ltions in the sm>anU" S'l"Ud u~. As notod bef<Jn!, I
m
 ~ ~

m PROPQSJTrOlVAL STRUCTURE

pvpo!li!ion consists of a !Optc and tbe OOlllment 300Ul thaI \oplc. For
Figlit"/lriw Prop"JiMnVMeUlplllJl"S "tid $imiks

1. '1"htc """,n Is (red)

'"
H:~nple, John u wlf ooo$l&1s of the topic John om! tho commeut i.J 2. Blood III (red),
loll. Rill hit the ball eomiilS of tile topic BiIl:lOd tbe comment Millie
boll. When a Pldaphoc or lim l'" oco;urs in the tut, il c:IIl be vOf}' A~'C, llie implicit infomtlllioll ill In p&n'nt~, The analysis i$ as
hel pful to the tran5laior to onalyze it and find the 1\1'0 JII1lIlDSIIiom
..-hkb are !be sernanlic: wuctun behind Ibe f.gw't o f speech. The
rdatiOMh.ip between the tWO f!W'01'OSitioos is me of compulson. The
eompariS«l ~ in the cornrnmI JmI of \he· JnIllO'iliom. The
fotlOW1:
....
ItII'lgt tit>Otl
comTl1CllU are identical. Of then it lOme point of simi larity. . pol., or
rilnlbrfl)'
rcd
A na.ly"f.ing metJl phor. and l imite,
Tile simile in English, John I. as taU a.< " utln pole;' based on In lb. f,~ lowlf"l&, Ihe mctllpllot conslslll of" senlence wbich iii
~ ,e two pr<>JlOSitiom: encoding III E"mt I'rol""'ition. and 110 the four parts must be idclttlfocd .
The rigiurolu judge. will gi\~ ",,"1M CroWll 0{ lifo.
l. John ;' 1311
2. A beai pole ;. laU. I. (Tbt otr",i&IJ) pYe (!he ' ;c!Oriou odIlet.) .......'11.
l. (Goer), ",t.o ~ ti~.ly. witl gi\'e y"" (~ I i fe).
Tbb b '"UY simple and easy to ftOIllyze because the topic In both """"'"
is gi\'ftI. ood the rlmpuison (!he likeness) is also gi~. Tile tOPK of topic God, who judges riPt"""oIy
the firs! propositron i. kine ~ to the IOpk of tile ~ The
wm..,..,ts are i:ltmical. 1lH: topk of Ihe second propollitioo il often 1m.... offioial.
c~lIcd d,e inlal:,,(or illll~lution), the tILing thOl the first topic Is lih.
pol at of rooeI.'e a rewat<l f","OOln~ well
The pollll of slmllarit)' i~ found in the commen\.!.. A "'Clapbor or ,1"'Uul ty
'lmile, Ibm, has four pM. C_ Badanafl and Calio",' 1914 for noore
discussion): ••• tIt~n"'... wiD Kiv<: Y"" oI<!n\Iol lire
_01",
,,.,.. II-.. "'f'k.0f.m f'nt ~Ition (_fipnti,..,).
I.~ die thi~1 .-Ily be", \al:od.bowi
To anaIy.le tnehlpbors and similes, It It wry bdpful to write oot
t11epropo.sltionswbi<:b..,.., bMi~ to \he comparloon.lbe topic. inI ••••
Im .~. the IOPic ..r Iho ....-11""1""''''''' (fogunti\·.). potlll of I lmlbirlly (fouod LD !/Ie commenll about the IOplc and the
i .......'bol " i. bnne rompared with. ,m_ce), lIIld I/w; .uurtgurato·e IntJIniJtC (when the propositions an.
pnlnt Q( ("""d in tM e<>rrnlm" of ho<h of tho Event Proposilloru:) sbould all be includo:d Orily whnt these have been
';u.;larit) propCIliliQOS ;,,,"olved or the oommllnt o f lhe ide.l.tified, eIln nn Ildequntt translruion be mado inlo a second lMgUnge.
EVD<1" p"'pQsitoo ....meh Iw the l""'8e u topic. T he 1Il""";ng III the source teXI must be discovered ftr.lt.
...hal III< pr<>po<itJon COIIIIinin& the IOpic I• .,
The COlT«! understanding "f any llIobphor oc "mile depetld$ 00
.urlgurul.i.'.
«;_;-".Ieal [vo,or ~ the COI.IWIU<T Is tho tlte correa idnltllkaUon of the loplc, Irn:oee, a1ld polol ohim ilaril )'.
IIOftflglnll'lO equ,..alenl. Tlt i$ i, oot too difficult in sucll "'"tetlCCi II rJrt: book if a.J heavy as
an dep/toltl. It IS clelf thal_ ekpll<>ltlls Ilea.,. and lhe booI:. is UlI.".
The COIIlparisoD 10 an elepluznt is belnJuuodo to emphasize hoW heavy
Below "'" """'" clUIrTlplCS of tbese fOllO" pori'. I" _ of the Ih. book I~, The book II; 001 iiler.illy equal In ",.ighl ro an e1eplww:.
example.! at !be beginning 0(1/10 chapta", ooI}' !hr: IOplc and tlle 1m. The .... is an o.uucraticn as ",.n a!. Ilmlle. H""'C\'er, the seIllCOC(>
of !be .imile were gh"l'D. The poillt ol l imiluity il implicit r .. Ih~ /t.:u I.! ..... Mavy as my fuil"""". Iul, the same form that ft .imn.
anaLyu I/Ie simile, we cOO SlRte tile Iwe propo~iti<lno explicitly. In the has. Thl' h l)(,)( figurative, hew ..'.".. It II almplyalrue comprukoo aoo
sentence The IIIMn j~ like blood, O,e two propositions Pre: Is mmn,urnllve. We ohoold not usumc 'll/lt every rompnriron I, a
•, JII' 1'll11!111
:= ...... ~ III11 ill"ll I
,, •
;;
~
r
Ii , fI
""-8 , .." " 2 ...... ,,'2
~ ~== :; ~ ·~ .K~~~~c ~E j~ l ll;;l: .~ -g
"'.. <Xl
~
;;~:= "~~-fo~1~.z1,5 S .9~.~~ i:~i ';;2~ ~
~ ,B-o
t
3 !
~~ 1:,g~ 1! .a~ i~~
...· S ""E li
~ 8" .. t '. .l -!''."": ..,d]_~' ] .~.!
i P - "-e"l!: I i
- ::'l':
•§ ;t~8.i ~ ·t!eS5 .!.~""! ; ;:;:,;g. ~j~-t:~ 5 I,t
• ,~ ~
1
{] •:ii
1.In
J ~ ~l 3~ JJ ~ §I~t
•• §;~ 1i~ii~&_&.l : ci~ JJ~!~"~. !~
i~iO-<= ~ ~.: ~1!~§ ' S..
11 ! .!
!
f ~
.!I-~",,, . . . . . ....
<

~
',"
8 °1"1
~-t~ ..
[ ~i -;_~
.!.8!c. t
,~;J
.•.8~" .s~
.". iii ",
i'o>J [ j::;
- f1 •" I
~~J
:1 ...oj"~"
~"J
i r;;._-l!!fjt;.st=!t;k c:> i~l ·
!.ej
· - ~
.~~«; ~~ .~~-~~~~
~~ ·~ 8- -~ I]
- § • J li '
,~
... ,,:,s ":!=~;:I"'''" ~
~ !
11"- .... =
..... -5 i1 _ ~ "t·

•f
=;!!' '''''·~'i
~ e

l!!~.~ ,,~. ,g!.;,~

.~ ~ 0'"

J ~r~ !5 S1 !:! -" ],,.,g - 15 i:i! ., .gIU!f oo'"

. - .!)~~ .~ ~ '5 !"
i] . t-s t~~ g... :g{i.<!~.c gg '~ ~t ~~ 'ii 2]]': j ~ f. ~ -'I r .> .!
'1 ]"s.o;~,;< ,a~il11ig~-it1!ig~~ i.E~J!;'i] 'is
~
h:g~~H~
:>,...e Q. i,i, ~,,,~ ... ~~ "l,!
-O.!l .,.. os;'"""~ 801' ·- 0Il~ :aR.
! i J; t1 h Ii
I t] !I .~'! ~,

" .:l;o !"

§" ...... -E "l:
.. -!: ] - >. !le i ""0:.. ::>
~
i" ; , >
]aiSee-!;::tt:i;;
... !! ~ ': ~.£ila] l! ..
~; •"
r~ ~l - ..i ~ ~ .Gc. §): c.1"B.!"aj5i!~ .. :S~ j>.c " ~i .;~~
E! ""
0-": -"
=!! . OIl ..,"' '' -
c <-

" • •
Ii -!ls "",.... .~~i! "a.--=
...;~.3g ih.s.E~.!l .g8t~ ~"~E~ lsis~·~ $ "
 f

180 PROPOSITIONAL STRUCTURE Figuro/i"" .Propqsillo"J!M~lllpluN, and Similes

Comparing with Ibeabove list, the meta l'bor no ""In ;san island C. Think of fh 'e ~tencCS In a language other th an EogUsh w hich
'"
lllily be tra",l.ted into the re""ptOr language in the,,, five differenT c<>ntain metapbor¥. Identify the lopic, image. and polnl of
~~ . s lmtlul,}· In each of the metaJ1hor,.
l. No ""'" Is OIl i.la"d D. lokmify the topic, [magt, and point of sinlilarily in each cf the
2. No man i . like on island. fcllowing. II may be helpful to 'Hite the (W() propositions first in
ordeno see the t",pk. imal:". and poi", ofsim ilsrity more clearly.
No rn(lll i. a molD1mi~ peak
1. lbe killg f".Il a yoke npon the neci:J; of hi. people.
4 No man i';II) i.lond. ATI i<l ••,td i. by itself. M 00 p<f>OII i. isolated
from otlK-r< 2. John was a shining lamp.

5. No man is irolated from oll other people. 3. You are a mist that ~ars fcr aHttie time and the" vani:;[,cs.
4 I will come like a thief:
He is as tall as a giraffe.
EXERCISES _ Fi~Q r~tiw Prop-o,ilion,n,Ielap borl .lI.d Simile5 6. His hair wa. w hite "" snow.
People are like 11ross, heN: today and gone lOmorrow.
A The following I re metapho l"$ "'hich arc found in the C1>in>mtec
language of Mexico. lbe point or sim ilarity is flO! staled in the 8. He t. the head ufthe ""panment.
mda phor. but has been put in IlIlrenthc$\.'S at the end of the 9. His <:yes We"N like fire.
sentence so that the met aphor can Ix: interpreted correctly.
Rewrite each mClaphDl" in a language other than English in each 10. His voice was like a trump<..'t.
of lhe fiv,~ possibi lities mentioned abon.

l. Peter i. a snail. (.low)

2. John perched up high. (Io be IDI:an)
He is:l rurkey. (dumb)
4. This laSt-: is worne,,', work. (eroy)
5. Gi\'iIl{: bir1l1 is liJ.:e producing 5<Juash. (very diffic ult)

B. Whll! problem might be rncollll1eroo in trying 1<> lnlruilale each of

the foUowing?Tran.lme them in to a \anguageolher than EBglish.

1 He is f""ljust Hke a greyhound.

2. I am just a machine.
3. Athens is the mother of an. and eloquence.
4. Like a leopard, the mugger stalked his prey.
S. TIIQSe pigs ate al l the food.
- 6. He gallnped Into the room.
 Chapter 24
More on Propositional Analysis
To atlaly>:1' ~ le~1 from a .emanlic >1lndpolnt, it Ii necessnry to
Idmlity \h~ pr<lpOlltlons which are represented in !he reXl The
lnlt:fnalsU\lCIUrC oflhe prul_iria h n«ds 10 be i'llaly?«J and woo Ibe
relations between Ibe propl)SlIioa'''' they bu.il d Into Iart;er and 1arB"'"
U/'Iit.!_1n thi. StCtwn o(thc book . We have conoen!mted on Ibo wysi.
of lhe prnpOllitlc!oJ T1•• msdves. In tbe """, U<:11on.IIUent lon ,,-m be
glven to tbe rd alloo ofooe i"Gpos ltioll to another as they group into
luEer alKllarger units. As we <k..'1l with propositions individually. We
mu<t alwnY' keep In mind !hal Ibey ore unit$ which have fundioos in
~ and AIOi"e COmpUC&lcO semantic units .
Howe\"ft', before We !urn our nTtention to ~ latgcr IIfltt.!, IbeIfl
are ft faw more- delaill concernin& the IIf'Oposltloll asclf wh loh n.c>ed
to be oonsid.JW!.in ch8p1er 4, thedistincrion between REFER'fI',J 1-'L
MliM'lNG. SITtJ-,nO!<lAL MEANINQ, and ORG-'N IZA.TIONAL
M E-\Nl t«i was di=cd nk student woold p-ofil from rerndtng
th-ol maler i") III llo b liDle.) So fill, we ba,'c been dl,eu.uinll Ibe
Pf'GpOSltlon from lltepoiat of ..;..... of Jl.EfEJl.E.vnALMEANI:NQ 8(Id
Sl1v-,n ONAL MEANING. Tbe I!. EFER£.'In""L MEANING t.>u 10 dG
with the COIICt'pti " .!tklI are refe:mx1 10 in d~ propo<ltion Md the
relltions betw« n litem. ~ SITU""TrONAL MEAJI~G h.UIOOO wltb
the speakt:f..J.earer reialiomhip, "",,"Wly wbet:b ... the plll""JMl'4' of lhe
propos-llloD 1$ I\> $laIC, qlll!$l lon, or command. The ,..rrpose o f tlt l$
<;h~ b to look at: the ORCiANI7..ATIONAl MEA"'lNG of pi'llpod ..
llortJi and thm to) gl"e /Ill tXllmple oflhc pro posltioni owalysl& of one
parar,ropb of a '''''I.
Coberc'ncc of:l proposition
ORCiANIZATIONAL MEANING has 10 del with tmil)' !IIId with the
way thai llIIiu go:> fogClher to form r)l.ber tmiU. In tht pNlpGIition il
bas to do with the way c.n ceptl grOUp together 10 fwrn propos llioDY.
A p ropDSi":ioD should IlQl be _ . 1M proposiri<>11 should be a

28J
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