OFFSHORE TOPSIDES-Conclusion Decision Trees Clarify Novel Technology Applications - Oil & Gas Journal

2/27/2019 OFFSHORE TOPSIDES-Conclusion Decision trees clarify novel technology applications - Oil & Gas Journal
OFFSHORE TOPSIDES-Conclusion
Decision trees clarify novel technology
applications
02/24/1997
John J. MacDonald
Chevron USA Production Co.
Houston
Robert S. Smith
OPC Engineering Inc.
Houston
Decision trees provide a means for evaluating appropriate novel technologies for optimizing
offshore platform topsides.
This conclusion in a series of two articles that began in OGJ, Feb. 17, 1997, p. 42 continues to
illustrate decision trees for selecting such equipment as:
Crude stabilizers
Cyclone separators
Emulsion treatment processes
Hydroclones for primary oil/water separation
Powered centrifuges for primary oil/water/gas/sand separation.
Crude stabilizers
https://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-95/issue-8/in-this-issue/production/offshore-topsides-conclusion-decision-trees-clarify-novel-technology-app… 1/13
Fig. 1 [21626 bytes] shows a crude stabilizer integrated into a processing scheme, and Fig. 2
[32504 bytes] illustrates a decision tree for selecting a crude stabilizer.
Based on economics, the following criteria can justify crude stabilizer installations:
Crude contains H2S and has an export quality speci cation of 50-60 ppm H2S or less.
A 10-12 Rvp tanker export speci cation and the compressor interstage condensate cannot
be exported.
Reservoir uid has a high, greater than 5%, content of middle range components, C3, C4s,
and C5s.
No sales outlet for gas; thus, requiring gas aring or reinjection.
Low upstream oil/gas separation pressure.
Low upstream oil/gas separation temperatures.
Stabilizers are not recommended if a pipeline export crude has a relatively high Rvp speci cation.
The additional operating costs for the stabilizer depend primarily on whether the crude contains
H2S. If H2S is not present, waste-heat recovery units may be installed. If H2S is present, waste-
heat recovery units cannot be used because of their aluminum and brass construction.
Fired heaters have an additional fuel cost of $500,000/year, based on $0.50/Mcf and 150,000
b/d crude production.
Weight, area
A crude stabilizer with its associated support utilities imposes additional weight and area on an
offshore platform (Table 1 [10589 bytes]).
Stabilizers increase by 4-12% the power required on a platform. This additional power is required
because of increases in heating medium, cooling water, and sea water. Stabilizers do modestly
decrease the low-pressure gas compression requirements.
Also, part of the additional power required is due to the decreased available power, about 2.5%,
caused by the waste-heat recovery units supplying heat to the stabilizer reboiler. Turbine
alternator sizes should not be affected by this small power increase requirement caused by the
waste-heat recovery units.
Utilities
Stabilizers have a major impact in increasing the required heating medium size.
Also, stabilizers potentially can require high rates of water for diluting salt in the crude. This
impact may be overcome by removing free water in the stabilizer chimney trays and by
antifoulants.
Payback period
Stabilizer economics are less attractive for larger installations. Payback periods relative to a
constant 4% C3 through C5 composition in the reservoir uid and a 1,000 scf/bbl GOR as a
function of throughput are as follows:
50,000 b/d-3.3 years
100,000 b/d-6.1 years
150,000 b/d-18.4 years.
The increased payback trend is primarily attributed to the need for larger power generation units
and the cascading effect of this change on the remaining systems, including the heating medium
system.
The payout period at higher ow rates may be decreased by optimizing power generation
con gurations or having a higher C3 through C5 composition.
Stabilizer safety concerns can be overcome by employing a nonhydrocarbon-based heating

medium. A stabilizer also reduces safety risk by decreasing gas evolution on a tanker and by using
waste-heat recovery units, which reduce turbine exhaust temperatures.
At low ow rates without the unit performing fractionation, stabilizers may be used as a low-
pressure, last separation stage.
Maintenance/operation
Maintenance is a concern in stabilizer operations, primarily in regard to the stabilizer reboiler and
associated salt build-up. Regular yearly inspections and antifoulants can control this potential
problem.
With a storage tanker, operators have the latitude to perform maintenance inspections over a
long period without interrupting overall production.
A stabilizer can replace an electrostatic treater or desalter and its associated maintenance of
electrical plates caused by uctuating ow. Also, by removing two crude separation stages (the
low-pressure separator and emulsion treater), operators may concentrate on the crude stabilizer
and its relatively simple controls. An additional operating concern is the installation of a heating
medium heater with its associated safeguard control system.
Operating control differences can be reviewed during the training period for familiarizing
operators with a crude stabilizer. Typically, no additional operating personnel are required for
stabilizer operations.
Cyclone separators
Cyclone separators can remove bulk contaminants from gas streams containing particulates or
entrained liquid (Fig. 3a [15486 bytes]). Cyclones work by injecting the process stream
tangentially into a vertical cylindrical separation vessel. The velocity creates high centrifugal
forces.
In the cyclone, the gas changes direction and exits a centrally located riser tube while the heavier
particles spin around the vessel wall and eventually fall to the bottom and exit from a discharge
tube.
Tangential velocity is the main driving force in the separation process. Small separator tubes are,
therefore, more effective than one large separation vessel.
As shown in Fig. 3ba [15486 bytes], cyclone separation systems today house many standardized
cyclone tubes in a larger containment vessel that acts as a distribution system for incoming gas as
well as a collection system for the exiting product streams.
In at least one case, a single, low cost, cyclone separator (about 10-in. diameter) was installed at
each well to remove gross sand prior to a lter separation system.
One cyclone separator vendor claims an overall removal ef ciency of 99% for a gas stream with a
5% liquid loading at the inlet.
Fig. 4a [73773 bytes] shows a decision tree for selecting a cyclone.
Cyclones cost about 40-50% more per unit weight than standard separators. However, cyclones
offer substantial weight and space savings, which can offset their cost/weight differences in many
offshore applications.
The units are said to be inef cient during slug ow. The main concern, usually neglected by
process designers, is cyclone turndown.
Several proprietary designs are available. One such design is the Cyclotube developed by Perry
Equipment Corp.
This design, primarily for gas streams, has four operating compartments (Fig. 3b [15486 bytes]).
The rst contains a device that induces the incoming gas to rotate. The second compartment is
the rst-stage separation area. Two ports are in this section. High centrifugal forces sling heavier
particles against the wall of the tube and the particles exit through the second port.
Pressure drop at the spinner section exit draws the ejected gas back into the Cyclotube through
the rst port. Heavy particles ejected through the port settle by gravity in the low-velocity
section.
A third, smaller diameter section houses a third port where smaller particles are discharged. The
fourth section redirects the ow to the exit.
The advantages of the Cyclotube system over other cyclone separation systems are:
High turndown capacity
High separation ef ciency over the entire turndown range
Appropriate for uids with low surface tension. These liquids tend to wet metal surfaces
and travel in the direction of the gas ow, thus thwarting efforts at separation.
Appropriate for removing salt water from gas streams
Small footprint area as compared to conventional separators
Light weight
Small pressure drop.
Cyclotubes are not recommended for extremely dry gas streams.
Emulsion treatment
Fig. 4b [73773 bytes] illustrates a decision tree for selecting an emulsion treatment.
Dehydrators reduce water content in the crude to meet export quality speci cations. Figs. 5a and
5b [46082 bytes] illustrate horizontal and vertical crude oil dehydrators.
During the producing life of a reservoir, water in undesirable quantities may be produced with the
crude. With asphaltic crude oils, 25° ±5 API gravity, even initial production could contain water.
A 25° API-range crude is typically classi ed as marketable if it contains no more than 1% bs&w,
although, some California crudes with lower gravity are marketable with a bs&w as high as 5%.
If water in a free form reaches the dehydrator at temperatures less than 130° F., an emulsion will
usually form between the oil and water. This emulsion requires more treatment than gravity
settling to reduce the crude's water content.
Two types of crude emulsions form. This article discusses the normal type where water is
dispersed in oil. The other type is less common and is a reverse emulsion where oil droplets are
dispersed in water.
Emulsions form between the producing formation and the storage tanks. Usually, there is enough
agitation to disperse the water through the oil. The agitation may be caused by a subsurface
pump, gas-lift mixing energy, expansion through a choke, or ow through the tubing and ow line.
During agitation, water forms various sizes of droplets that tend to be spherical. If a lm
surrounds the droplets, water will remain permanently dispersed throughout the oil. This lm
prevents the droplets from coming together and forming one large drop, and settling downward
through the oil to create a water phase.
Emulsifying agents increase the surface active characteristics of this lm. These agents may be:
Asphaltenes
Resins
Heavy paraf nic and naphthenic compounds
Fine dispersed solids.
Emulsifying agents are all composed of large molecule compounds that form around the water
drops, making a thick, tough lm. This lm needs to be destroyed to break the emulsion.
Demulsi ers
Demulsi er chemical injection takes place, usually, prior to uid entry into a treating vessel.
Demulsi ers are important for successful treating-vessel operations.
Demulsi ers disperse throughout the emulsion and collect on the water/oil interface, causing the
emulsifying agent to displace and disperse throughout the oil phase of the mixture.
Demulsi er molecules are small, and consequently the lm thickness is less at the water/oil
droplet interface than what existed with the original emulsifying agent. The resultant lm is much
thinner and the bond holding the droplets in dispersion is considerably weaker.
After the demulsi er displaces the emulsifying agent, water drops coalesce. Because less distance
separates the drops, the molecular attraction between drops is stronger. Upon droplet contact,
this attraction is suf ciently strong to pull the drops together, rupturing the surrounding lm and
allowing minute water droplets to coalesce into larger drops. These drops then settle out of the
oil phase.
Addition of heat
In the dehydrator, the ow rst encounters the ow diffuser which separates the bulk liquid from
the gas. A gas scrubber processes this relatively cool gas before the gas exits the vessel.
After the diffuser, liquids are processed through a water dropout stage. This allows free water to
leave and reduces heat requirements. Heat is bene cial for treating emulsions because it:
Increases emulsifying agent solubility and agent or agents dispersion in the mixture's oil
phase
Speeds demulsi er solubility at the water drop surface and speeds demulsi er reaction
Lowers oil and water viscosity
Adds energy to the system, causing movement of the water drops, largely by thermal
currents, that induces collisions and coalescence.
Field tests can determine the temperature for economical water separation. Some light crudes
(35° API or greater) may separate water quickly at 85-100° F. But some heavy oils (20-25° API)
may require temperatures up to 180° F. If the oil/water mixture properties are unknown, 130° F.
is often assumed.
Electrical coalescence
An electrical coalescence step between the emulsion-heating step and oil-settling stage can
increase the water-settling rate and possibly lower the treating temperature. Fig. 5c [46082
bytes]creatly accelerates the coalescing rate after the emulsifying agent has been ruptured or
displaced to expose the water droplet surface. The most common electrostatic coalescing
involves electrodes immersed in the oil.
The electrical eld is created by voltages in excess of 10,000 v. This electrical eld causes rapid
collision between the drops and rapid coalescence. Gravity settling of the water drops allows the
dehydrator oil to be withdrawn from the upper section of the oil-settling step.
Horizontal vessels allow installation of a greater electrode area than the same diameter vertical
vessels. Horizontal vessels, for a given diameter and shell length, have greater treating capacity.
However, vertical vessels are used for small volumes and where horizontal space limitations exist.
A large, horizontal crude oil dehydrator has about a 14-ft diameter and 75-ft length.
Foam control
Defoaming chemicals are often used if foam is encountered. Heat, such as from the down ow
heating step, may further reduce foam.
As liquid is withdrawn from the bottom of the heating step, foam remains on top. Foam
deterioration rate will be a limiting factor in dehydrator capacity. Crude oil foam deterioration
rates are best determined by eld testing.
Treating comparison
Past studies compared heater-treater and electrostatic coalescer performance with a 33-34° API
crude. The conventional heater-treater processed about 23,000 bo/d at 130-140° F, while the
electrostatic treaters processed the same volume but at a reduced temperature of 90-100° F.
The lower treating temperatures reduced fuel gas consumption by about 230 Mscfd. Gravity
improvement varied between 0.3 and 0.5° API, depending on the oil mixture produced by the
various offshore elds.
The electric load with the additional equipment was about 11 kw-hr.
Booster pumps
The last production separation stage is often at the bubble point unless the uid is stabilized.
Equipment downstream of the last separation stage creates pressure losses that are normally
overcome with a crude booster pump.
The crude booster pump must have adequate lift to overcome the losses and still provide
suf cient suction head to the main crude discharge pumps, if necessary. Pressure losses can be
due to:
Emulsion treating vessel
Liquid control valve on the last separation stage
Crude metering and prover skid
Crude export cooler.
If the crude export pressure is not high, (less than 700 psig) and emulsion treating is unnecessary,
the designer should consider combining the crude booster pump service with the crude export
pump. The combined pumping can be done with a multistage vertical "can" type pump with low
NPSH requirements and capable of lifting about 150-200 ft/stage.
If emulsion treatment is required at pressure levels not greater than 30-50 psig, the option of
operating at higher pressure would impose a very heavy, costly design on the emulsion treatment
vessels. Under these circumstances, a crude booster pump is more economical.
Hydrocyclone separation
Hydrocyclone separation is similar to centrifugal gas/liquid separation except that two liquids
with different densities (oil and water) form the mixture.
The density difference of an oil/water mixture is much less than in a gas/liquid mixture. Because
of this design criteria, the separator tubes have to be much longer than in cyclones.
Advantages
The advantage of hydrocyclones is that the outlet stream, which in most cases is oil, will have very
little entrained water.
Only a few vendors sell hydrocyclones. Vortoil Separation Systems, the oldest in the business, has
hydrocyclones for various applications, including dewatering, deoiling, desalting, desanding, and
downhole water separation. Its system claims:
95-99% oil removal from water streams
90% water removal from oil streams
Light weight
Small footprint area
Low maintenance, no moving parts
Adjustable capacity in the eld by adding or removing separator tubes.
Some of the operating parameters with cyclones containing newer internal separation elements
(liners) are as follows:
Solids handling: <=20% solids, exits with water stream
Maximum water: 30%, (70% oil)
Crude API gravity: >=10°

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Emulsions: not suitable for handling emulsions
GOR: 90+% separation ef ciency if GOR <= 300 scf/bbl
Minimum inlet pressure: 25 psig
Highest operating pressure: 2,250 psig
Vessel diameter: 6-60 in.
Number of liners/tubes: 150.
Hydrocyclone sizing
Fig. 4c [73773 bytes] shows a decision tree for selecting hydrocyclones.
Each liner has a 100 b/d capacity at an 8 psi pressure drop and up to 700 b/d capacity at a
maximum 450 psi pressure drop. Capacity is a function of pressure drop according to the
following function:
Q = (1,600 x DPinlet - outlet)0.502
where: Q is in b/d/liner
This equation is valid when the pressure drop ratio, PDR, is met as follows:
PDR = (Pinlet - Preject)/
(Pinlet - Poutlet) >= 1.7
A 1.7 PDR is the optimum ow condition for this separation system. At a PDR above 1.7, the
separation system will work at a reduced separation ef ciency. Below 1.7, the system will not
work properly.
Powered centrifuges
Fig. 4d [73773 bytes] shows a decision tree for selecting powered centrifuges as primary
separation vessels.
Many different industries use powered centrifuges for separating solids from liquids. In the
process, the stream enters a rapidly spinning separation basket where high centrifugal forces
induce the uids to separate into distinct layers.
If separating solids from liquids, the liquid product can be forced through a lter cloth. These
systems are applicable to oil/water, oil/water/gas, or oil/water/gas/sand service. In these cases,
each layer is drawn off with the help of level controllers.
In the past, high maintenance costs, relatively high capital cost, and little operating experience
have eliminated centrifuge separation systems from being considered for primary separator in oil
and gas operations. However, these systems offer several advantages over conventional
separation systems, such as:
Small footprint area
Reduced weight
Very short residence times (2-4 sec), which reduce the amount of hydrocarbons in the
process
Low water content in the outlet oil, normally less than 0.5%
Low oil content in the outlet water, normally 30-35 ppm
Elimination of demulsi ers (Savings on chemicals have been known to justify these units.)
Insensitivity to movement.
A typical module, designed for 50,000 b/d incoming liquids (including water), has the following
speci cations:
Three centrifuges, each operating 50% of the time with one assumed to be operating in a
wash cycle
Dimensions: about 13-ft wide by 26-ft long by 16-ft high
Weight: 16 tons dry, 18 tons wet
Water cut: 30-90%
Gas volume fraction: 0-50%
Oil in water outlet: <= 40 ppm
Water in oil outlet: <= 0.5%.
Powered centrifuges have undergone onshore testing with a multiphase test-loop in Norway.
Field trials are ongoing on the oating production vessel Petrojarl 1 operated by Golar Nor
Offshore which is presently at the Blenheim eld, U.K.
Also, this technology is being designed for subsea use for extracting water.
Copyright 1997 Oil & Gas Journal. All Rights Reserved.

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2/27/2019 OFFSHORE TOPSIDES-Conclusion Decision trees clarify novel technology applications - Oil & Gas Journal

Emulsion treatment processes

Hydroclones for primary oil/water separation

Powered centrifuges for primary oil/water/gas/sand separation.

No sales outlet for gas; thus, requiring gas aring or reinjection.

Low upstream oil/gas separation pressure.

Low upstream oil/gas separation temperatures.

50,000 b/d-3.3 years

100,000 b/d-6.1 years

150,000 b/d-18.4 years.

Stabilizer safety concerns can be overcome by employing a nonhydrocarbon-based heating

Fig. 4a [73773 bytes] shows a decision tree for selecting a cyclone.

High turndown capacity

High separation ef ciency over the entire turndown range

Appropriate for removing salt water from gas streams

Small footprint area as compared to conventional separators

Small pressure drop.

Cyclotubes are not recommended for extremely dry gas streams.

Heavy paraf nic and naphthenic compounds

Fine dispersed solids.

Lowers oil and water viscosity

Emulsion treating vessel

Liquid control valve on the last separation stage

Crude metering and prover skid

Crude export cooler.

95-99% oil removal from water streams

90% water removal from oil streams

Small footprint area

Low maintenance, no moving parts

Adjustable capacity in the eld by adding or removing separator tubes.

Solids handling: <=20% solids, exits with water stream

Maximum water: 30%, (70% oil)

Crude API gravity: >=10°

Emulsions: not suitable for handling emulsions

GOR: 90+% separation ef ciency if GOR <= 300 scf/bbl

Minimum inlet pressure: 25 psig

Highest operating pressure: 2,250 psig

Vessel diameter: 6-60 in.

Number of liners/tubes: 150.

Fig. 4c [73773 bytes] shows a decision tree for selecting hydrocyclones.

Q = (1,600 x DPinlet - outlet)0.502

PDR = (Pinlet - Preject)/

(Pinlet - Poutlet) >= 1.7

Small footprint area

Low oil content in the outlet water, normally 30-35 ppm

Dimensions: about 13-ft wide by 26-ft long by 16-ft high

Weight: 16 tons dry, 18 tons wet

Water cut: 30-90%

Gas volume fraction: 0-50%

Oil in water outlet: <= 40 ppm

Water in oil outlet: <= 0.5%.

Copyright 1997 Oil & Gas Journal. All Rights Reserved.

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