The Ni-base superalloys, which are normally melted and cast in a vacuum, entrain their surface-
oxide film during turbulent pouring of the melt; unfortunately at this time, this process is
universally practiced for investment castings of these materials. The entrained film becomes a
bifilm crack automatically, so that cast alloys have a large population of cracks that controls
their failure behavior. The problems of the growth of single crystals and the welding of poly-
crystalline alloys are reviewed to illustrate the central role of bifilms in the cracking of turbine
blades, the heat-affected zones of welds, and the reliability of properties. It has been demon-
strated that improved gravity pouring systems can reduce these problems significantly, but only
countergravity filling of molds is expected to result in defect-free castings. Recent cases in which
turbine blades failed in service are examined, and the central role of bifilm defects in these
failures is discussed.
DOI: 10.1007/s11663-012-9655-1
Ó The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 2012
millimeters across, which seem to have been initiated by which is often only approximately 1 mm in diameter. As
bifilms. such, it can pass through the pores of most filters but
The fact that crack-like defects measured in millimeters arrives in the mold cavity as a relatively poorly effective
can arrive in castings even after the metal has been forced stress raiser, and so it is relatively harmless. Unfortu-
to flow through filters with pore size of less than 1 mm is nately, after entering the mold cavity and after filling
answered easily. After first being entrained, sufficiently comes to a stop, the conditions become quiescent,
powerful turbulence exists in the bulk melt to ensure that allowing the compact defect to unravel; its original full
the bifilm is tangled into a compact, convoluted form, size, up to approximately ten times its convoluted size, is
acquired and it resembles an engineering crack because of Recently, Tiryakioglu et al.[10] discussed these two types
its relatively flat form. This form contrasts with its of facets in detail and concluded that both type of facets
convoluted form but is akin to the form of cracks can initiate macroscopic fatigue failure. Examples of the
propagated by stress. Several mechanisms assist to two types of facets found in cast Al alloys are shown are
restraighten the crack, but a common mechanism in Ni- shown in Figure 4, where facets (1) with crystallographic
base castings appears to be the straightening action of the orientations formed by a slip plane mechanism initiated
growth of dendrites.[10] by stress concentration at a casting defect[7] and (2) that
In their study on high-cycle fatigue of the IN713 alloy, form from the bifilm straightening during solidification.
Kunz et al.[7,8] also identified two types of facets on the The facets shown in Figure 4 are similar to those observed
fracture surfaces of their specimens: (1) facets along {111} by Kunz et al. The presence of either type of facet is an
crystallographic planes and (2) facets not following a indication that fracture takes place prematurely because
crystallographic orientation. For both types, Kunz et al. of the presence of a casting defect, which can be avoided
found casting defects to be associated with the facets. by proper melt preparation and pouring techniques.
III. GRAIN BOUNDARY PHENOMENA blades mainly because of the observation of multiple
[5,6] intergranular cracks in the failed turbines. It is necessary
Creep has been cited as the mechanism that led to to question this conclusion. The commonly accepted
the in-service failure of Ni-based superalloy turbine