NUTRITION AND FOOD GRAINS
Food Grains and Well-Being
Contents
Functional Foods: Overview
Functional Foods: Dietary Fibers, Prebiotics, Probiotics, and Synbiotics
Nutrition: Soy-Based Foods
Functional Foods: Overview
G Bultosa, Botswana College of Agriculture, Gaborone, Botswana; Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Topic Highlights
• Functional food concepts/definitions.
• Bioactive compounds.
• Chronic diseases and functional foods.
• Gluten-free foods for celiac patients.
Learning Objectives
• To achieve understanding on the concepts/definitions of
functional foods.
• To achieve understanding of bioactive compounds used in
functional foods, grain dietary sources, and potential effects
on health.
• To impart processing principles on grain-based functional
foods.
Introduction
Humankind has progressed from a hunter-gather approach to
food consumption to sedentary agriculture, progressing through
the industrial revolution to our current knowledge-based society
with advances in food processing. There is now enormous evi-
dence about the limitations of consuming specific food
component(s) on human health. The twenty-first century of
humankind is marked by lifestyle changes resulting in the con-
sumption of diets high in calories, fat, cholesterol, and sodium
and inadequate intakes of calcium, iron, zinc, and dietary fibers
and an increased resistance of pathogens to drugs. These factors,
coupled with less physical exercise, aging populations, and
more leisure time, have exposed much of the world’s population
to cancers and various metabolic syndrome-related diseases,
osteoporosis, dementia, etc. Some genetically predisposed
individuals are also affected by diet-caused allergens.
Encyclopedia of Food Grains, Second Edition http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394437-5.00071-1
Consumption of an adequately balanced diet is a means of
body structure formation, energy generation, and health. More
than 2500 years ago, ‘Let foods be our medicine and medicine
be our foods’ was stated by Hippocrates. This shows that
consumption of diets with health-promoting effects is not
new. But evidence on the relationship between dietary chem-
ical component(s) and health is on evolutionary development
as technology and human comprehension advance. Within
such evolution, the concept of functional foods was started
in the 1980s as Foods for Specified Health Use (FOSHU)
in Japan. Foods, when consumed as a regular diet that supplies
one or more bioactive components beyond basic nutrients and
offer health-promoting effects, are today branded as functional
foods. Functional foods are not prescribed drugs, dietary sup-
plements, medical foods of therapeutic effects, traditional
medicines, or nutraceuticals. Functional foods are distinct
from macronutrient and micronutrient supplements targeted
to achieve balanced diets and to treat nutrient deficiency syn-
dromes. Functional foods thus comprise whole foods, forti-
fied, enriched, or enhanced foods bearing bioactive
compounds beyond macro- and micronutrients. Sources of
bioactive ingredients include whole grains, flaxseed, sesame
seed, psyllium seed husks, legumes (soybean and fenugreek),
fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices, and fermented foods. The
nature of bioactive compounds derived from such sources is
variable even though similarities also exist. Those recognized
bioactive compounds include phenolics; carotenoids; dietary
fibers; b-glucans and inulin-type fructans; o-3 fatty acids; pro-
biotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics; phytoestrogens; soy
proteins; plant stanols and sterols; isothiocyanates; polyols;
and some minerals and vitamins. In some respects, there is
an overlap with food bioactives recognized to be functional
ingredients and micronutrients such as in the case of vitamins
and minerals. Most bioactive compounds present in functional
foods are not necessarily essential for life but are recognized
contributors toward good health.
1
2 FOOD GRAINS AND WELL-BEING | Functional Foods: Overview
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends to the
public to move toward healthful diets. The functional-food
expansion across the globe is enormous with the current market
size estimated from 7 to 190 billion USD. The ever-increasing
health-care costs and public awareness on roles of diet on health
are contributing factors for such expansion. Functional-food
development involves evaluation of the roles, safety, and con-
sumer acceptance of bioactive compounds. For foods that have
no history of consumption as regular diets (novel foods), the
evaluation and regulatory requirements are rigorous and are
required to be substantiated by scientific evidence for their
efficacy and safety. As a result, even though a number of novel
foods were developed in the past, their wider expansion was
limited.
Various grain-based functional foods are today on the mar-
ket in the form of whole grain snacks, baked foods, extruded
products, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, fermented cereals, bev-
erages, and gruels. Other products are: dietary fibers, inulin-
type fructans, b-glucans, carotenoids, o-3 fatty acids, plant
sterols, and/or stanols-fortified products. There are also indig-
enous foods that are a heritage of a given community and their
record as safe diet is lost in antiquity and yet most of them
fulfill what is expected of functional foods.
In this article, functional food definitions, distinction from
related concepts, recognized bioactive ingredients, dietary
sources, health benefits, and processing principles are
described giving emphasis on grains. Read also functional
foods: dietary fibers, prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics as
these are not covered here.
Functional Food: Concepts and Definitions
So far, there is no global consensus on the definition of func-
tional foods. The Codex Alimentarius Commission only issued
guidelines (CAC/GL 23–1997) on nutrition and health claims
to be used through consultation with country policy. However,
food regulatory agencies and various professional societies in
different countries have described closely related concepts/
working definitions. Definitions offered from various sources
for functional foods, features, and requirements on what con-
stitute to be nutrition, health, and structure/function claims
are listed under the Further Reading section.
According to the ADA, “all foods are functional at some
physiological level because they provide nutrients or other
substances that furnish energy, sustain growth, or maintain/
repair vital processes. However, functional foods are recog-
nized to provide additional health benefits that may reduce
disease risks and/or promote optimal health. Functional foods
include: (1) conventional foods or whole foods, (2) modified
foods, (3) medical foods, and (4) foods for special dietary use.”
According to Functional Food Science in Europe, “Functional
foods are those satisfactorily demonstrated to affect beneficially
one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate
nutritional effects, in a way that is relevant to either an improved
state of health and well-being and/or reduction of risk of disease
when consumed as part of normal food pattern.” Thus, func-
tional foods include: a natural, unmodified food; a food in
which one of the components has been enhanced through spe-
cial growing conditions, breeding, or biotechnological means; a
food to which a component has been added to provide benefits;
a food from which a component has been removed by techno-
logical or biotechnological means so that the food provides
benefits not otherwise available; a food in which a component
has been replaced by an alternative component with favorable
properties; a food in which a component has been modified by
enzymatic, chemical, or technological means to provide a bene-
fit; a food in which the bioavailability of a component has been
modified and combination of any of the above.
In Japan, FOSHU refers to foods consumed as part of an
ordinary diet, containing functional ingredients and exerting
health or physiological effect. FOSHU requires that safety
assessment, health functions, and claims must be approved
by the Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare. Functional
foods are also required to have three other fundamental fea-
tures: (1) nutritional functions, (2) sensory functions, and (3)
physiological functions such as regulation of biorhythms, the
nervous system, the immune system, and body defense beyond
nutrient functions. As of April 2011, in Japan, 955 products
were approved as FOSHU.
Based on extensive literature review and expert consultation,
“A functional food is, or appears similar to be, a conventional
food. It is part of a standard diet and is consumed on a regular
basis, in normal quantities. It has proven health benefits that
reduce the risk of specific chronic diseases or beneficially affect
target functions beyond its basic nutritional functions.”
Even though there are slight variations, the following are
reflected on definitions given by different sources: (1) func-
tional foods should be consumed as part of regular safe diet
not as drugs; (2) they are required to bear functionally bioac-
tive adequate ingredient(s) beyond basic nutrients; (3) diet
with its functionally bioactive ingredient(s) should impact
positive health in an individual by either (i) decreasing occur-
rences of disease(s), (ii) decreasing disease-causing factor(s), or
(iii) promoting positive human physiological functions for
optimal health such as by maintaining body homeostasis
and/or through bolstering body immune systems; (4) they
should improve quality of life; and (5) if there is no history
of consumption as a regular diet, they must pass a strict regu-
latory evaluation process for their safety and for beneficial
claim(s) declared substantiated with sound scientific evidence.
Other Concepts Related to Functional Foods
Nutraceuticals
These are distinct from functional foods and defined as a
product isolated or purified from foods generally sold in
medicinal forms (i.e., as pills, powder, syrups, or other medic-
inal forms) that have specific health benefits.
Dietary Supplements
These are products other than tobacco intended to supplement
diet, which contain one or more of the following dietary ingre-
dients: vitamin, mineral, herb or other botanical, amino acid,
concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract, or combinations
of these ingredients; they are ingested in pill, capsule, tablet, or
liquid form; they are not represented for use as conventional
food or as a sole item of diet.
 FOOD GRAINS AND WELL-BEING | Functional Foods: Overview
Novel Foods
These are defined as raw foods or food materials with no
history of safe use, for example, genetically modified foods;
foods produced by algae, fungi, or microorganisms; foods
isolated from plants and animals without a history of safe
use; and foods that have been processed where the process
has dramatically changed the food.
Bioavailability
This refers to a fraction of a given compound and/or its metab-
olite that reaches systemic circulation and involves gastrointes-
tinal digestion, absorption, metabolism, and tissue
distribution. Bioavailability encompasses bioaccessibility and
bioactivity.
Bioaccessibility
This refers to the quantity or fraction of a bioactive that is
released from a food matrix in the gastrointestinal tract and
becomes available for absorption. It includes digestive trans-
formations, absorption/assimilation into intestinal epithelium
cells, and also the presystemic metabolism (both intestinal and
hepatic).
Bioactivity
This refers to a specific response, biomarker, or effect observed
upon exposure to the bioactive substance. It includes tissue
uptake and the subsequent physiological response.
Recognized Bioactive Compounds in Functional Food
Phenolics (Polyphenolics)
Phenolics are ubiquitous in plants and more than 8000 com-
pounds are known. Dietary phenolics can be broadly divided
into flavonoids (anthocyanins, flavonols, flavones, flavanones,
isoflavones, flavan-3-ols, condensed tannins or proanthocya-
nidins, lignans, chalcones, coumarins, coumestans, and aur-
one) and nonflavonoids (simple phenols, phenolic acids
(hydroxybenzoates and hydroxycinnamates), and stilbenes)
(Figure 1). Flavonoids are the largest group and more than
6000 compounds have been identified. Hydrolyzable tannins
are derivatives of gallic acids. They exert deleterious effects and
may be found at trace levels in some edible foods. Flavonoids
often exist as glycosides with sugar molecules attached often at
position 3, sometimes at 5, 7, 40 , 30 , and 50 and hydroxyls at 40 ,
5, and 7 on the flavonoid basic structure. Flavonoids without
sugars are called aglycones.
Phenolic acids and various flavonoids in whole grains and
bran fractions (pericarp, aleurone layer, testa, and germ) are
extensively documented. Bran is removed during cereal grain
milling for production of refined flours. Among phenolic
acids, ferulic acids are dominant (about 80% to 90%) in cereal
grains. Sorghum is known to have unique 3-
deoxyanthocyanins. Other unique phenolics documented in
grains are alkylresorcinols in rye, wheat, triticale, and barley,
avenanthramides in oats, and g-oryzanols (ferulic cid esters of
3
phytosterols and triterpene alcohols) in rice (Figure 2). Alkyl-
resorcinol metabolites are currently studied for use as
biomarkers of whole-grain intake. Bran also contains vitamins,
phytosterols, minerals, proteins, lipids, carotenoids, tocols,
and phytic acids. Consumption of grain foods along with
their bran is beneficial due to the presence of various bioactive
compounds. Functional roles documented for phenolics
include: bolstering of cellular antioxidant defenses, protection
from cardiovascular disease (CVD) risks, brain wellness, anti-
neurodegenerative, antiulcer, anticarcinogenic, antimutagenic,
anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial properties; and improve-
ment of eye health and vision, muscle performance, and
immune responses.
Phenolics are generally partially bioavailable and their
properties are influenced by their structures and solubility.
Most soluble phenolics are found unbound, whereas insolu-
bles are found bound to cell wall polysaccharides or proteins
where they form stable complexes. Insoluble phenolics are not
absorbed in the small intestine, but they are fermented by
colon microbiota yielding largely ferulic acid followed by
p-coumaric acid. Within cells, phenolics suppress reactive-
oxygen (ROS) and nitrogen species (RNS) by donating hydro-
gen atoms or electron, quenching free radicals, and activating
endogenous antioxidant enzymes. They also chelate metal pro-
oxidants. Oxidative stress can happen when generation of
oxidants exceeds the natural antioxidant systems. Oxidative
stress causes damages to DNA, RNA, lipids, proteins, and car-
bohydrates and leads to different types of chronic diseases. In
cereal grains, anti-oxidant potentials follow pigmented grains
(tannin sorghums, black rice, brown and black sorghums, teff,
millets, blue maize) > non-pigmented grains (white-sorghum,
wheat, rice). Even though, phenolics are shown to suppress
cancers in in vitro in cells and in vivo in animal models, studies
in human intervention are less clear. The synergetic effects are
believed to have a role. Phenolics are also used as antimicrobial
food preservatives, food colorants, and flavor imparters. Tan-
nins, despite having high antioxidant activity, are antinutri-
tional and inhibit digestive enzymes and mineral absorptions.
Phytoestrogens
Phytoestrogens are nonsteroidal plant compounds with struc-
tures and biological activities similar to steroid hormone estro-
gen, 17b-estradiol (Figure 3). Functional roles documented
include: influence on growth and functioning of female and
male reproductive tissues; maintenance of skeletal and central
nervous systems; cardio-protection; suppression of colon,
breast, and prostate cancers and skin aging; and relief from
menopausal symptoms. At low concentration, they act like
estrogens (agonists) and at high doses as blockers (antago-
nists). Phytoestrogens are potential endocrine disrupters and
become cytotoxic at high dose. Groups of compounds recog-
nized as phytoestrogens are lignans, isoflavones, coumestans,
and stilbenes.
Lignans
These are 18-carbon skeleton compounds composed of two
phenylpropanoid units with various functional groups con-
nected to benzene rings (Figure 4). Secoisolariciresinol,
4 FOOD GRAINS AND WELL-BEING | Functional Foods: Overview

OH O OH
Derivatives of simple phenol C Derivatives of hydroxybenzoic acid
R1 Phenol: R1=R2=R3=H Gallic acid: R1=H, R2=R3=R4=OH
R1 Gentisic acid: R1=R4=OH, R2=R3=H
Catechol: R1=OH, R2=R3=H
Salicylic acid: R1=OH, R2=R3=R4=H
R2 R3 Resorcinol: R1=R3=H, R2=OH R4 p-(OH) Benzoic acid: R =R =R =H, R =OH
R2 1 2 4 3
Phloroglucinol: R1=H, R2=R3=OH
Protocatechuic acid: R1=R4=H, R2=R3=OH
OH R3
Syringic acid: R1=H, R2=R4=OCH3, R3=OH
C Derivatives of hydroxycinnamic acid Vanillic acid: R1=R4=H, R3=OH, R2=OCH3
R1 O Cinnamic acid: R1=R2=R3=R4=H
o- Coumaric acid: R1=OH, R2=R3=R4=H
m- Coumaric acid: R1=R3=R4=H, R2=OH
R2 R4
p- Coumaric acid: R1=R2=R4=H, R3=OH
R3 Caffeic acid: R1=R2=H, R3=R4=OH
Ferulic acid: R1=R2=H, R3= OH, R4 =OCH3
Sinapic acid: R1=H, R2=OCH3, R3=OH, R4=OCH3
Phenolic acids

Stilbene

3`
2`
4`
8
1 O
7 O 2 5` O O
6` Flavan-4-o1
6 3 OH OH
5 4 OH
Flavonoid basic structure Flavan-3-o1 Flavonol
O O
OH
O
OH
+ Flavone Flavanone
O O
HO O
O O
OH
Anthocyanidin Isoflavone O
OH O Aurone
O O

O O O Lignan
Chalcone Coumarin
Coumestan
O

Basic structures of main class flavonoids and related structures (aurone, lignan)
OH
OH

HO O
R OH n:0 to many
OH OH
OH
OH
HO O
HO +O
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH HO O
Sorghum 3-deoxyanthocyanidins
(Apigenindin, R=H and Luteolinidin, R=OH) OH
OH Proanthocyanidins

Figure 1 Structures of phenolics.

 FOOD GRAINS AND WELL-BEING | Functional Foods: Overview 5

R1 O
OH R2
N
H
O C OH R3
HO R Avenanthramides (more than 35 forms are identified)
Alkylresorcinols (R = alkyl chain, Avenanthramide 2p, R1=R3=OH, R2=H
odd carbon C15 to C27) Avenanthramide 2f, R1=R3=OH, R2=OCH3
Avenanthramide 2c, R1=R2=R3=OH
O
CH3O C OR
O
CH3O C O
HO
Gamma-oryzanol (ferulic acid esters,
HO
R = phytosterols or triterpene alcohols) Gamma-oryzanol (campesteryl ferulate)

Figure 2 Structures of alkylresorcinols, avenanthramides, and gamma-oryzanols.

OH OH O
OH
H H

H H H H H H
HO HO HO
17 beta-Estradiol Estriol Estrone

Figure 3 Structures of mammalian endogenous estrogens.

HO OH
O OH
H
H CH2O
CH3O CH2OH CH3O HO OH
H OH
H
HO CH2O O
HO CH2OH
OH
OH
OCH3 OCH3
Secoisolariciresinol diglycoside
Secoisolariciresinol OH
OH
O
H O
O H
CH3O O
O HO
O O
HO Sesamolin
O O
Matairesinol O OH O
O
O H
OCH3 H O
O O
OH Sesamol O
Sesamin O
H H
HO OH HO
O
OH
Enterolactone O
Enterodiol

OH OH

Figure 4 Structures of common lignans.

6 FOOD GRAINS AND WELL-BEING | Functional Foods: Overview
matairesinol, sesamin, and sesamolin are typical examples.
When two glucose molecules are attached to the hydroxyl
groups of the propanol chain of secoisolariciresinol, the com-
pound is called secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG). Lig-
nans have higher antioxidant potential than vitamin E.
Lignans are implicated to have potential use in hormone
replacement therapy, to maintain good cognitive function in
postmenopausal women, and to have anticancer activities
(breast, prostate, colon, and skin cancers). They may contrib-
ute to the reduction of hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis,
and diabetes. SDG is converted by bacteria in the human
colons to mammalian lignans enterodiol and enterolactone,
which are also antioxidants. Enterodiol and enterolactone are
purported to reduce growth of cancer tumors, especially
hormone-sensitive ones. Grain sources of lignans include oil-
seeds (flax, rapeseed, and sesame), whole-grain cereals (wheat,
oats, rye, barley, and millets), and legumes (soybean). Flaxseed
is the richest source of SDG and also contains other lignans
(matairesinol, pinoresinol, lariciresinol, and isolariciresinol).
Baked products and salad dressings fortified with flax and
sesame seeds can be considered as functional foods rich in
lignans
Isoflavones
Isoflavones are often found as glycosides. Common isofla-
vones include daidzin, genistin, biochanin A, and formonone-
tin (Figure 5). The glycosides are converted to aglycones by gut
microflora. Among isoflavones, studies with genistein on
breast cancer cell lines show cell proliferation at low doses
and inhibition at high concentrations. Isoflavones are also
recognized as mild antioxidants.
Isoflavones are exclusively documented in leguminosae of
which soybean is the richest source. Other sources are kidney,
navy, pinto, red, small white, and mung beans and chickpeas,
split peas, peanuts, sunflower seed, and walnut. Raw soybeans
can contain 1.2–4.2 mg g1 dry weight isoflavones, while high-
protein soy flour may contain up to 1.1–1.4 mg g1 dry weight.
Diets rich in soybeans are implicated to improve cognitive abil-
ities, prevent osteoporosis and various cancers, improve immune
R1 O R2 Isoflavones
R1 R2
Geinstein OH OH
HO O Daidzin H OH
Biochanin A OH OCH3
Formononetin H OCH3
Figure 5 Structures of isoflavones.
OH
O
HO O HO
O
Coumestrol
Figure 6 Structures of coumestrol and 40 -methoxycoumestrol.
function and maintenance of menopausal health in women, and
also suppress CVD by lowering total cholesterol and LDL
cholesterol and raising HDL in the blood vessels. However, the
isoflavone content of soybean products varies with processing.
Water- and alcohol-extracted soybean protein concentrate and
soybean oils have insignificant levels of isoflavones.
Coumestans
Coumestans are less abundant than isoflavones in human
diets. They are known to have stronger estrogenic activity
than isoflavones. Typical examples are coumestrol and 40 -
methoxycoumestrol (Figure 6). Coumestrol and genistein have
higher binding affinities to ERb than other phytoestrogens.
Coumestrol has been reported to inhibit bone resorption and
stimulate bone mineralization by in vitro studies. Among grains,
chief sources are soy sprouts, mung bean, and sunflower seeds.
Stilbenes
Stilbenes are C6–C2–C6 compounds with –H,–OH, and –OCH3
as substituents on their two benzene (C6) rings (Figure 7).
Stilbenes are known to be anticarcinogenic, antioxidative,
antimutagenic, antitumor, and antiosteoporotic. Diets rich in
resveratrol, which exists in both trans and cis isomers of the
stilbene, are purported to prevent CVD, neurodegenerative dis-
orders such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease, and various
cancers. Resveratrol has stronger antioxidant activity than propyl
gallate, vanillin, phenol, 2,6-di-tert-butyl-p-hydroxytoluene
(BHT), and a-tocopherol. Among grains, stilbenes are found in
Fabaceae and Poaceae. Other good sources are peanuts, grape
skins, and notably some sorghum varieties.
Phytosterols
Phytosterols are natural components of human diets, are cho-
lesterol-like and lipophilic, and comprise sterols and stanols.
Stanols are hydrogenated products of sterols. Of more than
250 sterols and stanols known to exist in nature, only six
(campesterol, campestanol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, sitostanol,
and brassicasterol) are dominant in seed oils (rapeseed,
soybean, corn, and sunflower oils), other grains (corn, rye,
R HO
R OH
R HO
Stilbenes,R = H, OH or OCH3 Resveratrol
Figure 7 Structures of stilbenes.
O OCH3
O O
4`-M ethoxycoumestrol
 FOOD GRAINS AND WELL-BEING | Functional Foods: Overview 7

R 26
18 R 20
12 20 23
11 21 20 22 25 21 24
17 16 21 20 22 23 24 25 26 23 26 25
19 13 24 22 27
1 9
H 14 15
2 27 Brassicasterol
8 27
10 Sitosterol/stanol
5 Cholesterol/stanol
7
HO 3
4 6 18 R20
12
Sterols 11 21 20 22 23 25 26
17 16 21 20 22 23 25 26
19 24
1 9
H 13
14 15
24
2 27
27
10 8 Stigmasterol/stanol
5
Campesterol/stanol
7
HO 3
4 6
(a) Stanols

C O
Sitosteryl stearate
O
H
H3CO

HO CH CHCOO
Sitostanyl ferulate
H
CH2OH
O
OH O
HO Steryl glycoside (SG)
OH
O
C O CH H
2
O
OH O
HO Acylated steryl glycoside (ASG)
(b) OH
Figure 8 (a) Structure of plant stanols and plant sterols. (b) Conjugated structure of plant stanols and plant sterols.

wheat, barley, millets, rice, oats, and peanuts), and tree oils
(Figure 8(a)). In plant tissues, sterols and stanols can exist as
conjugates often esterified with fatty acids, oleic, or linoleic in
five forms (Figure 8(b)).
Plant sterols and stanols are known to attenuate absorption
of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLC), a risk factor for
premature atherosclerosis and CVD. Consumption of 2 g d1
of plant sterols or stanols as part of diet is known to lower
LDLC plasma levels by about 10%. Consumption of low cho-
lesterol and saturated fat along with high stanols or sterols can
reduce LDL by 20%. Statin medication along with sterols or
stanols is more effective in lowering LDL than doubling statin
dose. Ranking toward blocking of cholesterol absorption is as
follows: free-form stanols > stanol esters > free-form sterols >
sterol esters due to structural and metabolic reaction differ-
ences toward gut microorganisms. The precise mechanisms of
cholesterol-lowering effect by individual compounds in
humans remain largely unknown. Plant sterols/stanols are
also implicated to have mild anti-inflammatory effects and
are not toxic at physiological concentrations.
Carotenoids
Carotenoids are lipid-soluble tetraterpene hydrophobic
compounds, which impart yellow, orange, or red colors, and
found associated with lipid portions in human cells. Carotenoids
are divided into two groups (Figure 9): carotenes (hydrocarbons)
and xanthophylls (oxygenated carotenes). Carotenoids bear con-
jugated double bonds in their structures, which are responsible
for color formation and reactive oxidant stabilization. Caroten-
oids are antioxidants, and functional foods processed from carot-
enoids are helpful for prevention of CVD and cancers. b-carotene,
a-carotene, and b-cryptoxanthin are provitamin A compounds.
8 FOOD GRAINS AND WELL-BEING | Functional Foods: Overview

CH3 CH3 H3C

H3C CH3 Beta-carotene
Examples of
carotenes
H3C CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3
CH3 CH3 H3 C
Alpha-carotene
H3C CH3
H

H 3C CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3
CH3 CH3 H 3C
H3C CH3 Beta-cryptoxanthin

H3C CH3 Examples of

HO CH3 CH3
CH3 xanthophylls
CH3 CH3 H 3C OH
CH3 Zeaxanthin*
H3C

H3 C CH3
HO CH3 CH3
CH3
CH3 CH3 H 3C OH
CH3 Lutein*
H3C

H3C CH3
HO CH3 CH3
CH3

CH3 CH3 O Retinyl palmitate

H3C CH3
Vitamin A
O compounds

CH3 H3C

CH3 CH3 O
H3C CH3
OH Retinoic acid

CH3
CH3 CH3 O CH3 CH3
H3C CH3 H3C CH3
H OH
Retinal Retinol
CH3 CH3

Figure 9 Structures of carotenoids (*not provitamin A).

Of more than 700 carotenoids identified in nature, 24 occur
commonly in human foods and 40 have been detected in
human milk, serum, and tissues.
Among grains, chief sources are yellow maize, durum
wheat, einkorn, and golden rice. Carotenoid contents can
vary depending on varieties, cultivation conditions, geographic
locations, part of plant utilized, maturity stage, food proces-
sing, and storage conditions used. Heating, cooking, and
mechanical disruption and the presence of fats/oils can
enhance bioavailability of carotenoids. Carotenoid activities
can be destroyed by isomerization and oxidative reactions.
Lutein and zeaxanthin are not synthesized by humans. They
can be supplied from grains (yellow maize, durum wheat,
golden rice, and einkorn), vegetables (basil, parsley, spinach,
kale, leek, and red pepper), yellow egg yolks, and human milk.
Along with their metabolite meso-zeaxanthin, both are
protective against age-related macular degeneration and cata-
racts, a leading cause of eye blindness. Cereal-based lutein and
zeaxanthin-containing functional foods processed from yellow
maize, durum wheat, golden rice, einkorn, and maize bran
include high-lutein bread, high-lutein cookies, high-lutein
muffins, corn tortilla, corn chips, and extruded products.
Omega (v)-3 Fatty Acids
Omega-3 fatty acids are long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA) (C18-C22) commonly designated as o-3 fatty acids
(Figure 10). The o-3 and o-6 fatty acids are essential nutrients.
Alpha-linolenic acids (ALA, o-3) derived from plant sources
are precursors for physiologically important longer-chain
 FOOD GRAINS AND WELL-BEING | Functional Foods: Overview
ALA (C18:3Δ 9,12,15)
EPA (C20:5Δ 5,8,11,14,17)
DHA (C22:6Δ 4,7,10,13,16,19)
Figure 10 Omega-3 fatty acids: ALA, EPA, and DHA.
PUFAs: eicosapentaenoic (EPA, o-3) and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA, o-3).
Omega-3 fatty acids are components of cell membranes.
Their documented health benefits include suppressions of
CVD, cancer, type 2 diabetes, depression and stress, inflamma-
tory diseases, and (6) Alzheimer’s disease. They are also bene-
ficial in infant nutrition for normal brain, eye, and mammalian
nervous system development and function. Omega-3 fatty
acids are available as supplements from pharmaceuticals.
However, consumers prefer o-3 fatty acids from diets. In this
respect, there is high opportunity for o-3 fatty acid-containing
functional foods. The main source of ALA is flaxseed. Other
sources are canola, soybean oils, and walnuts. In flaxseed,
bioavailability of ALA is as follows: oil > milled > whole
flaxseed. Despite fish oil being a major source of EPA and
DHA, it is sensitive to autoxidation, and there is also a possi-
bility for methyl mercury toxicity since fish has potential for
contamination with this toxin. Where consumption of fish oil
is limited and methyl mercury toxicity is a possibility, EPA and
DHA are required to be supplied from ALA even though con-
version of ALA to EPA and DHA is known to be inefficient.
Baked foods like bread and injera and various cereal grain
snacks processed by incorporating flaxseed oils and/or milled
flaxseed flours are an alternative way of supplying o-3
fatty acids.
Gluten-Free Foods
In some genetically predisposed individuals, gluten proteins
from wheat, rye, barley, and triticale when ingested will lead to
celiac disease (CD). Oats are also not considered free, because
of potential contamination and the possibility that some peo-
ple who are intolerant to gluten are not immune to it. CD
involves interactions between genetic susceptibility (HLA-
DQ2 and HLA-DQ8 alleles), gluten proteins, and an
immunologic response that causes small intestinal mucosal
damage characterized by complete loss of absorptive villi to
maldigestion and malabsorption of nutrients. Such effects lead
to chronic diseases like skin lesions, anemia, diarrhea, weight
loss, osteoporosis, fatigue, infertility, and cancer. About 1% of
the world population is estimated to be gluten-intolerant.
There is no drug for CD, and the remedy is a complete adher-
ence to a gluten-free diet (GFD). The Codex Alimentarius Com-
mission and FDA have set standards for GFD to be
<20 mg kg1 gluten. Gluten proteins are vital for production
of aerated baked products to which consumers are attracted.
The use of baked products from gluten-free cereal grains (teff,
maize, rice, sorghum, and the millets) particularly those pro-
cessed from whole grains is a remedy for CD. Teff grain is one
9
O
C OH
O
C OH
O
C OH
such best candidate because it is always consumed as whole
grain often fermented as injera with insignificant antinutrients
in it and in many respects it supplies better nutrients for celiac
patients. Other approaches to gluten-free bread quality
improvements are the use of gluten-free flours and starches,
incorporation of nutritional ingredients, and use of structure
modifier additives and processing technologies that will
change the allergenic glutens.
Other bioactive compounds to be noted include tocols
(tocopherols and tocotrienols) from cereal germ and aleurone
layers; betaine and choline from wheat, barley and rye germ,
and brans; and benzoxazinoids from whole-grain wheat and
rye. Some bioactive compounds known for their antinutri-
tional effects tend to portray beneficial effects under specific
conditions. They include glucosinolates from rapeseed, phytic
acids from germ and aleurone layers of grains, and lectins
(hemagglutinins) from legumes and whole cereal grains.
Conclusions
Opportunities for grain-based functional foods are high
because grains are sources of many bioactive compounds that
are located in specific anatomical structures. However, bio-
availability can be influenced by many factors including
forms of existence, processing technology, and food matrices
that prevail during consumption. Functional foods are recog-
nized to be consumed as varied regular diets. However, the
absence of a definition that has received global consensus
potentially poses various risks such as inaccurate health claims,
adverse reactions, poor quality control during manufacturing,
allergic reactions, and carcinogenicity. Novel foods in particu-
lar may pose unprecedented risks because they do not have a
long history as diets to populations of different genetic back-
ground. A distinction between novel and functional foods may
help to reduce such effects. Misuse of functional foods can
lead to adverse effects such as anti-nutritional, thyroid toxicity,
drug interactions, allergic reactions and geno-toxicity/
carcinogenicity.
A given diet is believed to bear more than 25 000 bioactive
constituents. Minimum dietary intake that would lead to desir-
able health effect and maximum intake to avoid adverse effects
are yet not available for most bioactive compounds. A distinc-
tion is yet to be clearly established for most bioactive com-
pounds whether a desirable outcome is caused by a single
compound or by synergic effects. Since they are consumed as
regular varied diets for health promotion, designing functional
foods for synergic effects of bioactive compounds seems ben-
eficial. While designing for an optimum supply for those
health effects is established, caution is also required not to
10 FOOD GRAINS AND WELL-BEING | Functional Foods: Overview
affect other components used to be served in a given regular
diet. With an accurate definition in place, functional foods can
be better regulated to improve health and well-being.
Exercises for Revision
• Provide three features that you think useful to describe
functional foods.
• Describe how functional foods are different from dietary
supplements, prescribed drugs, traditional medicines, and
nutraceuticals.
• List various grain-based bioactive compounds.
• Provide factors that may influence bioaccessibility, bio-
availability, and bioactivity of bioactive compounds.
• List potential safe diets for celiac patients.
• Name indigenous foods consumed in your communities
believed to have health-promoting effects.
Exercises for Readers to Explore the Topic Further
• Explore the possibility of extending the earlier lists of bio-
active compounds in various grains.
• What metabolites are produced from the partial degrada-
tion of some of the bioactives listed? Find out if these are
still active.
• Investigate what innovative processing technologies might
provide optimum utilization of grain bioactive com-
pounds. Could these technologies also ensure that food
safety issues are addressed because bioactive compounds
are located in unique grain anatomical parts?
• Research the possibilities in plant breeding to enhance the
presence and availability of bioactives.
• Investigate the possible exploitation of indigenous foods
relevant to your region. Their consumption as safe diets has
been known for ages, so their potential to grow in the
functional foods spectrum should be considerable.
See also: Appendix 3: Grains, Foods, and Ingredients Suiting
Gluten-Free Diets for Celiac Disease; Bioactives and Toxins:
Bioactives: Antioxidants; Bioactive Compounds in Wheat Bran; The
Antinutritional Components of Grains; Carbohydrates: Glycemic
Index, Glycemic Load, and Their Health Benefits; Grains other than
Cereals: Non-starch Polysaccharides; Food Grains and the
Consumer: Cultural Differences in Processing and Consumption;
Fortification of Grain-Based Foods; Genetically Modified Grains and the
Consumer; Grains and Health: Misinformation and Misconceptions;
Grains and Health; Labelling of Grain-Based Foods; Food Grains and
Well-being: Functional Foods: Dietary Fibers, Prebiotics, Probiotics,
and Synbiotics; Food Grains: Intolerance, Allergy and
Diseases: Celiac Disease; Cereal Allergens; The Gluten-Free Diet;
The Basics: Grain: Morphology of Internal Structure.
Further Reading
Bagchi D (ed.) (2014) Nutraceutical and Functional Food Regulations in the United
States and Around the World. NW, USA: Elsevier Inc.
Capriles VD and Arêas JAG (2014) Novel approaches in gluten-free bread making:
interface between food science, nutrition, and health. Comp. Rev. Food Sci. Food
Saf. 13: 871–890.
Doyon M and Labrecque J (2008) Functional foods: a conceptual definition. Br. Food J.
110(11): 1133–1149.
Dykes L and Rooney LW (2007) Phenolic compounds in cereal grains and their health
benefits. Cereal Foods World 52: 105–111.
Fraga CG (ed.) (2010) Plant Phenolics and Human Health: Biochemistry, Nutrition, and
Pharmacology. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Gogus U and Smith C (2010) n-3 Omega fatty acids: a review of current knowledge. Int.
J. Food Sci. Technol. 45: 417–436.
Gylling H, Plat J, Turley S, Ginsberg HN, Ellegård L, Jessup W, Jones PJ, Lütjohann D,
Maerz W, Masana L, Silbernagel G, Staels B, Borén J, Catapano AL, De Backer G,
Deanfield J, Descamps OS, Kovanen PT, Riccardi G, Tokgözoglu L, and
Chapman MJ (2014) Plant sterols and plant stanols in the management of
dyslipidaemia and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis
232: 346–360.
Hasler CM and Brown AC (2009) Position of the American dietetic association:
functional foods. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 109: 735–746.
Howlett J (2008) Functional Foods: From Science to Health and Claims. Belgium: ILSI
Europe.
Malla S, Hobbs J, and Sogah EK, (2013) Functional Foods and Natural Health Products
Regulations in Canada and Around the World: Nutrition Labels and Health Claims.
Report Prepared for the Canadian Agricultural Innovation and Regulation Network
(CAIRN), Canada
Mohamed S (2014) Functional foods against metabolic syndrome (obesity, diabetes,
hypertension and dyslipidemia) and cardiovascular disease. Trend Food Sci.
Technol. 35: 114–128.
Ndolo VU and Beta T (2014) Comparative studies on composition and distribution of
phenolic acids in cereal grain botanical fractions. Cereal Chem. 91(5): 522–530.
Peterson J, Dwyer J, Adlercreutz H, Scalbert A, Jacques P, and McCullough MJ (2010)
Dietary lignans: physiology and potential for cardiovascular disease risk reduction.
Nutr. Rev. 68(10): 571–603.
Sajilata MG, Singhal RS, and Kamat MY (2008) The carotenoid pigment zeaxanthin—a
review. Comp. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 7: 29–49.
Taylor JRN, Belton PS, Beta T, and Duodu KG (2014) Review: Increasing the utilization
of sorghum, millets and pseudocereals: Developments in the science of their
phenolic phytochemicals, biofortification and protein functionality. J. Cereal Sci.
59: 257–275.
Relevant Websites
http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/supplementary/1475-2891-9-3-S1.PDF –
University of Oslo.
http://www.glnc.org.au/wp-content/themes/glnctheme/images/home.png
http://www.google.co.bw/url?
http://www.nutritionj.com/content/9/1/3.