NUCLEAR ENGINEERING AND DESIGN 32 (1975) 129-147.

© NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY

HIGH-TEMPERATURE CREEP OF CONCRETE*

H. GROSS~
Department of Civil Engineering, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, UK

Received 12 March 1974

Axisymmetric or spherical concrete structures designed with tensioned or non-tensioned steel reinforcement are used
in civil engineering practice as reactor pressure vessels, containers for chemicals, water towers or reservoirs, submarine
oil tanks, caissons, bunkers, air-raid shelters, silos, cupolas, lighthouses, industrial chimneys, television aerial masts and
central pylons for suspended cooling towers. In the course of analysing such structures using finite element and finite
difference computing tecl/niques, the author investigated the behaviour of concrete at ambient, elevated and high
temperatures, and subsequently studied its effects on the structures' strain history. Since stress analysis problems of
continua are insoluble in closed form except for simple ideal geometries, the strain history is reproduced matrix-
theoretically by defining sets of scalar thermal relaxation factors which act as multipliers of the coefficients of the
structures' stiffness matrix as present in the global force-deformation equation.

1. Introduction mena occur simultaneously. Consequently, the true

1.1. Creep-relaxation duality
The natural phenomena of creep and relaxation mani-
fest themselves in evolutionary processes, i.e. the re-
sponses they describe when material is acted upon by
external agents develop as functions of time and history
[34, 40, 45, 47, 49, 76, 9 1 , 9 2 , 108, 109, 113]. Like
other evolutionary processes in the real world, they
are incapable of being formulated in exact scientific
language, as suitable rheological models are not yet
available [ 1 3 - 1 6 , 38, 65, 94, 114].
The complexity of the problem of thermovisco-
elasticity has its origin in the duality of the creep and
relaxation phenomena [28, 45, 55, 63, 69, 73, 90, 110].
Strictly speaking, the thermoviscoelastic process un-
folds dynamically in conformityiwith the dialectic
interaction between the polarized responses from creep
and relaxation which are highly interdependent. In
other words, the effects emerging from the two pheno-
* Invited paper H6/5" presented at the Second International
Conference on Stiuctural Mechanics in Reactor Technology,
Berlin, Germany, 10-14 September, 1973.
t Present address: D-2394 Satrup-Nackholz, Germany.
analysis of structures should incorporate concepts for
both the variation of strains under prescribed stress
systems [9, 10, 33, 34, 39, 56, 59, 66, 108] and the
variation of stresses under prescribed strain systems
[55, 64, 69, 105, 106]. However, such an analysis is
impracticable.
Realizing, though, that in real life, any process is
dynamic, i.e. a time and history-dependent response
between action and reaction systems, the standard
tool of dialectics may be utilized. This implies that for
mathematical and experimental ease the creep and
relaxation phenomena are uncoupled by suppressing
the one that is keeping constant its representative stati-
cal entity in order to investigate the other [45,47,90.].
1.2. Phenomenological characteristics
Although it is desirable to base the constitutive equation
of concrete on the understanding of the processes in the
microstructure of the cement paste [11, 12, 14, 18, 19,
31, 50, 57, 7 1 , 7 5 , 87, 88], for the purpose of struc-
tural analysis the complex behaviour o f concrete first
requires a research programme carried out which in-
vestigates thermal creep and relaxation on the pheno-
menological level [43, 48].
130 H. (;ross, High-temperature creep of concrete

This implies that the thermoviscoelastic response compatibility requirements is arrived at.
flmctions will only be formulated in terms of their The main if not fatal difficulty is to know how
main physical variables: temperature, age, time and, if many redundancies exist in a structure and thus the
creep strains are investigated, stress/cold strength ratio.
In this way, experimental data of a practical nature
are produced which enable the completion of realistic
design analyses.
Experiments on thermoviscoelasticity must be
carried out under conditions which make it possible
for the researcher to analyse the theoretical model for
its evolution [43, 48]. Depending on whether the
analytic approach requires the knowledge of strain or
stress histories, experiments on isothermal creep or
relaxation need to be devised.

1.3. Experimen t - theory contradiction

From previous research and analysis [45, 76, 90, 106]

it is known that a flagrant contradiction exists between
the experimental and the matrix-theoretical access to
the thermoviscoelastic stress problem in structures. In
brief, structural analyses favour the incorporation of Fig. 1. General view of creep testing machines.
the relaxation phenomenon, while test rigs are almost
incapable of sinmlating it realistically.
(1) Considering the creep-relaxation duality, the
evolutionary process of creep is determined more easily
than the one of relaxation. This is mainly due to the
fact that, while dead loads are applied to procure creep-
inducing stresses, the strain can easily be detected
either visually using microscopes or kinematically using
mechanical devices in conjunction with electronic dis-
placement transducers.
In contrast, since relaxation-inducing strains require
the imposition of time-invariant distances between the
bearing plates of the specimen, the question arises as
where to place the load cell [64, 106].
(2) Using finite element stress analyses [ 1 - 6 , 27,
29, 30, 4 4 - 4 6 , 51,68, 77, 86, 90, 101, 115, 116], the
method corresponding to creep investigations is the
flexibility or force method. It is elegant, since the sizes
of matrices to be stored in the computer memory are
small and determined only by the number of redund-
ancies in a structure. A reduced stress system which is
in equilibrium with the forces and a system of self-
equilibrating stresses, which do not disturb the equili-
brium of this system nmst be found. Then, by deter-
mining the redundancies, i.e. the indeterminate general-
ized forces, the true stress system which satisfies the Fig. 2. Yoke system and strain measuring device.
 H. Gross, High-temperature creep of concrete
Fig. 3. Loadingjack, suspensions and weights.
Fig. 4. Control and monitoring units.
131
Fig. 5. Scanner unit for transducers and thermocouples.
flexibility method requires a sound skill and knowledge
about structures. In consequence, the relatively simpler
finite element matrix displacement method which re-
produces the phenomenon of thermoviscoelasticity by
employing relaxation functions has been preferred. In
the long run, the obstacles complicating the incorpora-
tion of thermoviscoelastic effects into the theory of
structures requiring relaxation functions, are less severe
than those precluding the performance of reliable
relaxation tests. With regard to the experimental in-
vestigation into the problem of thermoviscoelasticity,
therefore, the author designed machines for creep
testing [48], see figs 1-5.
2. Experimental investigation
2.1. Recorded creep strains
Except for the residual strength of concrete cylinders
after heat testing, the data reported were obtained from
experiments conducted on these creep testing machines.
Having established a uniform temperature distribution
throughout the cylinders by preheating them for one
day at the relevant temperatures, a fixed compressive
load equivalent to a stress/cold strength ratio of s = 0.2,
0.4 or 0.66 was applied. All cylinders were of the same
mix, of the size ~60 x 180 mm and between 6 and 12
132 N. Gross,High-remperarurecreep of concrete

months old when tested. Their compressive cold strength
worked out at cbU = 42 N/mm*, The basic information
acquired is available in the form of creep curves dis-
played in figs 6-10, the parameter being the test tem-
perature.
2.2. Thermoelas tic strains
A parameter study is carried out in fig. 11 to show the
effect of the stress/cold strength ratio on the formation
of thermoelastic strains. Scaling all readings as if they

I I I I
0 1 2 3 L 6 7
DURATION UNDER LOAD in DAYS

DURATION UNDER LOAD in DAYS Fig. 8. High temperature creep for a stress/cold strength ratio
Fig. 6. Low temperature creep for stress/cold strength ratios of 0.2.
of 0.2 and 0.66.

01 I I I I I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
IIURATION UNDER LOAD in DAYS WRATION UNDER LOAD in DAYS

Fig. 7. Low temperature creep for a stress/cold strength ratio Fig. 9. High temperature creep for a stress/cold strength ratio
of 0.4. of 0.4.
 H. Gross, High-temperature creep of concrete 133

were taken at s = 0.2, a normalized profile common superposition of a tri-linear function

to the results obtained for the three different ratios s
Co.2 (T) = eo.2 (20 ° C)f(T), (i)
may be drawn, as shown in fig. 12.
Independent of the load level, a local peak in the f(T) = {l.O + 0.00833 (T - 30)} (30 ~< T ~< 60)
strains is registered at 60°C. The fitting of a single, {1.25 - 0.00250 (T - 60)} (60 ~< T~< 110)
monotonically increasing function to the test data is
{1.125 + 0.00349 ( T - 110)}1(110 ~ T ~ 350)
thus precluded, leaving as the simplest solution the

3'
I00

90---
r350°c
"/o 5.0

"=- 4 . 8
52
/ /s;

/
.g 80 u'J
z

-/
II
70-- n,, 4.6
i--
-
o3
4.4

50 3o9.*c
~ 4.2

:E V
.._= 40 -" "~"- Z50%
~ 40 ~ "-/
,~ 200 °C
"= 3.8 '~
m 2030~
N
~ ~o"c ~. 3.6 EINE] s = 0.4
i ~ ~ , , : E
o , I I0~ O W'~'W s = 0.66
20~C z 3.4 ~.

f
10 r

3.2 .¢,. J
0 I 0 50 100 150 200 250 300350
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 TEMPERATURE LEVEL in "C
DURATION UNDER LOAD in DAYS
Fig. 12. Thermoelastic strains normalized to a stress level of 0.2.
Fig. 10. High temperature creep for a stress/cold strength ratio
of 0.66.

50

9 18
.c_ &&B s :0,2
40-- E]I3E] s= 0t,
tU ?VV s = 066
initial elastic
UJ
r,, strains
elastic reeo~r
strains
'~ 30
t-t ~.*1 o 12~]
,Z

2o
..
~-- I

,_¢. ~- I
z 4 "4" I
r
2
i

o 0 I
0 tOO 2OO 300 4OO 500 600 700 0,10 0.2 0.3 0.4 05 0.6 0.7
TEMPERATURE LEVEL in *C STRESS/COLD STRENGTH RATIO
Fig. 11. Initial and recovered thermoelastic strains. Fig. ] 3. L o a d - d e p e n d e n t initial thermoelastic strains.
134 H. Gross, High-temperature creep o f concrete

where eo.2(20°C) = 320 ~ and the term ambient is 11o

applicable to temperatures up to 30°C. 100
Analysing fig. 13, the following approximate field 3'o
function may be described for temperatures equal to c_ 90
Q
or higher than 200°C:
¢~ 80
c(s, T, o) = ( sg)i l + e ( s , T ) { e o l ( 2 0 0 ° C ) a 70
$
+15.4(0.01T 2) 4}, (in/l) (2) m 60
Q
where e(s, T) = 1.5{(s/0.1) - 1 } ( 0 . 0 0 I T - 0.18). For ~- 50
tY
s = 0.1, the exponents e(s, T) becomes zero, rendering uJ

the solution of eq. (2) thermoelastic, eo. ] (200°c), ~0

.¢

which amounts to 210/~, and the strains for T ~> 200°C 30

may be determined using eq. (1). e,.

20

2. 3. Ultimate thermal strains

0
Figure 11 infers that within the range tested, concrete of 0 100 200 300 /,00 500 600 700
the given mix and age fails under loads imposing strains TEMPERATURE LEVEL in °C
Fig. 15. Total thermal strains after 7 days under load.
greater than about 0.4%. By tentative extrapolation along
the confidence limits drawn from experiments in fig.
14, however, for s = 0.1 and T = 600°C a thermoelasto- tures beyond 600°C; cf. figs 17, 19 and 20. Tentatively,
plastic strain of about I% may be predicted. This value thus
presumably coincides with the maximum ultimate
thermoelasto-plastic deformation, as concrete ceases
e(T, t = 0)max" ~ 1%. (3)
to take any significant stress when heated to tempera- With regard to ultimate creep strains, fig. 15 indi-
cates that within the domain 0.2 ~< s ~< 0.66, the 7 day
creep strains do not exceed values of about lC/~,irres-
10
I
iI
pective of the test temperature. Since by extrapolation
0.9 l
I / along the creep profiles in figs 6 10 the estimated
I il
l
It I maximum increase in strain beyond 7 days is limited to
0.8 /
Z about 20%, the ultimate total creep strain may be
0.7 Is=07 t// expected to settle at

7"Z,
0.1:
0.6 e(T, t = °°)max" ---~ 1.2%. (4)
° I
~o 0.5
i
2. 4. Thermally induced shrinkage strains
0")

u.I
04
0 The local maximum in the strain developments at
~E
0.3 about 60°C indicates the presence of drying shrinkage.
'/
-r 0./.
The thermally induced shrinkage strains recorded are
tlJ 0.2 shown in fig. 16. Outside the extension of the local
[
IE / 11 peak, i.e. for 110 and 140°C, no significant shrinkage
0.1 ! ; /
I strains were detected. For temperatures of 60 and
I i 80°C, however, finite strain readings of 180 and 160/x
o 100 200 300 400 50(] 600 ?00
TEMPERATURE LEVEL in "C were taken at the end of the seventh day after pre-
Fig. 14. Limits for ultimate thermoelasto-plastic strains. heating.
 H. Gross, High-temperature creep of concrete 135

00

I I~\~ ~\'~", f r EinilT)/ Eini(20"C)

a g a s=0./., Eini(20~C)=2"/,TKNhnm'
o

c & 7Ol V,
tt)
z '\\\ ~ ~\"\,\
60
o.

lal so

~t2
z
m 60°[2
....w.----"
ty
-I=
\\
03 f 80% 30 ,\

IE
rr ;2° /
w
T

I/,O=C
1/1 ' \\'~IL 01

110bC
0 O|
0 I 3 4 5 6 7 0 113(3
200 30(3 &O0 5OO 60O 700
TIME AFTER PREHEATING in DAYS TEMPERATURE LEVEL in °C
Fig. 16. Thermal shrinkage. Fig. 18. Relative initial modulus of thermoelasto-plasticity.

showing linearity of the strains in the stress variable

25 up to about 200°C. With the environmental condition
becoming more severe, a transition to thermoplastic
behaviour takes place, and for temperatures beyond
350°C, concrete quickly deteriorates.
E 20
z
._.q 3.2. Modulus of thermoelasto-plasticity
z
l/J
¢.1 Once the initial thermoelastic strains are recorded, the
uJ
n modulus of thermoelasto-plasticity is determined by
uJ dividing the stress by the strain. For a stress/cold
ne strength ratio o f s = 0.2, errors in the initial strain
(_)
Z readings due to viscous effects are reduced, since in the
0
corresponding test procedures the load was applied
ZO
within 20 sec.
s
IJJ Except in the vicinity of 60°C, where the associated
value drops to 80% of the initial one, an inversed quad-
ratic parabola may be fitted to the test results given in
fig. 18:
5 10 15 20 25 30 3S
INITIAL AXIAL STRAINS in 10 -4 mo. 2 = 4.81(452 - T) 1/2, (in %) (5)
Fig. 17. Temperature-dependent stress-strain curves.
where rno.2 is defined by Eini(T)/Eini(20°C).
3. Physical representation
3.3. Ultimate stress~cold strength ratio
3.1. Constitutive relationships
The limiting ratios are plotted against the test tempera-
The temperature-dependent stress-strain curves ob- ture in fig. 19. Since the load is applied by weights of
tained during load application are drawn in fig. 17, finite magnitudes, only upper and lower bound solutions
136 H. Gross, High-temperature creep o f concrete

author suggests a formula of inverted parabolic nature

0.9 _ i ~ __
m s = a(s) (Tult(s) - T} 1/2, (8)
~0.8 L= t o ~ bou value

o.6~
where Tult(s) is given by eq. (7) and the parameter a(s)
is obtained from the simple expression
- -

a(s) = 1O0 {Tult(S) - 20} -1/2, (9)

~o.s - ),
Eq. (5) is identically satisfied. Based on eq. (8), the
temperature-induced deterioration of concrete can be
e predicted for variou s stress/cold strength ratios.
Examples are shown in fig. 18 for s = 0.1 and 0.8.

3. 6. Ultimate hot strength

0.1

0 As revealed by the entries in fig. 20, the reduction in

0 100 200300 t,00 500 600 700
ultimate strength, determined after gently cooling and
TEMPERATURE LEVEL in °C
removal from the furnace, does not exceed 10% as
Fig. 19. Limit for ultimate stress/cold strength ratio.
long as the test temperature falls below 150°C. For
higher temperatures, the author found the simple linear
can be produced. Upper bound values symbolize relation
the collapse of the specimens, while for lower values
n7 day = ( 1 2 0 - 0.171T), (150 <~ T ~ 700) (10)
the corresponding load is still endured. The limiting
profile may be approximated by a tri-linear function where n is defined by the ratio C'yu(T)/c'yu(20°f).
Su~t(T) = 1.0 - O.OOJ (T 20) (20 ~< T ~< 350)
= 0 . 6 6 - 0.00457 ( T - 350) (350~< T~<452) 110

= 0.2 - 0.000746 (T - 452) (452 ~< T ~< 700). 100

(6) ._= 90

3.4. Ultimate temperatures tu

p.. 80

The higher temperatures endured may be expressed in 8 70

LL
0
terms of the stress/cold strength ratio by inverting
60
eqs (6): 0
Z
ill
tY 5o
Tult(s ) = 1000 (1.0 - s) + 20 (0.66 ~< s <~ 1)
= 219 (0.66 - s) + 350 (0.2 <~ s ~< 0.66) (7) 4o
0

= 1340 (0.2 - s) + 452 t,i

(0.02 ~< s ~< 0.2). 30

20
3.5. Modulus o f quasi-thermoelasto-plasticity
LLI
lo
A more general modulus of thermoelasto-plasticity
0
which tolerates small viscous contributions to initial 0 log 200 300 400 500 600
deformations may be defined. Relying on the experi- TEMPERATURE LEVEL in °C

mentally corroborated values in figs 18 and 19, the Fig. 20. Temperature-dependent cylinder strength.
 H. Gross, High-temperature creep of concrete 137

4. Mathematical d e s c r i p t i o n creep analyses of concrete structures, the creep pro-

files displayed in figs 6 - 1 0 are scaled down as if ob-
4. l. Superposition hypothesis tained for the reference stress/cold strength ratio
s = 0.2. The overlapping of curves in figs 21 and 22
In standardizing the recorded data to investigate the within confidence limits of about + 10% justifies the
applicability of the superposition hypothesis in thermal treatment of thermal creep strains as linear thermovisco-
elastic strains up to about 300°C.
tO

9 4. 2. Shape optimization
Y
9 8 In plotting the creep rate against time in double
-
¢
logarithmic scale, a linear function of negative slope
...7
may be fitted to the scatter o f data pairs from each
test, as shown in fig. 23:

log e, t = a(s, T) + b(s, T) log t. (11)

p1- ~0.~.____-----------
Converting to natural logarithms and solving for the
real creep increment
3
r-t &&~. s = 02
UJ
N 2 BBa S = 0.4
e, t = (2.3025a(s, T) + b(s, T) In t). (12)
~V~ s = 066

n- 1
After integration, the function to be fitted reads
o
z , ~
0 I ] ] exp {2.3025a(s, T)} t{b(s, 73 + 1}
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 e(s, T, t) = e(s, T, 0) +
DURATION UNDER LOAD in DAYS
b(s, T) + 1
Fig. 21. Low temperature creep normalized to a stress level (13)
of 0.2.
Evaluating the diagrams in double logarithmic scale
20 I
300
3s0~.i f ~ I
18 . ~ f l

9 16 100
.c
/
-f 3O
_o
c
tL
bJ
10
LU

~8 t~
_z
IIJ
O
~ 6 / Z
<
El &~.& s = 02 -r
U.I
N
-J
<[
:E
/~ BQB

VV~7
s = 0,4
s = 066
U

W
s = 0.4
T = 300°(
"5-.
oo, o.s)/
2 0.3
¢w

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0.1
DURATION UNDER LOADin DAYS 0.! 0.3 1 l0
Fig. 22. High temperature creep normalized to a stress level DURATION UNDER LOADin )AYS
of 0.2. Fig. 23. Rate of change in creep in log-log scale.
138 H. Gross, High-temperature creep of concrete

the slope becomes 4. 3. Analysis o f thermal creep strains

log(e, tile, t2)
/)(s, T) = (14) Consulting figs 24 and 25, the arithmetical tbrms of
log (t ]/t2)
eqs (14) and (15) become
Whereas the intersecting point on the ordinate is
a(s, T) = c(s) + d(s)T, (16)
a(s, T) = ½ {log (e, tl, e, t2) - b(s, T)log (t • t2)}.
05) b(s) = 0.55 - 0.255, (17)
1.0 !
with
0.a i
j
c(s) = log s + 0.2
d(s) = 0.0028 - 0.001s.
"' 0 . 4 - - -
Substituting eqs (16) and (17) into eq. (13), the mathe-
="'
o
°0.2 7
z / matical description of any thermal creep curve is obtain-
able. The initial strains follow eq. (1) for T~< 200°C
~ M
and eq. (2) for T ~< 200°C. The duration under load is
! A,x/s, s = O2 entered in days; the strains appear in 10 -4.
-o.2 ,/, /
OQO s = O~
'~ -0.4 ~'~ s = 066 4. 4. Formula ]br thermoviscoelastic strains
o
to , j, • b0.2
F--
"0.6 A
i~ -
' ,~ A
vo0,/.
Using tile stress/cold strength ratio s = 0.2 as a base,
ILl .m .'Y
•,Jr-0.8 v _v v~r~ eq. (13) may be replaced by another which is limited
to the computation of thermoviscoelastic strains.
-,o i i Rewriting eq. (1) as
TEMPERATURE LEVEL in °C 0-0. 2
Fig. 24. T e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t p a r a m e t e r s o f p r o p o s e d e(o.2, T, 0) = E(2oOc) f(T), (i 8)
creep f o r m u l a .
and expressing the applied stress in terms of the strength
of concrete as
1.0 ! t
J 0 = SCyu, (19)
0.8
I
b(s)=-0.55 - 025 s the author's formula to obtain the stress, temperature
0.6 c(s)= log s*02 and time-dependent strains occurring in virgin concrete
0 ~ d(s): 0 0 0 2 8 - 0001s
LL
0.4
is arrived at"
CI
W t ~) O
0.2
Cyu(,0 C)
O ! e(s, T, t) = s ~ f(r)
a_ 0 ' !j-~
11
O
i Jr
exp {2.3025a(0.2, T)} t{b(o.2) + ]1 ( ~~ )
-0.2 t
oa
(b(0.2) + 1}
u I
-0.4

to
-0.6 - - -
5. N u m e r i c a l analysis

~-0B
5.1. Generation of weigh ting /'actors
II I i t
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0,4 0.5 0.6 07
STRESS/ COLD STRENGTH RAIIO A computer program CRELAX first transforms the
Fig. 25. S t r e s s - d e p e n d e n t p a r a m e t e r o f p r o p o s e d creep f o r m u l a . thermal creep curves as reproduced by eq. (22) to
 H. Gross, High-temperature creep of concrete 139

tO
tn E = normalized creep data
¢..)
C= normalized creep curve O.8
R= n(xmalized retoxati0ncurm
o
o 0.6 ~"~
W= rel~otion weighting factors t.)
,<
-r
¢j
Z
o_
0.2
5 LU
uJ
0 /f ~ o

/ Z 1.o
>
O
~E
n,.
LLI

Q
06 :.~__. .,,0~
U.I
N 04 i~'q'" ~.._/.~0%
I£
0
~=0.2
Z
0 [ 3000C/
I I
0 1 3 4 5 6 0.1 0.3 0.5 1 3 S I0
DURATION UNDER LOAD in DAYS DURATION UNDER LOAD in DAYS

Fig. 26. Thermoviscoelasticcharacteristics of concrete at Fig. 27. Thermal relaxation weighting factors in semi-log
300°C. scale.

sequences of associated relaxation responses on the 6. Matrix-theoretical treatment

basis of the creep-relaxation duality as expressed in
eq. (34) of the author's paper [45]. It then regresses
the latter to time-dependent relaxation weighting
factors by evaluating the history-dependent arithmeti-
Cal expression [55] of the same paper.
As an example, in fig. 26 the normalized, linear
thermoviscoelastic strain curve, experimentally ob-
tained for a test temperature of 300°C, is compared
with that generated by evaluation of eq. (22). Also,
the corresponding thermal relaxation function and the
pertaining relaxation weighting factors are displayed.
5. 2. Employment of weighting factors
Since for design purposes only the thermal relaxation
weighting factors are of interest, these are entered in-
dependently in semi logarithmic scale in fig. 27. Each
profile is really a sequence of discrete time-dependent
scalars, since each value is obtained by evaluation of a
separate integral. The initial gradients of the relaxation
curves - and thus the drop in value of the initial weight-
ing factors - are~steeper than those of the creep curves.
This observation is satisfying, as it corroborates that the
stiffness approach to structural thermoviscoelastic
analysis using relaxation weighting factors is more
efficient than the flexibility method of approach.
The stiffness coefficients which link the force displace-
ment components of a fictitiously subdivided structure
constitute evaluated functions of element geometries
and physical properties. In normalizing the relevant
creep and relaxation curves, the residual global stiffness
matrix of the structure remains untouched by weight-
ing. Owing to their non-dimensional form and rheo-
logical nature, the author's thermal relaxation weight-
ing factors may be employed independently even of
the structure's geometry and the kind of stiffness
method.
Following eq. (59) of the paper mentioned above
[45], the step-wise uncoupled load-deformation matrix
equation of the transient thermoviscoelastic stress
analysis problem may be established for a time instant
t i as
G(T, r, o)wt(ti)K'W(ti)G( T, r, 0)u(ti)
= G(T, r, o)wt(ti)R'O(ti) + F, (23)
where G is the temperature and age-dependent modulus
of elasticity, W is a column of thermal relaxation weight-
ing factors, K' is the residual stiffness matrix, u is the
displacement vector, R ' i s the residual thermal load
vector, 0 is the vector expressing the temperature
distribution and Fis the external force vector.
140 H. Gross, High-temperature creep of concrete

The applicability o f t h e r m a l r e l a x a t i o n w e i g h t i n g aggregate were T h a m e s River deposits. Water in the

factors in creep analyses has b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d by materials was n o t allowed for, as t h e y were dried in
the a u t h o r elsewhere [48]. blast air. The m i x p r o p o r t i o n s are listed in table 1.
(2) Creep data. The creep data r e c o r d e d over a test
period o f seven days for a stress/cold s t r e n g t h s ratio
7. Tabular presentation of results o f 0.2, 0.4, and 0.66 respectively, are given in tables
2 - 4 . Failures o f s p e c i m e n s are s y m b o l i s e d by a n
(1) Mix used. One c o n c r e t e m i x was used t h r o u g h o u t asterisk.
the investigation. B o t h t h e two sands and t h e coarse (3) Thermal scaling factors. Taking a m b i e n t condi-
tions as a reference, t h e r m a l scaling factors for initial
strains, creep strains, creep recovery, t h e r m o e l a s t i c
Table 1.
Mix proportions. strains, the m o d u l u s o f elasticity a n d t h e residual
s t r e n g t h are a s s e m b l e d in table 5.
(4) Thermal relaxation weighting factors. The
Particulars Weight
t h e r m a l r e l a x a t i o n weighting factors w h i c h are em-
Ordinary Portland cement 1.00 p l o y e d to a d a p t t h e stiffness p r o p e r t i e s o f a c o n c r e t e
Fine sand (100-25 BS) 0.65 s t r u c t u r e to the t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n s it is e x p o s e d to
Coarse sand (25 BS-4.8 mm) 1.55 and w h i c h are arrived at b y regression o f n o r m a l i z e d
Coarse aggregate (4.8 9.5 mm) 2.39
t h e r m a l creep data as s h o w n in the a u t h o r ' s thesis [48],
Water 0.60
m a y be t a k e n from table 6.

Table 2.
Thermal creep strains for s = 0.2 in 100 #.

T 20 40 60 80 110 140 200 250 300 350 400 450 500°C

t

0hr 3.2 3.4 4,0 3.8 3.6 3.8 4.2 4.6 5.2 6.8 9.2 38,0 *
¼ 3.4 3.5 4.2 3.9 3.8 4.0 4.5 5.2 6.0 7.2 12.2 48.2
12 3.5 3.6 4.3 4.0 4.0 4.2 4,6 5.6 6.4 7.4 13.2 50.6
1 3.6 3.8 4.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.7 6.2 6.6 7.6 14.4 54.1
2 3.7 4.0 4.5 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.8 6.6 6.8 8.4 16.4 59.2
3 3.7 4.2 4.5 4.2 4.4 4.6 5.0 7.0 7.2 9.0 17.4 61.4
6 3.8 4.3 4.6 4.3 4.5 4.8 5.5 7.4 7.6 10.6 18.6 66.8
12 3.8 4,4 4.6 4.4 5.0 5.0 6.0 7.8 8.0 12.4 20.8 71.8
18 3.9 4.5 4.7 4.5 5.2 5.5 6.6 8.2 8.6 13.2 22.6 75.2
lday 4.0 4.6 4.8 5.4 5.9 7.2 8.6 8.8 9.0 14.0 24.2 78.6
1.5 4.1 4.8 5.0 4.7 5.7 6.2 8.0 9.6 9.7 15.0 26.0 80.8
2 4.2 5.0 5.2 4.8 5.9 6.8 8.4 10.2 10.4 15.6 28.6 84.2
2.5 4.2 5.1 5.3 5.0 6.1 7.0 9.0 10.4 10.9 16.4 29.4 86.6
3 4.2 5.2 5.4 5.2 6.8 8.2 9.4 10.7 11.4 17.2 29.8 88.4
3.5 4.3 5.3 5.4 5,3 6.4 7.3 9.5 11.0 11.8 17.5 30.2 90.4
4 4.4 5.4 5.5 5.4 6.6 7.4 9.6 11.4 12.2 17.6 30.5 92,0
4.5 4.4 5.5 5.6 5.5 6.8 7.5 9.7 11.7 12.6 18.0 31.0 93.3
5 4.4 5.6 5.8 5.6 6.9 7.6 9.8 12.0 13.0 18.2 31.4 94.6
5.5 4.4 5.6 6.0 5.7 7.0 7.7 9.9 I2.2 13.3 18.4 32.0 95.8
6 4.4 5.7 6.1 5.8 7.1 7.8 10.0 12.4 13.6 18.6 32.6 97.0
6.5 4.5 5.7 6.2 6.0 7.2 7.8 10.1 12.5 14.0 18.8 33.2 98.2
7 4.5 5.8 6.2 6.1 7.3 7.9 10.2 12.6 14.2 19.2 33.6 99.0
3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.5 4.0 4.7 5.7 7.3 9.2
t~
C~

J~
c~

~s

c~

Jl
o
t~
o
L~

c~

C~

C~
 142 1t. Gross, High.temperature creep o f concrete

Table 5.

Thermal 20 40 60 80 110 140 200 250 300 350 400 450 500°C
characteristics

hritial strains
fors =0.2 1 1.06 1.25 1.28 1.13 1.18 1.31 1.43 1.62 2.12 2.87 11.87 *
for s = 0.4 1 1.09 1.38 1.44 1.16 1.25 1.34 1.76 1.92 1.92 2.71 *
fors =0.66 1 1.09 1.28 1.30 1.06 1.18 1.60 1.58 2.13 3.01 *

Creep strains after

7 days
for s = 0.2 1 1.29 1.38 1.36 1.62 1.76 2.27 2.80 3.16 4.27 7.46 22.0
for s = 0.4 1 1.44 1.46 1.58 1.55 1.62 2.06 2.53 2.79 4.11 10.16
for s = 0.66 1 1.38 1.80 1.78 1.34 1.40 2.40 2.79 3.24 *

Creep recovery after

7 days
for s = 0.2 1 1.03 1.06 1.06 1 1.03 1.09 1.25 1.47 1.78 2.28 2.87
fors =0.4 1 1.17 1.26 1.26 1.17 1.19 1.33 1.54 1.79 2.10 2.45
fors=0.66 i 1.09 1.14 1.15 1.10 1.19 1.41 1.63 1.87 *

Thermoelastic strains 1 1.09 1.25 1.21 1.13 1.20 1.34 1.45 1.57 non-elasticity

Modulus of elasticity
for s = 0.2 1 0.95 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.85 0.77 0.69 0.60 0.48 0.35 0.09 *
residual strength 1 >0.92 >0.92 .>0.92 >0.92 >0.92 0.87 0.78 0.69 0.60 0.52 0.42 0.35

Table 6.
Normalized thermal relaxation weighting factors.

T 20 40 60 80 110 140 200 250 300°C

t

0 day 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.1 0.68 0.71 0.88 0.86 0.62 0.57 0.49 0.42 0.38
0.2 0.66 0.65 0.81 0.79 0.56 0.52 0.44 0.38 0.34
0.3 0.64 0.62 0.77 0.75 0.53 0.49 0.41 0.36 0.32
0.4 0.63 0.60 0.74 0.72 0.51 0.47 0.39 0.35 0.31
0.5 0.62 0.58 0.72 0.70 0.49 0.45 0.38 0.34 0.30
0.6 0.61 0.57 0.70 0.68 0.48 0.44 0.37 0.33 0.28
0.7 0.60 0.56 0.68 0.67 0.46 0.43 0.36 0.32 0.28
0.8 0.60 0.55 0.67 0.65 0.45 0.42 0.35 0.31 0.27
0.9 0.59 0.54 0.66 0.64 0.44 0.41 0.34 0.30 0.26
1 0.59 0.53 0.65 0.63 0.43 0.40 0.33 0.29 0.26
2 0.56 0.48 0.58 0.55 0.38 0.35 0.29 0.25 0.22
3 0.55 0.45 0.54 0.51 0.35 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.20
4 0.54 0.43 0.51 0.48 0.33 0.30 0.25 0.21 0.18
5 0.52 0.41 0.49 0.46 0.31 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.17
6 0.51 0.39 0.47 0.44 0.30 0.27 0.22 0.19 0.16
7 0.50 0.38 0.45 0.42 0.28 0.26 0.21 0.18 0.15
8 0.50 0.38 0.44 0.40 0.27 0.25 0.20 0.17 0.15
9 0.49 0.37 0.43 0.39 0.26 0.24 0.19 0.16 0.14
10 0.49 0.36 0.42 0.39 0.25 0.23 0.19 0.15 0.13
15 0.48 0.33 0.38 0.34 0.22 0.20 0.16 0.13 0.11
 H. Gross, High-temperature creep of concrete
8. Methodological restrictions
Following the presentation of this paper some highly
relevant questions have been raised concerning the
experimental as well as theoretical method of investiga-
tion adopted.
(1) For the first time, the stress/cold strength ratio
has been contrived as a variable fundamental through-
out an investigation into material behaviour. What is
the underlying motivation?
(a) The new school of civil engineering has taken a
step towards the limit state design, which should also
lead to a concept of ultimate strength in creep
analyses.
(b) For normalization of thermal creep curves at
various stress levels and for factorization of these
normalized curves, some non-dimensional reference
value which sufficiently describes the initial mechanical
conditions for each experiment was required.
(c) With the aim of proving the applicability of the
superposition hypothesis to thermal creep phenomena
within certain temperature ranges, it was pertinent to
employ scalars that vary with the stress level only, but
not in temperature let alone in time.
(d) Since the cold strength, i.e. the strength at am-
bient temperature, may easily be determined using an
Amsler machine, it was drawn upon as a reliable ex-
perimental basis for the analysis.
(2) Concerning prestressed concrete reactor pressure
vessels with a period under operation of 30 yr, the
duration of the test specimens under load of 7 - 1 5
days appears awfully short. How has this discrepancy
in time been reconciled?
(a) Excluding unpredictable time failures due to
tertiary creep for high stress/cold strength ratios and/
or high temperatures, creep evolves very rapidly during
the initial period under load. Thus about 75% of the
full creep response may be registered within the first
7 - 1 5 days. For longer periods, suitable extrapolation
techniques, as expounded in this paper, were found by
regression of test data. When little time is available,
the verification of the last 25% of the creep response
at infinity by experiment at the expense of a test-
ing period which increases by several 100% is un-
thinkable.
(b) The experimental part of the project was spon-
sored by the Fire Research Station of the Department
of the Environment, UK, who naturally had an active
143
interest primarily in the investigation into short-term,
high-temperature creep, as this combination of en-
vironmental plus structural conditions is the dominant
factor in the action of fire on building structures.
(c) Colossal computer programs were originated for
almost every structural problem; often, however, with
little or poor reference to or provision for parameters
extracted from experiments. Since there is a great dis-
advantage in self-driving technology including computer
programming to disconnect itself from the real needs
of man, emphasis was placed on the reconciliation of
experimentally corroborated results with the theory
developed.
(d) The construction of the three creep testing
machines took one year, leaving another for the actual
conduction of tests. Giving time to the maturation of
specimens, the proving tests, and the numerical evalua-
tion, and with the machines sometimes idling due to
improvements, repairs and black-outs, about 50 tests
proper still had to be scheduled.
(3) How do the results obtained fit with those of
other investigators?
(a) Apart from being dependent on parameters like
stress level, temperature and time and age, creep com-
pliance is a function of strength, type of cement,
water-cement ratio, quantity of aggregate in the mix,
surface-volume ratio, water-absorption of aggregate,
type of aggregate, modulus of elasticity due to porosity,
and cycling. For this reason, relevance of the results is
only claimed for the kind of mix used (see table 1).
(b) Since, in addition, no standard curing conditions
are generally adopted, and the procedural conditions
like testing equipment including kind of heat source,
preheating period and size of specimens leading to
scaling factors, a literature survey on thermal creep
of concrete had not I~een produced. However, locally
a reasonable agreement of the results was found
when studying the work of other investigators [9, 25,
71, etc.].
(4) What led to the short preheating period of one
day?
(a) From proving tests, this period was found suffi-
ciently long to achieve a constant temperature distri-
bution throughout the specimen, for all temperatures
the specimens were ever exposed to.
(b) Tests on drying shrinkage were carried out to
acquire the necessary information about the strain
response of the specimens during the preheating period.
144 H. (;ross, High-temperature creep o f concrete
9. Conclusions
In recapitulation the work [48] briefly presented in
this paper, the original contribution to thermal creep
analysis of concrete continua, is seen in the following:
(1) In embarking on the formulation of the difficult
and neglected problems of thermal creep in the analysis
of concrete continua and in motivating the quest for
matrix methods as a tool in its solution procedure.
(2) In recognizing the dialectic nature, i.e. the
dynamically balanced, simultaneous occurrence of the
creep and relaxation phenomena.
(3) In the design and construction of creep testing
machines for the experimental investigation into the
thermal creep and/or thermoviscoelastic strain problem.
(4) In carrying out tests on the mix, the drying
shrinkage, the moisture loss and the cold strength of
concrete specimens which enable the reduction in the
number of variables influencing the subsequent creep
tests.
(5) In the performance of thermal creep tests o11
concrete specimens and the fitting of formulae to some
of its temperature and/or stress-dependent characteristics.
(6) In formulating the established small displace-
ment theory of linear elasticity and thermoelasticity
as applied to three-dimensional and axisymmetric con-
tinua such that the possibilities and limitations of the
infinitesimal approach to structural analysis are disclosed.
(7) In employing energy principles and variational
methods such that the elliptic compatibility equations
of the small displacement theory are re-established
from new fundamentals, and new possibilities for
solution procedures are arrived at.
(8) In establishing the force--deformation equations
of elasticity and thermoelasticity deforming axisym-
metric continua in the classical and the natural de-
formation modes concepts of the finite element
method.
(9) In the development of two independent finite
element computer programs for the elastic plus thermo-
elastic analysis of axisymmetric concrete continua.
(1 O) In accomplishing the uncoupling of the field
variables in time from the characteristics of the struc-
ture by applying finite difference techniques to the
problems of heat conduction, creep-relaxation inter-
action and thermoviscoelasticity.
(11) In the incorporation of thermoviscoelastic
strains into the structural analysis of concrete continua
and in reconciling the proposed functional description
of isothermal creep curves with the experimental data
obtained.
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