Topic 3
Metal Forming
&
Shaping Processes
Process Design 1
Consideration Rolling
7 2
Sheet-metal 6 3 Forging
Drawing & Pressing
5 4
3 2
Extrusion Forging
2. Sheet metalworking
1
Material Behavior in Metal Forming
1. Recovery
During recovery, which occurs at high
temperature range below recrystallization
temperature of the metal, the stresses in the
highly deformed regions are relieved.
3. Grain Growth
When increase temperature of metal
continuously, the grains will grow and their
size may eventually exceed the original grain
size and affects mechanical properties.
1 Temperature in Metal Forming
Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces and power at
elevated temperature
Deformation at temperatures In practice, hot working usually
above the recrystallization performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
temperature Metal continues to soften as
Recrystallization temperature = temperature increases above
about one-half of melting point on Hot 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot
absolute scale Working working above this level
*Tm:melting temperature
Cold Warm
Working Working
Advantages
Workpart shape can be significantly altered
Lower forces and power required
Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently processed
by cold forming
Disadvantages
Lower dimensional accuracy
Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to heat
the workpiece)
Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
Shorter tool life
1
Warm
Working
Advantages
Lower forces and power than in cold working
More intricate work geometries possible
Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
Disadvantages
Cold
Working
Advantages
Better accuracy, closer tolerances
Better surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
Grainflow during deformation can cause desirable directional
properties in product
No heating of work required
Disadvantages
Higher forces and power required in the deformation operation
Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt
Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can
be done
In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation
In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked
1
Lubrication in Metal Forming
Benefits:
a) Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
b) Better surface finish
c) Removes heat from the tooling
1 Selecting Manufacturing Process
7
a) volume of production
b) quality & properties of product expected e.g. surface finish, accuracy,
etc.
c) technical viability (practicality of the process)
d) economy (cost & time)
2
Rolling Process
2
Overview
(a) Leveling rolls to flatten rolled sheets (b) Roller levelling to straighten drawn bars
2
Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured
cross section rather than flat
(rectangular)
Products include:
Construction shapes such as
I-beams, L-beams, and
U-channels
Rails for railroad tracks
Round and square bars and
rods
2
Rolling Mills
Equipment is massive and expensive
Rolling mill configurations:
a) Two-high rolling mills: b) Three-high rolling mills: work c) Four-high rolling mills:
two opposing rolls passes through rolls in both backing rolls support
directions smaller work rolls
Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle.
Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them
between two dies
Important for mass producing bolts and screws & performed by cold working in
thread rolling machines
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p3DDcRllAbI
2
Ring Rolling
Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the diameter of a ring: (1) start, and
(2) completion of process.
Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, and rings
for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDyWyDP3cvs
2
Defects in rolled plates and sheets
(d) alligatoring.
2
Considerations on Design Specifications
7 Residual stresses
Because of non-uniform deformation of the material in the roll gap,
residual stresses can develop in rolled plates and sheets, especially
during cold rolling.
(a) shows residual stresses developed in rolling with small-diameter rolls or at small
reductions in thickness per pass.
(b) Residual stresses developed in rolling with large-diameter rolls or at high reductions-
per-pass. Note the reversal of the residual stress patterns.
2
Considerations on Design Specifications
7
Dimensional Tolerances
Thickness tolerances for cold-rolled sheets usually range from 0.1 to
0.35 mm, depending on the thickness.
Flatness tolerances are usually within 15 mm/m for cold rolling and 55
mm/m for hot rolling.
Surface Roughness
Cold rolling can produce a very fine surface finish, hence products made of
cold-rolled sheets may not require additional finishing operations,
depending on the application.
Note also that hot rolling and sand casting produce the same range of
surface roughness.
3 Forging
3
Overview
Introduction
Classification of Forging Operations
Types of Forging Dies
a) Open-die forging
b) Impression-die forging
c) Closed-die forging
Forging Defects
Process Design Considerations
3 Introduction
Deformation process in which work is compressed between two dies
Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic form of large parts
that are subsequently machined to final shape and size
Forging is a basic process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive
forces applied through various dies and tooling.
1 Open-die forging
Impression-die
Work is compressed
between two flat dies,
2 forging
allowing metal to flow
laterally with minimum
constraint
Die contains cavity or 3 Flashless forging
impression that is
imparted to workpart
1. With No Friction
If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then homogeneous
deformation occurs
2. With Friction
Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of work,
resulting in barreling effect
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XTU0Z-FkhtU
3 Impression-Die Forging
Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired part shape
Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into small gap between
die plates
Several forming steps often required, with separate die cavities for each step
Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform deformation and
desired metallurgical structure in subsequent steps
Final steps bring the part to final geometry
Advantages :
Higher production rates
Less waste of metal
Greater strength
Favorable grain orientation in the metal
Limitations:
Not capable of close tolerances
Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features needed
3 Closed-die/flashless Forging
Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2) partial compression, and
(3) final punch and die closure.
Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose cavity does not allow
for flash
Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume within very close
tolerance
Introduction
Direct Extrusion
Indirect Extrusion
Advantages
Design considerations
4 Introduction
Compression forming process in which work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape
This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from extrudate by
cutting it just beyond the die exit
3. Improved surface finish, due partly to lack of an oxide film and provided that
lubrication is effective.
4. Production rates and costs that are competitive with those of other methods of
producing the same part, such as machining. Some machines are capable of
producing more than 2000 parts per hour.
4 Advantages of Extrusion
Surface cracking also may occur at lower temperatures, where it has been
attributed to periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die land.
Pipe
The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion tends to draw surface oxides
and impurities toward the center of the billet—much like a funnel. This
defect is known as pipe defect, tailpipe, or fishtailing.
Internal Cracking
The center of the extruded product can develop cracks, called center
cracking, center-burst, arrowhead fracture, or chevron cracking.
4 Extrusion Defects
(a) shows the Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless
the products are inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected and later
cause failure of the part in service. This defect can also develop in the drawing of rod,
of wire, and of tubes.
(b) shows schematic illustration of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. The tendency
toward chevron cracking increases if the two plastic zones do not meet. Note that the
plastic zone can be made larger either by decreasing the die angle or by increasing
the reduction in cross section (or both).
4 Design Considerations: Extrusion Die Features
7
Low die angle - surface area is large, which increases friction at die-billet
interface
Higher friction results in larger ram force
Introduction
Drawing process
Drawing equipment
Drawing practice
Bar drawing
Wire drawing
Lubrication
Die material
Die design
Defects
5 Introduction
In drawing, the cross-section of a long rod or wire typically is reduced or
changed by pulling (hence the term drawing) it through a die called a
draw die.
Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in drawing (it is
pushed through in extrusion)
Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also plays a
significant role since metal is squeezed as it passes through die opening
The major processing variables in drawing are similar to those in
extrusion— that is, reduction in cross-sectional area, die angle, friction
along the die-workpiece interfaces, and drawing speed.
The die angle, the reduction in cross-sectional area per pass, the speed of drawing, the
temperature, and the lubrication all affect the drawing force, F.
5 Drawing Process
Figure shows the examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without
an internal mandrel.
5 Drawing Process
In drawing, reductions in the cross-sectional area per pass range up to
about 45%.
Usually, the smaller the initial cross-section, the smaller the reduction
per pass.
Wedge-shaped dies are used for the drawing of flat strips and are used
only in specific applications.
The tension in this setup provides the force required for drawing the wire,
usually through multiple dies (tandem drawing).
Products:
Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and
shopping carts
Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and other
processes
Because the product does not have sufficient time to dissipate the
heat generated, temperatures can rise substantially at high drawing
speeds and can have detrimental effects on product quality.
Drawn copper and brass wires are designated by their temper (such
as 1/4 hard, 1/2 hard, etc.) because of work hardening.
5 Bar Drawing
Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock is pulled through
one die opening
Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock through
upstream die
Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is
achieved by the series
Annealing sometimes required between dies to relieve work hardening
1. Wet drawing in which the dies and the rod are immersed completely in the
lubricant
2. Dry drawing in which the surface of the rod to be drawn is coated with a
lubricant by passing it through a box filled with the lubricant (stuffing box)
3. Metal coating in which the rod or wire is coated with a soft metal, such as
copper or tin, that acts as a solid lubricant
Rods and tubes that are not sufficiently straight (or are supplied as
coil) can be straightened by passing them through an arrangement of
rolls placed at different axes—a process similar to roller leveling.
6
Sheet Metal Drawing
& Pressing
6 Introduction
The term press working or press forming is used commonly in
industry to describe general sheet-forming operations, because they
typically are performed on presses using a set of dies.
metal-forming processes
involved in
manufacturing a two-
piece aluminum
beverage can.
6 Drawing Shapes other than Cylindrical
Cups
1. Cutting
Shearing to separate large sheets
Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet metal
Punching to make holes in sheet metal
2. Bending
Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
6 Principle of Sheet Metal Cutting
(a) shows effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation
zone in shearing.
(b) shows micro-hardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick AISI 1020
hot-rolled steel in the sheared region.
As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die
rather than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between
2 and 10% of the thickness of the sheet.
6 Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
7 Distance between punch cutting edge and die cutting edge
Shearing operation: (a) side view of the shearing operation; (b) front view
of power shears equipped with inclined upper cutting blade.
6 Blanking & Punching
(a) Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a blank)
from surrounding stock
Nearly the same as progressive dies, the part has to be free from the
strip to allow operations to be performed in a free state
6 Miscellaneous Methods of Cutting
Sheet Metal
Laser-beam cutting is an important process typically used with computer-
controlled equipment to cut a variety of shapes consistently, in various
thicknesses, and without the use of any dies.
Friction sawing involves a disk or blade which rubs against the sheet or plate
at high surface speeds.
The bend allowance, is the length of the neutral axis in the bend and
is used to determine the length of the blank for a part to be bent.
6 Minimum Bend Radius
7 The radius at which a crack first appears at the outer fibers
of a sheet being bent is referred to as the minimum bend
radius.
Guerin Stretch
Ironing Embossing Process forming
Guerin process: (1) before and (2) after. Symbols v and F indicate motion and
applied force respectively.
6 Stretch Forming
Sheet metal is stretched and simultaneously bent to achieve shape change
Stretch forming: (1) start of process; (2) form die is pressed into the work with force
Fdie, causing it to be stretched and bent over the form. F = stretching force.
6 Roll Bending
Large metal sheets and plates are formed into curved
sections using rolls
6 Roll Forming
Continuous bending process in which opposing rolls produce long
sections of formed shapes from coil or strip stock
Tube spinning is used to produce Shear spinning: (1) setup at start of process; (2)
cylinder shapes and shear spinning is during spinning; and (3) completion of
used to produce cone or contoured process.
shapes.
6
High-Energy-Rate Forming (HERF)
Processes to form metals using large amounts of energy over a very
short time
Explosive forming: (1) setup, (2) explosive is detonated, Electromagnetic forming: (1) setup in
and (3) shock wave forms part and plume escapes which coil is inserted into tubular workpart
water surface. surrounded by die; (2) formed part.
Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or plate) Sheet metal is deformed by
metal into a die cavity mechanical force of an
electromagnetic field induced in
Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose
energy is transmitted to force part into the workpart by an energized coil
cavity Presently the most widely used
Applications: large parts, typical of HERF process
aerospace industry
Applications: tubular parts
6 Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
High strength
Good dimensional accuracy
Good surface finish
Relatively low cost
Economical mass production for large quantities
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