PHYSICS FORMULAS

2426

Electron = -1.602 19 × 10-19 C = 9.11 × 10-31 kg

Rectangular Notation: Z = R ± jX where +j represents
Proton = 1.602 19 × 10-19 C = 1.67 × 10-27 kg inductive reactance and -j represents capacitive reactance.
Neutron = 0 C = 1.67 × 10-27 kg For example, Z = 8 + j 6Ω means that a resistor of 8Ω is
23
6.022 × 10 atoms in one atomic mass unit in series with an inductive reactance of 6Ω.
e is the elementary charge: 1.602 19 × 10-19 C Polar Notation: Z = M ∠θ, where M is the magnitude of the
Potential Energy, velocity of electron: PE = eV = ½mv2 reactance and θ is the direction with respect to the
horizontal (pure resistance) axis. For example, a resistor of
1V = 1J/C 1N/C = 1V/m 1J = 1 N·m = 1 C·V 4Ω in series with a capacitor with a reactance of 3Ω would
1 amp = 6.21 × 1018 electrons/second = 1 Coulomb/second
be expressed as 5 ∠-36.9° Ω.
1 hp = 0.756 kW 1 N = 1 T·A·m 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 In the descriptions above, impedance is used as an example.
Power = Joules/second = I2R = IV [watts W] Rectangular and Polar Notation can also be used to
Quadratic − b ± b 2 − 4ac Kinetic Energy [J] express amperage, voltage, and power.
Equation: x= KE = 12 mv 2
2a To convert from rectangular to polar notation:
[Natural Log: when eb = x, ln x = b ] Given: X - jY (careful with the sign before the ”j”)
m: 10-3 µ: 10-6 n: 10-9 p: 10-12 f: 10-15 a: 10-18
Magnitude: X 2 + Y2 = M
Angle: −Y (negative sign carried over
Addition of Multiple Vectors: tan θ = from rectangular notation
X in this example)
r r r r Note: Due to the way the calculator works, if X is negative,
Rr = Ar+ B +r C r Resultant = Sum of the vectors you must add 180° after taking the inverse tangent. If the
Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx x-component A x = A cos θ result is greater than 180°, you may optionally subtract
r r r r 360° to obtain the value closest to the reference angle.
Ry = Ay + By + C y y-component A y = A sin θ
To convert from polar to rectangular (j) notation:
R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 Magnitude (length) of R Given: M ∠θ
Ry Ry X Value: M cosθ ud
e
θ R = tan −1 or tanθ R = Angle of the resultant ag
nit M Y
Rx Rx Y (j) Value: M sinθ M

In conversions, the j value will have the θ

Multiplication of Vectors: same sign as the θ value for angles X
Positive direction: having a magnitude < 180°.
Cross Product or Vector Product: Use rectangular notation when adding
i
and subtracting.
i× j=k j × i = −k Use polar notation for multiplication and division. Multiply in
i ×i = 0 polar notation by multiplying the magnitudes and adding
j k the angles. Divide in polar notation by dividing the
magnitudes and subtracting the denominator angle from
Dot Product or Scalar Product: the numerator angle.
j
i⋅ j = 0 i⋅i =1 i
a ⋅ b = ab cosθ
k
Derivative of Vectors:
Velocity is the derivative of position with respect to time:
d dx dy dz
v= ( xi + yj + zk) = i + j+ k
dt dt dt dt
Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to
time:
d dv dv y dv
a= ( v x i + v y j + v zk ) = x i + j+ z k
dt dt dt dt
 Electric Field inside a spherical shell: [N/C]
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
kqr E = electric field [N/C]
Coulomb's Law: [Newtons N] E= q = charge [C]
R3 r = distance from center of sphere to
q1 q2 where: F = force on one charge by
F=k 2 the other[N]
the charge [m]
r R = radius of the sphere [m]
k = 8.99 × 109 [N·m2/C2]
q1 = charge [C] Electric Field outside a spherical shell: [N/C]
q2 = charge [C]
r = distance [m] kq E = electric field [N/C]
E= q = charge [C]
Electric Field: [Newtons/Coulomb or Volts/Meter]
r2 r = distance from center of sphere to
the charge [m]
where: E = electric field [N/C or V/m]
q F
E=k 2 = k = 8.99 × 109 [N·m2/C2] Average Power per unit area of an electric or
r q q = charge [C] magnetic field:
r = distance [m] Em 2 Bm2 c W = watts
F = force W/m = 2
= Em = max. electric field [N/C]
2µ 0 c 2µ 0 µ0 = 4π × 10-7
Electric field lines radiate outward from c = 2.99792 × 108 [m/s]
+ -
positive charges. The electric field Bm = max. magnetic field [T]
is zero inside a conductor.
A positive charge moving in the same direction as the electric
Relationship of k to ∈ 0: field direction loses potential energy since the potential of
the electric field diminishes in this direction.
1 where: k = 8.99 × 109 [N·m2/C2] Equipotential lines cross EF lines at right angles.
k= ∈0 = permittivity of free space
4π ∈0 8.85 × 10-12 [C2/N·m2] Electric Dipole: Two charges of equal magnitude and
opposite polarity separated by a distance d.
Electric Field due to an Infinite Line of Charge: [N/C]
d
λ 2kλ E = electric field [N/C]
E= = λ = charge per unit length [C/m} -Q +Q
2π ∈0 r r ∈0 = permittivity of free space p
8.85 × 10-12 [C2/N·m2]
r = distance [m] z
k = 8.99 × 109 [N·m2/C2]
2kp E = electric field [N/C]
Electric Field due to ring of Charge: [N/C] E= k = 8.99 × 109 [N·m2/C2]
z3
E = electric field [N/C] ∈0 = permittivity of free space 8.85 ×
kqz 1 p
E= 2 k = 8.99 × 109 [N·m2/C2] E=
10-12 C2/N·m2
( z + R 2 )3 / 2 q = charge [C] 2π ∈0 z 3 p = qd [C·m] "electric dipole moment"
in the direction negative to
z = distance to the charge [m]
kq when z»d positive
or if z >> R, E= R = radius of the ring [m] z = distance [m] from the dipole
z2 center to the point along the
Electric Field due to a disk Charge: [N/C] dipole axis where the electric field
is to be measured
σ  z  E = electric field [N/C]
Deflection of a Particle in an Electric Field:
E= 1 −  σ = charge per unit area
2 ∈0  z +R 
2 2 2
[C/m } y = deflection [m]
∈0 = 8.85 × 10-12 [C2/N·m2] 2 ymv 2 = qEL2 m = mass of the particle [kg]
z = distance to charge [m] d = plate separation [m]
R = radius of the ring [m] v = speed [m/s]
Electric Field due to an infinite sheet: [N/C] q = charge [C]
E = electric field [N/C or V/m
σ E = electric field [N/C] L = length of plates [m]
E= σ = charge per unit area [C/m2}
2 ∈0 ∈0 = 8.85 × 10-12 [C2/N·m2]
Potential Difference between two Points: [volts V]
∆PE ∆PE = work to move a charge
∆V = VB − V A = = − Ed
from A to B [N·m or J]
q
q = charge [C]
VB = potential at B [V]
VA = potential at A [V]
E = electric field [N/C or V/m
d = plate separation [m]
Electric Potential due to a Point Charge: [volts V]
q V = potential [volts V]
V =k k = 8.99 × 109 [N·m2/C2]
r
q = charge [C]
r = distance [m]
Potential Energy of a Pair of Charges: [J, N·m or
C·V]
V1 is the electric potential due to
qq
PE = q2V1 = k 1 2 q1 at a point P
r ∈0 = permittivity of free space
q2V1 is the work required to bring
q2 from infinity to point P
Work and Potential:
∆U = U f − U i = −W U = electric potential energy [J]
W = work done on a particle by
U = −W∞ a field [J]
W∞ = work done on a particle
W = F ⋅ d = Fd cosθ brought from infinity (zero
f potential) to its present
W = q ∫ E ⋅ ds
location [J]
F = is the force vector [N]
i
d = is the distance vector over
W which the force is
∆V = V f − Vi = − applied[m]
q F = is the force scalar [N]
d = is the distance scalar [m]
f ab
θ = is the angle between the
V = − ∫ E ⋅ ds force and distance vectors
i
ds = differential displacement of
the charge [m]
V = volts [V]
q = charge [C]
Flux: the rate of flow (of an electric field) [N·m2/C]
Φ is the rate of flow of an electric
Φ = ∫ E ⋅ dA 2
field [N·m /C]
= ∫ E(cos θ )dA ∫ integral over a closed surface
E is the electric field vector [N/C]
2 multiplied by κ, the voltage is divided by κ, and Q is
A is the area vector [m ] pointing
outward normal to the surface.
Gauss' Law:
∈0 = 8.85 × 10-12 [C2/N·m2]
∈0 Φ = qenc
Φ is the rate of flow of an electric
field [N·m2/C]
∈0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = qenc
qenc = charge within the gaussian
surface [C]
∫ integral over a closed surface
E is the electric field vector [J]
A is the area vector [m2] pointing
outward normal to the surface.
CAPACITANCE
Parallel-Plate Capacitor:
A C = capacitance [farads F]
C = κ ∈0
d κ = the dielectric constant (1)
8.85 × 10-12 C2/N·m2
A = area of one plate [m2]
d = separation between plates [m]
Cylindrical Capacitor:
C = capacitance [farads F]
L
C = 2πκ ∈0 κ = dielectric constant (1)
ln( b / a ) ∈0 = 8.85 × 10-12 C2/N·m2
L = length [m]
b = radius of the outer
conductor [m]
a = radius of the inner
conductor [m]
Spherical Capacitor:
C = capacitance [farads F]
C = 4πκ ∈0 κ = dielectric constant (1)
b−a ∈0 = 8.85 × 10-12 C2/N·m2
b = radius, outer conductor
[m]
a = radius, inner conductor [m]
Maximum Charge on a Capacitor: [Coulombs C]
Q = VC Q = Coulombs [C]
V = volts [V]
C = capacitance in farads [F]
For capacitors connected in series, the charge Q is equal for
each capacitor as well as for the total equivalent. If the
dielectric constant κ is changed, the capacitance is
unchanged. In a vacuum κ = 1, When dielectrics are
used, replace ∈0 with κ ∈0.
Electrical Energy Stored in a Capacitor: [Joules J]
U = Potential Energy [J]
QV CV 2 Q 2
UE = = = Q = Coulombs [C]
2 2 2C V = volts [V]
C = capacitance in farads [F]
Charge per unit Area: [C/m2] Resistivity: [Ohm Meters]
q σ = charge per unit area [C/m2] E ρ = resistivity [Ω · m]
σ= q = charge [C] ρ= E = electric field [N/C]
A J
A = area [m2] J = current density [A/m2]
RA
Energy Density: (in a vacuum) [J/m3] ρ= R = resistance [Ω ohms]
L A = area [m2]
u = 12 ∈0 E 2 u = energy per unit volume [J/m3] L = length of conductor [m]
∈0 = permittivity of free space
8.85 × 10-12 C2/N·m2 Variation of Resistance with Temperature:
E = energy [J]
ρ − ρ0 = ρ0α ( T − T0 ) ρ = resistivity [Ω · m]
ρ0 = reference resistivity [Ω · m]
Capacitors in Series: Capacitors in Parallel: α = temperature coefficient of
resistivity [K-1]
1 1 1 Ceff = C1 + C2 ... T0 = reference temperature
= + ... T - T0 = temperature difference
Ceff C1 C2 [K or °C]

Capacitors connected in series all have the same charge q.

For parallel capacitors the total q is equal to the sum of the
charge on each capacitor. CURRENT
Time Constant: [seconds] Current Density: [A/m2]
τ = RC τ = time it takes the capacitor to reach 63.2%
of its maximum charge [seconds] i = ∫ J ⋅ dA i = current [A]
J = current density [A/m2]
R = series resistance [ohms Ω] if current is uniform A = area [m2]
C = capacitance [farads F] and parallel to dA,
L = length of conductor [m]
then: i = JA
Charge or Voltage after t Seconds: [coulombs C] e = charge per carrier
q = charge after t seconds ne = carrier charge density [C/m3]
charging: J = ( ne)Vd
q = Q(1 − e − t /τ )
[coulombs C] Vd = drift speed [m/s]
Q = maximum charge [coulombs
Rate of Change of Chemical Energy in a Battery:
V = VS (1 − e − t /τ )
C] Q = CV
e = natural log
P = iε P = power [W]
discharging: t = time [seconds]
i = current [A]
τ = time constant RC [seconds]
q = Qe − t /τ ε = emf potential [V]
V = volts [V]
V = VS e − t /τ VS = supply volts [V]
[Natural Log: when eb = x, ln x = b ]
Kirchhoff’s Rules
Drift Speed: 1. The sum of the currents entering a junctions is equal to
∆Q = # of carriers × charge/carrier the sum of the currents leaving the junction.
∆Q
I= = (nqvd A) ∆t = time in seconds 2. The sum of the potential differences across all the
∆t n = # of carriers elements around a closed loop must be zero.
q = charge on each carrier
vd = drift speed in meters/second Evaluating Circuits Using Kirchhoff’s Rules
2
A = cross-sectional area in meters 1. Assign current variables and direction of flow to all
branches of the circuit. If your choice of direction is
incorrect, the result will be a negative number. Derive
RESISTANCE equation(s) for these currents based on the rule that
currents entering a junction equal currents exiting the
Emf: A voltage source which can provide continuous current junction.
[volts] 2. Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule in creating equations for
different current paths in the circuit. For a current path
ε = IR + Ir ε = emf open-circuit voltage of the battery
beginning and ending at the same point, the sum of
I = current [amps]
voltage drops/gains is zero. When evaluating a loop in the
R = load resistance [ohms] direction of current flow, resistances will cause drops
r = internal battery resistance [ohms] (negatives); voltage sources will cause rises (positives)
provided they are crossed negative to positive—otherwise
they will be drops as well.
3. The number of equations should equal the number of
variables. Solve the equations simultaneously.
 Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field:
r = radius of rotational path
mv
MAGNETISM r= m = mass [kg]
qB v = velocity [m/s]
André-Marie Ampére is credited with the discovery of q = charge [C]
electromagnetism, the relationship between electric B = magnetic field [T]
currents and magnetic fields.
Heinrich Hertz was the first to generate and detect Magnetic Field Around a Wire: [T]
electromagnetic waves in the laboratory. µ0I B = magnetic field [T]
B= µ0 = the permeability of free
Magnetic Force acting on a charge q: [Newtons N] 2πr space 4π×10-7 T·m/A
I = current [A]
F = qvB sin θ F = force [N]
r = distance from the center of
q = charge [C]
F = qv × B v = velocity [m/s]
the conductor
B = magnetic field [T] Magnetic Field at the center of an Arc: [T]
θ = angle between v and B B = magnetic field [T]
µ iφ
Right-Hand Rule: Fingers represent the direction of the B= 0 µ0 = the permeability of free
magnetic force B, thumb represents the direction of v (at
4πr space 4π×10-7 T·m/A
any angle to B), and the force F on a positive charge i = current [A]
emanates from the palm. The direction of a magnetic field φ = the arc in radians
is from north to south. Use the left hand for a negative r = distance from the center of
charge. the conductor
Also, if a wire is grasped in the right hand with the thumb in
Hall Effect: Voltage across the width of a
the direction of current flow, the fingers will curl in the
direction of the magnetic field. conducting ribbon due to a Magnetic Field:
In a solenoid with current flowing in the direction of curled
fingers, the magnetic field is in the direction of the thumb.
( ne)Vw h = Bi ne = carrier charge density [C/m3]
Vw = voltage across the width [V]
When applied to electrical flow caused by a changing
magnetic field, things get more complicated. Consider the
v d Bw = Vw h = thickness of the conductor [m]
B = magnetic field [T]
north pole of a magnet moving toward a loop of wire
i = current [A]
(magnetic field increasing). The thumb represents the
vd = drift velocity [m/s]
north pole of the magnet, the fingers suggest current flow in
w = width [m]
the loop. However, electrical activity will serve to balance
the change in the magnetic field, so that current will Force Between Two Conductors: The force is
actually flow in the opposite direction. If the magnet was attractive if the currents are in the same direction.
being withdrawn, then the suggested current flow would be
F = force [N]
decreasing so that the actual current flow would be in the F1 µ0 I1 I 2
direction of the fingers in this case to oppose the decrease. = l = length [m]
Now consider a cylindrical area of magnetic field going into
l 2πd µ0 = the permeability of free
a page. With the thumb pointing into the page, this would space 4π×10-7 T·m/A
suggest an electric field orbiting in a clockwise direction. If I = current [A]
the magnetic field was increasing, the actual electric field d = distance center to center [m]
would be CCW in opposition to the increase. An electron in
the field would travel opposite the field direction (CW) and Magnetic Field Inside of a Solenoid: [Teslas T]
would experience a negative change in potential. B = µ 0 nI B = magnetic field [T]
µ0 = the permeability of free
Force on a Wire in a Magnetic Field: [Newtons N] -7
space 4π×10 T·m/A
F = BI l sin θ F = force [N]
B = magnetic field [T]
n = number of turns of wire per
unit length [#/m]
F = I l× B I = amperage [A] I = current [A]
l = length [m]
θ = angle between B and the Magnetic Dipole Moment: [J/T]
direction of the current µ = NiA µ = the magnetic dipole moment [J/T]
N = number of turns of wire
Torque on a Rectangular Loop: [Newton·meters N·m] i = current [A]
τ = NBIA sin θ N = number of turns A = area [m2]
B = magnetic field [T]
I = amperage [A] Magnetic Flux through a closed loop: [T·M2 or Webers]
2
A = area [m ] Φ = BAcosθ B = magnetic field [T]
2
θ = angle between B and the A = area of loop [m ]
plane of the loop θ = angle between B and the
perpen-dicular to the plane of
the loop
Magnetic Flux for a changing magnetic field: [T·M2 or Amperes' Law:
Webers] B = magnetic field [T]

Φ = ∫ B ⋅ dA
B = magnetic field [T] ∫ B ⋅ ds = µ i0 enc µ0 = the permeability of free space
A = area of loop [m2] 4π×10-7 T·m/A
ienc = current encircled by the
loop[A]
A Cylindrical Changing Magnetic Field
Joseph Henry, American physicist, made improvements
dΦ
∫ E ⋅ ds = E 2π r = dt B
E = electric field [N/C] to the electromagnet.
r = radius [m] James Clerk Maxwell provided a theory showing the
t = time [s] close relationship between electric and magnetic
Φ B = BA = Bπ r 2 Φ = magnetic flux [T·m2 or phenomena and predicted that electric and magnetic
Webers]
dΦ dB fields could move through space as waves.
=A B = magnetic field [T] J. J. Thompson is credited with the discovery of the
dt dt A = area of magnetic field
electron in 1897.
[m2]
dΦ
ε = −N dB/dt = rate of change of
the magnetic field [T/s]
dt INDUCTIVE & RCL CIRCUITS
ε = potential [V]
N = number of orbits Inductance of a Coil: [H]
N = number of turns
Faraday’s Law of Induction states that the instan- NΦ
taneous emf induced in a circuit equals the rate of L= Φ = magnetic flux [T·m2]
change of magnetic flux through the circuit. Michael I I = current [A]
Faraday made fundamental discoveries in In an RL Circuit, after one time constant (τ = L/R) the
magnetism, electricity, and light. current in the circuit is 63.2% of its final value, ε/R.
∆Φ N = number of turns
ε = −N Φ = magnetic flux [T·m2] RL Circuit:
∆t t = time [s]
current rise: UB = Potential Energy [J]

I = (1 − e −t /τ L )
Lenz’s Law states that the polarity of the induced emf is V V = volts [V]
such that it produces a current whose magnetic field R = resistance [Ω]
opposes the change in magnetic flux through a circuit
R e = natural log
current decay: t = time [seconds]
Motional emf is induced when a conducting bar moves τL = inductive time constant L/R
V − t /τ L
through a perpendicular magnetic field. I= e [s]
ε = Blv B = magnetic field [T] R I = current [A]
l = length of the bar [m]
v = speed of the bar [m/s] Magnetic Energy Stored in an Inductor:
emf Induced in a Rotating Coil: U B = 12 LI 2 UB = Potential Energy [J]
L = inductance [H]
ε = NABω sin ωt N = number of turns
A = area of loop [m2]
I = current [A]
B = magnetic field [T] Electrical Energy Stored in a Capacitor: [Joules J]
ω = angular velocity [rad/s]
UE = Potential Energy [J]
t = time [s] QV CV 2 Q 2
UE = = = Q = Coulombs [C]
Self-Induced emf in a Coil due to changing current: 2 2 2C V = volts [V]
L = inductance [H] C = capacitance in farads [F]
∆I
ε = −L I = current [A]
∆t t = time [s] Resonant Frequency: : The frequency at which XL = XC.
In a series-resonant circuit, the impedance is at its
Inductance per unit length near the center of a solenoid: minimum and the current is at its maximum. For a
L = inductance [H] parallel-resonant circuit, the opposite is true.
L
= µ0 n 2 A l = length of the solenoid [m]
1 fR = Resonant Frequency [Hz]
l µ0 = the permeability of free space fR = L = inductance [H]
4π×10-7 T·m/A 2π LC C = capacitance in farads [F]
n = number of turns of wire per unit ω = angular frequency [rad/s]
1
length [#/m]
2 ω=
A = area [m ] LC
Voltage, series circuits: [V] Damped Oscillations in an RCL Series Circuit:
q
VC = V = IR VC = voltage across capacitor [V] q = Qe − Rt / 2 L cos(ω ′t + φ ) q = charge on capacitor [C]
C R q = charge on capacitor [C] Q = maximum charge [C]
fR = Resonant Frequency [Hz] where e = natural log
VX VR
= =I L = inductance [H]
ω ′ = ω 2 − ( R / 2L ) 2
R = resistance [Ω]
X R C = capacitance in farads [F] L = inductance [H]
V 2 = VR 2 + VX 2 R = resistance [Ω] ω = angular frequency of the
I = current [A] ω = 1 / LC undamped oscillations
V = supply voltage [V] [rad/s]
VX = voltage across reactance [V] When R is small and ω′ ≈ ω: ω = angular frequency of the
VR = voltage across resistor [V] damped oscillations
Q 2 − Rt / L [rad/s]
Phase Angle of a series RL or RC circuit: [degrees] U= e U = Potential Energy of the
2C
X VX φ = Phase Angle [degrees] capacitor [J]
tan φ = = C = capacitance in farads [F]
R VR X = reactance [Ω]
R = resistance [Ω] Parallel RCL Circuits:
V R
cos φ = R = V = supply voltage [V]
VX = voltage across reactance [V]
IC
V Z
(φ would be negative VR = voltage across resistor [V] IT = I R + ( IC − I L )
2 2

Z = impedance [Ω]
IR
in a capacitive circuit)

Impedance of a series RL or RC circuit: [Ω] IC − I L V

tan φ =
Z 2 = R2 + X 2 φ = Phase Angle [degrees] IR IL
E = IZ X = reactance [Ω]
Z XC R R = resistance [Ω] To find total current and phase angle in multielement circuits,
= = V = supply voltage [V] find I for each path and add vectorally. Note that when
V VC V R VX = voltage across reactance [V] converting between current and resistance, a division will
Z = R ± jX VX = voltage across resistor [V] take place requiring the use of polar notation and resulting
in a change of sign for the angle since it will be divided into
Z = impedance [Ω]
(subtracted from) an angle of zero.
Series RCL Circuits: Equivalent Series Circuit: Given the Z in polar notation of a
XL parallel circuit, the resistance and reactance of the
The Resultant Phasor X = X L − X C is equivalent series circuit is as follows:
in the direction of the larger reactance R R = ZT cosθ X = ZT sinθ
and determines whether the circuit is
inductive or capacitive. If XL is larger I
than XC, then the circuit is inductive
and X is a vector in the upward XC AC CIRCUITS
direction.
Instantaneous Voltage of a Sine Wave:
In series circuits, the amperage is the VL V = voltage [V]
reference (horizontal) vector. This is V = Vmax sin 2πft f = frequency [Hz]
observed on the oscilloscope by
VR t = time [s]
looking at the voltage across the
resistor. The two vector diagrams at I Maximum and rms Values:
right illustrate the phase relationship V I = current [A]
I
between voltage, resistance, reactance, VC I= m V= m V = voltage [V]
and amperage. 2 2
Series RCL R
Impedance Z 2 = R2 + ( X L − X C )2 Z= RLC Circuits:
cos φ V = VR 2 + (V L − VC ) 2 Z = R2 + ( X L − X C )2
Impedance may be found by adding the components using
vector algebra. By converting the result to polar notation, X L − XC Pavg = IV cosφ
tanφ =
the phase angle is also found. R PF = cosφ
For multielement circuits, total each resistance and reactance
before using the above formula. Conductance (G): The
reciprocal of resistance in B Y
siemens (S).
Susceptance

e
Susceptance (B, BL, BC): The nc
itta
reciprocal of reactance in m
Ad
siemens (S).
Admittance (Y): The reciprocal G
of impedance in siemens (S). Conductance
 ELECTROMAGNETICS Poynting Vector [watts/m2]:
µ0 = the permeability of free
1 1 2 space 4π×10-7 T·m/A
WAVELENGTH S= EB = E
µ0 µ0 E = electric field [N/C or V/M]
c = speed of light 2.998 × 108 m/s B = magnetic field [T]
λ = wavelength [m] cB = E c = 2.99792 × 108 [m/s]
c = λf f = frequency [Hz]
E = electric field [N/C]
c=E/B
B = magnetic field [T] LIGHT
1Å = 10-10m Å = (angstrom) unit of wavelength
equal to 10-10 m Indices of Refraction: Quartz: 1.458
m = (meters) Glass, crown 1.52
Glass, flint 1.66
WAVELENGTH SPECTRUM Water 1.333
BAND METERS ANGSTROMS Air 1.000 293
Longwave radio 1 - 100 km 1013 - 1015 Angle of Incidence: The angle measured from the
perpendicular to the face or from the perpendicular to the
Standard Broadcast 100 - 1000 m 1012 - 1013 tangent to the face
Shortwave radio 10 - 100 m 1011 - 1012
Index of Refraction: Materials of greater density have
TV, FM 0.1 - 10 m 109 - 1011 a higher index of refraction.
Microwave 1 - 100 mm 107 - 109 c n = index of refraction
n≡ c = speed of light in a vacuum 3 × 108 m/s
Infrared light 0.8 - 1000 µm 8000 - 107 v v = speed of light in the material [m/s]
Visible light 360 - 690 nm 3600 - 6900 λ0 λ0 = wavelength of the light in a vacuum [m]
n=
violet 360 nm 3600 λn λν = its wavelength in the material [m]
blue 430 nm 4300 Law of Refraction: Snell’s Law
green 490 nm 4900 n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 n = index of refraction
yellow θ = angle of incidence
560 nm 5600 traveling to a region of traveling to a region of
orange 600 nm 6000 lesser density: θ2 > θ1 greater density:
red θ2 < θ1
690 nm 6900 θ2
Ultraviolet light refracted θ 2 refracted
10 - 390 nm 100 - 3900 n2
X-rays 5 - 10,000 pm 0.05 - 100 n1 n2
θ1 n1
Gamma rays 100 - 5000 fm 0.001 - 0.05 θ1
Cosmic rays Source
< 100 fm < 0.001
Source
2
Intensity of Electromagnetic Radiation [watts/m ]:
2
I = intensity [w/m ] Critical Angle: The maximum
n2 refracted
P Ps = power of source [watts] angle of incidence for which light
I= s2 can move from n1 to n2 n1
4π r r = distance [m] θ θ
2
4πr = surface area of sphere n2
sin θ c = for n1 > n2
n1 Source reflected
Force and Radiation Pressure on an object:
a) if the light is totally F = force [N] Sign Conventions: When M is
2 negative, the image is inverted. p is positive when the
absorbed: I = intensity [w/m ]
2 object is in front of the mirror, surface, or lens. Q is
A = area [m ]
IA I Pr = radiation pressure [N/m2] positive when the image is in front of the mirror or in back
F= Pr = c = 2.99792 × 108 [m/s] of the surface or lens. f and r are positive if the center of
c c curvature is in front of the mirror or in back of the surface
b) if the light is totally or lens.
reflected back along the Magnification by spherical mirror or thin lens. A
path:
negative m means that the image is inverted.
2 IA 2I h’ = image height [m]
F= Pr = h′ i
M= =− h = object height [m]
c c h p i = image distance [m]
p = object distance [m]
Plane Refracting Surface: Intensity: intersection.
 sin α  m = fringe order number [integer]
2
plane refracting surface: p = object distance I = I m (cos 2 β )  λ = wavelength of the light [m]
n1 n i = image distance [m]  α 
=− 2 a = width of the single-slit [m]
p i n = index of refraction πd ∆L = the difference between the
β= sin θ
λ distance traveled of the two
Lensmaker’s Equation for a thin lens in air:
πa rays [m]
1 1 1 1 1 f = focal length [m] α= sin θ I = intensity @ θ [W/m2]
= + = ( n − 1)  −  i = image distance [m] λ Im = intensity @ θ = 0 [W/m2]
f p i  r1 r2  p = object distance [m] Single-Slit d = distance between the slits [m]
r1 = radius of surface nearest the n = index of refraction Destructive:
object[m] a sinθ = mλ
r2 = radius of surface nearest the Circular Aperture
image [m] 1st Minimum: In a circular aperture, the 1st
Virtual Image γ minimum is the point at which
sin θ = 122
.
C2 F1 F2 C1 dia. an image can no longer be
resolved.
r2 r1
A reflected ray undergoes a phase shift of 180°
p i Real Image
when the reflecting material has a greater index of
refraction n than the ambient medium. Relative to the
C2 F2 C1 same ray without phase shift, this constitutes a path
F1
difference of λ/2.

Interference between Reflected and Refracted rays

Thin Lens when the thickest part is thin compared to p. from a thin material surrounded by another medium:
i is negative on the left, positive on the right Constructive: n = index of refraction
r f = focal length [m] 2nt = (m + 12 )λ t = thickness of the material [m]
f = r = radius [m] m = fringe order number [integer]
2 Destructive:
2nt = mλ λ = wavelength of the light [m]
Converging Lens Diverging Lens If the thin material is between two different media, one with a
f is positive (left) f is negative (right) higher n and the other lower, then the above constructive
r1 and r2 are positive in r1 and r2 are negative in and destructive formulas are reversed.
this example this example
Wavelength within a medium:
λ λ = wavelength in free space [m]
Two-Lens System Perform the calculation in steps. λn = λn = wavelength in the medium [m]
Calculate the image produced by the first lens, ignoring the n n = index of refraction
presence of the second. Then use the image position c = nλn f c = the speed of light 3.00 × 108 [m/s]
relative to the second lens as the object for the second f = frequency [Hz]
calculation ignoring the first lens.
Polarizing Angle: by Brewster’s Law, the angle of
Spherical Refracting Surface This refers to two incidence that produces complete polarization in the
materials with a single refracting surface. reflected light from an amorphous material such as glass.
n2 non-polarized
p = object distance tanθ B = Source
i = image distance [m] (positive for real n1 θb θb
n1 n2 n2 − n1 images) θ r + θ B = 90°
+ = f = focal point [m]
n1 polarized
p i r
n = index of refraction n2
n = index of refraction
h′ ni r = radius [m] (positive when facing a
θB = angle of incidence θr
M = =− 1 convex surface, unlike with mirrors)
h n2 p producing a 90° angle
M = magnification
between reflected and
h' = image height [m] partially polarized
refracted rays.
h = object height [m]
θr = angle of incidence of the
Constructive and Destructive Interference by Single refracted ray.
and Double Slit Defraction and Circular Aperture Intensity of light passing through a polarizing lense:
Young’s double-slit experiment (bright fringes/dark fringes): [Watts/m2]
d = distance between the slits [m] 2
Double Slit initially unpolarized: I = 12 I 0 I = intensity [W/m ]
θ = the angle between a normal 2
I0 = intensity of source [W/m ]
Constructive: initially polarized:
line extending from midway θ = angle between the polarity
∆L = d sinθ = mλ between the slits and a line I = I 0 cos 2 θ of the source and the lens.
Destructive: extending from the midway
point to the point of ray
∆L = d sin θ = ( m + 12 )λ Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 1/31/99