Case Report
Presented to
In Partial Fulfillment
By
Jason L. Burns
2015
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES
APPROVAL SHEET
______________________________________
Jason L. Burns
______________________________________
Committee Chair
______________________________________
Committee Member
The final copy of this case report has been examined by the signatories, and we find that both
the content and the form meet acceptable presentation standards of scholarly work in the
Acknowledgements
I would like to express sincere gratitude to the following individuals who assisted
in the completion of this independent study: Dr. Steven Black who served as my
committee chair and provided guidance and support along the way; Dr. Russell Hogg
who was my committee member, a mentor, and a consummate professional. This study
would not have been completed without their wisdom, direction, and insight. I would
also like to thank my fellow classmates and most of all my family for their endless
support
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 2
Table of Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 6
Injuries .................................................................................................................................. 7
Wrestling ............................................................................................................................... 9
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 14
Outcomes: ....................................................................................................................... 42
References ............................................................................................................................... 45
List of Tables
Table 1 .....................................................................................................................................46
Table 2 .................................................................................................................................... 48
Table 3 .................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 4 .................................................................................................................................... 50
Table 5 .................................................................................................................................... 51
Table 6 .................................................................................................................................... 52
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 5
Abstract
Mixed Martial Arts is in its relative infancy as an official sport, however, the
various components of the MMA athletic competition have been in use throughout
human history. Mixed Marital Arts is a conglomerate of virtually every form of unarmed
combat sport utilizing: punches, kicks, knees, elbows, throws, takedowns, spinning,
jumping, and other movements. The competitors will utilize a combination of strength,
power, speed, and endurance throughout their matches. The early results of recorded
injuries during these sporting events indicate that any physical therapist interested in
working with mixed martial arts athletes or clients who prefer to exercise in a similar
fashion will need to be well versed in several different areas such as; concussions, neck
and back injuries, as well as upper and lower limb disorders. Therefore they will best
serve their patients through an evidence-based “best practices” approach to treating these
injuries
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 6
Introduction
participate in an event that would change the world of sports dramatically over the next
two decades. This was the first Ultimate Fighting Championship. While hand-to hand
combat has been around essentially since man’s beginnings here on earth, it first became
a sport in 648 B.C. during the Greek Olympiad games. Fighters of that time participated
in the Pankratian combat style which was essentially a mixture of boxing and wrestling.
Over the centuries styles have branched out and evolved according to regional traditions
and teachings. However, with the introduction of Mixed Martial Arts, those fighting
styles have once again been brought back together and blended into a conglomeration of
techniques which build a more rounded athlete. In a mixed martial arts competition, the
contestants obtain victory by: concussing the opposing fighter until he or she is
subluxation, dislocation, or soft tissue trauma. The opponent at that point may choose to
either forfeit the fight by “tapping out” or suffer injury (Buse, 2006).
Over the years, numerous studies have shed light on the varying types of injuries
common to each specific style of martial arts. These injuries are the result of a
combination of techniques coming from styles such as; boxing, wrestling, Judo, Karate,
and Jiu-jitsu. With Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) being so new to the scene, the science
specifically targeting the discovery of MMA injuries is in the early stages. There are
approximately 18 million people in the United States who practice some form of martial
arts. While this is merely an estimate that is currently unverifiable, it does provide an
trainers, and even fans have a vested interest in the health of the athletes. With this in
mind, it seems prudent to research the training for and injuries resulting from such a
physical sport, and to determine where physical therapists will find their place in this
emerging market. With a deeper grasp of the types of incidents of injuries and a full
understanding of the training regimen of these athletes, physical therapists will be better
those athletes and solidify the importance of their practice in this field of sports
rehabilitation.
Injuries
With Mixed Martial arts being a relatively new sport, there is a shortage of
recorded data regarding the prevalence of injuries occurring during mixed martial arts
bouts. More research needs to be conducted on the types of injuries and the long term
repercussions that arise from them. In the few studies that did catalogue these injuries,
the statistics showed a variety of injuries common to combat sports. For example, in one
study done in 2010, 232 rounds of fighting were observed; during this time 55 injuries
were recorded. They consisted of: 28 abrasions and lacerations, 11 concussions, 5 facial
midfoot sprain; 1 aggravation of elbow medial collateral ligament sprain; 1 elbow lateral
collateral ligament strain; 1 trapezius strain; and 1 Achilles tendon contusion (Shadgan,
Feldman & Jafari 2010). Elsewhere in Buse’s research on mixed martial arts, 642
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 8
matches were studied; of those: 182 resulted in head-impact trauma, 106 showed
won by neck chokes. The degree to which orthopedic trauma was sustained was not
determined in this study; however, joint-locks were noted as the primary cause for match
stoppage when musculoskeletal stress was cited (Buse, 2006). For fighters of this genre,
the risk of successive joint degeneration could be related to factors such as: intensity of
the joint loading during the submission move, articular incongruence after healing, lack
of or improper therapy post-injury leading to joint instability, and various other factors
such as the fighter’s age, co-morbidities, lifestyle, etc. This is a prime reason for physical
therapists to step in and introduce themselves into this up and coming sports platform.
therapists may be able to have a solid understanding of the types of injuries they will
likely treat by systematically breaking apart the components of the combat into
The mixed martial arts contest can be fragmented into several different modules;
traditional martial arts Each style has its own tactical strategies and therefore each lend
more to the use of specific biomechanical movements which would, in turn, lead to
Wrestling
throws and takedowns, and joint locks. There are several well-documented injuries that
are frequent to grappling and wrestling including; lacerations, strains, sprains, fractures,
and dislocations. Head and neck injuries are also a major source of damage when
involved in this segment of the fight-game and are commonly a result of an impact with
the ground. Injuries seen from these movements could be; open wounds, pulled neck
To have some understanding about how these head and neck injuries occur,
therapists can observe the more common maneuvers seen in a mixed martial arts contest.
First, the hip throw, is a skill where one fighter positions the hip under the abdomen of
the other and raises the opponent’s body off of the ground. The individual then rotates
both bodies in the transverse plane while driving the opposition to the ground. One
article identifies the first point of impact to be located at T2/T3 in the thoracic region of
the spine (Kochhar, Back, Mann & Skinner, 2005). Another throw, the Suplex, is
performed by having the fighter grab the opponent around the waist in order to lift him up
over his shoulder. As their combined center of gravity moves, the fighter falls backwards
on to the back, preserving the hold on the opponent, who falls forward, on to the face
(Kochhar et al., 2005). This puts hyper-extensive strain on the neck/cervical region of
the spine. Lastly, the Souplesse, is initiated when one fighter lifts his challenger from the
waist, and swings him over his shoulder. At the last moment, the opponent is rotated over
his upper chest and slammed down on to his back. The initial point of impact is, again,
the T2/T3 region (Kochhar et al., 2005). Moves such as these often lead to debilitating
injuries of the spine. While these methods are commonplace within the ring, there is not
much statistical data ranking the resultant injuries amongst others. In terms of statistical
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 10
rankings of injuries, there are some differing opinions as to which are the most frequently
occurring in the sport of wrestling. In one study done by Shadgan et. al., the authors
show that, recorded injuries resulted in; 19 skin lacerations (59.4%), 4 nose bleeds
(12.5%), 8 sprains (25%), and 1 muscle strain (3.1%). The most common sites of injuries
were the face and head (68.7%), followed by the upper limb (18.7%) and the lower limb
(12.5%). They go on to say that their research shows similar results to some studies, but
that the results differ from the findings of the International Olympic Committee Medical
Commission and others who produced data aligned with the IOCMC (Shadgan et al.,
2010).
genres of combat including; Karate, Taekwondo, Akido, Kenpo, Kung Fu, and many
others. Within this category we find that lower limb injuries were the most frequently
occurring; and of the lower limb injuries McPherson and Pickett noted in their research
that athletes were most likely to incur fracture injuries. The authors cite in their article
that more injuries occurred in Karate than in the other forms of marital arts; in fact of the
189 fractures reported, approximately half occurred in Karate. (McPhearson & Pickett,
2010) They noted that falls, throws and jumps are the predominant cause of injury in
most styles as opposed to karate kickboxing and taekwondo, in which kicks and foot
strikes are the sources of the greatest morbidity, but where twisted ankles and lower limb
Kickboxing
Kickboxing also plays a crucial role in the world of MMA fighters and accounts
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 11
for its fair share of injuries as well. Results of injury evaluations of this form of combat
revealed a summation of 382 injuries from 3481 fighters, which yielded an injury rate of
109.7 for every 1000 fight participants; the most common region of the body was the
head/neck/face which accounted for 52.6% (Zazryn, Finch, & McCrory. (2003).
This can be explained by the fact that the head, neck, and face are the primary
targets of striking. Lower extremity injuries were the second most common (39.8% of all
injuries), which can be attributed to the focus of this discipline on the use of the legs as
weapons and the lower limbs as a scoring zone in some competitions. Despite the
prominence of punches that take place during a kickboxing match, fewer than 3% of
injuries in the ring involved the upper extremities. Concurrently, there were a low
number of injuries to the trunk area as well, only 2.1% were recorded (Zazryn et al.,
2003).
While records are almost certainly being documented and scrutinized by the
owners of major mixed martial arts organizations in order to protect their investments,
these incidents often go unpublished. With no official source to pull from, it was
in 2013, 66 of them were reported as “undisclosed injuries”. This means that 65% of the
injuries that took place over the course of the year were not identified. The reason for
this lack of reporting stems from the injured fighter not wanting a future opponent to be
aware of a potential weakness. Fighters are very protective of their medical privacy in
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 12
situations like these. Any information an opponent has is likely to be used for their
benefit in the upcoming fight. For example, if “Fighter A” knows that “Fighter B” has
recently recovered from an MCL injury of the knee, he is likely to target that knee with
kicks.
This can have negative effects both physically and psychologically for the
previously injured individual. He or she may not fully trust in the recovery of their
injury. If their opponent is specifically targeting that area, the fighter may end up
changing his or her strategy in order to protect the effected body part. This could lead to
them leaving openings in their defense that would not otherwise be available. Physical
disadvantages may become prominent as well. Often athletes are faced with tough
decisions to make about when to return to sport. Financial demands, opportunity for
advancement, pride, and many other factors could lead a fighter to return to the ring
MMA injuries, and learning what are the best evidenced-based approaches to treating
these injuries. However, these motives have created a culture of secrecy when it comes
to injuries, making it difficult to track exactly how many mixed martial arts athletes are
injured each year, and what types of injuries they experience. Below is a table (See Table
2) charting the 35 injuries that were reported in the year 2013, and the percentages of
each category of injury. This summary is a snap-shot compiled to assist any medical
realization that any physical therapist interested in working with mixed martial arts
athletes or clients who prefer to exercise in a similar fashion will need to be well versed
in several different areas such as; concussions, neck and back injuries, as well as lower
limb disorders. Authors indicate that more than half of the injuries reported during
tournaments affect the lower extremity (Shadgan et al., 2010). The physical therapist
providing care for these fighters will need to be able to distinguish between strains,
sprains, fractures, etc. in the knee and ankle, and determines the most fitting course of
rehabilitation when treating the injury. With the increasing influence of jiu-jitsu and
other grappling techniques in the sport of mixed martial arts, upper extremity submission
locks are responsible for more musculoskeletal injuries such as shoulder subluxations and
dislocations. The physical therapist choosing to go into this field will no doubt treat
numerous rotator cuff injuries, and so he or she will need to have an evidence-based “best
disorders.
When investigating the various injuries associated with the sport of mixed martial
arts, there is no doubt that as stated above researchers will discover an array of
dysfunctions. While lower extremity injuries seem to be at the top of the list as far as
sheer numbers of incidents go, in terms of greatest potential for fatalities concussions are
other countries, make up 6 – 10% of all sports-related injuries, and can be considered a
forces (McCrory et. al., 2012). They are defined as, “A traumatically induced alteration
present with rapid onset of short-lived interruptions in neurologic function that resolve
hours. These incidents may or may not involve a loss of consciousness which is
particularly concerning to fighters because most Knock Out stoppages occur when the
fighter becomes unconscious due to blows to the head, however, as stated fighters may
experience head injuries without realizing it and continue to participate in their matches.
In fact, loss of consciousness was recorded in less than 10% of athletes diagnosed with
concussions (Broglio et. al., 2014). It is important for athletes, coaches, parents, and
medical professionals alike to realize that it is not always the big hits that lead to trauma;
Rationale
forefront of full-contact sports. The National Football League’s Player’s Union recently
settled a class action lawsuit on behalf of retired players for $765 million (Curry, 2013).
High school and collegiate coaches are under more scrutiny than ever to make sure they
do not send players who’ve received a head injury back into the game. However, the
problem is that not everyone has been fully educated on what to look for in suspected
concussion cases. Players themselves have reported that 61% of high school athletes
could not correctly identify concussion symptoms and 25% believed that loss of
consciousness was required in order for a concussion to take place (Broglio et al., 2014).
Additionally, 70% of collegiate athletes and 50% of high school athletes did not report
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 15
the concussions they suffered that took place during football games. These statistics are
underdiagnoses and the potential for more serious damage. Statistics show 75% of repeat
concussions happen within seven days of the first concussion, and 92% of repeat
Additionally, players with 1 previous concussion are 1.5 times more likely to receive
another, and those players suffering 2 previous concussions are 2.8 times more likely to
incur a third (Guskiewicz, 2007). Furthermore, it is not just enough to have a report of
suspected concussions as 33% of players with concussions who were permitted to return
to play on the same day were allowed to continue because of a delay in the onset of their
symptoms as long as three hours post-incident. Cases have also been recorded where
individuals who initially appeared symptom free for the first 15 minutes post-injury, still
The latter situations are examples of the types of dangerous situations that could
potentially lead to the development of Second Concussion Syndrome (SCS). This occurs
when the athlete receives a second concussion before the symptoms of the first
concussion have resolved, and can have major implications in terms of injury severity.
The damage incurred from Second Concussion Syndrome likely stems from the body’s
inability to auto-regulate blood flow within the brain. When this happens, venous flow
gets backed up allowing blood to pool in the brain and can lead to a hemorrhage. With
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 16
recent attention shedding light on the seriousness of these brain injuries, cases of SCS are
now being studied and have shown; 100% morbidity (meaning long-term permanent
Concussions are categorized as mild Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBIs) which are
brought on by biomechanical insults to the brain. Sheering forces to the vascular supply
can cause damage to the vessels, and Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) volume increases may be
2009). The implications of the vascular changes that take place include a decreased
ability of the cerebral vessels to maintain a level of homeostatic blood pressure and blood
gas composition. Within the first few hours the injury, a decreased level of cerebral
blood flow can cause ischemia. Normally neurotransmitters in the brain such as
acetylcholine will cause a dilation of the vessels when they release and endothelium-
derived releasing factor. This will allow relaxation of the smooth muscle in the vessel
wall. In contrast, this reaction is interrupted in the concussed brain, resulting in abnormal
resulting from imbalances in the interactions between neurotransmitters and amino acids
abnormal amounts during TBI’s, and when levels are increased the glutamate becomes
neurotoxic (Goodman et al., 2009). The depolarization brought on by the injury creates
The neurometabolic chain of changes within the brain including the release of
imbalances as well (Mjersek et. al., 2008). Changes at the level of the endothelium result
glucose metabolism and then a period of decreased abilities of the cells to “uptake” the
glucose for use as energy. This reduced uptake stage may last anywhere from one to nine
months (Majersek et. al., 2008). Additionally, researchers have noted an increase in the
quantities of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) within the brain. It is thought that the ATP
increases are the body’s attempt to counteract the ionic imbalances caused by free radical
formation. The increased glucose metabolism, and initial decrease in cerebral blood
flow due to acute swelling, results in an incongruity between the energy required by the
cells of the brain and the amount of energy available (Majersek et. al., 2008).
pivoting around the axis of the neck left to right or right to left such as those incurred
from a roundhouse kick to the head. Compression Concussions are those that take place
in a top to bottom fashion as might be experienced if a fighter landed on their head from
an opponent’s throw. Finally, Tensile Concussions, the most common form, are those
caused by a sudden movement from back to front or front to back, and can be caused by
structural (McCrory 2012). They can be classified into three categories; somatic,
neurobehavioral, and cognitive. The somatic concussion symptoms will present in ways
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 18
sound and/or light. The neurobehavioral symptoms often include; fatigue, drowsiness,
concussions are; feeling slowed down or “foggy”, difficulty concentrating, and lapses in
memory. Medical personnel attending MMA practices and matches should be alert for
these symptoms, but research shows that symptoms may not always be observable. In
dizziness. This symptom can be the result of many pathological conditions (e.g., benign
McQueen-Borden, Bell, Barr, & Juengling 2012). It is important to correctly identify the
related concussions. There are numerous reasons that people experience headaches
including; cervical spine injury, sensitivity to light and loud noises, impaired sleep,
increased intracranial pressure, and others. If headaches are severe enough, they may
have an impact on other normal body functions including energy levels, motivation,
sleep, focus and attention, control of emotions, higher level cognition, exercise tolerance,
and appetite (Stewart et. al., 2012). Physical therapists should take care to complete a
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 19
dysfunctions are the reason for the athlete’s headache. If so, interventions can be
properly administered to the individual. While sleep and rest are traditionally
recommended it has been discovered that too much inactivity can be counterproductive.
Stewart et. al., 2012)., found that three to six days of bed rest can result in an athlete’s
complaint of headache, restlessness, and difficulty sleeping, which may complicate the
treatment of the patient with persistent post-concussion symptoms. (See Table 3 for list of
post-concussion symptoms):
potential for athletes. See Table 4 for implicating factors that may have a bearing on; the
When time is of the essence to an athlete and their coaching staff, a rapid
assessment tool that is reliable and valid should be used. The Standardized Assessment
of Concussions (SAC), the Sports Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT3), or even the
King-Devic test have all been researched and found to be effective. These tests should
not be done alone however; concussion evaluations need to incorporate many facets of
that the traditional line of identification questioning such as orientation to; time, place,
and person have been shown to be unreliable when compared with the current use of
more thorough assessments (McCrory et. al., 2012). For this reason, there is a vital need
for trained medical personnel to administer on-site assessments and become involved in
follow up care. The attending medical staff will be able to more accurately diagnose the
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 20
concussion and progression or resolution through the use of; a comprehensive history a
detailed neurological exam that focuses on evaluation of the patient’s mental status,
cranial nerve testing, cognitive functioning, gait, and balance tests as well as the
determination of the clinical status of the patient. This clinical status will include
observations as whether or not there has been progress or deterioration in the individual’s
condition since the time of injury. Often this will involve seeking additional information
participating in mixed martial arts competitions or training will need to be extremely well
acquainted with the red flag signs that may indicate a detrimental decline in a fighter’s
condition. The signs include; extensive loss of consciousness greater than one minute or
increasing confusion or irritability, numbness in the arms or legs, pupils that are uneven
recognize people or places, and a headache that becomes progressively worse over time
(Harmon, Drezner & Gammons 2013). These are signs that are grounds for an immediate
trip to the Emergency Room for further testing and observation (see Table 5).
In addition to the Red Flag signs indicated here, the on-site medical professional
should be trained to observe and/or administer several other evaluations to ensure the
safety of the participants. These include items like; nystagmus which could indicate a
instability, check pulse and blood pressure, palpate the head and neck to feel for painful
or tender areas, swelling, or crepitus, administer range of motion tests of the neck (only
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 21
on athletes who are able to stand up and move around), and grip, strength (Guskiewicz,
special tests for cognition, coordination, and cranial nerves. The Cognitive tests may
include drawing a clock with numbers, a 3 word recall, verbalizing the days of the week
in reverse order. For coordination testing, the athlete may be asked to perform tests like;
tracking, blinking, hearing, sticking out the tongue, smiling/frowning, etc. should be
component. Recent research shows the increased accuracy of concussion diagnosis when
integrating a balance and gait test such as the Berg, DGI, BESS, etc. The inclusion of
these tests has been shown to add up to 37% more sensitivity to the detection of these
problems even when athletes are reporting they experience no symptoms (Guskiewicz,
2010). Additional research into the co-occurrence of concussions with balance deficits
has revealed that; individuals with headaches and/or migraines report more balance
problems and that athletes who have experienced two or more concussions are more
likely to have balance problems (Guskiewicz, 2010). This may be helpful in ascertaining
the repeat concussions in competitors have not been forthcoming with their prior history,
which could lead to the prevention of long term consequences. Finally, balance tends to
be more effected in instances where amnesia is present; however, this is not exclusive to
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 22
in amnesia patients.
The deficits listed above could be due in part to the impaired postural control
stability testing therefore should be used when objectively assessing the motor domain of
body’s capacity to process vestibular information (Stewart et. al., 2012). The human
body utilizes the vestibular system, proprioception, mobility and strength in the joints and
muscles respectively to control postural stability and balance. Any disruption in; afferent
an athlete’s posture which could then lead to a change in the center of gravity disrupting
their stability.
The resultant cognitive symptoms associated with a concussive blow to the head
has shown clinical value by adding significant information to the results of the
concussion evaluation (Stewart et. al., 2012). Athletes presenting with these symptoms
are more likely to fall into the category of a positive identification of a concussion. Most
acute concussion measurement evaluations will contain a cognitive portion in their exam.
For example, the SCAT3 contains a section for an immediate word recall, a delayed word
recall, and a concentration task where the athlete will list a set of numbers in reverse
concussions should include a structured interview with the athlete to uncover any
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 23
cognitive deficits they may be experiencing in the days following the incident. The
athlete may report findings such as; difficulty with completing regular daily activities,
may be noted in post-concussion patients. Medical staff should address this with the
athlete to make them aware that they may experience abnormal feelings such as
depression and anxiety. These symptoms are common in almost all types of traumatic
brain injuries, and armed with this information, the athlete may feel more comfortable
The use of imaging as a whole for the identification of persons with concussions
imaging [MRI]) adds very little to concussion evaluations. However, it may be helpful to
lesion such as a fracture exists (McCrory 2012). In these situations, indicators such as;
regards to working specifically with athletes that have not yet been mentioned. First, it is
critical to ensure the competitors are well hydrated at the time of evaluation, as moderate
to severe dehydration may present with similar symptoms which could negatively
influence the outcome of the clinical measures (Berkoff, Cairns, Sanchez & Moorman.
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 24
2007). Next, the significance of baseline testing cannot be overstated. The intent of
baseline testing is to give the medical professional data for an accurate comparison to the
area such as poor tandem balance or a learning disability that were not previously
recorded; they may inadvertently be scored as a false positive in those specific categories
traumatic brain injury, Dr. Kevin Guiskewitz proposes that athletes should be tested; at
the time of injury, then between one and three hours after the initial incident the
more hours of rest before final testing is completed, or if symptoms do not resolve after 7
days, a full functional test including; balance, cognition, coordination, and symptoms
(Guiskewitz, 2012).
concussions should be prescribed bed rest. However, prolonged inactivity has been
depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, chronic fatigue, and pain disorders are among
the list (Stewart et. al., 2012). Patients who underwent between three and six days of bed
rest reported complaints of headache, restlessness, and difficulty sleeping, which may
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 25
complicate the treatments. For this reason, bed rest for longer than three days is counter-
During the acute phase of post-concussion healing, the athlete should avoid all
sports-related physical activities and only engage in actions that require mild to moderate
physical effort. Initially, cognitive tasks such as; school, work, video games or other
implications of a mild TBI’s are that the sympathetic nervous system activity is increased
which raises heart-rate. This along with the interruption in cerebral blood flow can give
and a potential increase in blood pressure (Goodman, 2009). This knowledge lends to the
thought that sub-symptom threshold exercise can be applied to target disrupted blood
flow and alleviate the dysfunctional sympathetic nervous activity. Once concussion
symptoms have resolved, the complete assessment should be administered again and the
instances persistent symptoms of more than 10 days are reported (McCrory, 2012). In
syndrome (PCS) (Stewart et. al., 2012). Even when patients are asymptomatic, up to
40% percent have shown cognitive deficits, suggesting that a cognitive component be
After the initial prescribed rest period, the therapeutic program should include;
patient tolerance a graded exercise program can be introduced along with an assessment
of any lingering, prolonged symptoms that need to be addressed. The patient will need to
individually tailored to the athlete’s level of fitness as athletes engaging in high levels of
activity after experiencing mild TBI’s have shown worse neurocognitive performance.
However, those who participated in a more moderate level of activity demonstrated the
Finally, additional therapy techniques may include components such as; treatment
for those patients who present with cervical spine or vestibular dysfunction, interventions
exercise program of more moderate intensity than that which addresses the initial
recommended protocol for the activity tolerance assessment includes the use of the Balke
treadmill test. The Balke test uses a graded application of treadmill running and ratings
of perceived exertion (RPE) to monitor the individual’s response (Stewart et. al., 2012).
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 27
The Balke protocol is varied for males and females. Male participants will begin with the
treadmill set at 3.3 MPH at a grade of 0%. After one minute the grade is raised to 2%.
Each minute following the grade is increased by 1%. When the participant is no longer
able to carry on, either from symptoms or from fatigue, the test is concluded. Females
athletes start at a setting of 3.0 MPH and a grade of 0%. The grade is increased 2.5%
every 3 minutes, and again the test will be terminated when the participant can no longer
continue (Stewart et. al., 2012). The medical professional conducting the test should
keep a log of the speed, grade, and heart rate associated with symptom exacerbation
and/or fatigue. By keeping a detailed record the heart rate at which symptoms or fatigue
were experienced can be noted and used as a guide to create an individualized exercise
considered the athlete’s heart rate threshold (HRT). In the article by Stewart and
colleagues, the authors suggest that exercise intensity should begin at a level less than
70% of the HRT for no longer than 15 minutes. Progression of the exercise will be in 5
minute increments each session until the participant reaches a 30 minutes. After the goal
of 30 minutes has been accomplished, the intensity of the treadmill activity can be
increased by adjusting the speed or grade so that the athlete has about a 5% increase in
their heart rate (Stewart et. al., 2012). This protocol represents one method for
monitoring and prescribing exercise tolerance, and these are general guidelines. It is
important to mention that if symptoms are experienced during the testing, it should be
halted for that day. It may begin again the following day at the same intensity.
Progression should not be made while symptoms are present and the author believes that
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 28
a regression in the protocol should be incorporated if symptoms are greater than those
exercise protocols other than continuous cardiovascular exercise can be utilized as well.
Some athletes may tolerate other forms of training such as interval training better than a
utilize resistance training with caution initially as it has the potential to impact blood
pressure which may be problematic especially within the injured brain, and there is
limited evidence to support the use of resistance training in obtaining beneficial outcomes
As with each stage of concussion therapy, the patient will need to be monitored
closely, but even more so during the incorporation of exercise due to the fact that glucose
uptake in the brain is interrupted, and cortisol levels are increased both of which have the
ability to negatively affect the neuronal energy mismatch that occurs post-concussion
they be symptom free for 24 to 48 hours, perform at levels consistent with baseline
testing for all aspects of diagnosis, and pass a clinical medical examination (Stewart et.
al., 2012). Each individual will respond in an independent fashion to symptom recovery
and tolerance to rehabilitation, but the typical athlete is withheld from sport for
approximately one week. This time frame can be adjusted by the medical professional,
but athletes experiencing concussion-like symptoms should never return the same day.
Athletes whose symptoms last longer than the 7 to 10 day period are considered to have
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 29
Post-concussion Syndrome; these individuals can expect a longer recovery process with
an extended Return-to-Play protocol that takes into account their decline in physical
conditioning (Stewart et. al., 2012). Return-to-Play protocols developed by the National
show a progression of activities, or stages, the athlete should participate in during the
recovery process. Each stage will be separated by a 24 hour period after successful
2012). If at any stage during therapy, the participant experiences symptoms; the activity
should be stopped immediately and a 24 hour rest period should be implemented before
resuming the graduated protocol. (See Table 4 for a suggested Return-to-Play program)
One area showing promising results in concussion management is the use of dual-
pertinent to the field of physical therapy because of the association between concussions
and gait abnormalities as well as various other functional limitations. Dual-task activities
are those that require the athlete to perform multiple activities across varying categories
at the same time (Stewart et. al., 2012). For example, a patient may be asked to perform
balance and cognitive activities simultaneously such as standing on a wobble board while
athletes with dizziness, balance and visual disturbances. The deficiencies seen when
the executive functions of the brain to share attention between the demands of the two
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 30
tasks (Stewart et. al., 2012). In the article written by Stewart and colleagues, it is
suggested that therapists appropriately level the types of dual-task activities they are
asking patients to perform whether it is for motor, visual, cognitive deficits, etc. so that
the tasks are feasible for patients to perform as a single-task intervention. Outcomes such
as balance errors, correct number of counting sequences, words read per minute, etc. can
cognitive health have not been clearly defined. Early reports show changes to motor
athletes participating in high-impact sports have indicated via self-report survey methods
control, and chronic traumatic encephalopathy. While current studies may lead to the
likely conclusion that repetitive concussive and sub-concussive impacts have a direct
correlation with the symptoms listed above, variables such as genetic predisposition,
comorbidities, lifestyle risk factors, and normal decline through the aging process have
Future Research
evolving as science delves deeper into understanding these brain injuries. One new
experimental advancement that may have some future merit is that of gene marker
identification. New studies are looking into the significance of apolipoprotein (Apo) E4,
ApoE promotor gene, tau polymerase, and other genetic markers in the identification,
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 31
evidence has been uncovered. However, evidence from human and animal studies in
more severe traumatic brain injuries are showing variant levels of genetic and cytokine
factors, such as insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), IGF binding protein-2, fibroblast
growth factor, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and S-100 associated with
techniques such as; evoked response potential, cortical magnetic stimulation, and
results are mixed with some studies revealing no significant difference between
concussed players and control groups. These methods are in the developmental stages
and continued research is being done to determine the validity of their use as
Case Description:
The following is a fictitious case study based on the author’s experience with
working with an actual client, but one who did not fit the criteria of being a mixed martial
arts fighter. The patient is a 27 year old male who reports he received an insult to the left
temporo-parietal area of the cranium during a mixed martial arts fight on 8/30/15.
Headaches started shortly after on the right forehead region. Symptoms of vertigo began
in September. The patient was under the care of a D.O. and was receiving stretching and
soft tissue treatments from the cranium down to the sacrum, but no thrust maneuvers
were performed.
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 32
presents with pain; in the right temporal region, the right cervical region, and the right
trapezius however, occasionally the pain will be located on the left side as well. He
describes his discomfort as a pressure and heaviness at those points. The patient reports
his pain level is currently 5/10, at its best it has been 3/10, and at its worst an 8/10.
Symptoms of dizziness and spinning wake him at night when turning onto his right side;
they generally subside within a minute or two. Cervical extension and forward bending
initiate the vertigo which is associated with nausea. He reports fatigue that comes on
rapidly and exacerbates the symptoms. He states that he is even fatigued by taking a
and light also provoke headache symptoms. He reports barriers to his activities of daily
living (ADL’s) such as; the inability to drive, not being able to read due to headache and
neck pain, and an intolerance for activities that require a lot of movement. He also
described feeling “not so steady” on his feet and claims he has been very irritable and
The patient states that he had neurological tests and imaging; he was told that
there were no fractures and that he had a concussion. He felt that he was not progressing
in his treatment; his primary physician referred him to physical therapy. He does not
His past medical history is significant for a right knee arthroscopy on 9/12/11 and
a kidney stone on 12/18/13. He denies taking any prescription medication, illegal drugs
and drinks 6-8 alcoholic beverages per week. His goals for physical therapy were to be
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 33
independent with driving and to return to working out and mixed martial arts.
The Examination:
• Postural Examination:
• Range of motion:
headache symptoms
• Special tests:
- VOR (-)
• Neck Flexor Muscle Endurance Test: 11 seconds with associated neck and
The Assessment:
Findings are indicative of BBPV in the right, posterior semi-circular canal with
fatigue, decreased tolerance to fatigue, sensitivity to light and sound, a high risk Berg
of soft tissue cervical and subcranial reactivity in relation to Wiplash Associated Disorder
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 35
(WAD). These results are evidenced by tenderness to palpation in the upper cervical and
subcranial regions, the unilateral headaches, postural imbalances including forward head
posture and protracted shoulders, as well as a below average Neck Flexor Muscle
The patient is expected to attend physical therapy sessions 3x’s per week for 4
and soft tissue manual therapy to the subcranial, upper and lower cervical regions,
or motor control activities, and cardiovascular endurance activities. The following is the
Week 1 – 2
school or work.
Day 4-7:
techniques
3. VOR X1: One sticker in the middle of card. Head moves L/R card
stays stable.
4. VOR X2: One sticker in middle of card. Head moves L/R, eyes
- Coordination exercises:
(10x’s ea.)
Day 8-14:
techniques
- Vestibular Intervention:
Laser pointer tracking: patient in dark room, seated in chair that rotates,
approximately 4.5 feet from the wall. Track laser on wall w/ fixed head
reaches out and touches the post-it with that letter on it and
then names a city that begins with that letter. (activity can be
cities that have been recited so far before picking a new letter).
3. Stack and Add Dice: Patient is given 3 dice. Patient rolls dice,
calls out the numbers represented on each dice, then adds those
each hand)
Week 3:
Day 15-21
techniques.
that rotates, approximately 4.5 feet from the wall. Track laser
clipboard, tennis racket, etc. Then, patient walks down the hall
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 39
trying not to let the ball drop. Repeat with other hand. (3 sets
BOSU ball and flexes one hip at a time, raising the knee and
lifting the foot off of the ground. (3 sets of 15x’s with each
reverse order, and then throws the ball back. (2 sets of 10)
or magazine article and asked to read it. At the same time, they
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 40
are also asked to count the number of times the word “and”
appears in the story. When they are finished reading, they will
Week 4:
Day (22-30)
Outcomes:
The patient progresses slowly over the course of the 4 week treatment plan. He
initially displayed a decreased tolerance to cervical end range activities due to an increase
in symptoms of headache and dizziness. Balance was moderately affected and was quite
problematic for him initially; memory deficits were troubling to the patient also.
Initially, the Eply test was repeated on the second visit and did not result in nystagmus,
was given Eply exercises to complete as his HEP, and on the third visit symptoms of
dizziness were no longer existent. The Berg Balance Score increased from 27% to 44%
Through 12 physical therapy sessions, the patient improved cervical flexion and
extension to within normal limits without provocation of symptoms, and was able to
complete full flexion as well. Cervical headaches persisted until the 8th physical therapy
session when the patient reported a 0/10 on the pain scale for headaches and neck pain.
His 30 day NDI score was 32% which is considered a statistically significant difference.
The patient has shown independence in his awareness of proper posture and body
mechanics. His forward head posture is reduced but still present; shoulder blades
appeared mildly more retracted with no signs of winging, and his score on the Neck
The quality of the patient’s coordination improved and his movements were
decreased tolerance to activity improved but still need to be addressed before taking part
in a Return-to-Play program. When performing the Balke Treadmill test in week 4, the
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 42
patient was forced to stop at 9 minutes due to onset of headache and dizziness, and
shortness of breath. The patient self-reports not feeling as “foggy” as he used to. The
patient discussed ongoing occasional bouts of anxiety and lethargy. A referral was
weeks of physical therapy working on strategies that were targeted in the 4th week of the
the end of the 2nd week, the patient should be reassessed, and if he is found fit to
suffering from post-concussion syndrome are better served through access to a wide
range of health care professionals including; the primary physician, nursing staff,
physical therapists, athletic trainers, and neuropsychologists to provide care and advocacy
as the medical team. In addition to the principal medical team, academic and
workers, school guidance counselors, numerous teachers, coaches, and family members
could all play an essential part in the recovery process. (Stewart et. al., 2012)
Even when symptoms of concussions appear mild, they could greatly detract from
athlete to determine if there were previous learning disabilities, any history of problems
with social behavior in the classroom, with peers, and with authority figures. For adult
patients the same should be done to look into work history, any history of concomitant
substance abuse, and the athlete’s level of job performance and independence prior to the
injury (Stewart et. al., 2012). Finally, a truly comprehensive assessment designed to best
help the patient should consist of not only a functional assessment, but also an evaluation
of that patient’s family and peer support system resources, namely, repeat physician visits
author’s opinion that in consideration of the wide array of services necessary for optimal
care, and knowing the cognitive deficits that can accompany post-concussion syndrome;
beneficial addition to the health care system. In addition to the myriad of necessary
appointments, the Concussion Care Coordinator would be able to provide patients with a
list of both signs and symptoms that may indicate a decline in the patient’s status that
would warrant emergency medical care, as well cataloguing the daily intensity, duration,
and number of symptoms through phone conferences and providing that information to
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Appendix: Tables
▸ Physical
– Headache – Balance problems
– Nausea – Vomiting
– Fatigue – Dizziness
– Visual problems – Sensitivity to light
– Sensitivity to noise – Dazed
– Numbness/tingling – Stunned
▸ Cognitive
– Feeling mentally ‘foggy’ – Repeats questions
– Feeling slowed down – Answers questions slowly
– Difficulty concentrating – Confused about recent events
– Difficulty remembering – Forgetful of recent information and
conversations
▸ Emotional
– Irritable – More emotional
– Sadness – Nervousness
▸ Sleep
– Drowsiness
– Sleep more than usual
– Sleep less than usual
– Difficulty falling asleep
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 50
Factors Variables
Symptoms Number of symptoms
Duration of symptoms (<,>,=) 10 days
Signs Amnesia
Loss of consciousness (LOC) > 1 minute
Sequelae Seizures
Convulsions
Temporal Frequency of incidents
Time since last concussion
Threshold Successive events tend to require less
impact and show a longer recovery period
Age Women > recovery time than men
Children < 18 years old
Comorbidities Pre-existing; migraines, headaches,
depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, and
other learning disabilities such as ADHD
Medications Anticoagulants
Psychoactive medications
Behaviors Dangerous or risky behaviors including
heightened aggressiveness without
consideration of bodily harm while
participating in sport
Sports Collision and high-contact sports
High-risk or “Extreme” sports
CONCUSSIONS AND OTHER MIXED MARTIAL ARTS INJURIES 51
• Amnesia
• Repeated vomiting
• Seizures