Week-5 Binomial TestHypothesis Testing for Population Proportion What the proportion in a single sample can tell

us about the proportion in the population. Categorical Variable – two categories The Binomial Test compares the
proportion of population to a known proportion. Usually, the known value is a population proportion. One Sample T-
Test Hypothesis Testing for a Single Population Mean The One-Sample T Test compares the mean score of a sample
to a reference population mean. T statistics is used when population standard deviation is unknown (𝜎 is
unknown).The assumptions of the one-sample t-test are: The data are continuous (not discrete). The data follow the
normal probability distribution. The sample is a simple random sample from its population. Degrees of freedom is
the number of values in the final calculation of a statistic that are free to vary. Scenario (𝝈 is unknown) Known
condition: The average time the employees spent exercising per week before the gym has been installed was 3.5
hours/week. Research Question: Whether the average time the employees spent exercising per week has increased
since the gym has been installed?Population: All employees after gym has been installed.Sample: 100 randomly
selected employees after gym has been installed.Variable of interest: hours of exercise.Data File: postgym.xlsx.
Research Design Dependent and Independent Variable-In most research, we are interested in cause and effect
relationship: the change of variable B will change in response to changes in variable A. Dependent Variable –variable
B‘outcome variable’ or ‘response variable’Independent Variable –variable A‘explanatory variable’ or
‘predictor’Experimental method Characteristics of Experimental Method:Involving manipulating the independent
variable and observing how this affects the dependent variable.Have control over all of the other variables.Nuisance
variables: any other variable which might affect your dependent variable is referred to as a nuisance
variable.Confounding variables: When a nuisance variable varies systematically with the independent variable, it acts
as a confounding variable. Researcher assign subjects to either ‘control’ group or ‘treated’ group.Be able to infer
direct causal relationships in the study.Weaknesses of Experimental Method: Sometimes it is not possible to
manipulate the independent variable (e.g. people’s age, gender, intelligence)Some research problems cannot be
studied using an experiment because of ethical or technical reasons. Observational method Rely on uncontrolled
or ‘natural’ observation. Researchers have no control over the independent variables.Control’ group and ‘treatment’
group pre-exist before the investigation. Weaknesses of Observational Method: Can not conclude a causal
relationship. Confounding variable, responsible for both independent variable and dependent variable Spurious
correlation - correlation does not imply causationThe number of doctors in region and the number of people dying
from disease – Shoe size and reading performance for elementary school children – Age. For each of the following
scenarios, indicate which is experimental or observational. Give a reason for your decisions. Sampling Method
1)Simple random sample 2)Other sampling methods Stratified random sampling, Cluster sampling, Systematic
sampling, quasi-random Convenience sampling, Self-selected samples. Stratified random sampling-Stratified
random sampling is another type of random sampling and the conditions for simple random sampling still apply. It
may be that the population under consideration is made up of more than one subgroup, and it is important that the
same proportion of each subgroup in the population is present in the sample.The sample is chosen such that each
subgroup, or stratum, is appropriately represented in the sample. This method is more likely to give a representative
sample. Cluster sampling is often used when the population is spread across a wide geographical area. In cluster
sampling the area is divided into ‘clusters’. Several ‘clusters’ are randomly selected and then participants are chosen
randomly from within that cluster. Systematic sampling involves selecting the starting point at random and then
choosing, say every tenth person from there on. This is a quasi-random sampling method. After the first person is
chosen the rest of the sample is specified, so each person does not have an equal chance of being chosen. This may
result in a useable sample but care must be taken to ensure there are no patterns in the data. Using convenience
sampling method, a sample is chosen because of its ready availability. Whenever people are asked to volunteer to
participate in a study, or phone in with an opinion, or return a questionnaire published in a magazine or posted to
their home, then the resultant samples are examples of what is called a self-selected sample.The problem with this
type of sampling is that it is often the case that people who care enough to respond may have particularly strong
feelings about the issue in question and may not be representative of the whole population.