Update: Applications of Research in Music

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Emotional Differences Between Early and Late Degree Program Music Teacher Education Students
Using a Concise Emotional Inventory
William E. Fredrickson and Clifford K. Madsen
Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 2010 29: 33 originally published online 6 August 2010
DOI: 10.1177/8755123310378452

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Emotional Differences Between 29(1) 33­–39

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Music Teacher Education Students DOI: 10.1177/8755123310378452

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Using a Concise Emotional Inventory

William E. Fredrickson1 and Clifford K. Madsen1

Abstract
Teaching music can be a stressful profession. How current and future teachers perceive stress, and the personal
emotions that result from stressful situations, raises many questions. This study investigated differences in perception
of levels of emotional stress between early and late program students in music teacher education using a concise
emotional inventory. The scale was developed as an expedient device to be used with young adults to access a person’s
emotional state across a wide variety of defined life content areas. The version of the scale used in this study was
specifically developed and validated for use with college-age students. In the present study, comparisons were made
between students in an introductory music education class (n = 45) versus advanced music education undergraduates
(n = 45) in the semester prior to their student teaching. Results indicated that although some similarities between the
two groups did exist, there were indeed differences. The question concerning finances was rated the lowest for both
groups indicating high stress. The question concerning future career was rated the highest for both groups indicating
the lowest level of perceived stress. In addition, suggestions for use of the instrument in music teacher education
programs and music teacher in-service were outlined.

Keywords
emotion, teaching, coping, music, teacher education, concise emotional inventory

Emotions and emotional responses tend to be common
across all ages. Most of the time we know exactly how we
feel and are able to specify our feelings (Barrett, Gross,
Christensen, & Benvenuto, 2001). Sometimes we feel ela-
tion, sometimes pain, sometimes joy or frustration. Regard-
less, we often have several differentiated responses when
thinking about certain situations, times, persons, or events
(Carstensen, Pasupathi, Mayr, & Nesselroade, 2000). Var-
ious theories suggest that quick determination of potential
situations as being good or bad is essential (Ohman &
Mineka, 2001). Generalized positive emotions and alter-
nately generalized negative emotions can sometimes over-
shadow other unrelated areas of one’s life. Using positive
responses helps one to “bounce back” from negative emo-
tional experiences (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004).
Many therapeutic interventions use thought processes
to stimulate or to avoid certain actions (LeDoux, 2000)
through cognitive approaches. Also, sometimes certain
events, situations, or persons stimulate a valance response
but only when “thought about” or cued (Barrett, 1997).
Therefore, some emotions might be of such specificity that
they cause problems to a person only when cued. Regard-
less of what causes emotions or where they come from
most people want to be happy or at least not sad. Yet life’s
events do not always coincide with ones desires and pro-
fessional health personnel must often “untangle” emotional
conflict (Barrett, 1997).
For music teachers, the role emotional stress plays
in professional life can have an impact on many things,
from daily satisfaction to long-term career decisions.
Experienced music educators report that the worst aspects
of their days are related most often to unruly student
behavior, job-related tasks required of teachers (Conway,
2003; Pembrook & Fredrickson, 2000/2001), and perceived
lack of support by building administrators (Baker, 2007).
Pellegrino (2009) identified the sometimes conflicting
1
The Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
Corresponding Author:
William E. Fredrickson, College of Music, The Florida State
University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
Email: wfredrickson@fsu.edu
34 Update 29(1)
roles of teacher and musician as having potential to create
emotional stress. Students preparing to enter music teacher
education programs generally identify music as their
college major earlier than they specifically select music
education (Rickels et al., 2010). Preparing for the non-
music-related challenges of teaching, as opposed to the
music-related ones, are most often identified by both first-
year teachers and experienced teachers as being important
for future teachers (Fredrickson & Hackworth, 2005). High
school students indicated that how they observed student
teachers handling stress was an important predictor of
whether that teacher would become a good music educa-
tor in the future (Kelly, 2008).
College students often complain of the stress related to
ongoing events in their lives. Within the college environ-
ment, it is common to hear student comments throughout
the day relating to “Being stressed out,” “I’m under so
much stress,” “That just stresses me out,” and so on.
University personnel within health clinics attest to a
plethora of students “under stress.” Emotional stress can
create situations in which students cannot cope. Some-
times stress can even become life-threatening. In a review
of the literature, Bernhard (2005) cites a variety of personal
stressors that can lead to burn-out in college music educa-
tion majors. He calls for further research that can accu-
rately identify and track these stressors for the purpose of
informing music teacher educators.
The present research was designed to investigate one
question: Are there differences in self-identified stressors
between students early in their music education degree
program and those students who have made it to the end
of their degree program just prior to student teaching?
Method
Development of the original emotional inventory scale for
college-age students was accomplished in several phases
(Madsen, Madsen, & Madsen, 2009). Initially, the inven-
tory was administered to music education and music
therapy majors in a large southeastern university as an
“open-ended” series of orally administered questions. Stu-
dents were asked to write answers on a blank paper relat-
ing to their stress reactions across time and various typical
issues/situations (Phase 1). It was determined via class
discussion after those initial ratings that a rating scale of
−5 through 0 to +5 provided a better differentiation com-
pared to other Likert-type scales (e.g., 1-5, 1-7, or 1-10).
After each of the subsequent administrations (Phase 2),
individual class members were asked to suggest other
areas of potential stress or satisfaction specific to his or
her own areas or issues of concern. Thereafter, these addi-
tional areas/issues were included in the next iteration of
the inventory. This was done across a 3-year period until
such time as only a few new issues advanced, all of which
seemed idiosyncratic to a particular person. Thereafter,
the category of “other” was used to identify issues or
situations specific only to an individual. After this initial
development, the next phase was implemented whereby
the entire inventory was typed and given to individuals
who could circle a number without any oral prompting
(Phase 3).
The final inventory used for this article (see Figure 1)
consisted of items designed to represent those areas that
might emotionally affect, in both short term and long term,
the lives of college music students. These items related to
respondent’s ratings related to “right now,” “this morn-
ing,” “last night,” “my classes,” “my family,” “my signifi-
cant other,” “my career now,” then “career in the future,”
“finances,” “religious/philosophical,” “my body,” “my
musical instrument/voice,” and “other.” Because the final
scale included a 0, the final version actually represents an
11-point Likert-type scale. The scale lists items whereby
participants indicate their immediate level of emotional
response. All participants were asked to complete the
inventory anonymously.
Participants in the present investigation were 45 entry-
level music education majors compared to a cohort of
45 upper classman in the semester just prior to student
teaching. Previous research investigated four different
groups of students: (a) music education, (b) music therapy,
(c) applied music students, and (d) college students who
had previous music study but were not music majors.
Results indicated no significant differences between these
four groups across items (Madsen et al., 2009). Addition-
ally, a final validation phase was also done (Madsen &
Webb, 2006), which indicated that the instrument is both
valid and reliable as a concise emotional inventory for
college-age populations. Administration of the present
study occurred within a large introductory music educa-
tion class at a large southeastern university having a large
music education population. These respondents were com-
pared with students in a capstone music education class
whose results were originally reported in previous studies
undertaken to establish the validity and reliability for this
instrument (Madsen, et al. 2009; Madsen & Webb, 2006).
Results
Statistical analyses were computed across each of the
18 items comparing the late program students with the
early students. Previous analysis of the instrument across
a large population showed that there were indeed signifi-
cant differences across items indicating that the inventory
does differentiate, F(16, 369) = 85.74, p < .001. All items
differed significantly from each other but this should be
viewed with caution given the very large number of total
Fredrickson and Madsen 35

Concise Emotional Inventory

This Emotional Inventory is an assessment of your initial reactions when you think about certain situations, activities and people. It
uses a scale from low (-5) through neutral (0) to high (+5). It is important to react quickly to each question without a great deal of
reflection. Please begin.

Question # 1: Right now

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Question # 2: This morning

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Question # 3: Last night

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
Question # 4: My classes (list all that come to mind-in the order that they are remembered)

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Question # 5: My family (list all that come to mind-in the order that they are remembered)

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Question # 6: My significant other

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

(continued)
36 Update 29(1)

Figure 1. (continued)

Question # 7: My career (now first; then in the future)

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Question # 8: Finances

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Question # 9: Religious/ philosophical

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Question # 10: My body

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Question # 11: My musical instrument (voice) if music major

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Question # 12: Other ___________________________

Low |______|______|______|______|______|______|_____|______|______|_____|_____| High

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

When you have finished the inventory look over all of your ratings and list several of your highest ratings as well as your lowest
ratings. After reflection, describe why the highs are high and the lows are low. It will then be possible to determine if your low
ratings represent transitory issues that are not too important and also to identify those situations that might need further analysis
and/or possible change.

Lowest Ratings: Highest Ratings:

___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________

Figure 1. Inventory given to participants

participants included in original analysis. Additionally, an
analysis of the 90 members of the present study also indi-
cated item differentiation, F(16, 88) = 18.70, p < .001.
Mean ratings and standard deviations for the partici-
pants in the present investigation (younger students)
appear in Table 1. A comparison of the rankings and rela-
tive means for the late program versus the early program
students appear in Table 2. For both the late and early
program students, the highest negative mean rating was
given to Question 8 concerning “finances” (−0.174 and
−0.58, respectively, on the 11-point scale), and there was
no significant difference between the two groups (p >
.05). There was a significant difference on Question 11,
“my musical instrument/voice,” which received a mean
rating of 0.704 from older students and 1.57 from younger
students (t = 2.53, p < 01). Not significant, but with
noticeable movement up or down the scale, were “signifi-
cant other” and the first class they rated (“Class A”).
There were other interesting differences between the
groups (see Table 2), yet most of the responses were very
similar. It is interesting that both the highest and lowest
rankings were the same for both groups with “finances”
Fredrickson and Madsen 37

Table 1. A Concise Emotional Inventory Applied to Early activity, how it helped with learning “about myself,” and
Program Music Teacher Education Majors: Means and how “it was enjoyable.” Some participants even men-
Standard Deviations tioned that this inventory should be done by others.
Mean SD

1 Right now 0.84 2.364 Discussion

2 This morning −0.07 2.435 This quick measure of overall emotions helps identify the
3 Last night 0.56 2.849
emotional magnitude of certain aspects of college stu-
4A My classes (A) −0.13 2.744
4B My classes (B) 0.89 2.218 dents’ lives. Additional categories that may be important
4C My classes (C) 1.20 2.262 to an individual person can easily be added in the “other”
4D My classes (D) 1.09 2.294 response category in the inventory as well. When looking
5A My family (A) 2.71 2.380 at the current rankings it is heartening to note that many of
5B My family (B) 2.58 2.072 the categories appear to be stable over time, which may be
5C My family (C) 1.62 2.839 an indication of group stability and sense of purpose dur-
5D My family (D) 1.63 2.861 ing the long process of becoming a teacher. The few dif-
6 My significant other 0.74 3.519
ferences may be indicators of social or academic maturity
7A My career (now) 0.82 2.249
7B My career (future) 3.13 1.890
in various states of development. For example, the higher
8 Finances −0.58 3.049 ranking for “significant other” by the older students may
9 Religious/philosophical 1.78 2.803 be an indicator of a more ordered, or less ambiguous,
10 My body 0.07 2.742 social life. The lower ranking for “instrument/voice” by
11 My musical instrument/voice 1.57 2.354 the older group may be an indication of the academic
pressure to finish requirements (passing the jury or recital
before student teaching).
The most noticeable similarities between the two groups
being the lowest (most emotionally negative) and “future appeared at either end of the inventory spectrum. A con-
career” being the highest (most emotionally positive). cern about personal finances, the highest listed stressor
Perhaps the most important aspect of this investigation for both groups, indicates that the stress related to “pay-
was the final part of the inventory that asked participants to ing for college” and “making ends meet” is a constant
list their lowest and highest ratings and to determine their over time for students. The good news was that the least
relative importance. In the original study (Madsen et al., stressful category for both groups in the study was their
2009), only 12 participants out of the entire 369 analyzed perception of their career in the future. This continuing
in the original inventory did not complete this section, optimism about their chosen profession can be seen as a
whereas 97% did complete it. In the present investigation, good indicator of potential for longer term professional
only two participants did not complete this part of the satisfaction.
inventory. Written comments about these low and high rat- For music teacher education faculty, this instrument
ings indicted that almost all students could differentiate might be useful at various points in the pre-service educa-
between their lowest ratings concerning levels of severity. tion of teachers. Allowing future teachers to complete the
They were able to determine if low ratings represent transi- inventory anonymously, and then discuss their reflections
tory issues that were not too important and also identified about the process, may be very useful in preparing stu-
those situations that might need further analysis and/or dents to deal with the inevitable stressful situations teach-
possible change. Obviously, examples such as the immi- ers encounter over the course of a career. It should be
nent death of a family member, potential diagnosis of dis- noted that helping them differentiate between small issues
ease, as well as other low ratings across all items, indicated that might lend themselves to self-correction, and large
high stress levels for some subjects as evidenced by the issues that are worthy of consultation with a counseling
severity of their responses. professional, should be a part of the exercise. This exer-
A comparison of the open-ended responses from the cise can also lead to discussions of the dispositions of good
present investigation did not differ from the original teachers, how future teachers can be of help to their own
groups. In the free response section, when participants students, and even to more serious individual discussions
spoke directly about the inventory, overall responses were about career choices.
positive concerning the exercise. Responses varied from Another time of uncertainty and potential stress for
liking the “idea of prioritizing what’s personally impor- preservice music educators may be the student teaching
tant” to stating how the inventory “puts things in perspec- experience. It may be useful for university supervisors
tive.” Other positive remarks noted how it was a helpful and cooperating teachers to facilitate a conversation with
38 Update 29(1)

Table 2. Response Ranking and Means for Questions by Group (From Low to High)

Late Program Students (Madsen et al., 2009) Early Program Students

Category Mean Category Mean
Finances −0.174 Finances −0.58
This morning 0.024 Class A −0.13
My body 0.518 This morning −0.07
Musical instrument/voice 0.704 My body 0.07
Career now 0.805 Last night 0.56
Last night 1.049 Significant other 0.74
Class D 1.111 Career now 0.82
Class B 1.125 Right now 0.84
Class A 1.154 Class B 0.89
Right now 1.263 Class D 1.09
Class C 1.328 Class C 1.20
Religious/philosophical 1.766 Musical instrument/voice 1.57
Significant other 1.965 Family C 1.62
Family D 2.222 Family D 1.63
Family C 2.855 Religious/philosophical 1.78
Family B 3.102 Family B 2.58
Family A 3.205 Family A 2.71
Career future 3.250 Career future 3.13

the future teacher at various times during that experience
by first having them fill out the instrument. The instru-
ment might also be useful for in-service music teachers
in a professional development setting. In the first several
years of teaching, being able to identify stressors and
discussing coping strategies might be very helpful for nov-
ice teachers. For more experienced teachers, the instrument
could be used to identify changes in emotional focus over
time. Teaching can be challenging during all phases of a
career. Knowing how to deal with those challenges as they
relate to our personal emotional well-being could be one
way to keep more teachers working productively in music
education.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no conflicts of interest with respect to
the authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/
or authorship of this article.
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