• daily dosage of a chemical which during an entire lifetime appears to be without appreciable risk on the basis of all facts

cts known at that time

• The acceptable daily intake is expressed as mg intake per kg body weight
Ex. Aspartame
Acceptable daily intake
The total acceptable daily intake of aspartame per day for that individual would be:
• 40 mg aspartame/kg body weight x 60 kg body weight
• = 2400 mg aspartame/day.
• Acesulfame-k can provide a synergistic sweetening effect when combined with other sweeteners
• heat stable - has a high degree of stability over a wide range of pH and temperature storage conditions
• Acesulfame-K is 200 times sweeter than sucrose
Acesulfame-K
• not metabolized by the body - 0 Cal/g
• it does not contribute to the development of cavities
• Ex. used with Aspartame in soft drinks, baked goods, candies, canned goods, chewing gum dry foods. Also used in oral hygiene and pharmaceutical products
• Acid food products (pH < 4.6) are mainly pasteurized to inactivate spoilage-causing microorganism
Acid Foods • Pathogenic microorganisms cannot grow and do not survive very well in acid foods such as citrus juices or apple juice (with the exception of Escherichia coli
0157:H7
Aerobic • grow only in the presence of dissolved oxygen (Bacteria, yeast, mould)
Aflatoxin • of greatest concern because they are potent liver toxins in all animals in which they have been tested and carcinogens in some species
• the act and regulations were changed to state that peanut butter would be considered contaminated , and therefore not fit for sale, if it contained aflatoxins in excess
of 15 ppb
• any food which contains mould should be thrown out however because the risk of mycotoxins is fairly low in some instances, the benefit of saving the product may
outweigh the potential risks involved.
• alginates keep solids and liquids in suspension in fruit juices and provide thickness to dietetic and regular salad dressings, puddings, pie fillings, ice cream, sherbet
Agar
and icings
Air blast freezing • moderately fast freeze because of vigorous circulation of cold air
• trays or mesh belts and passed slowly through an insulated tunnel
• may range from -18°C to -34°C with an air velocity of 100-3500 lineal feet per minute, with a counter current air flow
• operate at lower temperatures than still air freezers and rely on movement of the cold air at high velocity over the food in order to achieve rapid removal of heat and
to maximize the freezing rate
• ex. Garden peas and individually quick frozen shrimp or prawns are frozen in fluidized-bed

•
• IQF (individually quick frozen)
Air freezing • oldest and most common type of freezing used
• ex. refrigerator and the deep freezer
Allergens • Have the ability to induce allergic reactions in sensitive individuals. Foods that are most frequently reported to cause allergic responses are: cereals such as wheat,
rye and rice; legumes such as peas, peanuts and soybeans; tree nuts; milk; eggs; and seafoods such as shrimp, crab and lobster.
• The case of allergens provides a good example of the need to consider individual (genetic) differences in assessing risk and hazards . For most of us, consumption of
the foods listed above does not pose any significant risk. However, for someone who is severely allergic to a particular food or food component, accidental ingestion
may lead to a life-or-death situation!
Alpha, 1-4 link between glucose
molecules vs.
• the alpha 1-4 Beta linkages versus the Beta 1-4 linkages is important as it differentiates those polysaccharides that we can digest from those that we can't
Beta, 1-4 link between glucose
molecules
• Amino acids are a type of organic acid - They are made up of an amino group (NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH) attached to the same carbon atom.
• 20 different amino acids in proteins found in food systems and in the human body
Amino Acids
• 9 of the amino acids cannot be synthesized by human tissues and must be obtained via food. These essential amino acids are isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine; histidine (essential for infants only).
Amphiphilic • proteins are amphiphillic molecules as they contain hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions (from amino acids)
 • allows them to act as emulsifiers
• One part of these amino acids is attracted to water, forming hydrogen bonds, while the other part avoids water and binds with oil

Amygdalin • Amygdalin is an example of a cyanogenic glycoside. It is found in bitter almonds and a number of fruit pits.
• Amygdalin, having a carbohydrate component ("glycoside") and hydrogen cyanide is hydrolyzed to form HCN, glucose and benzaldehyde
• enzymes responsible for the hydrolysis of cyanogenic glycosides are generically called ß-glycosidases. They are highly specific for the ß-glycosidic linkage that is
characteristic of the cyanogenic glycosides
Amylase • the enzyme amylase hydrolyses starch (eg. corn starch) by heating with dilute acid
Amylopectin • a branched starch molecule
• a straight/linear chain starch molecule
Amylose
• are tightly packed within starch granules
Anaerobic • grow only in the absence of dissolved oxygen (Bacteria)
• anthocyanins (anthocyanidin complexed with glucose or other sugars)
• pigments are the predominant colour pigments in blueberries, cherries, cranberries, plums and red cabbage
Anthocyanidins/ Anthocyanins
• anthocyanins are particularly sensitive to changes in pH
• most highly coloured at low pH values - the colour will be gradually lost as the pH increases
Anticaking • keep powders (salt, sugars, startches) free running.
• Microorganisms that can cause deteriorative changes in foods can be controlled by the use of chemical agents that have antimicrobial properties
Antimicrobial Agents • Sodium propionate - may be added to bread formulations as a mould inhibitor.
• Sodium benzoate - may be added to some acidic foods to delay growth of acid tolerant spoilage bacteria.
Antimicrobial agents • microorganisms when cultured in foods produce a variety of end products including acids and alcohols which act as antimicrobial agents
• Act as antioxidant to slow down rancidity and browning reactions
Antioxidant
• vitamins are used as food additives, primarily as "antioxidants".
• antioxidants that are approved for specific uses may be added to delay the onset of oxidative rancidity
Antioxidants • ex. Vitamin C and E, Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), is added to the packaging material for some breakfast cereals to react with oxygen before it can enter the
package and react with sensitive constituents in the breakfast cereal to cause oxidative rancidity
What qualities are examined when analysing food?
Appearance • size, shape, colour, gloss, consistency, and presence of defects (e.g. mould on an orange; bruises on an apple)
• used as a measure of food quality
List examples of different products
Apple Products
• Apple juice, apple cider vinegar, apple sauce, apple pie and apple pie filling
You don’t need to memorize any of them!
What are they and how do they contribute to taste?
• aroma of food is detected when we inhale volatile constituents of foods that react with the receptors in the olfactory regions of our nasal passages
Aroma Compounds • there are actually hundreds of compounds that have been identified in the aroma
• No single chemical compound can be attributed as being the sole source of the aroma of a particular food product.
• It is the specific mixture of chemicals in a particular concentration that creates the aroma that we
• associate with a high quality food product
• Aspartame is a methyl ester of a dipeptide composed of 2 amino acids (phenylalanine and aspartic acid)
• It is metabolized as proteins (amino acids), contributing to 4 Cal/g
• Aspartame is 180-220 times sweeter than sucrose
Aspartame
• does not increase blood glucose or insulin levels
• Aspartame undergoes degradation reactions at high temperatures (cannot be used on baked goods) and eventually degrades overtime into DKP (diketopiperazine)
• Ex. Acidified beverages, desserts, frozen products, breakfast cereals.
Astringency • more of a "physical" sensation described as puckering in the mouth; it is most often attributed to tannins or polyphenols of high molecular weight
How do they respond to stress? Give some examples of bacteria.
• Bacteria are the microorganisms that grow the fastest in food
Bacteria • They reproduce by cell division, whereby one cell divides into two, and these two daughter cells further each divide into another two cells
• The time taken for bacterial cells to complete one complete cycle of cell division is the generation time
• Two forms: vegetative cells and spores
Bacterial Toxins • two most important bacterial toxins are those produced by Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus aureus,
• caused by these two types of bacteria can be considered as due to food intoxications, because it is the chemical toxin produced by the bacteria; as opposed to the
bacteria themselves (in the case of foodborne infections), that produces the toxicity
BC Ministry of Health • public health inspection of retail stores and food service establishments

Benefits of Fermentation
Biotechnology
• inspection of provincially inspected meat processing plants and dairy processing plants
• List key benefits
• be more nutritious than the unfermented original materials’ true for mould fermented foods where the moulds synthesize B-vitamins
• plants with nutrients that were normally indigestible in the human gastrointestinal tract are now digested with the help with microorganism; availability of minerals and
vitamins that are usually biologically unavailable is thereby increased
• fermented foods more digestible than their unfermented counterparts
• umbrella term that covers a broad spectrum of tools and techniques, ranging from fermentation (bread, wine, cheese) to plant and animal breeding, cell and tissue
culture, antibiotic production and genetic engineering
• describe the integrated use of biochemistry, microbiology and engineering sciences to utilize microorganisms and cultured animal and plant tissue cells and cell
components in the production of desirable products
• food fermentation would be referred to as food biotechnology

Biotechnology Derived Products

• Compounds that are bitter are typically alkaloids such as caffeine (in coffee and tea), theobromine (in chocolate) and solanine (a naturally occurring toxicant in green
Bitter
potatoes)
Common food items processed in this method. How does it function to preserve food? What factors of spoilage does it affect? What defines the process (temp, time
exposed to heat)? How is shelf-life affected?
• Applied mainly to vegetables and some fruit by exposing them to heated or boiling water or even culinary steam for a short period of time
• Inactivate enzymes in plant tissues so that enzymatic degradation does not occur in the interval between packaging and thermal processing or during frozen storage
Blanching or in the early stages of food dehydration and after reconstitution of dehydrated plant foods
• wilt vegetable products to enable packing of the products into containers so that proper fill weights can be achieved.
• drive off inter- and intracellular oxygen and other gases from plant tissues so that containers are not deformed by excessively high internal pressures due to
expanding gases within the container and to permit formation of a vacuum in the container after thermal processing

• react with flour components (wheat gluten proteins with doug conditioning agents);
• bleaching agents decolourize yellow pigments in flour;
Bleaching
• maturing agents produce bakery products of consistent
• quality, texture and colour.
• What are its characteristics? What are some examples of specific types of blue-veined cheese?
• Stilton (England)
• Gorgonzola (Italy)
• And one (perhaps the most famous) made from ewes' (sheep's) milk: Roquefort (Roquefort region of France
• characterized as semi-soft cheeses
• curd is inoculated with a mould, Penicillium roquefortii, which grows within the hooped curd producing the characteristic flavour and colour of the blue veined
Blue-Veined Cheese
cheeses
• cheese curd is pierced in order to provide channels for the oxygen, required for mould growth, to enter the cheese
• blue colour is due to the mould spores that are formed during growth of the mould along the lines where the cheese curd was pierced
• Penicillium roquefortii is an active producer of the enzyme lipase which breaks down the milk fat into free fatty acids, aldehydes and ketones that contribute to the
sharp, distinctive flavour characteristic of the blue veined cheeses
• lipolysis of the milk fat is a necessary part of proper flavour development
Botulinum toxin •
• Some water can be adsorbed on surfaces of macromolecules such as starches, pectins, proteins through forces such as van der Waals forces and hydrogen bond
Bound Water
formation
 • Sugars and salts (sodium chloride) can bind substantial amounts of water and are often added to foods for the purpose of decreasing the amount of free water in the
food system
•
Bulk Sweetener • can be used cup-for-cup [volume-for-volume] in the same amount as sugar
• provides inspection services related to the food
• responsible for administration and enforcement of different Acts including: Food and Drugs Act, Agriculture and Agri-Food Administrative Monetary Penalties Act,
Canada Agricultural Products Act, Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act
• CFIA deals with food labelling, advertising and claims about food
Canadian Food Inspection • Administers the labelling, packaging and advertising regulations under the Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act and Regulations and the Food and Drugs Act and
Agency Regulations
• Administers the labelling, packaging and advertising regulations under the Consumer Packaging and
• Labelling Act and Regulations and the Food and Drugs Act and Regulations
• The CFIA also reviews all advertisements, on Canadian radio and television, making claims about foods.
•
• Dairy Products Regulations
• Egg Regulations
• Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Regulations
Canadian Food Inspection • Honey Regulations
Agency Regulations • Livestock and Poultry Carcass Grading Regulations
• Maple Products Regulations
• Processed Egg Regulations
• Processed Products Regulations
• products by farmers involved in primary agricultural production
• vegetables are sold in fresh markets and processed
• greenhouse production of vegetables is important to fresh market supply
• some products transferred to retail market with minimum processing (fruits and veg)
• importanted products must meet the same standard and regulations as food produced in Canada

Canadian food systems

• detects bloody whites, blood spots, or meat spots, and enables observation of germ development
Candling • is done in a darkened room with the egg held before a light
• light penetrates the egg and makes it possible to observe the inside of the egg
Common food items processed in this method. How does it function to preserve food? What factors of spoilage does it affect? What defines the process (temp, time
exposed to heat)? How is shelf-life affected?
Canning • Most commercially sterile products have a shelf life of 2 years or more
• food is placed in a can, the heat treatment will change since heat transfer to the food takes place at a slower rate. Depending on the size of the can, the time to
achieve sterility could be several hours
• The caramelization reaction involves reaction of sugars (reducing and non-reducing sugars) when heated at high temperatures (200°C) to produce caramel and
Caramelization
butterscotch flavours

Carbohydrate
Carotenoids
Carrageenan
Carrier or extraction solvents
Cellulose
Changes in Food during
Dehydration
(A) Cell/tissue shrinkage
(B) Case Hardening
(C) Chemical changes
(D) Concentration
Changes that occur in food due
to fermentation
Cholinesterase Inhibitors
Cholorophyll
Clostridium Botulinum
• the brown pigments formed during the heating of sugars contributes to the colour of caramel candies and toffees
Definition and Cal/g
• Occur in foods as sugars and starches and are the human body’s main source of energy
• Digestible carbs are 4 Cal/g
• 50% of caloric intake per day
• Most carb should be complex carbs (polysaccharides – starch) rather than simple carbs (monosaccharides and disaccharides – sugar)
• Carotenoids, a diverse group of pigments, can be subclassified into carotenes and xanthophylls
• naturally produce red, orange and orange-yellow colours in many foods
• ex. tomatoes, carrots, pineapples, shrimp
• Carrageenan is used as a suspending agent to keep particles in suspension
• Ex. chocolate milk, and it is also used as a stabilizer in ice cream (stabilizing the colloidal dispersions)
• solvents used to solubilize colours or flavours used in food (ethanol is permitted for use in spice extracts);
• solvents used to extract oils from oilseeds or marine sources, and fordecaffeination of coffee (methylene chloride and carbon dioxide are used to decaffeinate coffee).
• polysaccharides are present in many plant tissues as supporting structures (e.g. the fibres in celery). They too are polymers of glucose but joined by a beta, (ß)1- 4
link
• humans do not have the enzyme needed to break the beta link and therefore, cellulose is indigestible
• pectin and the other carbohydrate gums, cellulose forms the indigestible portion of our carbohydrate intake that is known as dietary fibre
• Cell/tissue Shrinkage: cells within the tissue shrink and lose their elasticity
• Water migrates from the interior of the food to the surface where it evaporates
o Ex. dehydrated vegetables or fruit, shrinkage from their original state
• Case Hardening: occurs when rapid drying causes compounds such as sugars to form a hard, fairly impermeable case around the food piece; rate of dehydration to
decrease; designed to minimize the development of case hardening as much possible
o Ex: high-sugar products such as tropical fruit and fruit products
• Chemical changes: maillard browning reactions cause brown colours and flavours not originally with the fresh product; proceed most rapidly when the water content
of the food is in the range of 20% down to 15% because the reactants are in very close proximity; drying systems are designed to remove water through the 20-15%
range of moisture content as rapidly as possible will minimize the negative effects the Maillard reaction has on the flavour of dehydrated food products
• Concentration: sugars are concentrated on the outside of the fruit; dehydrated fruit pieces are much sweeter than the fresh fruit;
• List general changes that can occur (section 9.3.1 and Table 9.2)
• likely involve microbial induced changes to the proteins and lipids in the foods to create the desired colours, flavours and textures characteristic of fermented foods
• ex. miso, and tempeh have higher levels of B-vitamins than the soybeans that are used to produce those fermented foods
•
• refers to a variety of chemicals which are able to inhibit the activity of the enzyme cholinesterase
• enzyme is found in nerve tissues and plays an important role in the transmission of nerve impulses. When its function is inhibited, nerve function is affected
• Solanine is an example of such inhibitors. Solanine can is found in potatoes, normally at levels of 2-13 mg/100 g fresh weight,
o the bulk of market potatoes probably contain only 3-6 mg/100 g
o Levels as high as 80-100 mg/100 g, have been reported particularly if the potatoes have undergone greening (reaction of potato tubers on exposure to
sunlight)
o Solanine is insoluble in water and is not lost or destroyed when potatoes are cooked. Because it is found primarily in the skin of potatoes, the peeling of
potatoes reduces the concentration markedly
• solanine poisoning: gastrointestinal disturbances and certain neurological disorders. Solanine poisoning can result in death
• Chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants
• Found in apples, lettuce, celery and broccoli
• Chlorophyll A has a blue green hue (e.g. in the florets of fresh broccoli)
• Chlorophyll B has a yellow green hue (stems of broccoli)
• Clostridium botulinum - are widespread in nature, commonly found in soil and dust
• bacterial spores rarely cause problems because they cannot grow if they are exposed to oxygen
• improperly prepared low-acid, home-canned foods (like asparagus, beets, green beans, mushrooms, peppers)
• improperly smoked fish
• improperly prepared raw marine mammal meat (like whale, walrus, seal)
• non-refrigerated storage of low-acid fruit juices (like carrot juice)
• baked potatoes stored in aluminium foil

Clostridium Botulinum
Clostridium Botulinum
Codex Alimentarius Commission
Cold Point
Colouring
Commercial Sterilization (CS)
Complex Carbohydrates
Compositional Standards
• C. botulinum bacteria are heat-resistant and can survive high temperatures’ he bacteria can grow in a moist, oxygen-free environment, so home canning or bottling
provides the perfect conditions for the bacteria to multiply and produce the toxin, unless the food is properly canned or heat processed
Where is it found? Why is it considered dangerous? What does it do?
• habitat of Clostridium botulinum can be soil (agricultural and forest), water (fresh, brackish and marine) and mud (fresh water and salt water
• all foods of agricultural and fisheries origin must be considered as being potentially contaminated with Clostridium botulinum spores
• Low acid foods which are to be packaged and stored under anaerobic condition, require a specifically designed thermal processing treatment to ensure the
destruction of any Clostridium botulinum spore
• established in 1963 by the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to develop international food standards
• protect consumer health and to facilitate fair trading practices in foods
• there are more than 189 member countries including Canada
• Canada's participation in Codex is coordinated through the Office of the Codex Contact Point for Canada, located in the Food Directorate, Health Products and
Food Branch of Health Canada
• The rate and mechanism by which heat is transferred through a food material during thermal processing is very important in determining how long it will take the
slowest heating part of the food (the cold point) to reach the desired time-temperature combination required to ensure destruction of Clostridium botulinum spores
with an adequate margin of safety
• to produce an appealing appearance, or to restore colours lost as a result of processing or storage, or to correct seasonal variation in colour, e.g., addition of orange
colouring to milk used for Cheddar cheese production,
Common food items processed in this method. How does it function to preserve food? What factors of spoilage does it affect? What defines the process (temp, time
exposed to heat)?
• involves heating the food with a minimum treatment of 121°C moist heat for 15 minutes
• involves pre-sealing the food in containers prior to heating (also known as "canning")
• CS involve heating the food before it is aseptically packaged (UHT-Aseptic packaging)
• destroy both spoilage and disease causing microorganisms in low- acid and acid foods, thus rendering the food "commercially sterile"
• Commercially sterile foods may contain small numbers of extremely thermophilic bacteria spores - the spores cannot germinate and produce actively growing cells at
room temperature or cause diseases
• Longer storage times at ambient temperatures in evacuated sealed containers requires the use of commercial sterilization
• Polysaccharides are high molecular weight, long chains of monosaccharide units (i.e. glucose)
• They are classified as the complex carbohydrates and differ from simple carbohydrates by being insoluble in water and generally tasteless
• Standards of food identity and composition are defined in the Food Regulations of the Food and Drugs Act of Canada

Concentration
Concentration of components
Conduction
Constituents
Consumer acceptance
Consumer Packaging and
Labelling Act and Regulations
Consumer Trends
Contaminants
Contamination
Continuous Phase
Controlled and modified
atmospheres
Controlled atmosphere
Controlled Atmosphere Storage
• Compositional standards list the mandatory and permitted ingredients in foods
• There are standards of identity or composition for over 300 foods in the Food Regulations in Canada
• They are classified within 28 divisions.
• Removal of some of the water from food by addition of substances that bind water in food making it unable to participate in chemical, microbial and enzymatic
reactions (e.g. addition of salt or sugar, at high concentrations, to food).
• Various chemical, enzymatic and physical changes are promoted as a result
• Chemical changes such as oxidative rancidity or oxidation of flavour components, pigments and vitamins.
• Enzymatic reactions such as enzymatic browning or lipolytic rancidity.
• Meats become tougher due to protein denaturation by chemical effects and cell breakage by ice crystals
• If the food is a solid heat energy is transferred by conduction
• Heating food by conduction is a slow process
• Foods that are a combination of solids and liquid components heat up by a combination of convection and conduction heatin
• chemical entities that are part of the normal composition of a food material - they are not the result of some external organism or activity
• suggest acceptability rates ranging from 45% to over 90%
• use of food irradiation to overcome poor sanitation practices and environmental concerns related to irradiation facilities
• Labelling information required on pre-packaged food products, from domestic food processors or imported product
• Bilingual label, common name of food, country of origin, date markings and storage instructions (durable markings), identity and principal place of business,
irradiated foods, legibility and location, list of ingredients, nutrition facts, net quantity of food, sweeteners, others: % of milk fats, % of alcohol
• Products will determine whether they success or fail
What are some examples?
• Prep-It, Lifestyle Foods, Kid-Specific, New Nationalism, Nutritionals, Dinner Redesigned, Ag Alternatives, Upgrading to Premium, Claim It, Natural Living
• are present because of the presence of moulds or bacteria, or because the plant or animal was grown in a condition which permitted the toxicant to become part of
the food
• SEE TABLE 12.1
• Chemicals in contaminated foods that cause foodborne disease have included tin in canned foods arising from corrosion inside the metal can, residues of cleaning
and sanitizing agents in food, products of rancid fats in foods, and excesses of some ingredients such as monosodium glutamate
• A single case is a person who has been ill following consumption of food considered to be contaminated on the basis of epidemiological evidence
• pathogenic bacteria do not alter the colour, odour, flavour or texture of food even though they may be present in large numbers
• Substance extending throughout the system and surrounds the disperses phase
• controlled for products in refrigerated storage are humidity and gas atmosphere composition
• fine humidity balance must be maintained to prevent dehydration of the food while avoiding creation of conditions that are so humid that mould growth and food
spoilage are favoured
• controlled and modified atmospheres in conjunction with refrigerated storage for the extension of storage life
• a condition in which the atmosphere surrounding a food product is different from that of the normal atmosphere, and the composition of the atmosphere around the
product is constantly monitored and maintained at preset levels
• facilities where the atmosphere (CO2, O2 and N2) and humidity are carefully controlled and temperature kept low to slow the rate of respiration and ripening of the
apples, thus extending the storage life of the fresh fruit
How is it involved in the pathway apples take?
• These are facilities where atmosphere, temperature and humidity are carefully controlled to delay the rate of respiration and ripening of apples, extending storage life
• Segregate apples into lots as harvest based on their storage potential à cool apples as quickly as possible (fruit off trees mature faster esp. warm temperature;
quicker the apples are cooled, the better the results à 5 days
• CA will not important quality just delay the ripening process
• Poor apples harvested will render poor apple shelf life
Controlled temperatures • important to ensure maximum storage life of the foods and to prevent chill injury to certain foods, especially some fruits and vegetables
• optimum refrigeration conditions for maximum storage life and retention of quality and nutritional value
• Bananas will undergo a colour change in the peel from yellow to black, while sweet potatoes may show decay, pitting and internal discolorations, when stored at
temperatures below 13°C.
• Apples may become soggy or show internal browning if stored below 1-2°C.
• Potatoes and avocados may also become brown if stored below 5 and 7°C, respectively
Convection • Foods that are non-viscous liquids heat by convection
Conventional
•
Plant and Animal Breeding
Coolness • compounds responsible for the cooling effect are menthol and its isomers
Corn processing • How are the kernels separated from the cobs? Blades like a lense from a camera with the small tapered end pointing towards it, in a single file, the diameter of the
blades are retractable to accommodate different size corn
• Why is corn starch added in the "froth flotation washer"? control the density of the water, so pieces of loose skin, silk float to the surface and can be skimmed off,
the kernels sink to the bottom, also prevents leeching of starch from the kernel
• What is the purpose of blanching? what temperature/time is used? 3.5 minutes, 85 – 88 degrees, retain colour and flavour during storage by inactivating enzymes
that will cause the degradation of the corn while frozen
• What is the "IQF" process and what temperature is used for freezing?-20 degrees, ensure kernels are not stuck together, 10 minutes later and kernels are ready for
storage
• How long can corn be stored in a frozen state?-23 degrees Celsius, can retain quality for 2 -3 year
Cryogenic freezing • accomplished with cryogenic liquids, with liquid nitrogen being the most commonly used
• very rapid freezing method in which un-packaged or thinly packaged foods are exposed to extremely cold freezant
• liquid immersion freezing, heat removal is accomplished during a change of state by the freezant
• excellent retention of quality imparted by the rapid rate of freezing and small ice crystal formation
• ex. TV dinners, preformed hamburger patties and other high value food products

• the food is sprayed by liquid nitrogen as it is being moved through the conveyor belt
• desired final temperature (between -18°C to -30°C).

Crystallization • Once water starts to crystallize, there is an abrupt rise in temperature due to the evolution of the latent heat of fusion or crystallization
• Only after all the water has frozen (crystallized) will the temperature approach the temperature of the freezing environment
• curd is cut into cubes to promote efficient removal of whey from the curd
• cut curds are cooked at 38°C to accelerate lactic acid production and
Curd • expulsion of whey from the curd
• curd cubes settle and the whey is drained from the cheese vat
• matting of the curd leads to fusion of the curd pieces to form a rubbery slab

Cyanogenic Glycosides
D-Values for Food Irradiation
Decimal Reduction Time (D-
Value)
Deep Fat Frying
Dehydrated foods
Dehydration
Dehydration
Descriptive Analysis Test
Differences in freezing methods
• Cheddaring involves cutting the matted curd into blocks, turning the blocks every 15 minutes, and piling the blocks on one another. This process allows whey to be
further squeezed from the curd
• yield hydrogen cyanide (HCN) upon treatment with acid or particular hydrolytic enzymes
o the plants used as food which contain one or more of these toxicants are: cassava, sweet potato, yam, maize, bamboo, sugar cane, peas, lima beans,
almonds, lime, apple, pear, cherry, apricot and plum.
o Cyanide is very rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and produces recognizable symptoms at both fatal and non-fatal levels
o fatal doses of HCN, death results from the general anoxic condition caused by the inhibition of cytochrome oxidase, with which the HCN complexes
o the minimum lethal dose of HCN taken orally has been estimated to be between 0.5-3.5 mg/kg of body weight
• it is possible to determine the dose of ionizing energy necessary to effect a 90% destruction of the particular microorganism in question
• calculated the D-value in the lesson on thermal processing, we referred to the length of time at a constant temperature required to create a 90% decrease in the
population of the microorganisms or spores in question
• calculate the absorbed dose of ionizing energy that produces a 90% decrease in the microbial population (D10 values)
• 5D or a 12D radiation treatment would have to be applied to acid and low acid foods
What is its definition and how is it determined?
• time required to kill 90% of the microbial population exposed to a specific temperature
• D-values apply to a specific microorganism under a specified set of conditions (temperature, type of food
• If the temperature is increased, the D-value would decrease because the rate of microbial death would increase
• magnitude of the D-value depends on how the constituents of the food affect the sensitivity of the microorganism to the killing effects of heat
• it describes the rate of death of a particular microorganism under a specified set of conditions
• Describe the conditions/process and common food examples.
• high temperature of hot oil causes water in the food to evaporate rapidly
• ex. snack foods and bakery products, such as donuts, are produced by means of deep fat frying
• because of their low water activity, are hygroscopic (readily pick up moisture).
• Physical removal of water from food
• Common food items processed in this method. How does it function to preserve food? What factors of spoilage does it affect? What defines the process (temp, time
exposed to heat)? How is shelf-life affected?
• involves the removal of water to increase the storage stability of perishable food items
• food preservation by dehydration is based on the principle that microbial growth, chemical and enzymatic reactions occur only if sufficient free water is present
• water activity of foods is lowered there is a direct impact on microbial growth as well as chemical & enzymatic reactions
• several factors (e.g. temperature, air velocity, humidity of the drying air, etc) must be controlled in order to prevent undesirable changes (case hardening, excessive
cell shrinkage, etc)
• Microbial growth and chemical/enzymatic reactions will resume once the food is re-constituted or re-hydrated.
Some reasons for dehydrating foods are:
• preservation of the food (dried milk, juices, fruit);
• retention of the size and shape of the food while imparting storage stability (freeze dried steak, vegetable pieces);
• reducing weight and bulk of food for easier storage and transportation; and
• production of convenience items (instant coffee, instant mashed potatoes, vegetables that rehydrate in instant soup preparations).
• requires detection, description and quantization of the sensory aspects of a product
• trained panelists must be trained for several weeks in order to be able to be "calibrated" and accurately detect, describe and rate the intensity of each attribute
(whether it is appearance, aroma, flavour, mouth feel, etc.

Diketopiperazine (DKP)
Direct Effects of Ionizing Energy
Disaccharides
Discriminative/Difference Test
Disease causing microorganisms
Disease Reduction Claims
Dispersed Phase
Division 26
Domoic Acid
• Aspartame in foods can undergo degradation to diketopiperazine (DKP) during long-term storage and when it is exposed to high temperatures for extended periods
of time
• Studies indicate that DKP does not appear to cause any deleterious effects when ingested
• killed by a "direct effect " of the ionizing energy upon genetic material within the microbial cells that leads to the death of the microorganism
• Formed by the union of two monosaccharide molecules
• Simple carbohydrates
• Can be split up into their component monosaccharides by enzymes or boiling with dilute acids
• Most important are sucrose, lactose and maltose – each differ in terms of solubility, sweetness
• determine whether a difference exists between samples
• tests would be used to evaluate if a new processing treatment has changed the character of the food product
• Difference tests are the backbone of sensory analyses
• allow the experimenter to document the presence of perceived differences among samples for quality control, product development and/or research and
development purposes
• triangle tests, pair-difference tests
Think about their characteristics in terms of how it affects food preservation.
• pathogenic (disease causing) bacteria
• A microbe – another word for a microorganism – is a tiny individual living thing that is way too small to be seen by the human eye alone
• microbes can live in very hot temperatures, and others can live in the freezing cold
• include bacteria, viruses, parasites and moulds
• Disease-causing microbes can also be called pathogens, germs or bugs and are responsible for causing infectious diseases
• pathogenic bacteria and viruses usually do not cause food spoilage, their contamination cannot be seen nor tasted
1. Disease Risk Reduction Claims with Respect to Sodium and Potassium
2. Disease Risk Reduction Claims with Respect to Calcium and Vitamin D
3. Disease Risk Reduction Claims with Respect to Saturated and Trans Fats
4. Disease Risk Reduction Claims with Respect to Cancer Risk Reduction
5. Disease Risk Reduction Claims with Respect to Dental Caries
• Substance disperses within another
• the use of ionizing energy for irradiation of food is considered as a process and is regulated under Division 26 of The Food and Drug Act and Regulations
food treated with ionizing radiation MUST also include:
• A statement indicating that the food has been "treated by irradiation", or "treated with radiation", or "irradiated".
• The "radura" symbol is also used to indicate that a food has been irradiated (see below).
• If an irradiated food is used as an ingredient of another food, it must be declared as "irradiated" in the ingredients listing only if it constitutes 10% or more of the final
food.
• an analog of the amino acid glutamic acid), is found in some marine algae (dinoflagellate Nitschia), which can accumulate in filter feeding shellfish such as clams,
mussels, scallops and oysters
• Consumption of shellfish with this naturally occurring marine biotoxin can lead to amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP )
• a neurotoxin, is capable of causing lesions in the central nervous system
• severely affected cases still had significant memory loss five years after the incident
Dose Response Curve • Know what it looks like and the different parts of it

•
• the slope or steepness of the increasing dose-increasing effect portion of the curve is also characteristic of the particular substance
• chemical with a very steep dose-response curve offers very little flexibility in trying to avoid a harmful exposure
• one- or two-fold difference in the amount of chemical consumed might be the difference between no-effect and serious consequences
Drum Drying • Describe the conditions/process and common food examples.
• food paste is applied to a heated drum in a thin layer to promote rapid drying, as the drum rotates, it picks up a thin film of food material that dries rapidly
• dried food is scraped off the drum near the end of a full rotation of the drum
• ex. dehydrated mashed potatoes and some ready-to-eat breakfast cereals

•
• Durable life is the period of time, beginning on the day on which the pre-packaged product is packaged for retail sale, during which a product stored under
prescribed conditions will retain, without appreciable deterioration
Durable Life
• Products that have passed the durable life date and that have been stored under prescribed conditions are still safe to eat but the quality (appearance, flavour,
nutritional value) may have deteriorated
Be able to list the steps in egg processing, including the grading. See Activity 3 in section 4.5
• Eggs are graded only if certain criteria are met, and then only by an inspector at a registered egg station
Egg Processing • the eggs are evaluated for weight, cleanliness, soundness and shape of shell, shape and position of yolk in the egg during candling, size of air cell (small = fresh),
abnormalities (e.g., blood spots)
• washing, candling, weighing, pasteurizing, packing, marking and storing of eggs
• What is it? What is it a measure of? What are some of the common examples of different wavelengths?
Electromagnetic Spectrum of
• an organized scale where we find energy ranging from radio waves, microwaves, visible light to ionizing radiation
Radiation
• These forms of energy vary in frequency, wavelength, energy value, penetrating power, and their effects on biological systems
 •
• longer wavelengths of electromagnetic energy that we are familiar with include visible light, infrared and ultraviolet rays; characterized by having low penetrating
power
• Microwaves are used in food for their heating properties
• Infrared energy can generate heat
•
• can be produced with high-energy (speed) electrons or may also be generated by an electron beam accelerator
Electron Beam
• need only electricity to operate and produce no waste materials
• Fats form part of emulsions (review colloidal dispersions) by acting as the dispersed phase or continuous phase
• Emulsifiers are amphiphillic molecules that have a hydrophilic [water loving] portion and a hydrophobic [water hating] portion
Emulsifiers
• Emulsifiers are amphiphillic molecules that have a hydrophilic [water loving] portion and a hydrophobic [water hating] portion

• emulsifying agents form and stabilize emulsions (lecithin is used as an emulsifying agent on margarine);
Emulsifying, gelling, stabilizing, • gelling agents promote gel formation (gelatin is a gelling agent in dessert powders);
thickening • stabilizing agents impart stability to food systems (carrageenan is added to chocolate milk to keep cocoa particles in suspension);
• thickening agents function to impart body to foods (xanthan gum imparts body and cling to salad dressings).
Make sure to know examples of foods as well as the definition.
• Suspension of liquid droplets (fat or water) within a liquid medium (fat or water)
• Either oil in water or water in oil
Emulsion
• Homogenized milk is a dispersion of milk fat droplets in a liquid medium (skim milk)
• Liquid DP / liquid CP
• Ex. milk, mayonnaise
Environmental Toxicants • products of industrial activity (e.g. mercury, lead, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, radioisotopes)
• products of agricultural activity (e.g. pesticide and herbicide residues, antibiotic residues)
• products of food processing (e.g. packaging residues)
• naturally occurring environmental toxicants (e.g. mercury, radioisotopes)
• eating deep-fried caramelized cassava sold by vendors as recess snacks to the children
• SEE TABLE 12.1
• browning phenomenon is known as enzymatic browning and is catalyzed by an enzyme known as polyphenol oxidase which catalyzes the oxidation of colorless
Enzymatic Browning
phenols in the tissues to brown colored compounds, as shown in the following equation
• Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts.
• Enzymes are added to food as an ingredient (invertase in candy making)
• Some enzymes are used to promote food-processing operations while others are causative agents in food spoilage (amylase can ruin a starch gel
• Enzymes in living tissue food systems such as fruits and vegetables are responsible for the reactions
• associated with ripening
Enzyme • heating processes in food processing are designed to inactivate enzymes in addition to inactivating undesirable microorganisms in order to extend storage life of
foods
• Microorganisms, when added to food systems, to produce fermented foods, are essentially sources of desirable enzymes required to catalyse the desired chemical
reactions needed to produce fermented food products
• Enzymes are also extracted from a variety of sources (plants, animal by-products, microorganisms) and purified for use as aids in food processing

• majority of food enzymes are more resistant to ionizing energy than spores of C. botulinum
• (D-enzyme) is used to determine the radiation dose that produces a 90% reduction of enzyme activity
Enzyme activity • you will have noted that enzymes cannot be easily inactivated by treatment with ionizing radiation
• If vegetables were to be preserved with ionizing energy, they would first have to be blanched with heat followed by treatment with ionizing energy to inactivate the
microorganisms of concern.
Think about their characteristics in terms of how it affects food preservation.
• inactivate enzymes in food that can cause spoilage
• enzymes in plant tissues so that enzymatic degradation does not occur in the interval between packaging and thermal processing or during frozen storage or in the
Enzymes early stages of food dehydration and after reconstitution of dehydrated plant foods
• Blanching mainly inactivates undesirable enzymes in food

Escherichia coli O157:H7

Extrusion (cooking) Drying • Describe the conditions/process and common food examples.

F-Value
(minutes)
Factors affecting dehydration
Factors affecting the quality of
frozen foods
Factors impacting the process
and quality of dehydrated foods
• food is passed though a tube, under pressure, that is heated by steam
• moist heat causes starch gelatinization and cooking of the product
• Product is forced though a narrow opening at the end of the tube and escaping steam causes the dehydrating product to puff
• Ex. ready-to-eat breakfast cereals and snack foods
•
• is a mathematically calculated number that describes the total lethal effects of the process at the slowest heating point in a food container
• standard reference temperature is generally selected as 121.1°C (250 °F), and the relative time (in minutes) required to sterilize any selected organism at 121°C
• is the number of minutes at a specific temperature required to destroy a specified number of organisms having a specific z-value
• the equivalent of all heat considered with respect to its capacity to destroy spores or vegetative cells of a particular microorganism - a measure of "lethality" or the
capacity of the heat treatment to sterilize
• composition of the food itself can have an effect of the rate at which dehydration occurs
• porosity of the food is also important
• As cell members expand when frozen, cell walls and membranes during freezing and thawing can lead to formation of drip when the product is thawed
• rate of freezing
• final storage temperature
• stability of storage temperature, and
• rate of thawing
• Surface area: maximize the surface-to-volume ratio of the food to be dehydrated to minimize the resistance to heat and mass transfer; the smaller the food piece,
the more rapid the rate of moisture loss
• Temperature: hotter the air, the more moisture it will hold before becoming saturated; systems are designed to maximize temperature differences between the
product and the drying air to increase the rate of dehydration.
• Air velocity: faster the air velocity within a dehydrator, the more rapid the rate of moisture removal.; food dehydrators are designed to maximize the velocity of heated
air moving around the food particles to be dried
• Humidity of the drying air: drier the air, the more moisture it can absorb before it becomes saturated. Atmospheric pressure and vacuum: water boils at 100°C when
it is at a pressure of 1 atm (760 mm Hg); the pressure lowers, the boiling temperature will decrease; if the temperature is maintained constant, a decrease in
pressure will increase the rate of boiling; some concentrators and dehydrators are operated at pressures below atmospheric pressure in order to increase the rate of
boiling and moisture removal ** important in the case of heat-sensitive food products
Factors Relating to Foodborne
Disease

• (A) starter cultures: employs the use of microbial cultures specifically selected and maintained for desirable trait; ex. ex. acid production; alcohol production;
production of flavour compounds; production of specific enzymes; rate of growth; are grown under specific conditions and the harvested cells are added in a
specific proportion to the food to be fermented; may be grown within the food processing plant or may be purchased as frozen or dehydrated cultures
o ex. baked bread à dried yeast
• (B) formation of metabolites: metabolites are products resulted from metabolism by the organism; desired microorganisms or more specifically the starter culture is
grown to produce the desired metabolites; compounds vary depending on the type and condition of growth of the microorganisms; common metabolites are acids
and alcohols
o acids: preserved by the addition of acids to lower the pH or by the encouragement of growth of acid-producing microorganisms used in food
Factors that Impact the Process
fermentations; lactic acid-producing bacteria, added as a starter culture, will grow rapidly and produce lactic acid in sufficient quantities to suppress
of Fermentation and Fermented
growth and metabolism of spoilage and disease-causing microorganisms
Food Products
§ ex. cheese, yogurt, and fermented sausages must be stored under refrigeration with or without vacuum packaging to delay growth of the acid-
(A) starter cultures
tolerant psychrotrophic yeasts and moulds
(B) formation of
o alcohol: sufficient concentrations functions as a preservative; alcohol contents above 20% do not require further preservation treatments; alcohol in wines
metabolites
and beer is not of sufficient concentration to inhibit growth of ethanol-oxidizing bacteria; must be further processed by pasteurization or filtration through
(C) temperature
membranes with pore diameters smaller than the spoilage-causing microorganisms
(D) oxygen
• (C) temperature: a key factor in ensuring the sequential development of the desirable lactic acid-producing microflora in shredded cabbage during the fermentation of
(E) salt
cabbage to sauerkraut; requires the proper succession of lactic acid bacteria starting with Leuconostoc meserenteroides (which requires cool temperatures of about
21°C); followed in sequence by Lactobacillus cucumeris (32°C) and Lactobacillus pentoaceticus (37°C)
• (D) oxygen: may be desirable or undesirable in fermentation processes; have different oxygen requirements for growth and fermentation activity; yeast will grow
better under aerobic conditions; however, the yeast ferments sugars more rapidly under anaerobic conditions; , oxygen requirement conditions may differ and may
change during the different steps of the fermentation process
• (E) salt: salt to cabbage, olives and some meats favours the growth of lactic acid-producing bacteria while inhibiting the growth of normal spoilage- and disease-
causing microorganisms; draw moisture and the water-soluble nutrients from tissues making them available for use by the fermentative microorganisms; controlling
the growth of undesirable microorganisms that may not be inhibited by the acid produced during the fermentation process; acid and salt together produce a food
system more inhibitory to disease- and spoilage-causing microorganisms than the salt or acid alone at the same concentrations
Facultative Anaerobe • can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen (Bacteria, yeast)
Definition and Cal/g
• Act as a lubricant in food making the food more palatable and easier to chew and swallow
• Has tenderizing power because they coat the flour particles (protein and starch) in baked goods, creating a flaky, lighter texture that makes them easy to tear apart
• “aeration” - add air (gas) to batter and doughs à fat surrounds the air molecules that are being incorporated into the batter, contributing to the formation of the
dispersion by decreasing the viscosity in the batter à making it easier to flow and rise.
Fat • Fats and oils are carriers of many aroma constituents in foods that are usually fat-soluble
• Fats and oils can be heated to very high temperatures before they begin to smoke and vaporize
• Fats gradually soften when heated.
• Fats form part of emulsions (review colloidal dispersions) by acting as the dispersed phase or continuous phase
• 9 Cal/g

• Examples and how they are affected by processing

Fat Soluble Vitamins • Vitamins A, D, E are more sensitive to oxidation during processing and storage
•
• What is the meaning in the “broad” sense? This is the one in which we will use.
• in the strictest sense, means "the breakdown of carbohydrates under anaerobic (absence of oxygen) conditions
Fermentation
• in a broader sense, fermentation is often used to describe the anaerobic and aerobic breakdown of carbohydrates and carbohydrate-like materials by
microorganisms
 • proteins and lipids may be hydrolyzed and metabolized by microorganisms involved in the fermentation process
• foods which have been produced with the aid of microorganisms
• especially when the pH is lowered to 4.6 or lower, will not support the growth of pathogenic bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum
• ex. sauerkraut, wine, yogurt and cheese are more stable forms of the low acid food materials that were used at the start of the fermentation process

•
Final storage temperature • dictated by a number of factors: texture changes, chemical reactions, etc
• storage temperature of about -18°C is commonly used and the normal operating temperature of deep freezers sold for home use is also -18°C
• temperature of the frozen food increases, the amount of unfrozen water increases

Storage Temperature

Product -18°C -12°C -6.7°C

Peaches 12 < 2.0 6 days

Strawberries 12 2.4 10 days
Spinach 6-7 < 3.0 1
Raw chicken (well packed) 27 15.5 < 8.0
Turkey pies >30 9.5 2.5
Beef (raw)> 13-14 5.0 < 2.0
Pork (raw) 10 < 4.0 < 1.5
Lean fish (raw) 3.0 < 2.0 < 1.5
Fat fish (raw) 2.0 1.5 24 days
Firming Agents • function to maintain the texture of foods (calcium chloride is used to prevent potatoes from disintegrating during canning).
• a sensation made up of a combination of two senses: FLAVOUR = TASTE + AROMA (SMELL)
• order to perceive a full bodied flavour, we need both the perception of TASTE and AROMA
• taste sensation, a substance must be water-soluble and it must interact with the appropriate sensory receptors on the tongue
Flavour
• detected in the mouth and primarily on the tongue
• aroma, substances must be fat soluble and volatile in order for them to interact with the odour or aroma receptors in the olfactory region of our nasal passages
• foods are a complex mixture of chemicals, which are often present in foods in very low concentration
Foam Make sure to know examples of foods as well as the definition.
 • Gas DP / liquid CP
• Ex. beaten egg whites, whipped cake, frostings
Make sure you can define it in Canada and in the USA
• A food additive is any substance, the use of which results, or may reasonably be expected to result in it or its by-products becoming a part of or affecting the
characteristics of a food.
Under Canadian definition, the following are not additives:
Food Additive (Canada) 1. any nutritive material that is used, recognized or commonly sold as an article or ingredient of food
2. amino acids, mineral nutrients and vitamins
3. spices, seasonings, flavouring preparations, essential oils, oleoresins and natural extractives
4. food packaging materials and components thereof
5. drugs recommended for administration to animals that may be consumed as food.
• a food additive is any substance added to food.
• the term refers to 'any substance the intended use which results or may reasonably be expected to result-directly or indirectly-in its becoming a component or
otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food
• includes any substance used in the production, processing, treatment, packaging, transportation or storage of food
• If a substance is added to a food for a specific purpose in that food, it is referred to as a direct additive

Food Additive (USA)

The information that companies must provide when submitting applications to the Health Products and Food Branch of Health Canada for approval of a new food additive
is listed below:
1. Composition, properties, method of manufacture and specifications of the substance to be used as a food additive;
2. Amount and purpose of use;
3. An acceptable method of analysis to determine the presence and concentration of the proposed food additive
4. Data establishing that the proposed food additive will have the intended physical or other technical effect;
5. Detailed reporting of tests conducted to establish the safety of the proposed food additive. Those studies must include:
Food Additive Approval Process
o biochemical and physiological tests;
o subacute and chronic toxicity tests; and
o reproduction studies
6. A proposed maximum limit for residues of the food additive in or upon the finished food;
7. Specimens of the labelling proposed for the food additive; and
8. 8. A sample of the food additive
• See Nitrate and Aspartame
• Covers principles and methods for quantitative physical and chemical analysis of food products and ingredients
Food Analysis
• Related to the standards and regulations for food processing
• FDA form the foundation of the consumer protection laws
• FDA prohibits the advertising to the general public of any food, drug, cosmetic or device for the treatment, prevention or cure of any of the diseases listed on
Food and Drugs Act Schedule A of the FDA
• this section of the Act also prohibits the sale of a food, drug, cosmetic or device that is labeled in this manner
• Standards of food identity and composition are defined in the Food Regulations of the Food and Drugs Act of Canada
• The regulations can be amended by authority of the Governor in Council
Food and Drugs Regulations
• Food and Drug Regulations contain descriptions of certain foods that specify, for example, what is allowed in those foods as ingredients
Food Chemistry • Deals with composition, structure, properties of food, chemistry of changes that occur during processing
Food Colloid • Particles of one substance are distributed, dispersed in another substance without dissolving

Food Deterioration

• different factors that can lead to deterioration of food

Food Directorate
Food Engineering
Food Enzymes
Food for Specific Health Use
(FOSHU)
Food Grades
Food Infection
Food Intoxication
Food Irradiation
• Food Directorate that reviews NNHPs in food formats (e.g. juices, yogurts, etc
• Studies and applies engineering concepts and unit operations used in food processing
• Principles include material and energy balances, thermodynamics, fluid flow, heat and mass transfer
• enzymes are biological catalysts that function to promote desirable chemical reactions in foods (invertase is used to promote sucrose hydrolysis in confectionery
products).
• Japan was the first country to introduce the term of "functional foods."
• In the 1980s the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare introduced a category of foods which had health promoting effects
• was done in order to reduce the escalating cost of health care in Japan
• The Japanese termed this food category as: Food for Specific Health Use (FOSHU)
• processed foods containing ingredients that aid specific bodily functions in addition to being nutritious
The Japanese have set three conditions for defining a functional food:
• it must be a food (not a capsule, tablet, powder) derived from naturally occurring ingredients;
• it can and should be consumed as part of the daily diet; and
• it has a particular function when ingested, serving to regulate a particular body process (defense mechanism, prevention/recovery from a specific disease, slowing
the aging process, control of physical and mental conditions.)
The Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare has identified 12 very broad classes of ingredients which they consider to be health-enhancing:
• Dietary fibre
• Oligosaccharides
• Sugar alcohols
• Amino acids, peptides and proteins
• Glycosides
• Alcohols
• Vitamins
• Lactic acid bacteria
• Minerals
• Polyunsaturated fatty acids
• Phytochemicals and antioxidants
• Grade standard descriptions for processed fruits and vegetables indicate that the grades are based on aesthetic qualities of the fruits and vegetables
• there is not a great deal of information available, it appears that Canada Fancy and Canada Standard processed fruits and vegetables are similar in nutrient value
• the grades do not necessarily indicate that a better grade (fancy) is superior to a lower grade (standard) from a nutrient point of view.
• SEE TABLE 12.1
• SEE TABLE 12.1
• Name common food items processed with this method. How does it function to preserve food? What factors of spoilage does it affect? How is shelf-life affected?
• emission and propagation of energy through matter or space by electromagnetic disturbances
• treatment with ionizing energy is the ability of the absorbed quanta of energy to dislodge electrons from molecules with the concomitant creation of free radicals
without inducing radioactivity in the food
• approved sources provides enough energy to knock an electron from the outer orbit
 •
factors that need to be considered and controlled during food irradiation include:
• Safety and wholesomeness of the foods
• Resistance of food to irradiation
• Resistance of microorganisms to ionizing energy
• Resistance of enzymes to ionizing energy
• Cost
• Related to the study of microbial ecology in relation to food, effects of environment on spoilage, manufacture, physical, chemical, biological destruction of
Food Microbiology
microorganisms in food, microbiological examinations of food stuffs and public health and sanitation microbiology
• Covers principles of food preservation and general characters of raw food materials, processing factors that influence quality, packaging and waste management,
Food Processing
good manufacturing practices and sanitation procedures
• Application of the principles of science, engineering, mathematics in order to study and acquire new knowledge of physical, chemical, biochemical nature of foods
Food Science • Involved study of sensory properties of food and psychology of choice
• Subfield of main components: food chemistry, food analysis, food microbiology, food processing
Food Technology • Utilization, processing, preservation and storage of food
Foods Permitted to be Irradiated
• Potatoes, onions, fresh/frozen ground beef, flour, spices
in Canada
• Places food in wide-mouthed bottles and then corking them, put them in heated water baths
François Nicolas Appert
• Created the canning process
• breaking up of one or more bonds between atoms in the molecule, leading to new molecular fragments possessing unshared electrons
• ionizing energy from a permitted source for food use is absorbed by food and collides with a molecule or atom, an ion-pair is produced if the energy from the
collision is sufficient to dislodge an electron from an atomic orbit
• because of the unshared electron, free radicals are extremely reactive and tend to react with other free radicals or other molecules with unshared electrons
• free radicals are produced when ionizing energy is absorbed by foods (fruits, vegetables, meats, fish) that contain substantial quantities of water
• free radicals only exist for about 0.0001 seconds, but generate hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which is the antimicrobial agent that kills bacteria, yeasts, and moulds in
Free Radicals foods
• the free radicals are formed within the microbial cells
• concern that has been expressed in regard to the use of food irradiation is the generation of free radicals during exposure of the food to ionizing energy
• true that free radicals are produced in foods during irradiation
• free radical formation is not unique to foods which have been irradiated with ionizing energy
• oxidative reactions in foods containing unsaturated fats also involve free radical formation, and free radicals are also formed during the course of the Maillard
browning reactions
 • also produced within our bodies and other living tissues during normal metabolism
• Some water may be present within intergranular spaces, within pores of the food matrix and as a thin film of water on the surface of many foods
• Free water can be found in tissue food systems and in dispersions
Free Water • Water that is free and not bound by food components generally retains its usual physical properties, can also function as a dispersing agent for colloidal substances,
can function as a solvent and can be used by microorganisms
•
Free Water •
Freeze Drying • Describe the conditions/process and common food examples.
• Freeze drying is restricted to high value foods because of the high costs associated with this dehydration method
• water is removed from food in the frozen state without transition through the liquid state
• water(solid) —> water(vapour)
• freezing temperatures can deteriorate liquid foods such as milk, causing emulsions to break and fat to separate, and denaturing protein causing it to curdle or
Freezer Burn coagulate
• "Freezer burn" due to loss of moisture can occur in solid and liquid foods.
Freezing • Freezing provides longer shelf life of food
• carried out at temperatures well below 0°C
• commercial freezing requires a minimum of -18°C
• Household freezers only reach temperatures of -12 to -14°C
• The basis for preservation by freezing/frozen storage is that freezing permits longer term storage than refrigerated storage due to:
o lower temperatures used (remember that microorganisms cannot grow well at temperatures below -9.5°C)
o lower water activity (by freezing the "free" water present in the food)
• storage of food at freezing temperatures does not kill all microorganisms and in fact many disease-causing and spoilage-causing microorganisms can survive in
frozen foods for many years (e.g. Listeria monocytogenes)
• Once the food is thawed, the surviving microorganisms can resume their growth and function, causing disease or spoilage if the proper conditions for microbial
growth prevail
• generally of higher nutritional and aesthetic quality than thermally processed foods
• freezing foods the objective is to promote the formation of tiny ice crystals rather than the formation of fewer but larger ice crystals that cause cellular damage
Freezing and thawing curves • figure describes the transitions that take place in a hypothetical food material during freezing and thawing
o removal of heat from the product (sensible heat)
o freezing of water (liquid) into ice crystals (solid) (latent heat of fusion or crystallization)
o further cooling to the surrounding temperature

•
Freezing methods

Indirect Contact Immersion & Cryogenic

Air Freezing Freezing Freezing

Still-air "sharp" freezer Single plate Heat Exchange fluid

Air blast freezer Double plate Compressed gas
Fluidized-bed freezer Pressure plate Refrigerant spray
(IQF) Slush freezer
Freezing point • the temperature at which ice crystals are in equilibrium with air-saturated water at 1 atmosphere pressure
 • Solutes in water will depress the freezing point
• freezing point of foods is below the freezing point of pure water, because foods contain solutes dissolved in the aqueous (water) phase
You don’t need to know the structure. Example of what food stuff it is found in. Sweetness level.
• 42% fructose – 100 sweetness index
Fructose
• 55% fructose – 100+ sweetness index
• 90% fructose – 120 – 160 sweetness index
• Definition in Canada, examples, and physiological effects.
• Functional foods, designer foods and natural health products are terms that are often used interchangeably, to refer to foods or food components with a positive
impact on an individual's health, physical performance or state of mind, in addition to its nutritive value
• As consumers seek to optimize their health through food choice and demand healthier foods and food ingredients, a strong demand for functional foods has
emerged
• similar in appearance to, or may be, a conventional food, consumed as part of a usual diet, which is demonstrated to have physiological benefits and/or to reduce
the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions
They are developed through various means, such as:
• fortification with vitamins and/or minerals, beyond mandatory requirements, to provide added health benefits (for example, fortified soy beverages and fruit juice with
calcium);
• addition of bioactive ingredients (for example, margarine with phytosterols, muffins with beta-glucan, yogurts with probiotics, and drinks with herb blends); and
• enhancement with bioactive components through plant breeding, genetic modification, processing, or special livestock feeding techniques (for example, eggs, milk
and meat with omega-3; canola oil high in carotenoids; and strawberries with enhanced levels of ellagic acid)
• Most of the functional foods that have been developed are beverages

Functional Foods

•
You don’t need to know the structure. Example of what food stuff it is found in. Sweetness level.
Galactose
• Levulose 140 sweetness index
• is electromagnetic radiation that has very short wavelengths
Gamma Radiation
• such as Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137 emit gamma radiation as they disintegrate
Make sure to know examples of foods as well as the definition.
• Dispersion of water held within a continuous matrix of polysaccharides (starch) to proteins
Gel
• [liquid] DP / solid CP
• Ex. starch, pectin, gelatin gels
• Gelatin (from the animal protein: collagen) forms a gel by trapping large volumes of water within a semi rigid three dimensional protein matrix
• Heating of meat proteins during the manufacture of luncheon meats, such as bologna and frankfurters, leads to gelation and formation of the textures characteristic
Gelatin
of cured meats
• Milk protein also forms a gel when it is acidified, such as in making of yogurt and cheese
• phenomenon when starch is heated in water
• starch granules absorb water and swell-up as the water entering the granule begins to "loosen" the bonds between the starch molecules
Gelatinization • Hydrogen bonds form between the water and starch molecules
• starch granule eventually “bursts", becoming soft and pliable
• ex. pudding, gravies, rice kernels into soft rice
Genetic Engineering • moving a gene or genes from one organism to another
Genetic Material
• traits of every organism are encoded in its genetic material (DNA or RNA) which is organized into individual units called genes
(DNA)
Genetic modification • achieved by changing the code or organization of the genetic material of an organism
Genetically Engineered
• are more specific and through this technology, a foreign piece of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is inserted into the genetic material of the host organisms
Organisms (GE)
• plants, animals and microorganisms in which there is a change to the heritable trait(s) of the organism by intentional manipulation
Genetically Modified Organisms • intentional manipulation includes but is not limited to the use of modern gene technologies such as recombinant nucleic acid technology
(GMO) • yield a desired product
• possess a desired characteristic
Glazing and Polishing Agents • additives used to make food surfaces shiny and in some cases to prevent quality deterioration (beeswax is permitted for use on confectionery products).
You don’t need to know the structure. Example of what food stuff it is found in. Sweetness level.
Glucose
• Dextrose 70 – 80 sweetness index
• enzymatically isomerized by the enzyme glucose isomerase to produce a liquid syrup composed of 42% fructose, commercially known as high fructose corn syrup
Glucose Isomerase
(HFCS 42)
• When the maximum level of use for a food additive indicates "Good manufacturing practice" (GMP)
Good Manufacturing Practice • it basically means the minimum amount of an additive required to accomplish the specific purpose for which the additive is listed
• This minimum amount is based on technical food processing needs.
• is a unit of energy absorbed by a food irradiated with ionizing radiation
Gray • ionizing radiation processes permitted around the world involve absorbed doses of <10 kGy
• one thousand grays equals one kilogray (kGy).
Hazard • Hazard - A thing or action that can cause adverse health effects in animals (including fish), plants or humans. The capacity to produce injury under the circumstances
of exposure.
o Hazard is a much more complex concept than toxicity because it includes a consideration of conditions of use; in other words, two components are
involved in assessing a hazard:
1. the inherent capacity to cause harm (toxicity), and
2. the ease or probability of contact between the substance and the target object.
o These two components together describe the chance or probability that a substance will do harm. Dr. Ottoboni (cited below) provides two examples
to make this clear.
• setting food and drug regulations
Health Canada • standards of identity and composition for foods
• food additive regulations
• Food and Drugs Act of Canada is administered by the Health Products and Food Branch of Health Canada, whereas inspections for compliance are enforced by the
Health Products and Food
Canadian Food Inspection Agency
Branch of Health Canada
• Several other government agencies work together to ensure the safety and quality of foods produced and/or consumed in Canada
• Factors that affect the heat transfer characteristics of a food are
• the consistency of the food (liquid -viscous or non viscous- or solid)
Heat Transfers
• the chemical composition of the food.
• other factors that are important are the container size, shape and composition
• Preference tests are also known as consumer tests
• evaluate a personal (subjective) response to a product
Hedonic Test
• preference between products, degree of liking of a product, or their overall acceptance of a product
• ex. Paired-preference, ranking and hedonic scales.
Hepatitis A • Name of foodborne disease, symptoms, common foods, prevention, numbers reported in 2014.

What is the pH level? What types of foods?

High Acid Food • acid foods have pH of 4.6 or less
• Acid foods will not support growth of disease causing microorganisms. This aspect will be discussed in more
 • Maltose further hydrolysed by the enzyme maltase into D-glucose units which isomerized by enzyme glucose isomerase to produce liquid syrup composed of 42%
fructose
High Fructose Corn Syrup
• HFCS has 42% fructose, 52% glucose and 6% starch. Subsequent technological improvements in which the syrup is passed through an ion-exchange column that
retains fructose, allow for the production of a 90% fructose syrup

Histamine • result from eating scombroid fishes, i.e. fish of the Scombrida and Scomberesocidae families, including tuna, bonito and mackerel
• poisoning results in nausea, vomiting, facial flushing, headache, epigastric pain, thirst, itching of the skin and hives
• effects usually subside within 12 hours but in some severe cases death has resulted
• rancidity induced in foods upon the release of free fatty acids by very high temperatures
• Hydrolytic rancidity is catalyzed by enzymes (lipase enzyme)
Hydrolytic or Lipolytic Rancidity • hydrolytic rancidity and lipolytic rancidity result in the same chemical transformation of triglycerides
• Hydrolytic rancidity occurs with high heat. This is a chemical reaction
• lipolytic requires an enzyme, so is an example of an enzymatic reaction
Hygroscopic • readily pick up moisture because of their low water activity
Ice cream processing • Main steps followed in the production of ice cream: combine wet ingredients (milk, whey, sweetener, cream) and dry ingredients (milk powder, stabilizers,
emulsifiers), mixture is pasteurized and homogenized, flavours added, frozen to a plastic consistency by a horizontal freezer which frozen walls, blades scrap the
frozen mixture from the walls to incorporate air, packaged and sent to hardening at -40 degrees C, quality control for weight, quality and sanitation; novelty items like
sandwiches are on a belt for deep freezing and then packaged, stick novelty are in a vitaline in moulds with a refrigerated brine solution, freezing and stored in the
deep freezer at -17 degrees C
• What type of freezer(s) are used? Deep freezer, horizontal freezer
• What tests are conducted to assure safety and quality? Tests for taste, smell, composition, appearance and bacterial properties
Ice crystal damage • lead to loss of water from the food product once it is thawed
• drip that is found in thawed strawberries or beef because of ice crystal damage to the cells, leading to leakage of cellular fluids into extracellular spaces, and to the
loss of water-holding capacity of food components as a result of concentration effects
• Emulsions and other dispersions are destabilized by the growth of numerous small ice crystals to larger, less numerous but more damaging ice crystals; such growth
in ice crystal size is usually caused by temperature fluctuations
• shrinkage and development of graininess in ice cream stored in the frost-free freezer section of your refrigerator
• freeze dehydration which is popularly called freezer burn and can produce unsightly food surfaces and loss of nutrients
• These descriptions are standards of identity and composition that have to be met for a food to be legally called by the name in the standard
• "standardized foods"
• Ex. bread, milk, cheese, orange juice, sausage, jam, wine, beer, vinegar and salt
Identity Standard
• "unstandardized foods"
• Ex. snack foods like potato chips, various bakery items such as rolls, donuts and cakes, yogurt, and pizza
• Standards of food identity and composition are defined in the Food Regulations of the Food and Drugs Act of Canada
Immersion freezing • the immersion of packaged or un-packaged food products directly in a non-toxic refrigerant fluid
• commonly used are propylene glycol, glycerol, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and mixtures of salt and sugar
• ex. canned citrus juice, turkeys and chickens, ice cream popsicles
Indirect contact freezers • used in the production of various frozen food commodities
• food is placed on belts or trays and a refrigerant circulates through a wall beside the food
• comes into "contact" with the cold wall, it quickly cools down and freezes
• ex. plate and slush freezers are some examples of indirect contact freezers
• many of the effects observed in foods arising from the absorption of ionizing energy are due to indirect effects
• indirect hit, damage to the nucleic acids occurs when the radiation ionizes an adjacent molecule, which in turn reacts with the genetic material
Indirect effects
• radiolysis of water molecules to produce reactive hydroxyl radicals, or reactions in foods of peroxides and peroxide free radicals with fats, leading to lipid
oxidation(rancidity
Indirect Effects of Ionizing Energy •
• parasites infest
Infestation
• lowering the quality of food and market value
• determine the thermal resistance of heat-resistant spores in foods, "Inoculated pack studies" are carried out using a non-pathogenic spore-forming bacterium,
Inoculated Pack Studies Clostridium sporogenes PA3679 (a putrefactive anaerobe)
• determining if C. botulinum is destroyed
Invert Sugar • Produced by hydrolyzing sucrose with enzyme invertase or with an acid to produce a mixture of glucose and fructose
Invertase • enzyme invertase or with an acid to produce a mixture of glucose and fructose

Ionizing Energy
Irradiation and Food Safety
Justice Canada
• is used to promote sucrose hydrolysis in confectionery products
• Definition. What are common sources used in food processing?
• short wavelengths include X-rays, beta rays and gamma rays, which can be employed as energy sources in food irradiation, since they have good penetrating power
• "the damage occurring from ionizing radiation can be random and extensive, making DNA repair near impossible”
• even relatively small changes in the DNA can destroy bacterial cells, and the disruption of genetic material in living cells by irradiation also enables the destruction of
insects, inactivation of parasites, delaying of ripening, and prevention of sprouting
• The Department of Justice Canada is responsible for maintaining the Consolidated Statutes and Regulations for the Government of Canada, including the Food and
Drugs Act and Food and Drug Regulations
What qualities are examined when analysing food?

Kinesthetic

• cutting, compression, tensile strength, shearing

• Enzyme that breaks down lactose
Lactase
• People with lactose intolerance do not have the enzyme lactase to break down the sugars (lactaid is the enzyme)
You don’t need to know the structure. Example of what food stuff it is found in. Sweetness level.
• Known as milk sugar, occurs in milks of animals
• Cows milk 4-5%
• Human milk 6-8%
Lactose
• Hydrolysis of lactose found in dairy products into monosacchs is catalyzed by lactase (breaking down lactose to increase sweetness)
• Ex. used as lactic acid in yogurts, cheeses
• 10 – 20 sweetness index
• People with lactose intolerance do not have the enzyme lactase to break down the sugars (lactaid is the enzyme)
Latent heat • quantity of heat required to change the state or condition under which a substance exists, without changing its temperature.
• the heat required to convert a solid into a liquid or vapor, or a liquid into a vapor, without change of temperature.
• lipases can cause lipolytic rancidity which is the release of free fatty acid from glycerides
Lipases
• the enzymes that cause rancidity and they can either be within the food product itself or introduced through a microorganism
• Fats and oils
Lipids • can be found in the form of triglycerides, phospholipids and sterols
• triglycerides make the largest class of lipids as most of the fats and oils we consume from food are in the form of triglycerides
What do these do?
Lipolytic bacteria • these bacteria are more heat resistant and can survive the pasteurization process
• lipolytic (lipid degradation) action of the psychrotrophic, spoilage-causing bacteria
• lipases can cause lipolytic rancidity which is the release of free fatty acid from glycerides
Lipolytic Rancidity
Listeria monocytogenes
 • low-acid and acid foods, many spoilage-causing microorganisms can still survive typical pasteurization process conditions
Low Acid Foods • Ex. in milk, the proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria are more heat resistant and can survive

What is the pH level? What types of foods?

• low-acid foods have pH greater than 4.6
Low-Acid Food
• ex. milk

• The Maillard browning reaction occurs when reducing sugars react with nitrogenous compounds such as amino acids, proteins or amines
• The Maillard browning reaction is responsible for the formation of the brown pigments that appear on bread slices when they are toasted in the toaster.
Maillard Browning Reaction • desirable compounds are the aroma and flavour of baked bread, toasted bread and roasted coffee
• undesirable aromas and flavours are those that form in skim milk powder during storage or during the browning of canned peaches during long-term storage
• the brown colours are high molecular weight pigments, melanoidins, formed as a result of polymerization of some of the low molecular weight intermediate fractions
Major components of food
• Carbs, fat, proteins and water
system
Major components of food
• Organic acids, pigments, aroma compounds, vitamins, minerals
system
Maltase • enzyme maltase hydrolyses maltose into its component D-glucose units
You don’t need to know the structure. Example of what food stuff it is found in. Sweetness level.
• Contains two glucose units linked together, obtained when starch (corn starch) is hydrolyses by the enzyme amylase or heating up with dilute acid
Maltose
• Ex. high fructose corn syrup
• 20 sweetness index
• imitate fat's mouthfeel while contributing to less calories. Include cellulose, gums, modified starches, etc.
• derived from carbohydrate sources such as corn, potato, wheat and tapioca. It produces a smooth mouthfeel and bland flavour
Maltrin
• Maltrin is fully digestible, yielding 4 Cal/g (remember that fat yields 9 Cal/g)
(Maltodextrin)
• Other carbohydrate based fat replacers are available that range from non-digestible to partially digestible (0-2 Cal/g)
• Ex. Margarine, salad dressings, frozen desserts, frostings, processed meat
Definition and how it is used (e.g. low and high acid foods)
• margin of safety which refers to the probability that a container of food could still contain a viable spore of Clostridium botulinum after the completion of the thermal
processing
• As the spore population in a food system is increased, the total time required at a particular temperature to kill ALL the spores increases.
• for low acid foods (pH greater than 4.6) a margin of safety of 12D is applied - the low acid foods (e.g. milk, meat, poultry, fish, vegetables) are subjected to a thermal
Margin of Safety process so that the slowest heating portion of the food is exposed to an amount of thermal energy (heat) such that the microbial spores present in the food will
experience the equivalent of 12 successive decimal reduction times
• capability of killing 1012 (one trillion) spores of Clostridium botulinum per container
• higher the temperature, the lower the D-value and the less time taken to achieve the 12D "botulinum cook" for low acid canned foods
• C. botulinum is very sensitive to acid and it will not grow in foods at pH 4.6 or below - the 12D heat treatment would be redundant for acid foods (pH of 4.6 or less)
• acid foods, temperatures at or below 100°C for a few minutes should be an adequate heat treatment, a 5D thermal process is usually used for acid foods
• MDS Nordion (Laval, Quebec) and Iotron (Port Coquitlam, BC) process some dry food ingredients. The former uses gamma rays, while the latter uses electron beam
MDS Nordin technology. The Canadian Irradiation Centre (CIC) is a training centre operated as a joint venture by MDS Nordion and the Université du Québec, Institut Armand-
Frappier (IAF)
Measurement Canada • Weights and measures are regulated by "Innovation, Science and Development Canada" specifically by an agency known as "Measurement Canada"

Mesophiles
Methods to minimize undesirable
changes during food irradiation
Methods to Use at Home to
Prevent Foodborne Disease
Microbial antagonism
• agency is responsible for inspection of measurement devices and providing the accuracy certification stickers
• Mesophiles grow well in moderate temperatures
• mesophiles have an optimum growth temperature of 37°C
• Most spoilage and disease-causing organisms are mesophiles.
Irradiation in the frozen state
• When water is frozen free radicals are produced at a lesser extent
• The frozen state will delay free radical diffusion and migration to food constituents beyond the site of free radical production.
• However, as we learned in the required reading by Smith and Pillai (2004), the D10 values also change as the water in the product freezes.
Irradiation in a vacuum
• Removing O2 from the system may minimize reactions; however,
• Removal of oxygen could also confer a protective effect on microorganisms.
Addition of free radical scavengers
• Ascorbic acid has a great affinity for free radicals.
• Addition of free radical scavengers to food systems results in consumption of the free radicals via reactions between the scavengers and the free radical(s).
• Choose foods processed for safety (i.e. pasteurized products over unpasteurized)
• Cook foods thoroughly
• Eat cooked foods immediately
• Store food promptly and carefully. Perishable and "cold" foods should be kept "cold" below 4°C until ready to cook or eat.
◦ Avoid the "Temperature Danger Zone" (TDZ) which is from 4°C to 60°C (40-140°F). Bacteria can grow and/or produce toxins in food if left in the TDZ.
• Reheat cooked foods thoroughly
• Avoid cross-contamination. Do not allow any contact between raw food or its traces and cooked food
• Wash hands repeatedly
• Keep all kitchen surfaces clean
• Do not let anyone with diarrhea or infected sores prepare food
• Wash all fruits and vegetables before eating
• Finally, if in doubt, throw it out! (Ministry of Health Services, 2001)
There are 7 principles in a HACCP system:
• Identify Hazards
• Determine the critical control points (CCPs)
• Establish control measures (critical limits or thresholds)
• Establish procedures to monitor CCPs
• Establish corrective actions
• Keep records
• Verify procedures
Wash your hands!
• condition formed is the basis which is the principle of preservation of foods by microorganisms specifically cultured for the production of fermented foods
Microbial changes in food
undergoing fermentation

• Microorganisms are ubiquitous (everywhere)

• Almost all food materials that arrive at food processing plants, retail stores, food service receiving docks, and even your kitchen, are contaminated with a variety of
microorganisms.
• Microorganisms cause a great deal of food spoilage throughout the world
• This has major economic consequences and also result in loss of potential sources of nutrients, since the spoiled food typically is discarded
• can be characterized on the basis of temperature ranges and oxygen requirements over which growth occurs

Microorganisms

• The protein is partially coagulated by heat, creating a micro dispersion, in a process known as microparticulation
Microparticulation • the spheroidal particles in this dispersion are very small (0.1-0.2 microns)
• b/c the small particle size of the protein, we perceive the dispersion as a fluid with similar creaminess and richness of fat
• Minerals (calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, zinc) are often associated with various cellular components in tissue food systems
Minerals • often are active participants in chemical and biochemical reactions that affect the chemical properties and textural characteristics of food systems

Modified atmosphere • refers to the creation of atmospheric conditions around the product that are different from the normal atmosphere
• typically in packaging

Moisture (water) Content
Monosaccharide
Mould
Mould-Ripened Cheese
Municipal Inspections (e.g.
Vancouver Coastal Health or
Fraser Health)
Mycotoxins
Natural and Non-Prescription
Health Products (NNHP)
Natural and Non-Prescription
Health Products Directorate
Natural Health Products
Natural Health Products
Directorate
Natural v Environmental
• air in the package is then removed either by drawing a vacuum, then backflushing the package with the desired gas mixture before sealing the package
• simply by flushing the package with the desired gas mixture until the air in the package is replaced by the desired gas mixture (usually a combination of carbon
dioxide and nitrogen) before sealing the package
• ex. salad bags and pasta and vacuum packing
• composition of the atmosphere in a modified atmosphere packed food product changes over time, the changes being governed by metabolic activities of the food,
the microorganisms in the food, and the gas permeability of the packaging materials used
• Measurement of the moisture content of a variety of food systems is a frequently conducted quality assurance measurement
• measurement of water content of foods does not indicate whether the water is bound or free
•
• Found in foods are glucose, fructose and galactose
• Simple carb
• Main function to impart sweetness sensation (varying sweeteness)
How do they respond to stress? Give some examples of moulds.
• Moulds are filamentous and are also found on most foods of agricultural and aquatic origins
• Most moulds produce spores
• moulds can grow on foods that have a low pH and also in foods with low water activities that would inhibit growth of bacteria and yeasts
• moulds are used in the production of mould-fermented foods
• most moulds are agents of food spoilage and many also produce toxins (mycotoxins) under favourable conditions
• What are its characteristics? What are some specific examples of types of mould-ripened cheese?
• Camembert and Brie (soft-type cheeses)
• surface of the pressed cheese curd is also inoculated with spores of Penicillium camembertii (or Penicillium candidum*
• growth of the mould leads to the formation of a layer of mycelia that form the white, velvet-like coating on the outer layer of the cheese
• mould is highly proteolytic and the mould proteinases diffuse into the cheese curd, hydrolyzing the casein into long-chain peptides which do not contribute much
flavour to the cheese
• hydrolysis of the casein leads to the formation of the creamy texture characteristic of a good quality Camembert cheese
• Penicillium culture is too proteolytic or if curing takes place too long, bitter tasting short-chain peptides, free amino acids and ammonia are formed
• public health inspection of retail stores and food service establishments
• substances produced by moulds, which may be toxic
• may occur by direct contamination (due to mould growth on the food) or by indirect contamination (by using a food ingredient that was contaminated)
• can be highly toxic to the body, some have been known to cause cancer in animal tests, others are mutagenic and able to cause mutation, and others are
teratogenic and capable of causing deformities in embryos
• invisible to the eye, are often unchanged by heat and can potentially spread throughout a product
• any sign of visible mould could indicate that the product contains mycotoxins and should be thrown away
• take vitamins and minerals, herbal products, homeopathic medicines
• NNHPs may be derived from plants, animals or micro-organisms
• What does it control?
• Note that while the licensing of natural and non-prescription health products (NNHPs) in pill or tablet form are reviewed by the Natural and Non-prescription Health
Products Directorate
• with the goal of ensuring safe, effective and high quality products, while respecting Canadians' freedom of choice, and philosophical and cultural diversity
• to establish new regulations and policies addressing the unique nature of NNHP
• Definition in Canada, examples, and physiological effects.
• "A natural health product is a product isolated or purified from foods that is generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated with food. A natural health
product is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease."
• "A functional food is similar in appearance to, or may be, a conventional food, is consumed as part of a usual diet, and is demonstrated to have physiological
benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions".
• responsible for regulations and labelling guidelines for these products
• deal with the uniqueness of emerging products which are neither strictly foods nor drugs
• natural and environmental toxicants is a little bit less clear cut, but may be generally determined by their origin
• we might be able to prevent the growth of moulds, but moulds are nevertheless naturally present in the environment
• Pesticides, however, are introduced into the environment by us and while not intended to become part of the food, some do to a certain extent
• Mercury and lead can enter the food supply because of heavy natural deposits in the soil, but in fact are found in food predominantly because we use these metals
in a wide variety of ways
 •
Nitrates • Widely found constituents of plant materials, especially green leafy plants.
• Nitrates themselves are not very toxic; however, bacteria can reduce them to nitrites .
• A primary concern about nitrites is their ability to interact chemically with hemoglobin, interfering with the blood's ability to transport the required oxygen to the
body's cells. By a rather complex series of reactions, not only bacteria but also metabolic pathways within the digestive system of humans can utilize nitrate/nitrite as
a precursor for the formation of nitrosamines , potent carcinogens
• The reactions of myoglobin, the red pigment in meat, with nitric oxide (formed from nitrites) in cured meats leads to the formation of nitrosohemochrome, the pink
colour typical of cured meat products
• nitrite has several functions in cured meats
• the most important role of nitrite is to act as an antimicrobial agent, particularly towards Clostridium botulinum
• nitrites (naturally occurring, or added as an additive, or produced by reduction of nitrates), can react with amines to produce nitrosamines - some of which are potent
carcinogens

Nitrite/Nitrate

• nitrites (naturally occurring, or added as an additive, or produced by reduction of nitrates), can react with amines to produce nitrosamines - some of which are potent
carcinogens
• foods are not a major source of nitrosamine exposure in humans, and that the greatest exposure comes from use of tobacco products
Nitrosamines • the exposure to nitrosamines should be minimized
• levels of nitrosopyrrolidine in excess of 100 parts per billion (ppb) were detected in fried bacon
• it was found that compounds such as ascorbic acid, sodium erythorbate (isoascorbate) and alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) would interfere with the nitrosation
reactions
No Effect Level • the highest level of the chemical which caused no harmful effects in the test animals
• no effect level in animals, divided by a safety factor. For most food additives
No Effect Level for Humans
• the safety factor is generally 100
Non-enzymatic Browning • simple sugars is their ability to serve as reactants in non-enzymatic browning reactions, namely caramelization and the Maillard browning reaction.
Non-reducing Sugar • Sucrose is not a reducing sugar, will invert sugar be considered as a reducing sugar?
Noravirus • Name of foodborne disease, symptoms, common foods, prevention.
Number of reported cases in
British Columbia
Nutrient Enrichment
Nutrient Fortification
Nutrient Loss Factor: Processing
Methods
Nutrient Loss Factor: Properties
of Food
Nutrient Loss Factor: Specific
Nutrients
only 1-4% of all foodborne disease outbreaks are actually reported and documented
• Additional of nutrients to achieve levels specified in federal standards in identity; used interchangeably with restorable and fortification
• Addition of nutrients which were originally not present or which were present in insufficient amounts; used to correct nutritional deficiencies
• How does this impact nutrient loss?
o type of process (thermal processing, low temperature preservation, dehydration, fermentation; physical processes such as milling and grinding, etc)
o severity of the process (e.g. blanching versus pasteurization versus commercial sterilization) and the exact conditions (e.g. HTST and UHT versus slow
batch heating; e.g. boiling in water, steaming, microwave-cooking, stir-frying, baking or broiling)
• How does this impact nutrient loss?
o e.g. solid or liquid, acidity, moisture, chemical composition, presence of food additives or preservatives etc
• How does this impact nutrient loss?
 • chemical and physical properties, e.g. water- or fat-soluble? double bonds

• How does this impact nutrient loss?

Nutrient Loss Factor: Storage o environmental conditions (temperature, light, oxygen, moisture, ...)
o type of packaging

Nutrient Loss in Dehydration
Nutrient Loss in Fermentation
Nutrient Loss in Freezing
Nutrient Loss in Irradiation
Nutrient Loss in Thermal
Processing
Nutrient Restoration
Nutritional Benefits of Food
Processing
Nutritional Drawbacks of Food
Processing
Olean/Olestra
Organic Acids
Outbreak
Oxidative Rancidity
Packaging Requirements for
Dehydrated Food Products
Parasites
Pasteurization (High Temperature
Short Time- HTST)
• Vitamin A, C beta-carotene sensitive to heat, may lose these nutrients
• Freeze drying is helpful
• Sulfur dioxide inhibits browning and increasing vitamin retention
• Concentrations of sugar and salt added may change flavours
• Not major losses
• Increase of vitamin Bs
• Losses of water soluble vitamins during whey separation and fermentation
• Water-soluble vitamin losses are minimal
• Vitamins A, C, E tend to oxidize during storage
• Varies with higher doses
• Irradiated foods have the same quality as heat processed foods
• No significant digestibility effects
• Susceptible to oxidation
•
• Replacement of original levels of nutrients which were lost during processing; used to help prevention of nutritional deficiencies
• heat processing destroys antidigestives factors such as trypsin and amylase inhibitors in cereal grains making them more digestible
• increases digestability of proteins, starch by gelatinization and denaturation
• increases palatability of food
• blanching inactivates enzymes
• heat processing destroys thiaminase which destroys thiamin in fish, shellfish and Brussel sprouts making these nutrients unavailable
• Some are made form long and/or short fatty acid chains. Others have fatty acids linked to sucrose (instead of glycerol- as in normal fat)
• Made from a sucrose molecule and 6-8 long-chain edible fatty acids forming a sucrose polyester
• Unlike other fat substitutes, Olestra can withstand high temperatures (e.g. frying), and gives the rich taste and creamy texture of characteristic of fat because it is
made primarily from fat
• Enzymes that breakdown ordinary fat cannot break down Olestra à it passes through the body ‘unchanged’ (Olestra is not metabolized and not absorbed by the
human body), contributing to 0 Cal/g
• Products containing Olestra must mention that vitamins A, D, E and K have been added
• organic acids are to adjust pH or to acidify food, and to impart flavour
• Malic acid - apples
• Citric acid - citrus fruits, tomatoes, strawberries.
• Tartaric acid - grapes
• lactic acid - yogurt, cheese, olives, cottage cheese, sauerkraut
• A number of organic acids are also employed as antimicrobial agents
• Organic acids have a wide range of textural effects in food systems due to their reactions with proteins, starches, pectins, and other food constituents
• An outbreak is an incident in which two or more people experience a similar illness after ingestion of the same food and where epidemiological evidence implicates
the food as the source of the illness
• Microbiological agents are responsible for the majority of foodborne disease outbreaks
• An incident refers to the occurrence of foodborne illness
• Oxygen is an important factor in food quality, since many oxidative reactions lead to deterioration in the quality of food and, in some cases, to losses in nutritive
value. Oxidative deterioration is often accelerated by light.
• For example, deterioration frequently occurs because of oxidation of the fats in food products. The development of rancidity in breakfast cereals, vegetable oils and
oil- based products, and in deep-fried foods is due to reaction of oxygen with fats, particularly those with high unsaturated fatty acid content. This type of rancidity is
known as oxidative rancidity
• Oxidative rancidity is a reaction of fatty acids with oxygen
• must be met by packaging material used with dehydrated foods is that there must be no transmission of water vapour from the surrounding environment into the
food
• protect against oxygen and light
Can you give some examples that relate to food spoilage?
• Parasites can cause damage to food quality
• An example is the visible appearance of parasitic cysts in fish flesh which lowers the quality and market value of infested products
Common food items processed in this method. How does it function to preserve food? What factors of spoilage does it affect? What defines the process (temp, time
exposed to heat)? How is shelf-life affected?
 • involves using temperatures of at least 72°C for 15 seconds (high temperature short time or HTST process) prior to packaging
• basis for preservation by pasteurization is to inactivate pathogenic (disease causing) bacteria and viruses in low acid food products such as milk
• Acid food products (pH < 4.6) are mainly pasteurized to inactivate spoilage-causing microorganisms
• Pathogenic microorganisms cannot grow and do not survive very well in acid foods such as citrus juices or apple juice
• does not kill all the psychrotrophic spoilage-causing bacteria in milk, pasteurized milk must be refrigerated to maintain shelf life quality
• The durable life date on milk containers reflects the storage life that can be expected when milk is held at 4 °C or lower.
• Foods that will be consumed within a short period of time after processing can have storage life extended by a combination of pasteurization and refrigerated
storage (used for pasteurized milk and for pasteurized, vacuum packaged, cured meats)
• Pectin is a polysaccharide that acts as a cementing material in the cell walls of all plant tissues
Pectin • Pectins will give contribute to the mouth-feel of foods, and help maintain particles in suspension
• Ex. The white portion of the rind of lemons and oranges contains approximately 30% pectin, jams, jellies

Perishable
Semi Perishable
Shelf Stable Foods

Can you give some examples that relate to food spoilage?

Pests • are major contributors to post-harvest losses
• will damage the food and open it to microbial contamination
• an important pH for the food industry is pH 4.6
• this is the borderline between an acidic food and a low acid food
pH
• pH is a measure of the acidity of a food
• Foods and beverages differ in pH because of their content of acids, which produce hydrogen ions
• pH adjusting agents used to ensure proper acidity of foods (citric acid added as a correcting agent; water added to canned tomatoes to ensure pH 4.5);
pH • acid reacting materials decrease the acidity of water or foods (calcium carbonate is permitted for use in processed cheeses);
• water correcting agents function to decrease the hardness of water
Consequently, according to the Canadian labelling regulations, foods to which aspartame is added must
1. contain a statement on the label saying "contains Aspartame" either individually or conjunction with other sweeteners;
2. list aspartame in the list of ingredients; and
3. must also indicate the aspartame content expressed in milligrams per serving of the stated size.
Phenylketonurics (PKU)
4. stating " Aspartame contains phenylalanine

This information is placed on the label of aspartame containing foods to warn phenylketonurics that they should avoid the product or consume it in very limited quantities
because of their impaired ability to metabolize phenylalanine
• phospholipids, can function as emulsifiers
Phospholipid
• are structurally similar to triglycerides, except that only two fatty acids are linked to the glycerol (making it a diglyceride)
 • ex. Lecithin is an example of a phospholipid, commonly found in egg yolk and soybean oil.
•
•
• Chlorophyll - green
Pigments • Carotenoids - redish
• Anthocyanidins and anthocyanins – berries (sensitive to pH changes)
PKU • people suffering from the rare metabolic disorder known as "PKU" (phenylketonuria) must avoid aspartame
Plate freezing • food products are placed in contact with a metal surface which is cooled by a cold brine, or a vaporizer refrigerant such as ammonia
• packaged food either rests on, slides against or is pressed between the cold metal plates
• ex. Fish sticks and frozen fish fillets are commonly frozen in plate contact freezers

Polyphenol Oxidase
Polysaccharide
Precautions for Dealing with
Mouldy Food
Preservation principle
Preservatives
Probable daily intake
Probiotics
• Enzymes can be inactivated by means of heat, chemicals (e.g. antioxidants), and by controlling the gaseous environment
• experienced the browning of apples, potatoes and peaches after they have been sliced and exposed to oxygen in the atmosphere
• catalyzed by an enzyme known as polyphenol oxidase which catalyzes the oxidation of colorless phenols in the tissues to brown colored compounds, as shown in
the following equation
• Polysaccharides are high molecular weight, long chains of monosaccharide units (i.e. glucose)
• They are classified as the complex carbohydrates
• differ from simple carbohydrates by being insoluble in water and generally tasteless
• polysaccharides used in food products are derived from plant or seaweed sources; a few are from microbial origin
• They contribute to the thickness or viscosity and textural properties of food products
• Ex. pectin, agar, alginates, gum Arabic, carrageenan, xanthan gum, cellulose and hemicellulose, starch
• any food which contains mould should be thrown out however because the risk of mycotoxins is fairly low in some instances, the benefit of saving the product may
outweigh the potential risks involved.
• basis of preservation of foods by fermentation is the encouragement of growth and metabolism of alcohol and acid-producing microorganisms to suppress the
growth and metabolic activities of proteolytic and lipolytic, spoilage-causing microorganisms
• agents that delay the onset of food spoilage. Preservatives can be antimicrobial agents (benzoic acid, sorbic acid, potassium nitrite) or antioxidants (ascorbic acid,
propyl galiate gallate, a-tocopherol) to prevent fat oxidation and enzymatic browning of fruit
• a food additive is determined to ensure that this value would not exceed the acceptable daily intake
• Food consumption estimates of particular food commodities are used to determine the probable daily intake of the food additive in question
• Data from food consumption surveys as well as information from Statistics Canada and the published scientific literature are used to estimate consumption of
particular food items by various groups in Canada (e.g., children, teenagers, the elderly, etc.)
• If the probable daily intake of the food additive in question were to exceed the acceptable daily intake, the additive would not be approved for use or it would be
approved for very restricted use.
• Definition, examples, physiological effects.
• probiotics refers to health-promoting microorganisms that will improve the intestinal microflora balance when deliberately ingested
• may be consumed in the form of natural health product or functional food products
• lactic acid bacteria are non-pathogenic, gram-positive bacteria that have lactic acid as a primary metabolic end-product and are traditionally used in the production
of yogurt
• Lactobacillus and various Bifidobacterium sp. are also dominant organisms in the human small and large intestines
• some of the desirable bacteria are added in the form of concentrated cultures after completion of the fermentation process
 • probiotic bacteria (such as Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium bifidus.) must be present in numbers high enough to have a physiological effect on the
consume
• numbers should be above 10^6 (1 million) viable organisms per ml and at least 100 ml of the product should be consumed twice per week

Process of Cheese Production

• pasteurization: lactic acid-producing culture is added to pasteurized milk at a concentration of 1% (v/v) to ensure that the starter culture is present in much larger
numbers than other microorganisms in the pasteurized milk; done to ensure that the starter culture becomes the dominant portion of the microbial population in the
milk
• inoculated milk becomes mildly acidic, rennet or enzyme is added
• ; obtained from the 4th stomach of the calf and contains rennin and other small amounts of other materials
Protease inhibitors • Proteinaceous compounds found in many of the legume species.
• have the ability to complex to, and thereby interfere with, certain proteolytic enzymes.
• Proteins need to be hydrolyzed into their constituent amino acids by digestive enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin. If these enzymes are rendered inactive by
complexing inhibitors, the body cannot fully hydrolyze the proteins, thereby creating the possibility of amino acid deficiencies
Proteases • proteases used for milk coagulation during cheese making
 Definition and Cal/g
• Protein molecules are made up of long chains of hundreds or even thousands of amino acid units joined together.
• Adults require 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight.
Protein
• Proteins produce 4 Cal/G when they are digested and the amino acids are metabolized for energy
• Proteins in tissue systems such as meats and fish contribute to the texture of the products.
•
What do these do?
Proteolytic bacteria • these bacteria are more heat resistant and can survive the pasteurization process
• proteolytic (protein degradation)
Psychrophiles • Psychrophiles ( 0 to 18°C) grow well in cold temperatures,
• Psychrotrophs (-5 to 35°C) are the major cause of spoilage in refrigerated foods
Psychrotrophs
• Psychrotrophs have adapted to living and multiplying in cold environments
Psycrhotrophic • pathogens that can survive colder temperatures
• below -9.5°C, no significant growth of spoilage or pathogenic organisms
Puffer-fish or Fugu Poisoning • pufferfish have been known to be poisonous, many deaths still occur from eating these fish
• meat of these fish species is considered a delicacy by the Japanese and Chinese
• amount of poison in the fish is lowest in the summer months and increases during winter, with a peak just before spawning, in the spring
• pufferfish poisoning usually begin with a tingling sensation of the fingers, toes, lips and tongue a few minutes after eating the fish. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and
epigastric pain appears in some cases; poisoning progresses, reflexes of the pupil and cornea are lost and the patient increasingly experiences paralysis and
respiratory distress. If the dose is sufficiently large, death will result, caused by respiratory paralysis
• with saxitoxin, a lethal dose for humans is thought to be about 1.0 - 4.0 mg/kg.
• used to describe the sensation of "spicy heat" in the oral cavity
Pungency
• pungent substances is the capsaicinoid family of molecules, such as capsaicin, found in chili peppers
Rad • another unit used to express the radiation absorbed dose (rad), where 100 rads = 1 Gy. However, the preferred unit is the kGy
• The dose values, the effect of the ionizing radiation at this dose, purpose and examples.
Radiant Sterilization • equivalent to thermal commercial sterilization, involves treatment of food with an absorbed dose of ionizing energy such that disease-causing microorganisms and all
(Radappertization) spoilage-causing microorganisms capable of growing at the conditions of storage (e.g., at ambient temperatures) are inactivated
• doses of ionizing radiation are greater than (>) 10 kGy (usually 20, 30 kGy).
• The dose values, the effect of the ionizing radiation at this dose, purpose and examples.
• defined as a process designed to kill or inhibit disease-causing microorganisms (such as vegetative bacteria, yeasts, parasites) in food
Radicidation • Absorbed doses are often below 10 kGy
• that have been treated with a radicidation dose of ionizing energy must still be stored under refrigeration since all spoilage-causing microorganisms would not have
been killed
• What is meant when something becomes radioactive?
• have sufficient energy to penetrate the nucleus and eject neutrons, which would be required to induce radioactivity
• food will NOT become radioactive by irradiation conducted using approved energy sources and within the approved limit
Radioactive • food would need to be exposed to a minimum of 15 MeV of energy
• energy output of Cobalt 60, Cesium 137, and e-beam accelerators is carefully regulated
• maximum energy outputs allowed are 5 or 10 MeV , which are too low to induce radioactivity in food
• low background level of radioactivity arises from the naturally occurring isotopes in elements such as carbon, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur
• unique radiolytic products that have been found are at such trace levels, that they are not considered to be of any significance, and so far toxicological studies have
not found evidence of any harmful effects
Radiolytic Products
• radiolysis of water molecules to produce reactive hydroxyl radicals, or reactions in foods of peroxides and peroxide free radicals with fats, leading to lipid
oxidation(rancidity)
Radura Symbol

•
• The dose values, the effect of the ionizing radiation at this dose, purpose and examples.
• its objective the killing of the majority of spoilage-causing microorganisms and parasites so that storage life of the food can be extended during refrigerated storage
Radurization
• treatment of fish to kill most of the spoilage-causing psychrotrophic bacteria would extend the storage life of the fish at refrigerated storage temperatures
• radurization are below 10 kGy (often < 1 kGy)
Rate of freezing • rate of freezing of foods is very important, with rapid freezing rates being desirable since the formation of many small ice crystals is favoured
1. Food composition : Some food components such as proteins and fats act as insulators. Presence of these components slow down the freezing.
2. Temperature difference: the greater the temperature difference between the food and the refrigerant, the faster the freezing rate.
3. Product thickness/geometry and heat transfer rate: the thinner the food piece or greater the heat transfer rate, the faster the freezing rate.
4. Air velocity: the greater the velocity of refrigerated air or circulating refrigerant, the faster the freezing rate.
5. Degree of contact : the more contact between the food and the cooling medium, the faster the freezing rate.
•
Rate of thawing • critical to quality maintenance as the rate of freezing
• quality retention is achieved by rapid thawing rates
• rapid initial temperature increase, subsequent increases in temperature occur very slowly because of the need to supply the latent heat of fusion1 for the conversion
of water from the crystalline state to the liquid state at 0°C
Red Tide • dinoflagellates increase greatly in number and concentration in the oceans. This is often referred to as a bloom or "red tide."
• shellfish are exposed to and concentrate large amounts of saxitoxin
• Saxitoxin is extremely stable and takes a long time to be flushed from the tissues of the shellfish
• A reducing sugar contains a free aldehyde or ketone group
Reducing Sugar
• it will contain a “free” OH on the position next to the O in the ring structure
Refrigerated • storage at temperatures above freezing
• preserve most perishable foods for days or weeks
• psychrotrophic pathogens can till grow although slowly
• storage of foods falls between -2°C to 16°C
• that perishable foods that can support the growth of disease-causing microorganisms must be stored at temperatures of 4°C and below
• A drop of 10°C slows down rate of senescence by 2 to 3 times and microbial growth by 3 to 6 times
• inhibit the growth of most disease-causing microorganisms but can favour the psychrotrophic microorganisms.
• Some spoilage-causing microorganisms, particularly moulds, can grow at temperatures as low as -8°C.
• refrigeration storage temperatures only provides a short term extension to the storage life of foods
• cannot improve quality

Rennet • combination of acid and rennet causes the caseins to coagulate and form a gel very much like that found in a carton of yogurt
• obtained from the 4th stomach of the calf and contains rennin and other small amounts of other materials
Rennin (Cymosin)
• (also called chymosin) is a pure enzyme.
• thermally processed foods after being packed in containers (such as metal cans, glass bottles, plastic pouches) are exposed to an environment of pressurized steam
Retort within a vessel called a retort
• A retort operates very much on the same principles as the pressure cooker
 • Packages of foods are placed in the retort after which the retort is sealed and the air within is vented by purging the retort with steam à the retort is properly vented,
the steam pressure inside is increased to achieve the desired processing temperature
• A processing temperature of 250°F (121°C) is achieved by establishing a steam pressure of 15 pounds per square inch within the retort
• The containers of food in the retort are bathed in an atmosphere of hot, high pressure steam. Heat is transferred by the hot steam condensing on the containers of
food with the heat transferred through the walls of the containers (glass, metal or plastic) to the food inside the container
• Lose some of its water holding capacity upon cooling and/or during refrigerated storage
• involves the re-association of starch molecules, especially the amylose polymers, into an ordered structure
• Retrogradation can be avoided to a certain extent through the use of dextrins and/or modified starches, thus reducing the tendency for alignment of linear amylose
Retrogradation
chains
• Retrogradation can also be partially reversed by heating the food (e.g. heating stale bread or buns in an oven or the microwave oven); however, once the product
cools the starch quickly retrogrades again
• Retrogradation of starch, resulting in staling of bread, is caused by packing of linear starch molecules leading to the exclusion of water that was previously absorbed
during gelatinization
Retrogradation • Ex. The bread becomes tough and develops a dry texture.

Risk • Risk - a function of the probability of an adverse health effect and the magnitude of that effect, consequential to a hazard; the likelihood of the occurrence and the
magnitude of the consequences of an adverse event.
• There are many specific examples of food products made with these microorganisms. What do they generally have in common? This will help you recognize which
products are made with these microbes.
Role of Acetic Acid Bacteria
• oxidize ethanols to acetic acid
in fermentation
• forms the basis for the production of food grade acetic acid (vinegar)
•
• There are many specific examples of food products made with these microorganisms. What do they generally have in common? This will help you recognize which
products are made with these microbes.
Role of Lactic Acid Bacteria
• commonly added to foods as preservatives.
in fermentation
• used alone or in combination with other microorganisms in the production of a variety of foods
• sour

• There are many specific examples of food products made with these microorganisms. What do they generally have in common? This will help you recognize which
Role of Mould products are made with these microbes.
in fermentation • used in the production of many foods, particularly in Asia
• well known cheeses such as Roquefort, Brie and Camembert

• There are many specific examples of food products made with these microorganisms. What do they generally have in common? This will help you recognize which
Role of Yeast products are made with these microbes.
in fermentation • used widely in the production of alcoholic beverages and breads
• yeasts with lactic acid bacteria are used in the production of sourdough breads and pancakes and in the conversion of beans to vermicelli
• Describe the four principles
1. Radiological safety: ensuring that foods do not become radioactive during irradiation;
2. Toxicological safety: ensuring that production of toxic and possibly carcinogenic substances does not occur;
Safety and Wholesomeness of
3. Microbiological safety: ensuring the efficacy of the radiation process with respect to the ability of the prescribed absorbed dose to kill disease-causing
Irradiated Foods
microorganisms that could be in the food.
4. Nutritional adequacy: ensuring that undue losses of nutrients do not occur as a consequence of treatment of food with ionizing energy
• irradiated foods which have absorbed a dose of less than 10 kGy are wholesome and safe for long-term consumption
Safety Factor • use of a safety factor is necessitated by our inability to account for all possible differences between human and animal, and among different humans, with absolute
certainty
• proper toxicological evaluation of a chemical, attempts are made to take into consideration factors such as species differences and the influence of age, gender and
environment of the animals used
Salmonella (various species)

• one compound, namely sodium chloride

• potassium chloride, often an ingredient in salt substitutes, produces a salty as well as a bitter taste
Salty
• difficult to formulate a palatable salt substitute for individuals on low sodium diets
• ionized molecule of sodium chloride that it required for the production of a salty taste (separately they aren’t salty)
Saxitoxin • a group of 18-24 marine biotoxins derived from saxitoxin are thought to be responsible for the condition known as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
• condition is the result of consuming shellfish, such as mussels, oysters, and clams, containing the toxin
• toxins can also accumulate in the liver of crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters
• toxin is ineffective against the shellfish, which are able to absorb the toxin, concentrate it in their tissues and pass it onto the species feeding on them (in this case,
humans).
• tingling in the mouth, lips and finger tips
• Sight and hearing are modified in much the same way as caused by alcohol intoxication
• Speech becomes incoherent
• contaminant which the shellfish consume as part of their occasional food supply; feed on a variety of microscopic plankton among which are certain toxic
dinoflagellates
• considered one of the potent toxins, the minimum lethal dose being about 1.0-4.0 mg/kg of body weight
Scombroid poisoning • allergic-type reaction to high levels of histamine or a histamine-like substance
• a naturally occurring amino acid which is particularly high in scombroid fish, is converted to histamine by bacterial action on the dead flesh of the fish
• toxic amounts of histamine may be formed before the fish starts to smell or taste bad ("spoil")
• as strong vaso-active properties and in sufficient quantities will cause blood pressure changes
Seafood Toxins • are many types of seafood toxins; here we will review some of the most common ones: Histamine, Saxitoxin, Domoic acid, and Tetrodotoxin.
• defined as a scientific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret reactions to those characteristics of foods and materials as they are perceived by the
senses of sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing
Sensory Evaluation • new product development, product matching, shelf-life studies, product reformulation, quality control, and consumer preference, among others
• decisions to consume a particular food item or combination of food items are based in part on nutritional factors but for the most part are often driven by sensory
characteristics of the foods

Sensory Properties of Food

 • agents that irreversible bind undesirable metal icons in foods that could cause undesirable colour changes, flavour changes, textural changes
Sequestering
(sodiumhexametaphosphate is used in canned seafood to bind metals that could cause discolouration of the seafood)

Functional properties in foods:

• Sugars are widely used for their sweetening power
• Sugars produce body and mouth feel when they are incorporated into foods at concentrations high enough to affect the viscosity (resistance to flow) of the food
product
• production of hot supersaturated sugar solutions with controlled crystallization during cooling is the basis of formation of many hard candy products, toffees and
related products.
Simple Sugars
• Sugars can be crystallized from solution when water is evaporated. This is the basis of production of table sugar (sucrose) from the juice extracted from sugar cane
and sugar beets
• Sugars, in sufficiently high concentration, can be used to inhibit growth of undesirable microorganisms. They function as a preservative by binding water needed by
the microorganisms.
• sugars caramelize when exposed to high temperatures
• reducing sugars react with proteins and amino compounds to produce flavours and colours in foods (Maillard browning).

• use protein particles to stabilize and give texture to food. Usually digested as protein
• Based on soy, milk or egg white protein aka “egg and milk protein” or “hey protein concentrate" or "modified milk ingredient”
Simplesse • Simplesse is digested as a protein, but due to the micro dispersion formed, produces
• only 1.0-1.3 Cal/g
• ex. Ice cream, yogurt, cheese spread, salad dressings, margarine, mayonnaise, coffee creamer, soups and sauces.
Slush freezing • can be used only for fluid food products
• to convert ice cream mix to soft ice cream in restaurants and ice cream shops
Make sure to know examples of foods as well as the definition.
Sol • Solid DP / liquid CP
• Ex. starches, proteins and some plate polysaccharides in water
Make sure to know examples of foods as well as the definition.
Solid Emulsion • Dispersion of liquid droplets within a solid phase
• Ex. margarine and butter are examples of water in oil emulsions, continuous phase is solid under refrigerator or low surrounding temperatures
Make sure to know examples of foods as well as the definition.
• Proteins have the ability to trap air in bubbles and this leads to the formation of foams
Solid Foam
• Gas DP / solid CP
• Ex. meringue, ice cream, bread
• Sour tastes are produced by protonated organic and inorganic acids
Sour
• Citric, tartaric, malic, lactic, fumaric, acetic and phosphoric acids produce a sour taste
Think about their characteristics in terms of how it affects food preservation.
• spoilage-causing microorganisms can still survive typical pasteurization process conditions
Spoilage causing microorganisms
• pasteurization does not kill all the psychrotrophic spoilage-causing bacteria in milk – needs to be refrigerated
• Saprophytic micro-organism play a role in biodegradation and cause food spoilage
• which are the dormant form of the bacterial cell
• All of the genetic material is contained within the spore
• favourable conditions are encountered, the spore germinates and produces an actively metabolizing bacterial cell capable of cell division)
Spores • Mold and some bacteria produce spores
• Microbial spores are very resistant to a variety of conditions (heat, dehydration, ionizing radiation, antimicrobial agents) that can inhibit or cause death of the
vegetative cell
•
Spray Drying • Describe the conditions/process and common food examples.
• used to produce the greatest quantities of commercially dehydrated foods
• restricted to use with liquid foods
• introduction of the food as a spray of small droplets into a high velocity stream of warm air
• droplet sizes are small, drying rates are very rapid and high quality dehydrated food products can be produced
• ex. skim milk, coffee, tea and eggs
 •
• Stabilizers are compounds that increase the viscosity of the continuous phase, keeping the droplets suspended or dispersed and thus reducing the rate of creaming
Stabilizers

• Starch is made out of polymers of glucose joined by an alpha, 1-4 link

• A single molecule of starch can include anywhere from 400 to several hundred thousand glucose units
• starch is mostly used as a thickening, suspending and gelling agent
Starch
• although they are made of long chains of sugar molecules, starches do not elicit a sweet taste and rather taste quite "bland"
• The length and bulkiness of the starch molecule prevent it from interacting with our tongue receptors
• starch granule is not digestible, nor is it soluble in cold water unless it is heated
• additives used to alter the functional properties of starches to preventsyneresis during frozen storage or to prevent starch from becoming too viscous during thermal
Starch modifying agents
processing (sodium acetate and hydrochloric acid are examples of starch modifying agents)
• used in the production of fermented dairy products, meats, wines, beer and other alcoholic beverages
• addition to the food to be fermented, begins to grow rapidly under the favorable conditions provided by the food processor and to produce desirable products of
metabolism (acid, alcohol, flavour compounds, enzymes
Starter Culture
• commercial users of starter cultures is the potential presence of microbial viruses (phage) in the food that could infect the culture and inactivate it
• selects starter cultures for their phage resistance and vigour in producing the desirable end products of metabolism
• the purity of starter cultures is maintained through sterile handling techniques and strict attention to processing plant sanitation
• derived from the leaves of the South American Stevia plant
• 100-150 times sweeter than sucrose and provide 0 Cal/g
Steviol Glycosidase
• do not increase blood glucose or insulin levels and does not promote tooth decay
• remains stable under acidic conditions and high temperature does not destroy its sweetening properties
Strategies to Minimize Nutrient
•
Loss
Sublimation • food is frozen and then placed in the freeze dryer, the dryer is sealed and a vacuum is created and maintained
• under vacuum conditions
•
• chlorinated molecule in which 3 hydroxyl groups(OH) of the sucrose molecule are replaced by chlorine
• similar to sugar but it is 600 times sweeter than sucrose
• not metabolized by the human body - passing through unchanged – 0 Cal/g
• Sucralose is heat stable
Sucralose
• sweetness over a wide range of temperature and storage conditions and in solutions over time
• no effect in carbohydrate metabolism and does not increase blood glucose or insulin levels
• does not contribute to the development of cavities
• ex. Canned fruit, fruit drinks, baked goods, chewing gum, tabletop sweeteners, maple syrup, apple sauce
You don’t need to know the structure. Example of what food stuff it is found in. Sweetness level.
Sucrose • Ex. table super, sugar cane, sugar beet, formed from glucose and fructose (monosacchs.); found in fruits, grasses and roots
• 100 - sweetness index
• maltitol, sorbitol, mannitol, isomalt, xylitol
Sugar Alcohol
• naturally in a wide variety of fruits and berries
 • commercially produced by hydrogenating sugars
• cool-refreshing (menthol-like) sensation
• less sweet than sugar – sorbitol 60% as sweet as sucrose
• do not promote tooth decay as they are not fermentable by the bacteria in our mouth
• absorbed slowly in the large intestine, thus contributing 1.5-3.0 Cal/g
• 'slow absorption' can lead to a laxative effect when excess consumption occurs
• Ex. Chewing gums, candies, frozen desserts, cookies, cakes, icings and fillings as well as oral care products (including toothpaste and mouthwash)
Sun Drying • Describe the conditions/process and common food examples.
• mostly used in dry, warm climates
• a very slow drying method (several days)
• cheap
• disadvantages include long drying periods (several weeks)
• the risk of invasion by insects, birds, rodents, and microorganisms
• ex. fruits, vegetables, and fish

•
• Sweet sensations are elicited by simple sugars, especially monosaccharides
Sweet
• Other sweet compounds are amino acids, peptides (two or more amino acids) cyclamate, saccharin, chloroform, lead acetate (not sweeteners)
• defines sweetener as "any food additive listed as a sweetener in Table IX to B.16.100
• sweeteners may be preferred or necessary for: Individuals with diabetes, those concerned with high caloric intake, and consumers trying to reduce the risk of tooth
Sweetener / Artificial Sweetener / decay (cavities)
Sugar Substitute • Sweeteners may be naturally occurring or synthetic molecules
• ex. aspartame, sucralose, sorbitol, and maltitol.

Sweeteners • additive used to sweeten foods, other than conventional nutritive sweeteners. An example is aspartame.
• any food for which a standard is provided in Division 18 of the FDR, but does not include those food additives listed in the table to Division 16 [B.01.001] = FDR
Sweetening Agent ex. sugar, honey and molasses.

• Relative sweetness of carbohydrate sweeteners (relative to sucrose)

Sweetness Index
• Sweetness has no relation to caloric contribution
• What are its characteristics?
• begins much like that of cheddar cheese except that an extra ("secondary") bacterial culture, Propionibacterium shermanii, is added to the milk along with the lactic
acid starter bacteria
• propionic acid contributes to the characteristic flavour of Swiss cheese while the carbon dioxide forms the holes (eyes) in the cheese during aging
Swiss Cheese • that multiple starters are used for production of Swiss cheese and that one of the starters, Streptococcus thermophilus, is heat-tolerant so that acid can still be
produced at the higher cooking temperatures employed during production of Swiss cheese
• another bacterium, Propionibacterium shermanii, is used as part of the starter culture since this organism produces propionic acid and carbon dioxide from lactic
acid
• P. shermanii also produce the amino acid proline which imparts the sweet taste characteristic of Swiss cheese
• linear amylose molecules orient themselves in crystalline regions, leading to a squeezing out ("syneresis") of water and a loss of tenderness of the food (e.g. staling of
Syneresis
bread) or the development of a gritty texture (e.g. starch based pudding stored in the refrigerator)
• taste sensation, a substance must be water-soluble and it must interact with the appropriate sensory receptors on the tongue
Taste
• detected in the mouth and primarily on the tongue
Tetra Pack • Made from laminated plastic, aluminum and paper
Tetrodotoxin • chemical of interest in puffer-fish or fugu poisoning
• this hazard has been known for thousands of years
• is found mainly in the ovaries, liver, intestine, skin and spawn of the various species of pufferfish
• it is thought to be synthesized by a bacterial species such as Pseudoalteromonas tetraodonis associated with the puffer fish
What does this refer to? What is the importance of it?
• a novel written in 1904 by the American journalist and novelist Upton Sinclair
The Jungle • concerned with his exposure of health violations and unsanitary practices in the American meat packing industry during the early 20th century
• public outcry led to reforms including the Meat Inspection Act
• conditions were filthy
What does the graph look like? What is on the X and Y axis? How is this plot used?

Thermal Death Rate Curves

(survivor curve)

• The survivor curve or thermal death rate curve plotted depicts the logarithmic order of death
• time taken to traverse one logarithmic cycle represents the time, at a constant temperature, required to kill 90% of a microbial population
• bacteria are killed by heat at a rate that is nearly proportional to the number present in the system being heated
Thermal Death Time Curve What does the graph look like? What is on the X and Y axis? How is this plot used?
 • constructed from a number of thermal death rate curves by exposing the microorganism to a variety of temperatures and determining the decimal reduction time at
each temperature
• thermal death time curve provides information about the time required to kill a particular microorganism in a particular food at a variety of temperatures
• time-temperature combinations along the plotted thermal death time curve represent the same killing power, with lower temperatures requiring longer time of
exposure
What do the common processing methods described as thermal processing have in common?
1. blanching
2. pasteurization
3. commercial sterilization
• safety and storage life of many perishable foods can be enhanced by the use of high temperatures to inactivate undesirable disease and spoilage-causing
microorganisms and to inactivate enzymes in food that can cause spoilage
• the type of thermal processing operation and the rate of heat penetration into the slowest heating portion of the food within a particular container are governed by
Thermal Processing
the food's physical properties (solid vs. liquid, or solid particles suspended in a liquid) and chemical properties (pH, fat content, presence or absence of heat-
inducible thickening agents, food components that have protective or antagonistic effects on the thermal resistance of microorganisms)
• time-temperature combination required for pasteurization and commercial sterilization is determined by the most heat-resistant disease-causing and spoilage-
causing microorganisms in the particular food commodity
• thermal preservation processes be designed so that the slowest heating portion of the food commodity receives the specified time-temperature thermal treatment to
minimize risks of illness and/or post-processing spoilage
• The thermal processes applied to foods are governed by the heat resistance of the microorganisms in the food.
• Thermophiles grow best at high temperatures
Thermophiles
• thermophilic organisms are spoilage-causing
• Properties in regards to food processing.
Thiamine (Vitamin B)
• most vulnerable of the micronutrients to ionizing radiation
Threshold on a Dose Response • dose at which a substance begins to have an undesirable effect, that is, the upper limit of its "no effect" dose, is its threshold
Curve • this value is unique for each substance.
Toxicant • Toxicant - a poison or a poisonous agent.
o The term toxicant is derived from the Latin toxicum (meaning "poison") and the Greek toxikon ("arrow poison"). The term toxic conveys the meaning that
something is harmful, destructive or deadly.
o Poisons are chemicals that, in very small quantities, produce illness or death. Legally, a poison is defined as a chemical that has a lethal dose of 50
milligrams or less of chemical per kilogram of body weight.
o Fifty mg/kg is equal to approximately three-fourths of a teaspoon for an average adult and about one-eighth of a teaspoon for an average two-year-old
child (Reference: M.A. Ottoboni. 1997.The Dose Makes the Poison: A Plain Language Guide to Toxicology. 2nd edition. NewYork: Wiley)
o When we refer to toxicants in food, we are generally referring to substances responsible for a whole spectrum of possible results, ranging from relatively
minor discomfort or sickness to poisoning that can lead to death.
Toxicity • Toxicity - the intrinsic or inherent capacity of a substance to damage a biological system (produce injury) when tested by itself.
o Substances vary in their toxicity, as reflected in their dose-response curves.
• A toxicant can have an effect on several different functions within an individual. The individuals can vary among themselves with regard to the sensitivity of their
different functions
Tray (Air) Drying • Describe the conditions/process and common food examples.
• placed on trays or racks is exposed to heated air at a set velocity
• type of drying can be quite fast and requires heated air with a relative humidity (%RH) lower than that of the product to be dried
• dried food has relatively poor re-hydration properties, is shrunken in appearance and is very dense
• ex. pasta, vegetables, fruit, spices

•
Common food items processed in this method. How does it function to preserve food? What factors of spoilage does it affect? What defines the process (temp, time
exposed to heat)? How is shelf-life affected?
UHT-Aseptic Packaging
• UHT and aseptic packaging is the application of "ultra high temperature" (heat) to food before packaging then filling the food into pre-sterilized containers in a sterile
atmosphere
 • heated to 140-150°C very rapidly by direct injection of steam à held at that temperature for short period of time (e.g. 4-6 seconds) à cooled in a vacuum chamber
to flash off the water added in the form of condensed steam
• aseptically packaged into pre-sterilized containers
• UHT-aseptically packaged products have a shelf life of 6+ months without refrigeration
• Ex. liquid products: milk, juices, cream, yogurt, wine, salad dressings
• Ex. semi-liquid/solid products: baby foods; tomato products, fruits and vegetable juices, soups
• UHT processed milk and juices do not contain added agents to provide the long storage life - preserved solely through the application of heat
• described as a "savoury" and "delicious" sensation
• "Flavour Enhancers or Potentiators"- compounds that elicit no taste of their own at low concentrations, but can modify the perceived intensity or quality of the taste
Umami produced by another substance
• monosodium glutamate, more commonly known as MSG - does not enhance the flavour of acidic foods such as fruit, bakery products or sweet products but
enhancement of meaty flavours
Undesirable changes from • staling of bread
refrigeration • loss of crispness in fruits and vegetables
• change in colour of fresh meat
• loss of flavour and nutrient value (eg. vitamins)
• oxidative changes
• drip or syneresis from fish
• Vitamin and Nutrient Losses: vitamins have been shown to retain substantial levels of activity post irradiation. Vitamins A, C, and E are more sensitive and are thereby
reduced at higher doses of irradiation
• Vitamin E is the most sensitive of the fat-soluble vitamins with significant losses (50%) occurring when irradiated in the presence of oxygen
• Thiamine (vitamin B1) has been shown to be the most vulnerable to radiation and is therefore used to demonstrate “worst-case” results
Undesirable effects caused by • Sensory Changes. Foods such as milk, certain cheeses, eggs, and some fruits and vegetables are not likely candidates for irradiation because of the potential for
food irradiation undesirable off odors, flavors, and texture changes
• irradiation causes no significant differences in the flavor, texture, or color of beef irradiated at less than 3 kGy
• colour, flavour or textural changes may result after exposure of food components to ionizing energy
• Lipids or fats are particularly susceptible to oxidative reactions triggered by the radiolytic reactions and presence of free radicals
• Losses of some vitamins may also occur; vitamins A, C, E and B1 (thiamine) are the most sensitive, particularly at higher doses and in foods packaged in air
Vacuum Microwave Drying • Describe the conditions/process
• developed for the dehydration of food, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products by Dr. Tim Durance in the Food Science program at the University of British
Columbia
• technology consists of a combination of vacuum (in order to keep the temperature low) and microwaves (for ultra-rapid energy transfer), producing high quality
products with less nutrient loss, better flavour retention, and less colour change
• retain a more natural appearance and have the advantage of complete re-hydration (reconstitution)
Vacuum packaged • Removal of oxygen from these products through the vacuum process suppresses the growth of the aerobicspoilage-causing bacteria
• are another example of MAP, except in this case once the vacuum is applied the product is packaged, there is no backflushing with a gas mixture prior to sealing the
package
Vapour Pressure
Vegetative Cells • which are actively metabolizing cells, consume nutrients and produce waste products
How do they respond to stress? Give some examples of Viruses.
• Viruses although not considered true microorganism they can be agents of food borne disease but do not cause food spoilage, nor are they used to produce
Viruses
fermented foods.
• Ex. Salmonella, E. Coli, Listeria
Viruses • Much smaller than bacteria and require a living host
• Do not multiply in food
• Transferred from one food to another from a food worker to a food
• Transferred from contaminated water supply to food
• Vitamins are mainly classified into water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins
• organic compounds that make up a small portion of food
• important from a nutritional point of view because they are essential components of the human diet as they carry out some very important tasks in the body
Vitamin • Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C (ascorbic acid), thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, vitamin B12, and folacin. These vitamins are found within the water
(aqueous) phase of foods
• Fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E) are found within the fat (oil) portion of foods
•
Water Activity • Water activity is a measurement that is frequently used in monitoring the availability of water (free water) in foods for the support of:
 o microbial growth
o chemical reactions
o enzymatic reactions

aw =

• Water activity can range from 0 (no free water) to 1.0 (all the water is free, such as in distilled water).

Know the ranges that are important for food preservation.

• Each specific organism has its own range of Aw in which it will grow
Water Activity • Bacteria normally need Aw of 0.90 and higher, yeast need >0.70, while moulds need 0.60-0.70 and higher
• there are always some exceptions.
• For example, the pathogenic bacteria Staphylococcus aureus can grow at Aw as low as 0.83-0.84, while the yeast Saccharomyces. cerevisiae requires Aw of 0.90.
Water Activity • Definition and important Aw values with explanations
• Water activity (aw) defines the proportion of water in a food that is in the free, unbound form
• Water activity of foods ranges from 0 to 1.0
o Water activity of dehydrated foods is in the range of 0.2 to 0.6
o Microorganisms cannot grow at aw below 0.6
o Chemical reactions (e.g. Maillard browning) can begin to occur at aw of 0.3
• Microbial activity, enzymatic activity and chemical reactions can occur only in the free water phase of foods
• Examples and how they are affected by processing
• Sensitive to processing and storage
• Thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin C more losses in blanching and leaching
Water Soluble Vitamins
• More heat sensitive
• Vitamin C and thiamin are most heat sensitive
• Maillard reaction may cause losses in protein
Whey • whey is trapped within the three-dimensional network created by the aggregating casein micelles and forming a gel
Without Appreciable Risk • the practical certainty that injury will not result even after a lifetime of exposure
X-Rays • electromagnetic radiations that are highly energetic and of short wavelength
• How is it used in biotechnology?
Xanthamonas campestris
• Xanthan gum, a stabilizer used in a variety of food systems, is extracted from bacteria (Xanthamonas campestris) that in nature cause slime rot of cabbages.
• Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide with a ß-D-glucose backbone like cellulose, but every second glucose unit is attached to a trisaccharide
• Xanthan Gum is produced by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris, which is found on cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage and cauliflower and causes black
Xanthan Gum
rot
• Ex. salad dressings, thickening agent, lower in calories
How do they respond to stress? Give some examples of yeast.
• are commonly found in many foods of agricultural and aquatic origin
• reproduce by budding
Yeast • generally grow more slowly than bacteria but can tolerate more severe environmental conditions than bacteria
• yeasts are not inhibited by pH to the same extent as bacteria
• can grow in many foods with low water activity that would normally inhibit growth of bacteria
• used to produce fermented foods and beverages
Yeast food • additives that serve as nutrients for yeasts (calcium carbonate) and as yeast foods (calcium lactate) are permitted for use as yeast foods in bread doughs
• the number of degrees required for a specific thermal death time curve to pass through one log cycle
Z-Value • Different microorganisms in a given food will have different z-values.
(°C) • Similarly, a given microorganism will have different z-values in different foods.
• The z-value indicates the resistance of a microbial population to changing temperature.