Fromsoundtosignificance

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From Sound to Significance: Exploring the Mechanisms Underlying Emotional

Reactions to Music
Article in The American Journal of Psychology · August 2015

DOI: 10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.3.0281
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Patrik Juslin Goncalo Barradas

Uppsala University Uppsala University
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Tuomas Eerola
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From Sound to Significance:
Exploring the Mechanisms Underlying
Emotional Reactions to Music
PATRIK N. JUSLIN and GONÇALO BARRADAS
Uppsala University
TUOMAS EEROLA
Durham University
A common approach to studying emotional reactions to music is to attempt to obtain direct

links between musical surface features such as tempo and a listener’s responses. However, such
an analysis ultimately fails to explain why emotions are aroused in the listener. In this article we
explore an alternative approach, which aims to account for musical emotions in terms of a set
of psychological mechanisms that are activated by different types of information in a musical
event. This approach was tested in 4 experiments that manipulated 4 mechanisms (brain stem
reflex, contagion, episodic memory, musical expectancy) by selecting existing musical pieces
that featured information relevant for each mechanism. The excerpts were played to 60 listeners,
who were asked to rate their felt emotions on 15 scales. Skin conductance levels and facial ex-
pressions were measured, and listeners reported subjective impressions of relevance to specific
mechanisms. Results indicated that the target mechanism conditions evoked emotions largely
as predicted by a multimechanism framework and that mostly similar effects occurred across
the experiments that included different pieces of music. We conclude that a satisfactory account
of musical emotions requires consideration of how musical features and responses are mediated
by a range of underlying mechanisms.
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solely on subjective self-reports of causes of emo- DBMWBMJEJUZJTJODSFBTFE
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The aim of this study was to test four of the causal fore, we expected that using classical music would
mechanisms hypothesized to underlie emotional re- tend to minimize unwanted memory effects, as veri-
sponses to music using more ecologically valid pieces fied also by having listeners rate their familiarity with
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BDSPTTUIFFYQFSJNFOUT
XFSFUFTUFE HSPVQFEBDDPSE- -BOH (SFFOXBME #SBEMFZ )BNN õýý÷

ing to type of measure: and that the memory condition would arouse
IBQQJOFTTBOEOPTUBMHJB JF QPTJUJWFFNP-
Emotion ratings: Listeners rated feelings on 15 UJPOT
XFQSFEJDUFEUIBUUIFNFNPSZDPOEJUJPO
scales (based on earlier studies of music and would produce more zygomatic muscle activity
FNPUJPO
8FQSFEJDUFEUIBUUIFCSBJOTUFN than would the contagion condition (sadness
reflex condition would evoke mainly surprise, JOWPMWFTOFHBUJWFWBMFODF
'JOBMMZ CBTFEPOUIF
the contagion condition would evoke mainly assumptions that corrugator muscle activity
sadness, the expectancy condition would evoke JTSFëFDUJWFPGOFHBUJWFFNPUJPOT -BOHFUBM
mainly anxiety, and the memory condition õýý÷
BOEUIBUUIFDPOUBHJPODPOEJUJPOXPVME
would evoke mainly nostalgia and happiness arouse sadness, we predicted that the contagion
(for a more detailed description, see the Method condition would show more corrugator activity
TFDUJPO
UIBOUIFNFNPSZDPOEJUJPO
.FD4DBMF5IJTTDBMF +VTMJOFUBM öôõø
QVS-
ported to capture the mechanisms that had oc- EXPERIMENTS 1–4
curred and consisted of eight simple questions,
each targeting one of the mechanisms in the METHOD
#3&$7&.GSBNFXPSL +VTMJOFUBM öôõô
QMVT
BQQSBJTBM5IFJEFBXBTUIBUBMUIPVHITPNFPG Participants
the mechanisms are implicit in nature, they may 4JYUZQBSUJDJQBOUT öýNFOBOE÷õXPNFO BHFõýmùü
co-occur with subjective impressions that can years, MƎƎöúö SDƎƎûû
UPPLQBSUJOUIFTUVEZBTB
CFSFQPSUFECZMJTUFOFST'PSJOTUBODF BMJTUFOFS whole and were either paid or given course credits for
influenced by the expectancy mechanism might UIFJSBOPOZNPVTBOEWPMVOUBSZQBSUJDJQBUJPO.PTU
find the music difficult to predict, whereas a participants were students, who were recruited by
listener who becomes aroused through the NFBOTPGQPTUFSTUISPVHIPVU6QQTBMB6OJWFSTJUZ
episodic memory mechanism might report con- 4JYUZUISFFQFSDFOUPGUIFQBSUJDJQBOUTQMBZFEBUMFBTU
TDJPVTSFDPMMFDUJPOTPGUIFQSFWJPVTFWFOU4FMG one musical instrument, and 55% had received some
reports of this type cannot be taken as veridical, NVTJDFEVDBUJPO5IFZXFSFSBOEPNMZEJTUSJCVUFE
CVUUIFZDBODPNQMFNFOUPUIFSJOEJDFT5IF across the four experiments, with the only provision
scale was predictive of target mechanism condi- that there must be an equal number of participants in
UJPOTJOUIFQSFWJPVTTUVEZ +VTMJOFUBM öôõø
each experiment: Experiment 1 featured 7 men and 8
5IVT XFFYQFDUFEUIF.FD4DBMFJUFNTUPCF women (age 19–44 years, MƎƎöúû SDƎƎû÷
&YQFSJ-
predictive of the target mechanism conditions in ment 2 featured 7 men and 8 women (age 20–36 years,
UIFQSFTFOUTUVEZBMTP MƎƎöùô SDƎƎøô
&YQFSJNFOU÷GFBUVSFEüNFO
1TZDIPQIZTJPMPHZ"MUIPVHIQTZDIPQIZTJ- and 7 women (age 19–58 years, MƎƎöýý SDƎƎõöõ

ologic reactions are not related to emotions in and Experiment 4 featured 7 men and 8 women (age
a one-to-one fashion (for a review, see Larsen, 19–27 years, MƎƎööý SDƎƎöö

#FSOUTPO 1PFIMNBOO *UP $BDJPQQP öôôü
4UBUJTUJDBMUFTUT BPOFXBZ"/07" CFUXFFOTVC-
it appears feasible to link specific indices to KFDUT GPSUIFBHFWBSJBCMF$PDISBOTOPOQBSBNFUSJDQ
CSPBEEJNFOTJPOTPGBSPVTBMBOEWBMFODF5IVT test for kƎƎöFYQFSJNFOUBMUSFBUNFOUT CJOBSZDPEFE
based on the assumptions that skin conduc- in the cases of gender, musical instrument, and music
tance level is a reliable measure of autonomic FEVDBUJPO
SFWFBMFEOPTJHOJêDBOUEJďFSFODFCFUXFFO
BSPVTBM "OESFBTTJ öôôû
BOEUIBUCSBJOTUFN the four listener samples with regard to gender, age,
reflexes would arouse surprise (an emotion with experience of playing a musical instrument, or music
BIJHIBSPVTBMMFWFM3VTTFMM õýüô
XFFYQFDUFE FEVDBUJPO
that the brain stem reflex condition would
produce higher levels of skin conductance than Design
would the contagion condition, which was 5IFEFTJHOXBTTJNJMBSBDSPTTUIFGPVSFYQFSJNFOUT
expected to arouse sadness (an emotion with a 8FVTFEBXJUIJOTVCKFDUEFTJHOJODMVEJOHUBSHFU
MPXFSBSPVTBM
'VSUIFSNPSF CBTFEPOUIFBT- mechanism as independent variable (five levels: brain
t JUSLIN ET AL .
stem reflex, contagion, episodic memory, musical ex- attack, frequency spectrum, pitch, and key clarity—
QFDUBODZ BOEOFVUSBMDPOEJUJPO
BOETFMGSFQPSUFE BTFTUJNBUFEVTJOHUIF.VTJD*OGPSNBUJPO3FUSJFWBM
GFFMJOH õùTDBMFT
NFDIBOJTNJNQSFTTJPOT .FD UPPMCPY -BSUJMMPU 5PJWJBJOFO &FSPMB öôôü
*O
4DBMF
GBDJBMFYQSFTTJPO [ZHPNBUJDVTBOEDPSSVHBUPS the following, we list all pieces, grouped according
NVTDMFT
BOEBVUPOPNJDBDUJWJUZ TLJODPOEVDUBODF UPUBSHFUNFDIBOJTN
MFWFM
BTEFQFOEFOUWBSJBCMFT"OBMZTFTPGGBDJBMBOE
autonomic measures also included an additional BR AIN STEM REFLE X.
CBTFMJOFDPOEJUJPO5IFPOMZEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFO The brain stem reflex mechanism is thought to be

the experiments was that different music excerpts activated by extreme features such as high sound
were used to represent the four mechanisms in each level, quick attack, and sharp timbre, which occur
FYQFSJNFOU8FEFDJEFEUPDPOEVDUGPVSTFQBSBUF locally and cannot be predicted from the syntacti-
experiments as opposed to a single experiment in- DBMTUSVDUVSFPGUIFNVTJD5IJTNFDIBOJTNXBTUIVT
cluding four blocks because the latter option would targeted by selecting the following pieces of music
require a 3-hr experiment, thereby increasing the risk NFBOMFOHUIøüùT

PGGBUJHVFFďFDUT
&YQFSJNFOUõ4ZNQIPOZ/PöJO%NBKPS
fourth movement (Allegro con spirito
DPN-
Musical Material
QPTFECZ+PIBOOFT#SBINTJOõüûû QFSGPSNFE
4JYUFFOQJFDFTPGNVTJD GPVSJOFBDIFYQFSJNFOU
CZ#FSMJOFS1IJMIBSNPOJLFS DPOEVDUFECZ
were selected for inclusion in the study because they
)FSCFSUWPO,BSBKBO
"GUFSCVTZTPVOEJOHCVU
featured information deemed relevant for the activa-
quiet strings, a loud section breaks in suddenly
UJPOPGFBDIUBSHFUNFDIBOJTN8FVTFEGBJSMZTIPSU
JOCBSö÷XJUIUIFGVMMPSDIFTUSB MFOHUIúúT

musical excerpts (MƎƎûöT
GPSUXPSFBTPOT'JSTU
XFXBOUFEUIF SFUSPTQFDUJWF
TFMGSFQPSUTUPSFëFDU &YQFSJNFOUö4ZNQIPOZ/Põô 'JSTUNPWF-
local events in the music, which prevented the use of ment (Adagio
DPNQPTFECZ(VTUBW.BIMFSJO
MPOHFSFYDFSQUT4FDPOE FNPUJPOTDPVMEDIBOHFSBQ- õýõô QFSGPSNFECZ#PVSOFNPVUI4ZNQIPOZ
idly, which means that use of longer excerpts might 0SDIFTUSB DPOEVDUFECZ4JNPO3BUUMF
5IF
produce series of emotions, which would overcom- excerpt features a moment where the restate-
QMJDBUFUIFTUBUJTUJDBMBOBMZTFT5IFQJFDFTXFSFFEJUFE ment of the theme culminates in a shattering
with regard to musical form, in order to preserve the EJTTPOBODF BOPSHBOMJLFDIPSE MFOHUIúôT

JOUFHSJUZPGUIFQJFDFT"TBSFTVMU UIFFYDFSQUTXFSF Experiment 3: The Firebird,i*OGFSOBM%BODF
OPUFYBDUMZJEFOUJDBMJOMFOHUI PG"MM,BTIDIFJT4VCKFDUT uTFDUJPOPGBCBMMFU
Table 1 presents overall correlations between and orchestral concert work composed by Igor
the target mechanism conditions and commonly 4USBWJOTLZJOõýõô QFSGPSNFECZUIF#FSMJO3B-
analyzed musical features—tempo, dynamics, tone EJP4ZNQIPOZ0SDIFTUSB DPOEVDUFECZ-PSJO
TABLE 1. Correlations Between Target Mechanism Conditions and Musical Features for Excerpts, Experiments 1–4
(N = 16)
Musical feature
Mechanism Tempo Dynamics Attack Spectrum Pitch Key clarity
Brain stem .09 .68 –.32 .33 .08 .09

Contagion .11 –.28 .73 –.15 –.11 .05
Memory –.07 –.15 –.39 .13 .03 .26
Expectancy –.13 –.25 –.01 –.31 –.01 –.39
Note. Tempo = mean tempo in beats per minute; dynamics = root mean square value of the amplitude; attack = mean attack time in seconds;
spectrum = centroid of the frequency spectrum in hertz; pitch = mean pitch in hertz; and key clarity = arbitrary units (higher number denotes
higher key clarity). Values show the point-biserial correlations (rpb) between the target mechanism condition (coded dichotomously) and musical
feature (coded continuously) in Experiments 1–4. For a more detailed description of how each musical feature is computed, see Lartillot et al.
(2008).
.BB[FM
5IFFYDFSQUCFHJOTXJUIBMPVEESVN XSJUUFOCZ"OUPOJP7JWBMEJJOõûõõ QFSGPSNFE
and brass chord, which is repeated intermit- CZ"DDBEFNJB;JMJOJBOB GFBUVSJOH'SBOUJØFL
UFOUMZêWFUJNFT MFOHUI÷ôT
'JHVSB
"GUFSBCSJFGJOUSPEVDUJPO BTPMPMJOF
&YQFSJNFOUø4ZNQIPOZ/PýøJO(NBKPS played with heavy vibrato on the violin begins
4FDPOENPWFNFOU Andante
XSJUUFOCZ'SBO[ and is soon joined by a second violin in a mov-
+PTFQI)BZEOJOõýûõ QFSGPSNFECZ8JFOFS JOH WPDBMMJLFEVFU MFOHUIõööT

Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Leo- Experiment 3: Vocalise,0Q÷ø /Põø XSJUUFO
OBSE#FSOTUFJO
"GPSUFLFUUMFESVNTUSPLFPD- CZ4FSHFJ3BDINBOJOPďJOõýõö QFSGPSNFECZ
DVSTBUUIFFOEPGUIF QJBOJTTJNP
SFQFBUPGUIF .JTDIB.BJTLZBOE-JMZ.BJTLZ
0SJHJOBMMZ
êSTUTFDUJPO MFOHUI÷üT
XSJUUFOGPSWPJDF XJUIPVUMZSJDT
XJUIQJBOP
accompaniment, this version was arranged for
4QFDJBMDBSFXBTUBLFOUPDBMJCSBUFUIFTPVOEMFWFM
DFMMPBOEQJBOP5IF NPEBM
&NJOPSUPOBMJUZ
of the target events, but pretesting indicated that the
the chromatic motion of the harmony, and the
peak sound level did not quite have to reach the le-
NFMPEZBMMTVHHFTUNFMBODIPMZ MFOHUIõöúT

vels used in research on the acoustic startle response
-FWFOTPO öôôû
UPQSPEVDFBSFMJBCMFFďFDUPOUIF Experiment 4: Heart’s Ease 5ISFFMZSJDT/P
MJTUFOFS"QFBLTPVOEMFWFMPGûùE#"XBTTVĐDJFOU õ
XSJUUFOCZ'SBOL#SJEHFJOõýöõ XPSLõúõB

For these excerpts, we expected listeners to react pri- QFSGPSNFECZ+BZ#BDBM XJUI7JFOOB4ZN-
marily with surprise and autonomic arousal to the QIPOJD-JCSBSZ
"TIPSU TMPX BOEDPOUFNQMB-
sudden extreme events, consistent with an early reac- tive piece, written for violin and piano, marked
tion that occurs before any elaborate classification of andante tranquillo MFOHUIõöüT

UIFTPVOEFWFOUIBTUBLFOQMBDF 4JNPOT õýýú
5IF For these excerpts, we expected a matching or
target events are reflected in the correlations involv- NJNJDSZSFTQPOTFJOMJTUFOFST*OPUIFSXPSET XF
JOHEZOBNJDTBOETQFDUSVN TFF5BCMFõ
expected that they would show an empathic reaction
CONTAGION.
UPUIFFNPUJPOBMFYQSFTTJPOPGUIFNVTJD#FDBVTF
The contagion mechanism is thought to be activated the music featured a sad expression, we expected it
by a particularly moving emotional expression in the UPBSPVTFNBJOMZTBEOFTTJOUIFMJTUFOFST5IFTBE
music, and it is assumed that the effect is strength- expression of the excerpts is reflected, for instance,
ened by a voicelike lead part, either a real voice or an in the minor mode, the slow tone attacks, and the
JOTUSVNFOUSFNJOJTDFOUPGUIFIVNBOWPJDF*UIBT TVCUMFEZOBNJDT TFF5BCMFõDG)FWOFS õý÷ù õý÷ú

been proposed that the cello and the violin are the EPISODIC MEMORY.
closest-sounding instruments to the human voice, The episodic memory mechanism is thought to be
in terms of register, tone attack, timbre, and vibrato activated by salient melodic themes, which are as-
GPSFNQJSJDBMTVQQPSU TFF.PSFT öôôý
BOEQSF- sociated with emotionally charged events that the
vious results indicate that performances with a sad MJTUFOFS SFNFNCFST 5P FWPLF NVTJDBTTPDJBUFE
expression are perceived as particularly expressive episodic memories without having to encode them
+VTMJO õýýû 'JHVSF÷
8FUBSHFUFEUIJTNFDIBOJTN during this experiment, we selected four pieces likely
by selecting the following pieces, which include a to be highly familiar to the present listener sample
TBEFYQSFTTJPO +VTMJO-BVLLB öôô÷ 5BCMFû
BOE because of their frequent occurrence in social events
TPMPWPJDFTQFSGPSNFEPOUIFDFMMP FYDFSQUTõBOE÷
FH DFSFNPOJFT
JO4XFEFO NFBOMFOHUIúôT

PSUIFWJPMJO FYDFSQUTöBOEø
NFBOMFOHUIõôúT

&YQFSJNFOUõi8FEEJOH.BSDIuJO$NB-
Experiment 1: “Prayer,” From Jewish Life/P jor, from Suite of Incidental Music0QúõUP
õ XSJUUFOCZ&SOFTU#MPDIJOõýöø QFSGPSNFE 8JMMJBN4IBLFTQFBSFTQMBZA Midsummer
CZ+BZ#BDBM VTJOHUIF7JFOOB4ZNQIPOJD-J- Night’s Dream,XSJUUFOCZ'FMJY.FOEFMTTPIO
CSBSZ
"MZSJDBMBOEFYQSFTTJWFQJFDF DPNQPTFE #BSUIPMEZJOõüøö QFSGPSNFECZ.BSHBSFUB
for cello and piano, marked andante moderato -JOEHSFO
5IJTJTUIFNPTUDPNNPOMZVTFE
BOEFYQSFTTJOHBOJOXBSEGFFMJOHPGTBEOFTT XFEEJOHNBSDIJO4XFEFO UZQJDBMMZQFSGPSNFE
This piece is the same as the contagion version POBDIVSDIQJQFPSHBO MFOHUIùúT

GFBUVSFEJO+VTMJOFUBM öôõø
MFOHUIùôT
Experiment 2: Sommar, Sommar, Sommar,
Experiment 2: Concerto for Two Violins in A XSJUUFOCZ4UFO$BSMCFSHJOõýùö QFSGPSNFE
minor 0Q÷/Pü ** i-BSHIFUUPF4QJSJUPTP u CZªLF+FMWJOHT0SLFTUFS
'PSNPSFUIBOùô
t JUSLIN ET AL .
years, this piece has been the signature song of a QFSGPSNFECZ4UFďFO'BIM XJUI7JFOOB4ZN-
IJHIMZQPQVMBSSBEJPQSPHSBNJO4XFEFO Som- QIPOJD-JCSBSZ
"OJNQSFTTJPOJTUJDQSFMVEF
mar (Summer
XIJDIJTCSPBEDBTUEBJMZEVSJOH which begins in vagueness with unpitched
UIFTVNNFS MFOHUI÷ýT
QFSDVTTJPOTPVOET8IFOUIFLFUUMFESVNTFOUFS
Experiment 3: Den Blomstertid Nu Kommer, in the third measure, indeterminate pitch is re-
written by Israel Kolmodin in 1894 (performed QMBDFECZVODFSUBJOQJUDI MFOHUIúôT

CZ"EPMG'SFESJLT#BDILÕS
5IJTJTPOFPGUIF Experiment 4: Rite of Spring,1BSUõ i-FT"V-
NPTUXFMMLOPXOQTBMNTJO4XFEFO XIJDIJT HVSFT1SJOUBOJFST uXSJUUFOCZ*HPS4USBWJOTLZ
UZQJDBMMZTVOHEVSJOHHSBEVBUJPOT MFOHUIüõT
JOõýõ÷ QFSGPSNFECZ#FSMJOFS1IJMIBSNPOJLFS
Experiment 4: Studentsången,XSJUUFOCZ)FS- DPOEVDUFECZ)FSCFSUWPO,BSBKBO
"OBWBOU
NBO4ÅUIFSCFSH MZSJDT
BOE1SJOT(VTUBG NV- garde piece characterized by a repetitive stamp-
TJD
JOõüùö QFSGPSNFECZ$BQFMMB$BOUJDB
ing chord in the horns and strings, based on
This piece, marked “marsch,” is often sung by &ëBUTVQFSJNQPTFEPOBOUSJBEPG& (TIBSQ
choirs at joyous events that celebrate graduation BOE# MFOHUIüúT

JOUIFMBUFTQSJOH MFOHUIúøT
"OBMZTFTDPOêSNFEUIBUUIFTFFYDFSQUTJOWPMWFEB
The emotions aroused by this mechanism are be- MPXFSEFHSFFPGLFZDMBSJUZ 5BCMFõ
UIBOUIFFYDFSQUT
lieved to reflect the emotional tone of the memory JODMVEFEJOUIFPUIFSDPOEJUJPOT'PSUIFTFFYDFSQUT
FWPLFE5IFFYDFSQUTDIPTFOXFSFUIPVHIUUPCFBT- we expected listeners to respond mainly with anxiety
sociated with both nostalgic and happy memories of to the unresolved uncertainty created by the syntactic
fun, holidays, relaxation, spring and summer, gradu- sequences of the musical structure, as theorized by
BUJPO BOEGFTUJWJUJFT'PSUIFTFFYDFSQUT XFFYQFDUFE .FZFS õýùú TFFQöûTFFBMTP)VSPO öôôú

listeners to experience mainly nostalgia and happi- In addition to these pieces, we selected an un-
ness because of the memories evoked by the familiar LOPXOQJFDFUIBUTFSWFEBTBOFVUSBMDPOEJUJPO5IF
NVTJD piece, titled “minimalist music,” was composed by
the alias Mihangeliago and downloaded from the
MUSICAL E XPECTANC Y. *OUFSOFU8FDIPTFJUCFDBVTFJUEJEOPUGFBUVSFBOZ
The musical expectancy mechanism is believed to type of information deemed necessary to arouse
be activated by unexpected melodic, harmonic, or an emotion through one of the mechanisms in the
SIZUINJDTFRVFODFT )VSPO öôôú.FZFS õýùú
#3&$7&."GSBNFXPSL1JMPUUFTUJOHDPOêSNFE
Thus, in order to activate this mechanism, and more UIBUUIFQJFDFXBTiFNPUJPOBMMZJODPNQFUFOUu*U
specifically to confound listeners’ musical expecta- could be characterized as slow, soft, and monoto-
tions, we selected the following pieces of music (mean OPVT5IFOFVUSBMFYDFSQUXBTUIFTBNFJOBMMGPVS
MFOHUIûùT
FYQFSJNFOUT MFOHUIùýT

Experiment 1: The Symphony of Psalms, II, “Ex-
QFDUBOT&YQFDUBWJ%PNJOVN uDPNQPTFECZ
Experiential Measures
*HPS4USBWJOTLZJOõý÷ô QFSGPSNFECZUIF3VT-
8FNFBTVSFEUIFTVCKFDUJWFGFFMJOHDPNQPOFOUPGUIF
TJBO4UBUF"DBEFNZ0SDIFTUSBBOE$IPJS DPO-
aroused emotions in listeners by means of 15 adjective
EVDUFECZ*HPS.BSLFWJUDI
5IJTFYDFSQU GSPN
TDBMFT XIJDIIBWFCFFOVTFEBU6QQTBMB6OJWFSTJUZ
4USBWJOTLZTOFPDMBTTJDBMQFSJPE DPOTJTUTPGB
specifically to measure emotions to music (listed in
fugue theme that begins with a four-note cell in
5BCMFöMBUFSJOUIJTBSUJDMF
5IFTDBMFTSFQSFTFOUB
UIFPCPFJOUIFêSTUNFBTVSF MFOHUIüøT

compromise between the response formats currently
Experiment 2: Lyric Suite, Three Pieces for VTFEJOUIFNVTJDFNPUJPOêFME ;FOUOFS&FSPMB
String Orchestra,1BSU*** i"EBHJP"QQBTTJPO- öôõô
CFDBVTFUIFTFMFDUFEUFSNTJODMVEFiCBTJDu
BUP uXSJUUFOCZ"MCBO#FSHJOõýöú QFSGPSNFE emotions characteristic of discrete emotion theories
CZ8JFOFS1IJMIBSNPOJLFS DPOEVDUFECZ$MBV- *[BSE õýûû
DPWFSBMMGPVSRVBESBOUTPGBDJSDVNQMFY
EJP"CCBEP
5IFFYDFSQUGPMMPXT CVUEPFTOPU NPEFMJOUFSNTPGWBMFODFBOEBSPVTBM 3VTTFMM õýüô

TUSJDUMZBEIFSFUP
"SOPME4DIPFOCFSHTõöUPOF and feature possibly more music-related terms such
practice, which abandons harmonically con- as nostalgia, expectancy, and awe +VTMJO-BVLLB
DFJWFEUPOBMJUZ MFOHUIûôT
öôôø
5IFTFMFDUFEUFSNTSPVHIMZDPWFSUIFOJOF
Experiment 3: Three Pieces for Orchestra,0Q GBDUPSTPG(&.4ý QSPQPTFECZ;FOUOFS (SBOEKFBO
ú i1SBFMVEJVN uXSJUUFOCZ"MCBO#FSHJOõýõù BOE4DIFSFS öôôü CVUCFDBVTFUIFSFJTOPWBMJEBUFE
WFSTJPOPG(&.4ýJO4XFEJTI BOEUIFTDBMFMBDLT placed on the palmar surface of the nondominant
terms that were needed in this study, such as sur- hand, at the thenar and the hypothenar eminences
prise XFEFDJEFEUPVTFBDVTUPNJ[FETDBMF
5IF 'PXMFTFUBM õýüõ
4LJODPOEVDUBODFXBTSFDPSEFE
list features the emotions most commonly reported in in microsiemens (ΩNIP

QSFWJPVTTUVEJFT +VTMJO-BVLLB öôôø+VTMJOFUBM #JQPMBSGBDJBMFMFDUSPNZPHSBQIZ &.(
SFDPSE-
öôõõ8FMMT)BLBOFO õýýõ;FOUOFSFUBM öôôü
*O ings were made from the left corrugator and zygomat-
addition to 12 discrete emotions, listeners also rated ic muscle regions in accordance with Fridlund and
liking and familiarity for each version, and whether $BDJPQQPT õýüú
HVJEFMJOFT#FGPSFBUUBDIJOHUIFø
UIFZFYQFSJFODFEBOZiDIJMMTu FH ,POFčOJ 8BOJD NNNJOJBUVSFTVSGBDF"H"H$MFMFDUSPEFT êMMFEXJUI
#SPXO öôôûEFêOFEBTQJMPFSFDUJPO PSgåshud &.(HFM (&-õôô #JPQBD4ZTUFNT
XFDMFBOTFE
JO4XFEJTIFWFSZEBZUFSNJOPMPHZ
"MMSBUJOHTXFSF the participant’s skin to reduce interelectrode imped-
made on a unidimensional scale from 0 (not at all
BODF"MMJNQFEBODFXBTSFEVDFEUPMFTTUIBOõôLΩ
to 4 (a lot
FYDFQUGPSDIJMMT XIJDIXFSFSFQPSUFEJO 'SJEMVOE$BDJPQQP õýüú
5IFFMFDUSPEFTXFSF
BEJDIPUPNPVTGBTIJPO DPOOFDUFEUPUIF&.(õôô$BNQMJêFSNPEVMFXJUI
In addition to reporting their feelings, partici- MPX BOEIJHIQBTTêMUFSTTFUBUùôô)[BOEõô)[
QBOUTêMMFEPVUBTFDPOESFTQPOTFTDBMF .FD4DBMF
SFTQFDUJWFMZ BOEOPUDIêMUFSTTFUBUùô)[XFSFVTFE
GPSFBDINVTJDBMFYDFSQU TFF"QQFOEJY
5IJTTDBMF UPEJNJOJTIJOUFSGFSFODFXJUIUIFFMFDUSJDNBJOT5IF
purported to capture the mechanisms that had oc- TBNQMJOHSBUFXBTTFUBUöôôô)['BDJBM&.(XBT
curred and consisted of eight simple questions, each measured in microvolts (μ7
BOEBOBMZ[FEVTJOHUIF
UBSHFUJOHPOFPGUIFNFDIBOJTNTJOUIF#3&$7&. SPPUNFBOTRVBSF5IFSBX&.(EBUBXFSFêMUFSFE
GSBNFXPSL +VTMJOFUBM öôõô
QMVTBQQSBJTBMCSBJO using a finite impulse response filter between 28 and
stem reflex, rhythmic entrainment, episodic memory, öùô)[ JOPSEFSUPJODSFBTFTJHOBMUPOPJTFSBUJP
evaluative conditioning, visual imagery, contagion, .FBOWBMVFTGPSTLJODPOEVDUBODFMFWFMBOE&.(
NVTJDBM FYQFDUBODZ BOE DPHOJUJWF BQQSBJTBM "MM [ZHPNBUJDVTBOEDPSSVHBUPSNVTDMFT
XFSFDBMDV-
items were rated on a scale from 0 (not at all
UPø a MBUFEGPSCBTFMJOFBOEFYQFSJNFOUBMDPOEJUJPOT 5IF
lot
"GPMMPXVQJUFNJO.FD4DBMF OPUTIPXOJOUIF baseline recordings were obtained before the listen-
"QQFOEJY
XIJDIBQQFBSFEPOUIFDPNQVUFSTDSFFO JOHUFTUEVSJOHSFMBYBUJPOVOEFSTJMFOUDPOEJUJPOT

only if a stimulus happened to evoke a memory, asked %VSJOHUIFMJTUFOJOHUFTU UIFSFXBTBCSFBLCFUXFFO
whether the memory was mainly positive, mainly musical excerpts to allow levels to return to baseline
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featured to enable us to check whether the valence
of evoked memories was consistent with the valence Procedure
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seated in a comfortable armchair and received the fol-
Psychophysiology: Facial Expression
MPXJOHJOTUSVDUJPOT USBOTMBUFEGSPN4XFEJTI
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were the same in all four experiments:
and Autonomic Activity
To increase the validity of the measurement of emo- 8FMDPNFUPUIFNVTJDMBCPSBUPSZ:PVXJMMTPPO
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was to obtain evidence of an emotional response, in "GUFSFBDIQJFDFXFXBOUZPVUPEFTDSJCFZPVS
order to distinguish felt emotions from mere percep- FYQFSJFODFPGUIFNVTJD5IJTTIPVMECFEPOF
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ter case there would be no reason to expect such task is to rate how much of each emotion you felt
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Psychophysiologic indices were obtained us- well as how much you liked the music and how
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øõTPGUXBSF4LJODPOEVDUBODFMFWFMXBTNFBTVSFE questions concerning other aspects of your mu-
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fier module and EL507 disposable snap electrodes electrodes so that we can conduct physiological
t JUSLIN ET AL .
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harmless and do not emit strong radiation or SFQPSUT XFDPOEVDUFEBO"/07"XJUINFDIBOJTN
FMFDUSJDJUZ)PXFWFS JOPSEFSUPPCUBJOBTBD- as within-subject factor (five levels: neutral, brain
curate measurements as possible, it is important stem reflex, contagion, episodic memory, musical
that you don’t touch any of the electrodes dur- FYQFDUBODZ
POFBDITDBMF8FVTFEBOFYQFSJNFOU
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to be removed and your cell phone must be
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from αƎƎôùUPαƎƎôô÷÷
BXIJMFEVSJOHTJMFODF5IFO UIFBDUVBMMJTUFO- Table 2 presents a summary of the results for
JOHUFTUCFHJOT8IFOUIFQMBZCBDLPGBQJFDF &YQFSJNFOUTõmø"TDBOCFTFFO UIFêWFTDBMFTJO-
of music ends, there will be a brief intermission WPMWFEJOPVSQSFEJDUJPOT JF IBQQJOFTTmFMBUJPO
before the next piece begins, to give you time to sadness– melancholy, surprise– astonishment,
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relax again for a while before the next piece be- significant effects in all instances except one (95%,
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during listening need not correspond to the mu- rightmost column of Tables 2 presents effect sizes, in
TJDTFNPUJPOBMFYQSFTTJPO5IBUJT ZPVTIPVME terms of η2"TDBOCFTFFO FďFDUTJ[FTGPSUIFQSF-
rate your own emotions, not what the music ex- dicted emotions ranged from “moderate” (η2ƎƌƎöù

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to “strong” (η2ƎƌƎúø
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Participants were tested individually in a sound- crete scales emotion intensity, liking, and familiarity
proofed room and listened to the music through a showed significant effects of mechanism with one
QBJSPGIJHIRVBMJUZMPVETQFBLFST %BMJ*LPOú.,ö exception: intensity fell short of significance in Ex-
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tration and data collection was handled using the
target mechanism on the familiarity scale (mean η2
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a comfortable level, which was held constant across
BDSPTTFYQFSJNFOUTƎƎüõû

MJTUFOFST4UJNVMVTPSEFSXBTSBOEPNJ[FEGPSFBDI Careful inspection of Table 2 suggests that a few
participant, whereas the order of rating scales was additional emotion scales included in the self-report
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test, the participants filled out a short questionnaire /PUFIPXFWFS UIBUUIFFďFDUTPGUIFTFTFWFOTDBMFT
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ment until all had been tested, to prevent confound- DPOTJTUFOU5IVT GPSJOTUBODF JOUFSFTUmFYQFDUBODZ
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"OFYQFSJNFOUBM and anger–irritation showed no significant effects,
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a significant effect in some experiments, but not in
RESULTS PUIFST5IFPOMZSFDVSSJOHUFOEFODJFTXFSFUIBUDBMNm
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First, we present separate analyses for every mea- nervousness (rƎƎ¢ùö
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sure in each experiment, then we report combined scale were correlated with ratings of nostalgia–longing
analyses, which capture broader trends across the (rƎƎúô
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FYQFSJNFOUT across experiments, NƎƎúô BMMpTƎƎôù

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Separate Analyses: Experiments 1–4 sistent effects of the additional scales, and in order to
EMOTION R ATINGS. give a more concise presentation of the data, we will
The most important data concern the listeners’ rat- henceforth focus on the five emotion scales involved
JOHTPGGFMUFNPUJPOTPOUIFõùSBUJOHTDBMFT5PFWBMV- JOPVSUIFPSFUJDBMQSFEJDUJPOT3FDBMMUIBUUIFQSF-
TABLE 2. ANOVA for Listeners’ Emotion Ratings, Experiments 1–4
Mean square F pa η2
Experiment 1
Happiness–elation 7.880 9.746 .000005 .410
Sadness–melancholy 18.113 33.425 .000001 .705
Surprise–astonishment 14.167 14.655 .000001 .511
Calm–contentment 3.847 3.068 .023497 .180
Interest–expectancy 2.487 2.467 .055225 .150
Nostalgia–longing 7.513 6.705 .000175 .324
Anxiety–nervousness 4.883 4.160 .005087 .229
Pride–confidence 3.333 3.341 .015964 .193
Anger–irritation 2.113 3.614 .010878 .205
Love–tenderness 9.513 9.455 .000007 .403
Disgust–contempt 0.987 1.791 .143531 .113
Admiration–awe 4.647 5.442 .000897 .280
Emotion intensity 4.413 4.650 .002597 .249
Liking 7.220 7.848 .000043 .359
Familiarity 33.353 71.326 .000001 .836
Experiment 2
Pride–confidence 4.920 5.655 .000678 .288
Love–tenderness 17.787 16.368 .000001 .539
Admiration–awe 4.753 3.667 .010097 .208
Liking 9.153 8.995 .000011 .391
Familiarity 37.720 189.957 .000001 .931
dictions concerned which emotions the four target OFVUSBMDPOEJUJPO

UPFYQMPSFXIFUIFSUIFQSFEJDUFE
mechanism conditions would evoke in listeners, for NFDIBOJTNSFDFJWFEUIFIJHIFTUNFBOSBUJOH5BCMF÷
instance that the brain stem reflex condition would TVNNBSJ[FTUIFSFTVMUT$BSFGVMJOTQFDUJPOPG5BCMF÷
FWPLFQSFEPNJOBOUMZTVSQSJTFJOMJTUFOFST5PUFTU TIPXTUIBUJOúûPGUIFüøDPOUSBTUT üôPGUIFDBTFT

this, we conducted planned comparisons (tUFTUT
UIFSFTVMUTXFSFJOMJOFXJUIPVSQSFEJDUJPOTUIBUJT
CFUXFFOUIF QSFEJDUFE
UBSHFUNFDIBOJTNBOEUIF the rating on the scale was significantly higher for the
other four conditions (the three mechanisms and the QSFEJDUFENFDIBOJTNUIBOGPSUIFPUIFSDPOEJUJPO
t JUSLIN ET AL .
TABLE 2. (continued)
Mean square F pa η2
Experiment 3
Pride–confidence 3.980 2.756 .036611 .164
Love–tenderness 16.313 15.765 .000001 .530
Admiration–awe 3.767 2.830 .032938 .168
Liking 6.447 5.355 .001007 .277
Familiarity 34.047 47.413 .000001 .772
Experiment 4
Pride–confidence 6.280 10.963 .000001 .439
Love–tenderness 13.833 25.261 .000001 .643
Admiration–awe 4.247 5.798 .000562 .293
Liking 6.120 7.948 .000038 .362
Familiarity 28.553 37.547 .000001 .728
Note. df = mechanism (4), error (56).
Bonferroni-corrected from α = .05 to α = .0033.
a
In the remaining cases, the rating for the predicted The self-report data regarding chills (piloerec-
mechanism was either still the highest, although not UJPO
XFSFBOBMZ[FETFQBSBUFMZCFDBVTFPGUIFEJDIP-
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%FTDSJQUJWFTUBUJTUJDTBOENPSF of target mechanism on the proportion of chills re-
FMBCPSBUJPOBSFQSPWJEFEJOUIFDPNCJOFEBOBMZTJT ported, we used Cochran’s Q test, which is a non-
5"#-& Summary of Planned Comparisons Between Predicted Target Mechanism and Remaining Conditions for
Emotion Ratings, Experiments 1–4
Scale Contrast Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4
Happiness–elation M vs. B .486a .001* .229 .002*

M vs. C .006* .001* .068 .001*
M vs. E .002* .001* .001* .001*
M vs. N .041* .001* .001* .001*
Sadness–melancholy C vs. B .001* .188 .004* .003*
C vs. M .001* .001* .006* .039*
C vs. E .003* .905 .265 .002*
C vs. N .001* .001* .004* .006*
Surprise–astonishment B vs. C .001* .001* .001* .001*
B vs. M .001* .001* .001* .001*
B vs. E .001* .001* .001* .003*
B vs. N .001* .005* .001* .001*
Nostalgia–longing M vs. B .006* .001* .001* .001*
M vs. C .556 a
.055 .116 .132
M vs. E .032* .001* .001* .001*
M vs. N .001* .001* .001* .001*
Anxiety–nervousness E vs. B .103 .499 .849 a
.001*
E vs. C .002* .001* .010* .001*
E vs. M .023* .001* .007* .001*
E vs. N .018* .002* .030* .003*
Note. Data indicate p values. B = brain stem reflex; C = contagion; E = expectancy; M = memory; N = neutral.
aContrasts where the predicted target mechanism did not receive the highest mean rating.
*p < .05.
parametric test for three or more matched sets of listeners’ ratings of these items, we conducted one
frequencies or proportions where data are dichoto- "/07"XJUINFDIBOJTNBTXJUIJOTVCKFDUGBDUPS
NPVT $POPWFS õýýý
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(αƎƎôô÷÷
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was that most chills occurred in the brain stem reflex results of the analysis indicated significant effects of
öû
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mechanism for all items in all four experiments (values
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overall (MƎƎõø
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between the experimental conditions, these data are SFTVMUTDPODFSOJOH.FD4DBMF JODMVEJOHUIFEJSFDUJPOT
OPUEJTDVTTFEGVSUIFS PGUIFFďFDUT BSFQSPWJEFEJOUIFDPNCJOFEBOBMZTJT
MECSC ALE. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY.
The listeners also responded to eight items, which To evaluate the manipulation of target mechanism on
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evaluate the effects of target mechanism condition on mechanism as within-subject factor (six levels: base-
t JUSLIN ET AL .
line, neutral, brain stem reflex, contagion, episodic QSFTFOUTUIFSFTVMUT*UDBOCFTFFOUIBUPOMZùüPG
NFNPSZ NVTJDBMFYQFDUBODZ
POFBDIQIZTJPMPHJD the predictions received support, with better results
NFBTVSF'PSFBDIMJTUFOFS UIFSBXEBUBPGFBDINFB- GPS[ZHPNBUJDVT ûù
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sure were transformed into z residuals before analysis predictions than for skin conductance predictions
in order to minimize the impact of individual dif- öù
0OMZJOUXPPGUIFDPOUSBTUT IPXFWFS XBT
GFSFODFTJOCBTFMJOFTCFUXFFOUIFMJTUFOFST5IFSF- the direction of the observed effect contrary to the
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/PUFUIBUNFDIBOJTNZJFMEFETJHOJêDBOUFďFDUTPO DPNCJOFEBOBMZTJT
all measures in all experiments, except skin conduc-
tance level in Experiment 2 and corrugator muscle Combined Analyses, Experiments 1–4
BDUJWJUZJO&YQFSJNFOU÷*OTQFDUJPOPGUIFSJHIUNPTU #FDBVTFUIFSFXFSFOPTJHOJêDBOUEJďFSFODFTCF-
column suggests that these effects were “small” to tween the four experimental groups with respect to
iNPEFSBUFuJOTJ[F 'FSHVTPO öôôý
5PUFTUPVSQSF- age, gender, experience of playing an instrument, or
dictions with respect to specific contrasts between music education (see MethodTFDUJPO
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the target mechanism conditions for these measures, there were no significant differences between the
we conducted planned comparisons (tUFTUT
5BCMFù groups with regard to how they rated the common
TABLE 4. ANOVA for Psychophysiology, Experiments 1–4
Experiment Measure Mean square F p η2
1 Skin conductance level 2.383 2.644 .030128* .159

1 Zygomatic muscle activity 4.014 5.115 .000469* .268
1 Corrugator muscle activity 3.539 4.324 .001740* .236
2 Skin conductance level 1.823 1.937 .099117 .122
3 Corrugator muscle activity 0.348 0.333 .891575 .023
Note. df = mechanism (5), error (70).
*p < .05.
5"#-& Summary of Planned Comparisons for Psychophysiology, Experiments 1–4
Measure Contrast Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4
Skin conductance level B vs. C .225 .648 .001* .716a

Zygomaticus muscle activity M vs. C .007* .002* .091 .002*
Corrugator muscle activity C vs. M .001* .001* .962a .038*
Note. Data indicate p values. B = brain stem reflex; C = contagion; M = memory.
aContrasts where the predicted target mechanism did not receive the higher mean value.
*p < .05.
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tween groups, F ÷ Ǝùú
ƎƎôôü÷mõýýù pTƎƎõ÷ýû
Finally, the correlations for familiarity confirm that
we thought it was justified to treat the participants only the music in the memory conditions was highly
as matched subjects and to combine data across ex- GBNJMJBSUPUIFMJTUFOFST
QFSJNFOUTGPSEFTDSJQUJWFBOEFYQMPSBUPSZQVSQPTFT MECSC ALE.
EMOTION R ATINGS. 5BCMFûTIPXTDPSSFMBUJPOTCFUXFFO.FD4DBMFJUFNT
Table 6 shows correlations between emotion ratings and target mechanism conditions across Experiments
and target mechanism conditions across Experiments õmø0GQBSUJDVMBSJOUFSFTUBSFUIFDPSSFMBUJPOTUIBU
õmø5IFTFDPSSFMBUJPOTDPOêSNUIBUUIFSFTVMUTXFSF are both statistically significant and positive in direc-
mostly in line with the predictions but also highlight UJPO5IFSFTVMUTBSFNBJOMZBTDPVMECFFYQFDUFE
the problem with regard to a clear separation of emo- if the items have predictive value regarding mecha-
UJPOT.PTUJNQPSUBOUMZ JUDBOCFTFFOUIBU DPOUSBSZ nisms: The brain stem reflex condition correlated
to our predictions, the contagion mechanism aroused most strongly with the brain stem item, the contagion
nostalgia–longing, and the expectancy mechanism condition correlated most strongly with the conta-
BSPVTFETBEOFTTmNFMBODIPMZ*OCPUIDBTFT IPXFWFS gion item, the expectancy condition correlated most
the correlation for the predicted emotion was sig- strongly with the expectancy item, and the memory
nificantly larger than the one for the nonpredicted condition correlated most strongly with the memory
emotion (pƎƎôù
*UDBOGVSUIFSCFPCTFSWFEUIBU JUFN/PUFUIBUUIFOFVUSBMDPOEJUJPOXBTOFHBUJWFMZ
the “neutral” piece was negatively correlated with all correlated with all items, suggesting that this piece
FNPUJPOT1SFTFOUFEJOUIFMPXFSTFDUJPOPG5BCMFú EJEOPUBDUJWBUFBOZPGUIFNFDIBOJTNT
BSFBMTPUIFSFTVMUTGPSJOUFOTJUZ MJLJOH BOEGBNJMJBSJUZ )PXFWFS 5BCMFûBMTPTIPXTTPNFDPSSFMBUJPOT
The former confirm that the “neutral” piece yielded a JOBEEJUJPOUPUIPTFSFMBUFEUPUIFUBSHFUNFDIBOJTN
lower emotional intensity than the mechanism condi- /PUFJOQBSUJDVMBSUIBUUIFNFNPSZDPOEJUJPOTZJFME-
tions, which on average aroused an intense emotional ed a larger number of significant correlations than the
response (MƎƎöúú
5IFCSBJOTUFNSFëFYDPOEJUJPOT PUIFSDPOEJUJPOUZQFT5IFNFNPSZDPOEJUJPOTDPSSF-
QSPEVDFEUIFNPTUJOUFOTFSFBDUJPOT8JUISFHBSEUP lated not only with the episodic memory item but also
liking, it can be seen that the contagion pieces were with the entrainment, conditioning, visual imagery,
CFTUMJLFEPWFSBMM JF EFTQJUFUIFGBDUUIFZUFOEFEUP and appraisal items, although the correlations of these
TABLE 6. Correlations Between Emotion Ratings and Target Mechanism Conditions Across Experiments 1–4 (N = 300)
Condition
Emotion scale Neutral Brain stem Contagion Expectancy Memory
Happiness–elation −.11 .07 −.09 −.31* .43*

Sadness–melancholy −.27* −.13 .44* .19* −.23*
Surprise–astonishment −.02 .59* −.39* .01 −.20*
Nostalgia–longing −.30* −.19* .28* −.23* .44*
Anxiety–nervousness −.11 .12 −.17 .42* −.26*
Intensity −.41* .20* .13 −.04 .11
Liking −.33* .02 .32* −.19* .18
Familiarity −.31* −.16 −.15 −.22* .84
Note. Values show point-biserial correlations (rpb) between listener’s emotion ratings (coded continuously) and target mechanism conditions
(coded dichotomously). Correlations that are both statistically significant and positive in direction are shown in boldface. (Alpha level was Bon-
ferroni corrected from α = .05 to α = .00125.)
*p < .00125.
t JUSLIN ET AL .
5"#-& Correlations Between MecScale Items and Target Mechanism Conditions Across Experiments 1–4 (N = 300)
Condition
Scale item Neutral Brain stem Contagion Expectancy Memory
Brain stem −.32* .75* −.20* −.01 −.23*

Entrainment −.06 .23* −.16 −.21* .19*
Memory −.25* −.15 −.02 −.11 .54*
Conditioning −.32* −.16 −.01 .03 .45*
Visual imagery −.30* −.13 .07 −.01 .38*
Contagion −.48* .04 .38* −.12 .18
Expectancy −.05 .28* −.06 .36* −.53*
Appraisal −.19* −.06 .05 .32 .32*
Note. Values show point-biserial correlations (rpb) between ratings of MecScale items (coded continuously) and target mechanism conditions
(coded dichotomously). Correlations that are both statistically significant and positive in direction are shown in boldface. Scale items are shown
in the Appendix. (Alpha level was Bonferroni corrected from α = .05 to α = .00125.)
*p < .00125.
were significantly smaller than the correlation of the pƎƎôôõBOE'VODUJPO÷ DBOPOJDBMRƎƎøø 8JMLTT
episodic memory item (pƎƎôù
XJUIUIFFYDFQUJPO λƎƎüô χ2ƎƎùõöø pƎƎôôõ
of the conditioning item (pƎƎôû
5IFGPMMPXVQJUFN Table 8 shows the results in a classification ma-
to the episodic memory item (see MethodTFDUJPO
USJY*UNBZCFTFFOUIBUUIFPWFSBMMIJUSBUJPBDSPTTUIF
showed that 76% of the memories were positive in four emotion categories was 75% correct, which can
nature, 0% were negative in nature, and 24% were a be compared with the hit ratio of 25% that could be
NJYUVSFPGCPUIQPTJUJWFBOEOFHBUJWF/PUBCMZ UIFTF FYQFDUFEGSPNDIBODFBMPOF$MBTTJêDBUJPOBDDVSBDZ
SFTVMUTBSFDPOTJTUFOUXJUIUIFQPTJUJWF IBQQJOFTT
PS ranged from 57% to 94% depending on the target
iCJUUFSTXFFUu OPTUBMHJB
FNPUJPOTSFQPSUFEJOUIF mechanism, with best result for memory and worst
NFNPSZDPOEJUJPOT GPSFYQFDUBODZ5IFSFBSFOPHFOFSBMHVJEFMJOFTGPS
To test the predictive power of the listeners’ how to interpret the classification accuracy relative
.FD4DBMFSBUJOHT XFDPOEVDUFEBNVMUJQMFEJTDSJNJ-
OBOUBOBMZTJT5IJTBOBMZTJTGPDVTFEPOQSFEJDUJOH
the target mechanism condition (four levels: brain TABLE 8. Classification Matrix for the Multiple Discriminant
TUFNSFëFY DPOUBHJPO NFNPSZ FYQFDUBODZ
CBTFE Analysis: Prediction of Mechanism Condition From MecScale Items
POUIFMJTUFOFSTSBUJOHTPGUIFFJHIU.FD4DBMFJUFNT (N = 240)
#FOFGJUJOHGSPNUIFDPNCJOFEBOBMZTJTBDSPTTBMM
four experiments featuring 240 cases, we were able Predicted condition
to obtain a ratio of 30 observations for each predic- Brain
tor and 60 observations in each category (a ratio of stem Contagion Expectancy Memory
at least 20 observations for each predictor and 20
Actual condition
PCTFSWBUJPOTJOFBDIDBUFHPSZJTSFDPNNFOEFE)BJS
Brain stem 88 2 7 3
"OEFSTFO 5BUIBN #MBDL õýýü
5IFQSFEJDUPST
were entered into the analysis using a simultaneous Contagion 7 62 16 15
estimation and assuming equal probabilities of occur- Expectancy 22 20 57 1
SFODF öù
8JUIGPVSDBUFHPSJFT XFDPVMEFTUJNBUF Memory 3 3 0 94
three discriminative functions: Function 1, canonical Note. The percentages (rowwise) of correctly predicted emotions are given on
RƎƎü÷ 8JMLTTλõú χ2ƎƎø÷÷ûü pƎƎôôõ'VOD- the main diagonal (in bold). The off-diagonal cells show the confusions. Overall
accuracy = 75%.
tion 2, canonical RƎƎúö 8JMLTTλƎƎùô χ2ƎƎõú÷õö
A UPDIBODF CVU)BJSFUBM õýýü
BSHVFEUIBUUIFBD-
curacy should be at least one-fourth greater than
UIBUBDIJFWFECZDIBODF ú÷JOUIJTDBTF
BOEUIF
currently observed increase in accuracy relative to
chance is approximately 12 times greater than this
DSJUFSJPO)PXFWFS JUTIPVMECFOPUFEUIBUJOUIFBC-
sence of a cross-validation procedure due to a small
sample, the estimate is likely to be positively biased to
TPNFEFHSFF$POTJEFSBUJPOPGUIFJOEJWJEVBMQSFEJD-
UPST UIF.FD4DBMFJUFNT
SFWFBMFEUIBUBMMJUFNTFY-
cept visual imagery and cognitive appraisal produced
TJHOJêDBOUWBMVFTPGQBSUJBM8JMLTTλ, indicating that
UIFZNBEFBVOJRVFDPOUSJCVUJPOUPUIFQSFEJDUJPO
.PTUWBSJBODFXBTFYQMBJOFECZUIFCSBJOTUFNSFëFY
item (FUPSFNPWFƎƎùüýù
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B FYQFDUBODZ ÷ôõü
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BOEFQJTPEJD
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JUFNT
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY.
Figure 1 presents means and standard errors (zTDPSFT

for listeners’ skin conductance level, zygomaticus ac-
tivity, and corrugator activity as a function of target
NFDIBOJTN BDSPTT&YQFSJNFOUTõmø8JUISFHBSEUP
skin conductance level, it can be seen that the experi-
mental conditions were clearly separated from base-
line, but they were not clearly differentiated from one
BOPUIFS)PXFWFS UIFCSBJOTUFNSFëFYBOENFNPSZ
conditions tended to show higher levels of skin con-
ductance than did the contagion and expectancy
DPOEJUJPOT'BDJBM&.(TVHHFTUFEBDMFBSFSEJďFS-
FOUJBUJPOCFUXFFOUIFDPOEJUJPOT*OQBSUJDVMBS UIF
C contagion and expectancy conditions showed lower
levels of zygomaticus activity and higher levels of
corrugator activity than did the brain stem reflex
BOENFNPSZDPOEJUJPOT'VSUIFSNPSF OPUFUIBUUIF
contagion conditions showed lower levels of zygo-
maticus activity than baseline and that the memory
conditions showed lower levels of corrugator activity
UIBOCBTFMJOF
DISCUSSION
Summary of Findings
In this study, we aimed to selectively manipulate four
mechanisms believed to underlie emotional reactions
to music, through a careful selection of existing pieces
of music, to see whether we would be able to dem-
FIGURE 1. Means and standard errors for the listeners’ (a) skin conductance onstrate predictable effects on listeners’ emotional
level, (b) zygomaticus muscle activity, and (c) corrugator muscle activity (z scores) SFTQPOTFT5IFSFTVMUTGSPNPVSGPVSFYQFSJNFOUT
as a function of target mechanism condition, Experiments 1–4 DBOCFTVNNBSJ[FEBTGPMMPXT
t JUSLIN ET AL .
First, we conclude that the target mechanisms that typically high-arousal emotions such as surpri-
aroused emotions in listeners largely in accordance se and happiness did produce higher levels of skin
with our theoretical predictions: The listeners’ self- conductance than did typically low-arousal emotions
reports revealed that the brain stem reflex conditions TVDIBTTBEOFTT5IFTFêOEJOHTBSFDMFBSMZXPSUIZ
aroused the most surprise, the contagion conditions of further investigation, ideally using a design with
aroused the most sadness, the episodic memory con- better statistical power, because many of the effects
ditions aroused the most nostalgia and happiness, BQQFBSUPCFTVCUMF
and the musical expectancy conditions aroused the Third, the results regarding emotion ratings and
NPTUBOYJFUZ"MUIPVHIUIFFďFDUTWBSJFETMJHIUMZCF- psychophysiology were extended by the data for
tween the experiments, planned comparisons showed .FD4DBMF UIBUJT UIFFJHIUTFMGSFQPSUJUFNTGPDVT-
that the ratings were in line with our theoretical pre- JOHPOTVCKFDUJWFJNQSFTTJPOT FH i%JEUIFNVTJD
EJDUJPOTJOüøPGUIFDPOUSBTUT JF UIFNFBOSBUJOH FWPLFBNFNPSZPGBOFWFOUGSPNZPVSMJGF ui8FSF
was significantly higher for the predicted mechanism you ‘touched’ by the emotional expression of the mu-
UIBOGPSUIFPUIFSDPOEJUJPO
*OUIFSFNBJOJOHDBTFT TJD u
3FTVMUTJOEJDBUFEUIBUUIFJUFNTXFSFSFMJBCMZ
the rating for the predicted mechanism was either still SFMBUFEUPUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHUBSHFUNFDIBOJTN"
UIFIJHIFTU BMUIPVHIOPUTJHOJêDBOUMZTP õö
PSUIF multiple discriminant analysis showed that the items
TFDPOEIJHIFTUPGUIFDPOEJUJPOT ø
*UTIPVMEBMTP could predict the target mechanism condition with
be noted that the effects of the experimental manipu- BOPWFSBMMDMBTTJêDBUJPOBDDVSBDZPGûù5IVT FWFO
MBUJPOPOUIF QSFEJDUFE
FNPUJPOTXFSFiNPEFSBUFu though self-reports regarding causes of emotions can-
UPiMBSHFu 'FSHVTPO öôôý
BOEUIBUSBUFEPWFSBMM not be treated as veridical, they are hardly arbitrary
intensity was high (MƎƎöúú POBTDBMFGSPNôUPø
FJUIFS*OGBDU JGNVTJDMJTUFOFSTBSFHJWFOIJHIMZUBS-
4FDPOE UIFTFSFTVMUTXFSFTVQQPSUFECZQTZDIP- geted questions, their responses provide indices that
physiology in terms of autonomic activity and facial NBZDPNQMFNFOUPUIFSGPSNTPGFWJEFODF"TDPVME
FYQSFTTJPO.FBTVSFTPGTLJODPOEVDUBODFBOE[Z- CFFYQFDUFE UIFDMBTTJêDBUJPOCBTFEPO.FD4DBMF
gomaticus and corrugator activity were significantly worked somewhat better for mechanisms that by defi-
influenced by target mechanism condition in the OJUJPOBSFFYQMJDJUJOOBUVSF FH FQJTPEJDNFNPSJFT

NBKPSJUZ ü÷
PGDBTFT5IFTFEBUBBSFJNQPSUBOU than for mechanisms that have been conceptualized
for at least two reasons: They validate the conclu- BTNPSFJNQMJDJU FH NVTJDBMFYQFDUBODZTFF+VTMJO
sion that the listeners actually experienced emo- öôõ÷
5IJTEJďFSFODFTIPVMECFUBLFOJOUPBDDPVOU
tions rather than merely perceiving emotions in the when using self-reports to explore underlying mecha-
music, and they display patterns consistent with the OJTNTJOGVUVSFêFMETUVEJFT
FNPUJPOSBUJOHT"MUIPVHIUIFTFêOEJOHTXFSFOPU
as clear-cut as we had hoped, it could be seen that Problems, Limitations, and Future Directions
the conditions that were predicted to evoke negati- This is the first study to contrast mechanisms using
WFFNPUJPOT JF DPOUBHJPO→ sadness, expectancy only existing pieces of music, and the present results
→BOYJFUZ
QSPEVDFENPSFDPSSVHBUPSNVTDMFBDUJ- can be compared with those of our previous study,
vity and less zygomaticus muscle activity, than the which used computer-manipulated versions of a
conditions that were predicted to evoke a neutral QJFDF +VTMJOFUBM öôõø
5IJTTUVEZDPSSPCPSBUFTUIF
CSBJOTUFNSFëFYƎ→Ǝsurprise
PSQPTJUJWF NFNPSZ êOEJOHTJOUIBUTUVEZCZTIPXJOHUIBU SFBTPOBCMZ

→IBQQJOFTT OPTUBMHJB
FNPUJPO BTFYQFDUFEGSPN predictable response patterns may be obtained also
their relative position in the circumplex model (Rus- XJUIFYJTUJOHQJFDFTPGNVTJD5IFJODMVTJPOPGGPVS
TFMM õýüô
5IFEBUBGPSTLJODPOEVDUBODFEJEOPU different pieces to represent each target mechanism,
distinguish between target mechanism conditions all pieces taken from the actual repertoire of classical
RVJUFBTDMFBSMZ"MMFYQFSJNFOUBMDPOEJUJPOTUFOEFE NVTJD JODSFBTFTUIFHFOFSBMJ[BCJMJUZPGUIFSFTVMUT
to produce higher autonomic activity than baseline, 4UJMM JUJTBMTPDMFBSUIBUUIFBSPVTFEFNPUJPOTXFSFOPU
but expected contrasts between specific emotions BTOFBUMZEJďFSFOUJBUFEIFSFBTJOUIFQSFWJPVTTUVEZ
FH TVSQSJTFƎ←Ǝ→ƎTBEOFTT
XFSFHFOFSBMMZOPU This might be symptomatic of the greater difficulty in
TJHOJêDBOU/PUF IPXFWFS UIBUXIFOEBUBGSPNUIF clearly separating different mechanisms when using
FYQFSJNFOUTXFSFDPMMBQTFE 'JHVSFõ
EBUBTVHHFTUFE real pieces of music, which typically feature several
EJďFSFOULJOETPGFNPUJPOBMMZSFMFWBOUJOGPSNBUJPO speculated that once the listener becomes sad through
One promising approach to better separate the effects contagion, this emotion may evoke nostalgia–longing
of distinct mechanisms when using ecologically valid BMTP5IJTOPUJPODPVMEQFSIBQTCFUFTUFECZVTJOH
music may be to combine real compositions with re- even shorter musical excerpts or by adopting a conti-
TZOUIFTJT +VTMJO.BEJTPO õýýý
GPSJOTUBODFCZ OVPVTSFTQPOTFUFDIOJRVF 4DIVCFSU öôõô

digitally editing specific features to reduce the effects It could seem odd that the memory conditions
PGQBSUJDVMBSNFDIBOJTNT XIJDIFWPLFENBJOMZQPTJUJWFFNPUJPOT
SFDFJWFE
In our previous study, which relied on computer lower ratings of liking than the contagion conditions
NBOJQVMBUJPO +VTMJOFUBM öôõø
UIFNVTJDBMFYQFD- XIJDIFWPLFENBJOMZOFHBUJWFFNPUJPOT
)PXFWFS
tancy version did not arouse anxiety to the extent this finding may arguably reflect that the two proces-
we had predicted, but in the present investigation, ses—preference and emotion—are partly indepen-
which featured real compositions by highly accom- EFOU5IVT UIFMJTUFOFSTFYQFSJFODFEQPTJUJWFFNP-
plished composers, the induction of anxiety was far tions as a result of the memories evoked, even though
NPSFTVDDFTTGVM&WFOTP NVTJDBMFYQFDUBODZJTPOF UIFZEJEOPUQBSUJDVMBSMZMJLFUIFNVTJD$POWFSTFMZ
of the mechanisms that need closer attention in future the pieces featured in the contagion conditions were
XPSL"MUIPVHIJUJTPGUFODMBJNFEUIBUUIJTJTPOF liked to a greater extent, despite the fact that they
PGUIFNPTUQPXFSGVMNFDIBOJTNT FH 5IPNQTPO BSPVTFEBHSFBUEFBMPGTBEOFTT5IJTDBOCFSFMBUFEUP
öôôý
FďFDUTJOTUVEJFTTPGBSIBWFHFOFSBMMZCFFO previous findings that some people actively seek out
NPEFTUDPNQBSFEXJUIUIPTFPGPUIFSNFDIBOJTNT NVTJDUIBUNBLFTUIFNFYQFSJFODFTBEOFTT (BSSJEP
It is possible that the use of an unfamiliar musical 4DIVCFSU öôõõ

genre reduced the amount of stylistic expectancies The most uniform results across the present ex-
that listeners could bring to the listening situation, periments occurred for the brain stem reflex mecha-
UIFSFCZSFEVDJOHUIFFďFDUPGUIFNBOJQVMBUJPO OJTN5IJTJTXIBUXFXPVMEFYQFDU CBTFEPOUIF
"MUIPVHIUIFQSFTFOUNBOJQVMBUJPOPGNFDIBOJTNT #3&$7&."GSBNFXPSL +VTMJO öôõ÷
XIJDIIPMET
did arouse the predicted emotions, it is apparent that that this mechanism is mainly hard-wired and subject
some other emotions were also aroused to some ex- UPMJUUMFFďFDUPGJOEJWJEVBMFYQFSJFODF$POWFSTFMZ XF
UFOU BMCFJUJOXFBLFSGPSN*ONPTUDBTFT UIFTFFďFDUT would expect larger variability and effects of personal
were consistent with the predicted emotions, for in- experience with regard to the memory condition,
TUBODFJOUFSNTPGWBMFODF'PSFYBNQMF JUJTOPUTVSQSJ- XIJDIJTBMTPXIBUXFGPVOE.FD4DBMFEBUBJOEJDBUFE
sing that the manipulations yielded significant effects that the memory condition “scattered” its effects to a
on calm–contentment, given that the ratings of this larger extent than the other three conditions, evoking
FNPUJPOXFSF OFHBUJWFMZ
DPSSFMBUFEXJUIBOYJFUZm not only episodic memories but also more general
OFSWPVTOFTT POFPGPVSQSFEJDUFEFNPUJPOT0UIFS BTTPDJBUJPOTBOEJNBHFT*UJTOPUTVSQSJTJOHUIBUUIF
UFOEFODJFT XFSF NPSF JOUSJHVJOH 5IF DPOUBHJPO memory condition correlated with the visual imagery
conditions, in particular, aroused nostalgia–longing, JUFNCFDBVTFFQJTPEJDNFNPSJFTPGUFOJOWPMWFJNBHFSZ
which is more commonly associated with episodic )BEUIFSFQPSUFEJNBHFSZOPUSFTVMUFEGSPNFQJTPEJD
NFNPSJFTMJOLFEUPNVTJD DG+BOBUBFUBM öôôû+VT- memories, we would have expected to find much great-
MJOFUBM öôôü
5IJTêOEJOHBQQFBSTRVJUFQV[[MJOH er incidence of imagery in the other mechanism condi-
considering that the music was unfamiliar to the lis- tions that did notFWPLFNFNPSJFT5IFDPSSFMBUJPOXJUI
teners and that they presumably did not have specific cognitive appraisal can seem surprising, but it makes
NFNPSJFTBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIFNVTJD0OFQPTTJCMF sense because memories often involve memories of the
explanation could be that the nostalgia was a by-effect BQQSBJTBMUPUIFPSJHJOBMFWFOU &MMTXPSUI õýýø
"HBJO
of the music-evoked sadness rather than an effect of had the reported appraisals not been tied to episodic
UIFNVTJD*UIBTCFFOSFQPSUFEQSFWJPVTMZUIBUPOF memories, we would have expected to find a greater
common trigger of nostalgia is negative affects such as JODJEFODFPGBQQSBJTBMTJOUIFPUIFSDPOEJUJPOTBMTP
TBEOFTT 8JMETDIVU 4FEJLJEFT "SOEU 3PVUMFEHF Of the episodic memories, 25% were described as both
öôôú
BOEUIFTFFNPUJPOTIBWFCFFOIBSEUPEJTFO- QPTJUJWFBOEOFHBUJWFJOWBMFODF5IJTNBZCFSFMBUFE
tangle in previous studies (Vuoskoski, Thompson, to the fact that nostalgia is commonly regarded as a
.D*MXBJO &FSPMB öôõö
5IVT +VTMJOFUBM öôõø
iCJUUFSTXFFU uNJYFEFNPUJPO 8JMETDIVUFUBM öôôú

t JUSLIN ET AL .
One limitation of this study is that the listener be aroused, which does seem to be common (see
sample was small and featured listeners from only +VTMJOFUBM öôôü
*OPUIFSXPSET JGUIFNVTJDEPFT
BTJOHMF8FTUFSODVMUVSF5IFSFJTBOVSHFOUOFFE notJODMVEFFYUSFNFTPVOEFWFOUT CSBJOTUFNSFëFY

for cross-cultural studies adopting a psychological BQSPOPVODFEBOEDBUDIZSIZUIN FOUSBJONFOU
B
perspective to explore the role of various mechanisms QBTTJPOBUFBOEWPJDFMJLFFYQSFTTJPO DPOUBHJPO
B
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nisms manifest themselves in diverse cultures? Jus- UPFYUFSOBMFWFOUT WJTVBMJNBHFSZ
BOVOFYQFDUFE
MJO öôõö
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emotions can be cross-culturally valid at the level of QFDUBODZ
PSBOBFTUIFUJDRVBMJUZTVDIBTWBTUCFBVUZ
mechanisms, despite cross-cultural diversity in musi- BFTUIFUJDKVEHNFOU
IBTOPUCFFOMJOLFEXJUIFNP-
DBMTVSGBDFGFBUVSFTBOEFWPLFEFNPUJPOT "MUIPVHI tionally laden life events (evaluative conditioning,
music that arouses nostalgia in listeners in one culture FQJTPEJDNFNPSZ
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may sound distinct from music that arouses nostalgia DSVDJBMJNQMJDBUJPOTGPSPOFTHPBMTJOMJGF BQQSBJTBM

in listeners in another culture, this does not rule out then chances are slim that the music will evoke an
that the emotion was aroused for the same reasons in FNPUJPO1SFDJTFMZUIFTFDJSDVNTUBODFTBQQMJFEUPUIF
CPUIDBTFT
)PXFWFS JUTFFNTQMBVTJCMFUIBUEJďFSFOU neutral piece used in this study, which apparently did
mechanisms are important in different cultures de- OPUBDUJWBUFBOZPGUIFNFDIBOJTNT5PBWFSZNPEFTU
pending on both the music and the functions of the extent, at least, we were able to switch on mechanisms
NVTJD 4BBSJLBMMJP öôõö
5IFSFGPSF UIFQSFWBMFODF BUXJMMJOPSEFSUPBSPVTFTQFDJêDFNPUJPOT"TLFQUJD
of different mechanisms and its relationship to the might argue that, because the excerpts were selected
functions of the music in various cultures warrant to tap into specific mechanisms, it is trivial that the
GVSUIFSJOWFTUJHBUJPO FYDFSQUTQSPEVDFEEJďFSFOUSFTQPOTFT)PXFWFS JUJT
crucial to note that the manipulation did not simply
Primary Role of Mechanisms QSPEVDFEJďFSFOUFNPUJPOTXFDPVMEBMTPMBSHFMZpre-
"OJNQPSUBOURVFTUJPOJTXIBUEFUFSNJOFTXIJDI dictUIFQSFDJTFFNPUJPOT/PUPOMZDPVMEXFQSFEJDU
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JTBDUJWBUFECZBQBSUJDVMBSNVTJDBM the emotions, we could also predict target mechanism
FWFOU5IFBOTXFSEFQFOETPOTFWFSBMGBDUPST4PNF conditions from self-reported listener impressions
JOGPSNBUJPODPVMECFQSPWJEFECZUIFNVTJD FH .FD4DBMF
EJSFDUMZSFMFWBOUUPFBDINFDIBOJTN FH
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BFTUIFUJDGSBNJOH
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5BLFOUPHFUIFS UIFTFêOEJOHTTUSPOHMZJOEJDBUF
PGUFOPDDVSSFEJOUIFQFSTPOTMJGF
5IJTTUVEZJTMJN- that music may evoke emotions in listeners through
ited because it does not take individual or contextual each of the four causal processes outlined at the out-
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(JCTPO õýûý
BQBSUJDVMBSFNPUJPOBMSFTQPOTFCZ aroused emotions in terms of specific mechanisms
featuring information relevant to a particular mecha- is the ultimate evidence of a valid process descrip-
nism, but whether this information will activate the UJPO5PEFTDSJCFUIFGFBUVSFTPGUIFNVTJDJTPOMZB
mechanism depends on the listener’s attention, which êSTUTUFQUPXBSEBQTZDIPMPHJDBMFYQMBOBUJPO8IBU
in turn may depend on the context (focused listen- matters is not the musical features as such but what
JOHPSCBDLHSPVOENVTJD
BOEPOXIBUPUIFSUZQFT meaning they are given by our mechanisms—the dis-
PG QPUFOUJBMMZDPNQFUJOH
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TBNFUJNF*USFNBJOTUPCFFYQMPSFEXIBUUZQFTPG
JOGPSNBUJPOIBWFQSJPSJUZBOEXIZ'PSJOTUBODF XJMMB Concluding Remarks
melodic theme associated with a certain emotion for a (VUIFJM õýùö
OPUFEUIBUiFNPUJPOBMSFBDUJPOTXIJDI
listener be overridden by a perceptually more salient music may arouse are as numerous as the individuals
drum stroke that happens to occur at the same time? reacting” and that “the subjectivity of emotional ex-
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&N-
to include information relevant for the activation of pirical studies of specific mechanisms are still in their
any mechanism, then consequently no emotion will JOGBODZ)PXFWFS FWFOUIPVHIFNPUJPOBMSFBDUJPOT
to music continue to defy simple conclusions, the re- #MBJS .& 4IJNQ 5" õýýö
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to suggest that the multiple-mechanism approach is a UJWFDPOEJUJPOJOHQFSTQFDUJWFJournal of Advertising, 21,
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APPENDIX: RESPONSE SHEET FOR MECHANISM INDICES
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your goals or plans in life? 'SJEMVOE "+ $BDJPQQP +5 õýüú
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NOTES ùúûmùüý
5IFQSFTFOUTUVEZXBTTVQQPSUFECZUIF4XFEJTI3FTFBSDI 'SJFE 3 #FSLPXJU[ - õýûý
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$PVODJMUISPVHIBHSBOUUP1BUSJL/+VTMJO DBOJOëVFODFIFMQGVMOFTTJournal of Applied Social Psy-
"EESFTTDPSSFTQPOEFODFBCPVUUIJTBSUJDMFUP1BUSJL/ chology, 9,õýýmöôü
+VTMJO %FQBSUNFOUPG1TZDIPMPHZ 6QQTBMB6OJWFSTJUZ #PY (BCSJFMTTPO " öôõõ
Strong experiences with music: Music
õööù 4&ûùõøö6QQTBMB 4XFEFO FNBJMQBUSJLKVTMJO! is much more than just music. Oxford, England: Oxford
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From Sound to Signiﬁcance: Exploring the Mechanisms Underlying Emotional

Article in The American Journal of Psychology · August 2015

Patrik Juslin Goncalo Barradas

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

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A common approach to studying emotional reactions to music is to attempt to obtain direct

.FSFTPVOEDBOIBWFQSPGPVOEFďFDUTPOMJTUFOFST namely to discover laws of cause and effect in order to

American Journal of Psychology

response and offered a useful theory of musical ex- ÷

toolkit for evoking emotion, and they provided sev- ø

role in emotional responses to music and presented ù

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t 

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t 

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EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t 

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t 

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dictions concerned which emotions the four target OFVUSBMDPOEJUJPO

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t 

Scale Contrast Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4

Happiness–elation M vs. B .486a .001* .229 .002*

TABLE 4. ANOVA for Psychophysiology, Experiments 1–4

Experiment Measure Mean square F p η2

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5"#-& Summary of Planned Comparisons for Psychophysiology, Experiments 1–4

Measure Contrast Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4

Skin conductance level B vs. C .225 .648 .001* .716a

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t 

Happiness–elation −.11 .07 −.09 −.31* .43*

Brain stem −.32* .75* −.20* −.01 −.23*

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t 

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EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t

CBTFMJOFDPOEJUJPO5IFPOMZEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFO The brain stem reflex mechanism is thought to be

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t

5"#-& Summary of Planned Comparisons for Psychophysiology, Experiments 1–4

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EMOTIONAL REACTIONS TO MUSIC t

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