Gas Turbine Materials- Current status and its Developmental Prospects-A

Critical Review
A.Dinesh Kumar1, S.Sathyanarayanan1, Sayantan Datta Gupta1, Dr.M.Nageswara Rao2
1
Student, M.Tech CAD/CAM, SMBS, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu.
2
Emeritus Professor, SMBS, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu.

Abstract

Advancements made in the field of materials have contributed in a major way in building gas turbine
engines with higher power ratings and efficiency levels. Improvements in design of the gas turbine
engines over the years have importantly been due to development of materials with enhanced
performance levels. Gas turbines have been widely utilised in power generation, industrial sector,
marine sector and as aircraft engines. This article focuses on aero engine applications. Advancements
in gas turbine materials have been always a major concern – higher their capability to withstand
elevated temperature service and more the engine efficiency; for the materials with high temperature
to weight ratio helps in weight reduction. The article reviews the evolutionary process that has taken
place over the years with reference to the different groups of materials used for aero engines. The
review brings out a description of the material grades currently used, prominently including their
superior performance characteristics which led to the designer selecting them. A wide spectrum of
high performance materials, whose manufacture often involves advanced processing techniques, is
used for construction of gas turbines namely special steels, titanium alloys, super alloys. Other major
group of materials like ceramics, composites and inter-metallics are presently under intense research
and development towards their implementation in various aero-engine components. The present
analysis will go into the superior attributes of these various groups making them the designer’s choice
for different components in the aero-engine.

Many of the components in the aero engines are subjected to fatigue- and /or creep-loading, and the
choice of material is then based on the capability of the material to withstand such loads. The paper
goes into the types of loading experienced by different components and how advanced gas turbine
materials are designed and produced to withstand these loads. Coating technology has become an
integral part of manufacture of gas turbine engine components operating at high temperatures, as this
is the only way a combination of high level of mechanical properties and excellent resistance to
oxidation / hot corrosion resistance could be achieved. The review brings out a detailed analysis of
the advanced materials and processes that have come to stay in the production of various components
in gas turbine engines.

Keywords: Inter-metals, super alloys, temperature coatings, hot corrosion.

Introduction:

Aero engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical
power. The thrust is produced by action and reaction as given in Newton’s Third law of motion. In
order to achieve high speed the engine needs to be lighter in weight, which can be attained by using
light weight materials which should be both resistant to very high temperature and also should have
high strength. The main types of aero engine include the following:

Aero Engines

Shaft Engines Jet Engines

a. Inline Engines a. Turbo Jet Engines

b. Rotary Engines b. Turbo Fan Engines
c. V-type Engines c. Rocket Engines
d. Radial Engines
e. Turbo prop Engines
f. Turbo Shaft

The working involves the action of exhaust gases pushing backwards producing an equal and opposite
reaction called thrust that powers the air craft forward. Initially the fan at the front sucks the air into
the engine, followed by the compressor which squeezes by about eight times which slows the air
down by about 60%.The liquid fuel which is stored in the fuel tank mixes with the compressed air and
burns fiercely giving off hot exhaust gases in the combustion chamber .These gases rushes past the
turbine blades and rotate them to give thrust. The hot exhaust gases exit the engine through a tapering
exhaust nozzle. The tapering design helps to accelerate the gases to a speed of over 2000 km/hr. So
the hot air leaving the engine at the back is travelling over twice the speed of cold air entering at the
front which creates thrust. As the air which is being processed inside the engine reaches very high
temperature, the materials of the engine should withstand high temperature.

The history of aero engine starts with Wright brothers who built a 12 horse power engine for their
Wright flyer during the year 1903. During late 1930’s German Heinkel HeS 3 turbo jet propels the
Heinkel He 178 into the air. In 1948 the first turbo shaft engine, the 100 shp 782 was made. In late
1950’s Rolls-Royce Conway, the world’s first production of turbofan engine enters into service.
Recently in 2004 Hyper-X was the first scramjet to maintain altitude.

Currently the main aero engine manufacturers include GE aviation, Hindustan Aeronautics, Rolls
Royce limited, BMW, Maybach etc

Current status of aero engine materials:

Component Characteristics Materials

Suction Fan It should extremely strong so that it doesn’t Titanium alloys
fracture when birds or other debris are sucked
into the blades
Intermediate Experiences very high pressure Titanium and Nickel alloys
Compressor (Inconel 625)
Combustion Ability to withstand very high temperature Nickel and Titanium alloys with
Chamber ceramic coatings.
Turbine blades Must endure the intense heat of the engine. Titanium and Single Crystal
castings of Nickel alloys with
ceramic coatings.
Exhaust Should posses very high strength and resistant
Systems to high temperature. a. Titanium alloys
a. Inner duct b.Composites-Synthetic Fibers
b. Outer duct held together with resins.

Super alloys

Ni based super alloys

Nickel-base super alloys 718 and 760 have been prominent turbine wheel alloys. Alloy 706 contains
somewhat lower concentrations of alloying elements compared to 718. Accordingly it is easier to
produce 706 in the very large ingot sizes needed for the large frame type gas turbine machines. Alloy
718 has been used for turbine wheel production for nearly three decades now. There have been intense
efforts to produce Alloy 718 in larger ingot sizes to enable its use for production of large turbine
wheels. [7] Nickel-base super alloys are the most complex, the most widely used for the hottest parts.
They have the highest creep strength among the above families. They currently constitute over 50% of
the weight of advanced aircraft engines. A noteworthy feature of nickel-base alloys is their use in
load-bearing applications at temperatures in excess of 80% of their incipient melting temperatures, a
fraction that is higher than for any other class of engineering alloys. However, they are costlier than
nickel-iron base and iron-base super alloys. Ni based alloys are mainly used in combustion chamber
materials. Alloy 617 and 230 are processed in the form of sheets. Ni based alloys have little tendency
for pos weld heat treatment cracking. [7]

Alloy 706
This nickel-based, precipitation-hardened alloy is the newest to be used in turbine wheel
application. It is the 7FA, 9FA, 6FA and 9EC turbine wheel and spacer alloy, and it offers a very
significant increase in stress rupture and tensile yield strength compared to the other wheel
alloys. This alloy is similar to Alloy 718, an alloy that has been used for wheels in aircraft
turbines for more than 20 years. [5]

Cast super alloys

Cast grades of nickel-base super alloys are used for manufacture of engine blades. There have been
improvements with respect to rupture strength and low cycle fatigue strength over the years.
Increasing use of predictive techniques has been made to ensure phase stability during service. Most
of the nozzle and blade castings are made using the conventional equiaxed investment casting process.
Directional solidification (DS) is being employed to produce advanced technology nozzles and blades.
Improved creep and rupture strength levels could be achieved this way by eliminating transverse grain
boundaries. Single crystal blade technologies were subsequently developed whereby, through
elimination of all grain boundaries, even higher rupture strengths and low cycle fatigue life could be
achieved. [5]

Cobalt-base super alloys

Wrought cobalt-base alloys, unlike other super alloys, are not strengthened by a coherent, ordered
precipitate. Rather, they are characterized by a solid solution strengthened austenitic (fcc) matrix in
which a small quantity of carbides is distributed. (Cast cobalt alloys rely upon carbide strengthening
to a much greater extent.) Cobalt crystallizes in the hcp structure below 417 °C. At higher
temperatures, it transforms to fcc. [7] To avoid this transformation during service, virtually all cobalt-
base alloys are alloyed with nickel in order to stabilize the fcc structure between room temperature
and the melting point.
Nickel forms low melting point eutectics with nickel sulphide; in sulphur-bearing gases, the attack on
nickel alloys may be devastating. Cobalt-base super alloys have superior hot corrosion resistance in
atmospheres containing sulphur, e.g., in fuel-burning systems, whereas those based on cobalt have
not.

Single crystal super alloys (SC)

The logical progression to grain-boundary reduction is the total elimination thereof. Thus, single-
crystal turbine blade/vane casting technology soon developed, providing further opportunity for
nickel-base alloy design innovation. The greatest advance in the metal temperature capability of
turbine blades has been the single-crystal super alloy and process technology. Tantalum replaces
titanium to a significant extent in single crystal super alloys, since it both strengthens  and raises the
solidus temperature. Modern single crystal alloys can contain between 70 and 80% of .[6] This
represents a useful maximum, since further increases towards 100%  lead to a significant drop in
strength. Since no grain boundary strengthening is required in single crystal compositions, grain-
boundary strengthening elements (boron, hafnium, zirconium, and carbon) could be eliminated from
the composition, resulting in a substantial increase in the incipient melting temperature. Consequently
higher solution treatment temperatures can be adopted to enable increased solutioning of the
strengthening elements, without provoking incipient melting of the alloy. Some single crystal alloys
introduced in late 1980’s contain additions of the heavy element rhenium, which has been found to
retard particle coarsening. Improvements in creep strength were noticed particularly at very high
temperatures (1000-1150 oC). [6]

Titanium Alloys

Approximately one third the structural weight of modern turbine engines is made up of titanium. The
titanium minerals that are abundantly available for commercial exploitation are ilmenite (FeOTiO 2)
and rutile (tetragonal TiO2). Indian reserves of ilmenite are the world’s largest and account for as
much as 45% of the total world reserves. The metal and its value added products are therefore of high
significance in the Country’s context.

Processing of Alloy 834 discs

TIMETAL 834 is the most advanced conventional elevated temperature titanium alloy available today
for aero engine applications. As an example, two alternative a/b processing routes result in different
a/b microstructures with the finer microstructure having higher LCF life. Forging in the b phase field
leads to a lamellar microstructure and thus an improvement of creep strength and fracture toughness,
at the expense of ductility, however. Depending on requirements, change of heat treatment parameters
(solution heat-treatment temperature, quenching, and aging conditions) also can be adopted to realize
a wide variation of properties. [1]

Maximum Temperature Limit for Titanium Alloys

Today, the maximum temperature limit for near-a alloys for elevated temperature applications is
about 540 oC. This temperature limitation for titanium alloys mean the hottest parts in the compressor,
i.e. the discs and blades of the last compressor stages, have to be manufactured from Ni-based super
alloys at nearly twice the weight. Additionally, problems arise associated with the different thermal
expansion behaviour and the bonding techniques of the two alloy systems. Therefore enormous efforts
are underway to develop a compressor made completely of titanium. Titanium alloys are required that
can be used at temperatures of 600 oC or higher. This has been the impetus for extensive research and
development work in the area of elevated temperature titanium alloys. [1]
Place of titanium in airframe and aero-engine materials

Figure 1 shows the portion of titanium alloys used for the engine material in aviation industry. It
shows the percentage of structural weight for various material classes in modern large commercial
aircraft. The fuselage of the Airbus A330/340, for example, is manufactured of nearly two thirds
aluminium. At about 7%, titanium alloys have a similar share of the structural weight as steels.
However, at over a third the structural weight, titanium is the second most common material in the jet
engine following nickels-based super alloys; and by volume, titanium alloys are the most abundant
material in the engine. The figure 2 shows the maximum application temperature for titanium alloys.

Figure 1: Shows the Share of titanium in engine materials [2]

Figure 2: Increase of maximum application temperature of titanium alloys. [2]

Intermetallics

Advantages:
1. The low density resulting of the high aluminium content
2. The good oxidation behaviour (for the same reason)
3. The high melting point due to the stable ordered structure
4. The thermal stability (high melting point-almost single phased systems) and
small sensitivity to structural coarsening.
5. The good creep properties (at least in a selected temperature range and mainly for
creep r u p t u r e ). In the case of b NiAl, this is not really true because of the BCC
based ordered structure, where diffusion is very quick. However, at very high
temperatures (T > 1250 C), creep is so bad in Ni super alloys that b NiAl may
 become better.[4]

Titanium-Based Intermetallics

The most important and by far the most intensively investigated titanium phase diagram is the system
Ti-Al. Apart from the a and b phases, which are of central importance for the conventional titanium
alloys, several intermetallic phases are present, such as a2-Ti3Al, -TiAl, TiAl2 and TiAl3. Of these
only the a2-Ti3Al and -TiAl are of technical relevance today, since TiAl 2 and TiAl3 are extremely
brittle. Titanium aluminide alloys of technical interest are found in the range of the two phase field
a+a2 and -TiAl. With the exception of model alloys, the latter alloys are usually also two-phase a2+
or multiphase alloys depending on the alloying elements. If these aluminides are alloyed with
niobium, another intermetallic phase – Ti2AlNb – appears, which is the basis for the class of
orthorhombic titanium aluminides. [4]

This application is in transition phase between laboratory and industrial application. This application
is in transition phase between laboratory and industrial application. Each of the 98 blades has a length
of 50 cm, and at 217 g, the blades are only about 55% the weight of a conventional nickel-based super
alloy blade. The reduced weight of the titanium aluminide blades would further enable an even lighter
weight design of the entire turbine due to the lower centrifugal forces imposed on the disc. Use of
these alloys in a large jet engine like the GE90 could save more than 150 kg. Due to cost, the casting
route is favoured for the production of TiAl low-pressure turbine blades. At present, the production of
TiAl blades is delayed primarily due to cost considerations. In the mid-nineties, within the framework
of a German hypersonic Technology Program, the feasibility of hot-structure (TiAl) components was
investigated. Structural stability test was conducted on the panel and results published. [2]

Stainless Steel based materials

Martensitic stainless steels

The steels are based on 12%Cr and have a combination of properties particularly attractive for
application as turbine wheels - good ductility at high strength levels, ability to achieve uniform
properties in larger section sizes, attractive strength levels at temperatures up to ~ 480 oC.
Compressor blades are also made of 12% Cr type martensitic steels. Addition of 0.2%Nb leads to an
improved variant with superior combination of mechanical properties for compressor blade
application. 12%Cr based steels containing 2 to 3%Ni, compared to straight 12%Cr steels, exhibit
outstanding fracture toughness, tensile strengths and rupture strengths superior to Cr-Mo-V steels,
making them attractive materials for use as turbines wheel alloys.

Precipitation hardened stainless steel

Precipitation hardened martensitic stainless steel has been developed which shows superior tensile
strength, superior high cycle fatigue and corrosion fatigue strength compared to martensitic 12%Cr
based stainless steels, without sacrificing the stress corrosion resistance. The steel is hence preferred
to martensitic stainless steels for advanced and uprated machines.

Role of Advanced Ceramics in Aerospace Industry

In ceramic gas turbine, advanced ceramics are used in high temperature components such as turbine
blades and nozzles which result in increase the turbine inlet temperature up to 1300-1400°C which in
turn result in high thermal efficiency. Advanced ceramics, such as Alumina, Silicon Nitride, Silicon
carbide and Aluminium Nitride are currently being used to manufacture critical aerospace
components, because they have several advantageous physical properties. The inorganic, non-metallic
materials maintain dimensional stability through a range of high temperatures and exhibit very high
mechanical strength. It offers excellent chemical resistance and stiffness-to-weight ratio, thereby
providing manufacturers with the ability to design components that offer optimal performance in their
intended application [8]

Properties of Ceramics
 Oxidation/corrosion resistance is good compared to metals.
 Creep resistance is also good.
 Brittleness
 High sensitivity to pre - cracks

Advanced ceramics:
Silicon Nitride
By adopting the developed silicon nitride to the components including turbine blades, nozzles,
combustor liners, and nose cones, turbine inlet temperature can be increased without cooling; this
leads to high thermal efficiency of about 40 percent, as shown in Fig 3[8]

Fig 3[8] Thermal efficiency curve Fig 4[8] Improved strength of ceramics at high

Silicon nitride is widely used in the high-temperature structural components and also high temperature
strength has been substantially improved shown in the fig 4 [8]. At high temperatures, the strength is
degraded and the structural reliability is very often limited due to the softening of glassy phases, which
are formed at grain boundaries as a result of processing with sintering additives. There are two regions
in a delayed-fracture mechanism map of silicon nitride at the temperatures above 1200°C: slow crack
growth failure and creep damage rupture .The former is a fracture that occurs when a crack grows sub
critically from a pre-existing flaw and reaches the critical size. This is predominant in the high-stress,
short-term life region. The latter is due to the formation of a macro crack with the critical size by
cavity nucleation and coalescence. This prevails in the low-stress, long-term life region. Generally,
long-term durability for the practical service is estimated from the short-term data. [8]
The creep curves of silicon nitride at high temperatures generally consist of three regimes: transient,
steady-state, and accelerated creep regimes. The difference between these two fracture mechanisms is
understood in terms of creep rate properties, creep life properties, micro structural changes, etc. The
transition from the slow crack growth fracture to the creep damage rupture one occurs when the
applied stress decreases below about 200 MPa. [8]

Silicon Carbide:

Si-C-based ceramic matrix composites, consisting of carbon or Si-C fibres embedded in a Si-C
matrix, are tough ceramics when the fibre/matrix bonding is properly optimized through the use of a
thin inter-phase. They are fabricated according to different processing routes (chemical vapour
infiltration, polymer impregnation/pyrolysis, liquid silicon infiltration or slurry impregnation/hot
pressing) .Si-C-matrix composites are highly tailorable materials in terms of fibre-type (carbon fibres
of Si-C-based fibres such as Si–C–O, Si-C+C or quasi stoichiometric Si-C reinforcements), inter-
phase (pyrocarbon or hexagonal BN, as well as (PyC–Si-C)n or (BN–Si-C)n multilayered
interphases), matrix (simple Si-C or matrices with improved oxidation resistance, such as self-healing
matrices) [8].
Silicon carbide generally does not contain glassy phases at grain boundaries, even when doped
sintering additives such as alumina .Due to this rigid interface, the strength is not degraded at very
high temperatures. Silicon carbide material can withstand around1400°C and this shows good high –
temperature mechanical properties, good corrosion resistance [8]

Ceramic components:

Blisk (bladed disk):

Blisk (rotating parts) design is driven strongly by the strength/density ratio differing with static
components. Lightweight blisks permit additional weight to be removed, reducing shaft loads, bearing
compartment loads, and others. [11]

Combustor:
The purpose of the combustion systems of aircraft is to increase the thermal energy of a flowing gas
stream by combustion. Two engine components in which heat addition is made to occur are main
burner (combustor) and after burner (reheater). Main properties of combustor are complete
combustion, moderate pressure loss, proper temperature distribution at exit with no hot spots and
stability of combustion process [20].
Composite materials:
A structural composite is a material system consisting of two or more phases on a macroscopic scale,
whose mechanical performance and properties are designed to be superior to those of the constituent
materials acting independently. One of the phases is usually discontinuous, stiffer, and stronger and is
called reinforcement, whereas the less stiff and weaker phase is continuous and is called matrix.
Sometimes, because of chemical interactions or other processing effects, an additional phase, called
inter phase, exists between the reinforcement and the matrix shown in the fig 5 [12]

Fig 5[12]. Phases of composite material

The phases of the composite system have different roles that depend on the type and application of the
composite material. In the case of low to medium performance composite materials, the
reinforcement, usually in the form of short fibers or particles, provides some stiffening but only local
strengthening of the material. The matrix, on the other hand, is the main load bearing constituent
governing the mechanical properties of the material. In the case of high performance structural
composites, the usually continuous – fiber reinforcement is the backbone of the material that
determines its stiffness and strength in the direction of the fibers. The matrix phase provides
protection and support for the sensitive fibers and local stress transfer from one fiber to another. The
inter phase, although small in size, can play an important role in controlling the failure mechanisms,
fracture toughness, and overall stress- strain behavior of the material .[12]
Composite materials are made by combining two or more materials to give a unique combination of
properties. However, fiber-reinforced composite materials differ from the common materials in that
the constituent materials of the composite (e.g. the two or more phases) are macroscopically
distinguishable and eventually mechanically separable.
Fiberglas is the most common type of composite material, and consists of glass fibres embedded in a
resin matrix. Thermoplastics are a relatively new material that is replacing thermoses as the matrix
material for composites. They hold much promise for aviation applications. One of their big
advantages is that they are easy to produce. They are also more durable and tougher than thermo sets,
particularly for light impacts, such as when a wrench dropped on a wing accidentally. The wrench
could easily crack a thermo set material but would bounce off a thermoplastic composite material.

Types of composite materials:

Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs):
Lightest type of composite materials and applications of PMCs in aircraft propulsion systems, such as
General Electric`s F-404 engine, have resulted in substantial reductions in both engine weight and
manufacturing costs. Commercially available state-of-the-art high-temperature PMCs, such as
graphite fibre/PMR-15 and graphite fibre/PMR-11-55, are capable of withstanding thousands of hours
of use at temperatures between 290 and 345°C.[13]

Inter metallic-matrix composites:

The initial phase of the IMC program involves investigating available fiber compositions (Si-C and
Al2O3) in aluminides of iron, titanium, nickel, and niobium. The aluminides are Ti 3Al and FeAl for
applications to 1000°C and NiAl and Nb-alloy/aluminides for higher temperature applications [13].

Ceramic-matrix composites:
The new class of materials – ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) – is concerned with a ceramic matrix
reinforced by ceramic fibres, whiskers or particles. The matrix is made of either a monolithic ceramic
(Si-C, Al2O3, Si3N4,) or a glass–ceramic.
The fiber-reinforced ceramics (FRCs) have lower densities, good oxidation resistance, and potential to
operate at significantly higher temperatures than super alloys. Compared to monolithic ceramics,
CMCs present higher toughness and tolerance to the presence of cracks, which implies a non-
catastrophic mode of failure. Creep resistance is one of the main requirements for these materials
because potential applications of CMCs, for example as parts of gas turbines for aircrafts, require
maintaining the material properties over long periods of time (thousands of hours) at high temperature
[13].

Glass ceramic composite based material:

Glass–ceramic matrices are silicates which exhibit thermal expansion coefficients close to those of the
Si-C fibres (3–5 10−6·K−1). A key point from a mechanical point of view is the presence of a thin
layer of carbon, often found textured. The carbon-rich layer is relatively weak and consequently
increases the fracture toughness of the composite. [9]

The mechanical properties of the composites were evaluated by three point bending and tensile testing
at both room temperature and high temperatures (up to 1573 K) in air. The composite strength was
excellent up to 1473 K; the ultimate strength at 1473 K and the elastic modulus were found
respectively to be 565 MPa and 69 GPa. Mechanical properties decrease significantly at 1573 K
because of matrix softening. A degradation of the mechanical properties occurs after annealing in air
for 500 h at 1473 K. A nanoscale silica/carbon sub layer was formed at the BN/Si-C Nicalon fibre
interface during long-term exposure to oxygen at high temperature. This sub layer appearing between
1373 K and 1473 K was supposed to be responsible for the decrease in the fibre/matrix bonding
strength at high temperature. But good interfacial properties are maintained at 1373 K for long-term
exposures. [9]
Ttitanium matrix composites:

Ti alloys and Ti aluminides exhibit excellent mechanical properties , light weight materials for
applications where high specific strength , high ductility and toughness, good corrosion resistance as
well as high creep & fatigue resistance are required .Titanium matrix composites(TMC) that combines
high strength stiffness & creep resistance of SiC monofilaments with damage tolerance of Ti alloys
and Ti aluminides. Sic fibers combine into titanium matrix which reduces density of the matrix which
in turn results in light weight. Strength of TMC at high temperature is not limited by insufficient
strength of the fiber – fiber is stable far beyond 800°c- but by the high temperature capability of
matrix material.[19]

In gas turbine engine, where TMC plays a major role in Bling (bladed ring) concept aims to change
the compressor design. Weight savings can be achieved by replacing heavy compressor disks by
bladed ring as shown in figure 6. From the experiments it is found that 50% weight is saved by using
bladed ring.[19]

Fig 6: Transfer of blisk to bling can be realized fiber reinforced Titanium alloys [19]

Critical Issues Addressed in Aero-Engine components

This paper describes how the solutions to the most critical issues have evolved, in vital aero-engine
components, like high firing temperatures, creep and fatigue life, corrosion protection from
contaminated fuels and air and higher efficiency with fuel flexibility. It concentrates on advances
made in the hot gas path components because they are generally the most critical parts of the gas
turbine. Improvements in super-alloys and processing now permit the hot gas path components to
operate in advanced gas turbines firing at increased temperatures for many thousands of hours under
severe conditions of centrifugal, thermal and vibratory stresses [14].

Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue

In advanced gas turbines, the blades and vanes employed are subjected to high time-dependent stress
fields during service for many during their life. The temperature gradients which are generated during
engine start-up and shut down, or else the temperature gradients within cooled airfoils arising from
steady-state operation are the essential reasons for the origin of stresses. The accumulation of such
strain and temperature cycles leads to the possibility of failure by thermal–mechanical fatigue (TMF)
[15]
.
Three major sources of in-service damage have been identified, which can alter the High-Cycle
Fatigue (HCF) resistance of the material either individually or by influencing one another, are Low
cycle Fatigue (LCF), Foreign Object Damage (FOD) and Fretting. HCF requires a relatively large
fraction of life for initiation of crack to a detectable size which thereby results in a very small fraction
of life remaining for damage propagation. On the other hand in LCF the crack can be detected at a
much earlier phase of the material thereby the fraction of life remaining for its propagation is much
higher than in HCF [Fig. 7]. Other modes of in-service damage such as creep, thermo-mechanical
fatigue, corrosion, erosion and initial damage from manufacturing and machining must also be
considered [16].

Fig. 7[16] Fig. 8[16]

Foreign objects impacting leading edges of airfoils of rotating or static structures can produce damage
in the form of notches or tears. Fretting fatigue occurs when there is relative motion in the contact
region between two surfaces. In a dovetail it is seen that the contact region involves normal and shear
loads as well as bending moments across the interface [Fig. 8]. In addition there are axial stresses in
both the blade and disk parallel to the contact plane. The loads from the steady centrifugal loading of
the blade are superimposed by vibratory stresses which can result from blade vibrations. Because of
the nature of stress fields in contact regions, there is always a region of relative slip near the edge of
contact [16].For damage due to FOD, fretting or LCF, fracture mechanics can be used to determine the
threshold allowable vibratory stress for crack propagation which would assess the susceptibility of the
material to HCF crack propagation. If the stresses are maintained below this threshold limit which
would correspond to a sufficiently low growth rate then safe HCF life can be assured. Procedures are
also being developed to decrease the material susceptibility to in-service damage by subjecting it to
shot-peening. In addition to shot peening, which improves the fatigue resistance of materials when
initiation takes place near the surface, a laser shock peening process has been introduced into service
to improve the material resistance to FOD. The compressive stresses, which are more intense and
much deeper than those under conventional shot peening, retard both the initiation and growth of
cracks from foreign body impacts on the leading edge of the airfoil of the blades or vanes.

It is generally accepted that the high temperature capability increases with decreasing Cr content.
Therefore, the chemistry of new super alloys was greatly influenced by reducing Cr content and
increasing rhenium (Re) content with a view to enhance the temperature capability. As a result, the
3rd and 4th generations super alloy contain only 2 to 4% Cr but instead contain about 6% Re in
contrast to the first generation super alloys containing about 10% Cr and no Re. Similarly, 5th
generation super alloys contain osmium and ruthenium in addition to high amount of Re and very low
content of Cr. Rhenium is a unique element which can increase high temperature creep strength
considerably. However, it makes the super alloys susceptible to high temperature corrosion. It is due
to the fact that the super alloys cannot form corrosion resistant alumina or chromia scale because of
high Re content. Therefore, rhenium is a harmful element for high temperature corrosion resistance of
Ni-based super alloys. Hence, the need to apply high performance coatings for their protection under
high temperature conditions as the gas turbine blades experience high temperature corrosion [17].

Hot Corrosion and High Temperature Oxidation

The advanced gas turbine engines need to operate at higher temperatures for obtaining maximum
efficiency. The efficiency is directly proportional to operating temperature. Increased temperatures
lead to increased high temperature corrosion i.e. oxidation and hot corrosion. High temperature
oxidation and in particular hot corrosion is highly detrimental as it causes catastrophic failures if
proper materials in association with high performance coatings are not chosen. Advances in
processing of Ni-based super alloys have evolved the microstructures from equiaxed structures to
directionally solidified (DS) multi-grain and single crystal (SC) components today, which enhance
temperature capability up to 1250ºC. Most Ni – based super-alloy developmental research has been
directed towards improving the high temperature strength with relatively minor concern to its high
temperature corrosion resistance. Further, it is not always possible to achieve both high temperature
strength and high temperature corrosion resistance simultaneously because some alloying elements
help to improve high temperature corrosion resistance while some may help to improve high
temperature strength. It is rare that an alloying element leads to enhancement both in high temperature
strength and the high temperature corrosion resistance [17].

[Fig. 10] shows few hot corroded specimens of super-alloys like Nimonic-75, Nimonic-105, Inconel
718 and CM 247 LC corroded in pure Na2SO4 and NaCl containing environments at900º C. In the
presence of pure sodium sulphate, the weight loss was less for all the super-alloys [Fig. 9].
Appreciable corrosion was reported for all the super-alloys in the presence of NaCl. It indicates that
NaCl plays a significant role in causing severe corrosion, thereby reducing the super-alloy life

considerably.
Fig. 9[22] Fig. 10[17]

Simple Nimonic-75 alloy is more corrosion resistant over complicated CM 247LC because of the
presence of small amount of titanium, which helps in forming a protective, adherent and dense
chromia layer. Titanium oxide forms beneath the chromia layer and thereby improves the adherence
capability of chromia scale. Thus, the alloying elements play a significant role and decide the life of
super alloys under hot corrosion conditions.

Metal oxidation occurs when oxygen atoms combine with metal atoms to form oxide scales. The
higher the temperature, the more rapidly this process takes place, creating the potential for failure of
the component if too much of the substrate material is consumed in the formation of these oxides.
[Fig.11]This shows the microstructure of a coated bucket that has seen about 30,000 hours of service
at temperatures where no significant oxidation attack of the coating takes place. In contrast, [Fig. 12]
the microstructure of the same type of coating, which has been severely attacked after about the same
length of service due to higher temperatures and unavailability of sufficient aluminium in the coating
to maintain a protective oxide at the surface, thus oxygen was able to diffuse into the interior of the
coating structure where it forms discrete, discontinuous, aluminium oxide particles. This phenomenon
is known as internal oxidation [14].

Fig. 11 [14] Fig. 12 [14]

The present coatings are broadly divided into two types, diffusion and overlay. In diffusion coating
application process, aluminium is made to react at the surface of substrate, forming a layer of mono-
aluminide. For coatings applied over Ni-based super alloys, nickel aluminide is the resulting layer.
Diffusion coatings are well bonded to the substrate but they have limited compositional flexibility and
their usefulness is strongly dependent on substrate chemistry. The most important improvement in the
diffusion coatings has been the incorporation of platinum in aluminide coatings. This process involves
the deposition of platinum by electro chemical method followed by aluminizing at the suitable
temperature for the required period. While overlay coatings are generally MCrAlY coatings where M
is Ni or NiCo and essentially comprises a mono-aluminide component contained in a more ductile
matrix of a solid solution. The supply of aluminium for formation of protective alumina scale comes
largely from the dispersed mono-aluminide phase during the useful life of such coatings. Overlay
coatings are typically well bonded and have a wide compositional flexibility [17].

MCrAlY based bond coatings play a significant role in providing rough surface for the application of
thermal barrier coatings as well. These coatings are proven to perform well for a variety of super
alloys for over two decades in different applications. It is important to mention that the durability of
the MCrAlY coating depends on their chemical composition and technique that is used to apply it on
super alloys. In other words, the life of coating depends not only on coatings composition but also on
the surface engineering technique. The superior performance of this coating is due to its ability to
form uniform, protective, and adherent alumina scale over its surface during high temperature
corrosion process. Application of thermal barrier coatings (TBC) over MCrAlY and/or diffusion
aluminide bond coatings increases the life of components further. The function of the ceramic topcoat
is to insulate the metallic substrate from high surface temperature and reduce the oxidation and hot
corrosion of bond coatings, while simultaneously reducing cyclic thermal strains. ZrO 2 stabilized or
partially stabilized by the addition of MgO, CaO, Y2O3 is found to exhibit good performance because
of its very low thermal conductivity and its relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion. It was
demonstrated that columnar structures applied by EB-PVD had as significant improvement in life
over plasma sprayed coatings. EB-PVD is often favoured over plasma deposition for TBCs on turbine
airfoils since it provides a smooth surface of better aerodynamic quality with less interference to
cooling holes. However, the widelyused plasma spray process has benefits, including a lower
application cost, an ability to coat a wide variety of components with a wider composition range and a
large installed equipment base [18].

Creep – Fatigue Interaction

Crack propagation is mainly related with fatigue mechanisms while crack initiation can be attributed
to either the presence of defects in the surface of the blade due to impact of debris or intrinsic material
defects or some degrading mechanisms affecting the internal microstructure of the material.

Compressor blades are within the most affected components for two main reasons, either by the
ingestion of debris, such as birds or sand or by typical degrading mechanisms resulting from cyclic
loading and high-temperature environments (Creep-Fatigue Interaction). The interaction of both creep
and fatigue mechanisms is one of the main causes of failure in compressors and turbines of aero-
engines. Creep damage is a thermally activated and time dependent mechanism which results from
structural changes leading to continuous reduction in the strength of the material during service
mainly due to the formation of inter-granular voids and subsequent cracking. On the other hand,
fatigue crack propagations are a cyclic dependent mechanism occurring for temperatures below the
creep range of the materials. In this case a continuous plastic deformation process will extend to a size
covering a significant region of the fracture surface with clear evidences of trans-granular cracking
and the formation of well-defined striations.

Future materials under research and development

Combustors and afterburner are currently protected by a ceramic coating. These thermal barrier
coatings (TBC) typically consists of an oxidation resistant bond coat and a thermal insulating top coat,
both of which are applied by plasma arc spraying. Advanced TBC-systems consists of a dense oxide-
free Ni (Co) CrAlY bond coating and a porous 7-8 weight % Yttria-stablised Zirconia ZrO 2/Y2O3 top
coating. Ongoing research will lead to improved oxidation resistance of bond coats and better
adherence between substrate and coating. Inconel 718 is the most widely used sheet metal for the
cooler parts in the combustor and exhaust because of its high strength up to 650 oC, good workability
and weld ability.
Turbine blade material made from an intermetallics Titanium aluminide alloy (TiAl).such alloys have
very high tensile strength and a reasonable toughness at high temperatures, light weight, extraordinary
corrosion resistance, and the ability to withstand extreme temperature. Aero engines have to maintain
their full strength at very high operating temperatures and TiAl alloy material fulfils these
requirements.
Gas turbines used in aero engines suffer from high temperature oxidation and hot corrosion when they
move across the sea. Hot corrosion takes place undertow temperature ranges and named type I (800-
950ºC) and type II (600-750ºC). High performance coatings should combat high temperature
oxidation and both forms of hot corrosion as gas turbines encounter all the problems during service. If
a single coating can operate successfully over a range of temperatures with different forms of
corrosion attack like type I and II hot corrosion and high temperature oxidation, the coating
essentially respond to local temperature in such a way that it will form either alumina or chromia
protective scale as appropriate. High purity alumina scales offer best protection against high
temperature oxidation and type I hot corrosion and chromia scales against type II hot corrosion. The
base coating should be a standard MCrAlY coating enriched with aluminum at its outer surface and a
chromium rich layer at its inner surface [Fig.13]. Under high temperature oxidation and type I hot
corrosion conditions, the outer layer of the coating forms alumina scale, which provides protection
and it, offers less protection under low temperature conditions. Under type II hot corrosion
conditions, chromium rich layer forms chromia scale at a faster rate and provides protection. Thus, the
smart coating can provide optimum protection by responding suitably to the temperatures that are
encountered under actual service conditions of gas turbine engines. In this sense, the coating responds

Figure 13: Shows the layer of coatings

to its environment in a pseudo-intelligent manner and hence the name SMART COATING[17]. With

this type of coatings only, it is possible to obtain total protection for the gas turbine engines under all
operating conditions which in turn possible to achieve ever greater efficiency of advanced gas turbine
engines.

Conclusion

The paper dealt with the advanced materials used in aero engines describing about the factors which
can be altered in order to improve the various mechanical properties of the materials like thermal
resistance, strength and failures related to hot corrosion and fatigue. A clear idea has been given on the
different types of materials to be used at various regions of the aero engine. The future materials
which are under research work have also been discussed here.
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