The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-1879-z

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Review of current waveform control effects on weld geometry in gas

metal arc welding process
Belinga Mvola 1 & Paul Kah 1 & Pavel Layus 1

Received: 30 November 2017 / Accepted: 12 March 2018

# Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
Control of welding parameters is an important factor in gas metal arc welding (GMAW) because these parameters determine the
heat input, cooling conditions, and time during which the microstructure and the geometry of the weld are formed. It is therefore
essential that sufficient heat is transferred to highly conductive metals like aluminum and appropriate heat input used with very
sensitive metals such as stainless steel and high-strength steels or when welding dissimilar metals. The objective of this study is to
identify parameters of current, voltage waveforms, and electrode feeding motion that directly contribute to improvement in metal
and heat transfer conditions from the electrode to the base metals. The effects of these parameters on welded joint geometry are
determined. The work critically reviews research on the effect on welded joints of control of current waveform, voltage, and the
alternating electrode and analyzes the different parameters that promote forces acting during metal transfer. Experiments and case
studies based on controlled waveforms are discussed. The analysis shows that in controlled short-circuit gas metal arc welding
(CS-GMAW), all identified parameters contribute to control of heat input and reduction in the amount of spatter and fumes
generated. Variable polarity gas metal arc welding (VP-GMAW) is found to be particularly effective for aluminum welding
because of its good control of mass metal transfer and weld penetration. Mixed waveform approaches (i.e., 20 pulses/controlled
short circuit) improve weldability in difficult welding positions.

Keywords Adaptive control . GMAW . Current waveform . Voltage waveform . Heat input . Weld properties

1 Introduction
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a process that uses con-
sumable electrode and shielding. Welding parameters and fil-
let weld parameters are illustrated in Fig. 1. Direct current
electrode positive (DCEP) would have more extensive leg
size, deeper and finger-like penetration, and lower weld face.
While, direct current electrode negative (DCEN) would gen-
erate higher weld face, shallower and rounded penetration. In
* Belinga Mvola
Eric.Mvola.Belinga@lut.fi
Paul Kah
Paul.Kah@lut.fi
Pavel Layus
Pavel.Layus@lut.fi
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Welding Laboratory,
Lappeenranta University of Technology, P.O Box 20,
-53851 Lappeenranta, FI, Finland
addition, the arc voltage is directly related to the current and
the arc length. Torch angle influences the weld orientation and
leg size. Shielding gases affect arc stability, metal transfer
mode, weld bead shape, and melting rate. The diameter of
the electrode depends on the thickness of the workpiece and
consequently the current. Gas flow should be adjusted
according to the arc to avoid turbulence and ensure proper
shielding. A careful synchronized adjustment of all pa-
rameters is required to achieve optimum weld quality. In
the last decades, the trend in improving welded joint has
been to optimize their response in-service with extending
life service and reliability. However, service requirement
rarely matches the manufacturing demand because welded
joints are cheaper and easier to produce than molded one.
Therefore, there is a constant commitment to upgrading
manufacturing applications such as welding processes so
as not to degrade base metals [1]. Mvola et al. [1] studied
the state of the art of the weldability of dissimilar metals
using GMAW. The study focused on metallurgy challenge
that surrounds dissimilar welding and did not address the
welding parameters and current waveform parameters.
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Input Parameters Welding Process Output Parameters
Current Upright leg size
Voltage Base leg size
Welding speed Actual throat
Electrode Extension GMAW Effecve throat
Shielding gas Toe
Electrode diameter Root
Fig. 1 Input welding parameters and output fillet weld parameters
The welding power source, the wire feeder unit, and the gas
flow device are key components in GMAW, and effective
control of current and voltage is paramount to high-quality
performance. Thus, there is a need for flexibility in the setting
of current and voltage parameters [2]. During the last two
decades, new electronic components such as thyristors and
inverters have enabled more accurate control and regulation
of current and voltage waveforms [3]. More recently, synergic
control, the development of more complex current and voltage
curves, and usage of a back and forth movement of the
consumable electrode have added to possible control options
[4, 5]. Adaptive control of GMAW can be seen as a significant
advancement, and it has the potential to enable efficient
synchronization of the consumable electrode movement,
shielding gas supply and driven system (e.g., arm robots)
[6]. Several curves of current and voltage have been pre-
sented in the literature and on the market, each of which
claims to be the most reliable and most efficient.
However, the concrete and precise composition of modern
metals means the features of the current and voltage
curves have to be adapted to meet the requirements of
the individual metals and ensure that desired weld quality
is achieved [7–9].
The criteria-based selection of articles for this reviews are
the welding processes. GMAW is the welding process ana-
lyzed in this paper in its diversity of innovative approaches.
Therefore, specific attention is directed to scientific publica-
tions that have conducted an experiment on current and wave-
form design and their effects on welding productivity. The
purpose is to identify a correlation between waveform param-
eters and changes in weld penetration and weld geometry.
This study makes a comparative analysis of current and volt-
age curves, examines their synchronization with consumable
electrode movement, identifies the critical parameters
influencing weld outcome, and suggests an approach that
would provide a setting for an optimal adaptive curve. The
effect of waveform parameters on the stability and perfor-
mance is analyzed in terms of the heat input and the geometric
shape of the weld. The impact of different waveform features
is compared, thus enabling fundamental parameters to be
retained in optimal adaptive curves. Figure 2 presents a flow-
chart showing the main metal transfer issues that are analyzed
and discussed in this study.
The study in Sect. 1 introduces the general concept of the
research and layout the gap in the literature, the research meth-
od, the expected result, and the implementation. Section 2
discusses the metal transfer during arc welding, and Sect. 3
focuses on the relation between welding parameters and their
effect on the fillet weld geometry and microstructure.
Section 4 discusses the control strategy of the current

Forces acng during metal transfer

Gravitaonal force (Fg) Electromagnec force (Fem) Aerodynamic drag force (Fd) Surface tension force (Fs)

Weld properes

Weld profile Microstructure

Control techniques
Arficial intelligent
Manual seng pulse Self regulaon Synergic control Close loop control
control

Waveform parameters
Modified short Mechanically assisted drop
Variable polarity Double pulsed transfer
Forced arc Mixed waveform
circuit

Waveform feature acng on the drop force

Short Re- Peak Bacground Thermal Thermal
Arcing Waing
circuing ignion
Pulse
current current peak base
DCEP DCEN Frequency

Fig. 2 Flowchart of key metal transfer features studied

Int J Adv Manuf Technol
waveform. Section 5 presents the different categories of the
current waveform and relates waveform parameters and ef-
fects on the weld properties. Section 6 gives the results, and
the outcome of the discussion is summarized in Sect. 7. Then,
Sect. 8 concludes the overall study. The study is a contribution
to the knowledge of advanced adaptive control of GMAW
processes by modification and manipulation of the current
and voltage waveforms, the consumable electrode, and the
shielding gas. The work gives guidance on current and voltage
settings, which is valuable for waveform design and the de-
velopment of welding control equipment.
2 Metal transfer during arc welding
Arc welding under a shielding gas is characterized by the
consumption of an electrode that melts and drops into the
molten pool. Mathematical models combined with practical
experience have been used to find suitable data to promote
consistent and efficient metal transfer. In addition, static and
dynamic analysis of droplet formation has improved under-
standing of the metal transfer phenomenon and led to the
development of metal transfer models. For example, the the-
ory of static force stipulates that the detachment of the molten
drop at the tip of the electrode and its transfer to the weld pool
occur when the detachment forces become more significant
than the retention forces [10, 11]. As shown in Fig. 3, the
gravitational force (Fg), the electromagnetic force (Fem),
and the plasma drag force (Fd) are detaching forces, while
the surface tension (Fs) is the retaining force. As the current
increases, the electromagnetic force (Fem) increases and the
dragging force (Fd) and the gravitational force (Fg) decrease.
Wu et al. [12] analyzed the forces exerted during droplet trans-
fer in GMAW. An analytical model was developed to predict
the droplet oscillation, detachment process, and quantitative
analyses of the welding parameter effects. The result indicated
Fig. 3 Forces acting on the droplet’s steel electrode
that the model could optimize the process parameters in pulse
welding.
In the case of conventional GMAW welding, based on the
static equilibrium of the molten droplet metal, Eq. 1 is the
relation of static force balance theory under the assumption
that detachment occurs only when the retaining force (Fs) is
greater than the sum of detaching force (Fg + Fd + Fem).
Equation 2 is the melting rate (MR) when using direct current
(DC) for a given electrode type and diameter for spray metal
transfer modes, from the study by Lesnewich [13], where α is
the arc melting coefficient, I is the current, B is the resistive
heating coefficient, and L is the electrode extension. The
mathematical model allows the electrode melting rate to be
determined as a function of the current to the electrode. Later,
Richard et al. [3] found that α and β in Lesnewich’s equation
could be determined by empirical experience. This finding
enables precise fitting curves to be plotted to characterize the
behavior of the arc and the melting electrode behaviors of
complex waveforms of GMAW processes. Furthermore, the
high-speed camera has enabled the analyses of molten metal
behaviors during welding and has allowed categorization of
different metal transfer mode, and correlate welding parame-
ters and force acting during transfer. As results of a better
understanding of droplet transfer modes, further investigation
of current waveform can be carried out.
F g þ F d þ F em > F s ð1Þ
MRdc ¼ αI þ βLI 2 ð2Þ
3 Weld properties
The search for effective control of heat transfer in GMAW
targets primarily two primary objectives. Firstly, stability in
the transfer of molten metal into the weld pool, which can be
observed by a notable reduction in spatters and fumes, and
secondly, an increase in the efficiency of the heat transferred
into the weld pool. Efficient heat transfer enables the required
metallurgy to be obtained (including, where appropriate, met-
allurgy suitable for post-heat treatment) and results in a weld
with less inclusion and fewer pores, proper geometry, and a
weld that is free of defects such as lack of fusion, undercut,
and burn through. Figure 4 shows the orientation of loads that
can be applied to a fillet weld.
3.1 Weld geometry and profile
Although the shielding gas blend has the most significant
effect on the shape of the weld geometry profile, the role of
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Reinforcement of the weld increases costs, because of the

Load carrying
welds
Fig. 4 Stress path of a load-carrying T-joint weld
current and voltage in determining weld geometry is not neg-
ligible. The weld geometry profile affects the joint life cycle
significantly. For example, a T-joint weld with excessive con-
vexity is detrimental to fatigue life, because the pronounced
shape acts as a stress raiser because of the notch effect at the
toe of the weld. The stress line of T-joint stress takes the
shortest path between the weld toes of the joint (Fig. 4).
excess material, but brings only minor benefits as regards
functional properties and strength. Furthermore, the excess
material adds distortion and reduces fatigue load resistance.
Table 1 presents different weld profiles of fillet joints and
the effects of welding parameters on weld quality. The
penetration increases with a rise in voltage, but the height
decreases as the width and dilution increase. Papillary pene-
tration (a nipple- or finger-like shape) is typical in GMAW
when using argon shielding gas and spray transfer mode.
Small amounts of weld metal in the nipple solidify much more
quickly than the surrounding area. As a result of solidification,
contraction occurs in the nipple, which pulls on the partially
melted zone (PMZ), which is weakened by grain boundary
liquation. Changes in the polarity, the welding process, and
the CTWD can cause significant variance in the weld geom-
etry profile. The type of electrode can also have the effect on
the penetration for example in flux cored arc welding
(FCAW). E70T-1 provides deeper penetration than E71T-1.
E70T-1 and E71T-1 are American Welding Society
Classification (AWS), which signifies electrode; 7 indicates

Table 1 Profile of fillet welds and effect of welding parameters on weld penetration
Type of profile Parameters Features Observations
Polarity DC+ Increase penetration
DC- Low penetration
AC Controlled deposition rate and
penetration
Welding process Globular spray Deep penetration
Spray Deeper penetration
Pulsed spray Deeper penetration
Stream and Rotating Deepest penetration and wide shape
Short-circuiting Low penetration
Type of electrode Different electrodes can e.g. E70T-1 has deeper penetration
result in different than E71T-1
penetration
Travel angle Whether push or drag, the e.g., Travel angle 0° to 10° will result
effect depends on arc force in more penetration, which will
directed to the base plate decrease as the angle becomes more
severe.
Shielding gas 100% CO2 or 100% He Broader, deeper penetration profile
100% Ar, or Ar/CO2, or Shallower penetration and more
Ar/Oxygen (O2) tapered in the middle, finger-shaped
root.

Electrode For three electrodes, same 3.2 mm (Deepest penetration)

diameter metal, different diameter 4 mm (Deep penetration)
5.6 mm (Shallower penetration)
Travel speed For a given electrode The width and penetration increase as
the travel speed decreases
CTWD For a given electrode The penetration decreases with a
decrease in CTWD.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
tensile strength, 0 means flat and horizontal positions, d 1
would imply that a wire has all-position welding capability,
T signifies a tubular flux-cored wire, and 1 indicates the wire’s
usability and performance. Each welding parameters have
some effects on the weld geometry, and a small change to
one welding parameter could result in significant difference
in the welding quality. However, current is amount parameters
that affect the outcome of the weld meaningfully. Therefore, it
should be on the top list of parameters to be optimized.
3.2 Microstructure quality
The microstructure of the heat-affected zone, fusion zone, and
weld affects the joint in-service performance. However, the
microstructural constituents of these areas depend mostly on
the heat input and the alloy elements. Optimization of heat
input and improved control will have positive effects on the
microstructure, particularly as regards predictability and sta-
bility, and thus the quality of the welded joint [14].
Controlling weld pool behavior in real time and accurately
predict the microstructure is complex. However, some ap-
proaches have led to satisfactory results, for example, the ap-
plication of vision systems that include image analysis, which
has been used for seam tracking [15] and to some extent for
control of weld pool size based on thermal profile [16].
Adaptive control of welding processes is founded on the
possibility of real-time monitoring of weld geometry and
real-time weld defect evaluation. However, even with
modern equipment and approaches, it is still problematic
to get specific information about microstructure by non-
destructive assessment directly. Data collected in real time
can be used to optimize weld quality by applying data
analysis to the adaptive waveform control.
Control of the current waveform provides more flexibility
in control of the distribution of the heat necessary for welding.
This control ensures that the required penetration is achieved
while preventing overheating, which leads to undesirable mi-
crostructure and consequently a deterioration in the quality of
the base material through the fusion line, heat-affected zone,
and weld metal [17]. Carefully adjusted waveform parameters
can optimize the amount of heat used and the focused energy.
Table 2 below indicates the relationship between the
different areas of the weld, the heat input, and the metal mi-
crostructure. The correlations show that, with optional feature
variables, a waveform that controls heat input provides a
means to predict weld microstructure.
4 Control of current and waveform
To achieve a compound variation of the waveform, the
welding power source needs to be able to respond very
quickly, which has been achievable only since the invention
of modern inverters and electronic component innovation.
Previously, even with the necessary theoretical knowledge, it
would have been challenging to set the corresponding wave-
form for a given metal, and preprogrammed parameters of the
welding current and voltage waveform were used. This lack of
precision in control meant that some metals such as aluminum
were considered to have low weldability, which raises the
issue of how weldability is defined. Each curve parameter
was fitted based on the expected result for the metal being
welded.
4.1 Type of control
The new generation of GMAW welding systems comprises a
system of re-ignition control, control of molten metal transfer
mode, control of spatter, control of fume generation, and syn-
ergic control of the current and voltage. The optimization pos-
sibilities of these control units make it possible to develop
adaptive control using artificial intelligence (AI) concepts
such as expert control, genetic algorithm, fuzzy logic control,
and neural networks [18, 19].
The need for precise control is not limited to the welding
power source but also extends to the driven system. Research
has focused on new automatic mechanized welding systems,
such as welding robots, that can automatically track the seam
and conduct welding parameter calculation. Such systems au-
tonomously sense and analyze disturbances (misalignments,
joint gap variation) and changes in the input signal, and con-
version laws of the controller coefficients are then made based
on the data collected [20].
A trend in modern welding equipment is digitalization with
artificial intelligence. Figure 5 shows an example of an ad-
vanced welding process scheme. Such welding equipment can
carry out the following tasks: calculation of the wire feed rate
based on the average pulse current, adjustment of the arc
length, and production of an optimal transfer mode of the
molten metal. For this purpose, the equipment includes a syn-
ergic system for a wire feed rate adjustment, a closed loop
system for control of the arc length, and control parameters
in the current waveform and frequency of the short-circuit
transfer mode [21]. In such systems, the analysis has to be fast
with instantaneous response to assess the data collected and
deliver appropriate output. However, as welding is a continu-
ous process, only part of the operation requires immediate
changes (e.g., trajectory, current, voltage, gas flow rate,
welding speed). Whereas other data can be retrieved after
the welding operations and used to optimize the algorithm
learning process (e.g., thermal field, current, and a voltage
waveform, wire feeding rate). Table 3 provides a list of differ-
ent control types and compares them regarding applications.
The optimum performance can be achieved by a combination
synergetic control, adaptive control, and artificial intelligence.
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 2 Weld areas,

microstructure, and welding Weld area Effects Parameters Observations
parameters type and their effects
on the weld The fusion zone Effect of welding speed Low speed and Elliptical and columnar grain curve
on the weld structure low heat in the welding direction
input
High speed and • Weld pool shape appearance is
heat input teardrop
• Columnar grains are straight
• Presence of nucleation in the
bulk metal
High speed and • Weld pool shape appearance is
heat input teardrop
• Columnar grains are straight
• Presence of nucleation in the
bulk metal
Effect of heat input on Welding current A slight tendency of elements C,
the weld structure and voltage Mn, Si to decreases when heat
input increases
Effect arc pulsation Current arc • Undercooled of molten metal when
pulsation the heat input reduces suddenly
• Peak current due to the low-current cycle of
the pulsed arc
• Base current • Grain refinement due to
heterogeneous nucleation and/or
surface nucleation
in pulse current
Partially melted zone Effect on Welding speed, • Liquation cracking (PMZ cracking
grain boundary welding or hot cracking)
segregation current • Loss of strength and ductility
• Hydrogen-induced cracking
• Lowers the mechanical properties
of the welds
Heat-affected zone Effect on thermal cycle Welding current Softening of work hardened material
(cooling rate) and voltage cause by welding
Effect on heat input HAZ width Increased
Strength/ Reduced
hardness
Cooling time Increased

5 Waveform parameters
GMAW process has several current and voltage waveforms
which depend on the welding operation to be conducted. The
direct current process GMAW (DC-GMAW) has constant cur-
rent, which is a traditional process which is out of the scope of
our study. First, the pulsed GMAW (P-GMAW) process has a
current and voltage waveform which has a base and peak
current sequence. Several parameters can be defined for the
design of the waveforms [22]: base current, peak current, base
current time, peak current time, ramps, and hyperbolas. The
ramps and hyperbolas define the time of the rise in intensity or
the tails out. Second, the short-circuiting GMAW (SC-
GMAW), the general principle requires current and
inductance to define the short-circuit time. A traditional
short-circuit waveform has only a period of the arc and the
short-circuit period. The modern approach set several param-
eters for the period of the arc and several other for the period
of the short circuit. The following parameters are required for
the recent short-circuiting waveform: ignition, features for
maintaining the arc, minimal energy at the time of contact of
the molten drop touches the molten pool, a minimum current
at the necking, and finally, the waveform that combines the
alternating motion of the filler material and the current wave-
form. In addition, from the previous approach, the transfer of
the molten drop can be assisted with by reversing the filler
material backward, which adds to an adjustment of current
waveform parameters.
The principle of current pulse control is that the peak is
above the transition current that generates the spray.
However, this factor alone is not sufficient to ensure stable
metal transfer and control of heat input. Many other
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 5 Welding control
arrangement of waveform and
wire feeder control
Data acquision
Broad
Computer and
Soware
parameters of the current and voltage waveform have to be
defined to achieve stable spray transfer mode. The P-GMAW
welding process is designed for control of the transferred mol-
ten metal. However, its primary current waveform is rectan-
gular (Fig. 6). This current waveform consists of the following
parameters: peak current (Ip), background current (Ib), pulse
duration (tp), pulse off-time (tb), and pulse frequency (f).
More advanced waveforms have additional parameters to give
further controllability to the P-GMAW process [23, 24].
Current pulse parameters affect the weld geometry and resid-
ual stress in the solidification of the weld [25]. As illustrated in
Fig. 6, these parameters also affect the stability of the
welding process.
When comparing P-GMAW and S-GMAW, the latter is
more dynamic because the melted drops encounter the melt
pool before they break from the electrode. However, GMAW-
S is slightly unstable, and considerable spatter and fume gen-
eration usually accompany it. This spatter generation is the
result of instability caused by three factors: the short circuit,
re-ignition failure, and wire feed variation. The most distinc-
tive consideration of the short-circuiting transfer mode is the
short-circuit frequency, fs [26, 27].
5.1 Variable pulsed current
One of the causes of instability in the variable polarity process
(GMAW-VP) is the arc length change in the polarity switch
from the positive electrode (DCEP) to the negative electrode
(DCEN). Thus, a methodology based on the parameters of the
positive and negative electrodes was created, and which lead
to the equation of the fusion rate equation (Eq. 3 [29]).
Knowledge of these melting rate variables is needed to match
the wire feed to the positive and negative polarities.
Tong and Ueyama [30] investigated welding of aluminum
alloys with VP-GMSAW. The current waveform in Fig. 7,
from Tong and Ueyama’s study, shows an example of the
main pulsation parameters. Equation 3 gives EN% sequence
as a function of variables illustrated in Fig. 7. The study
Displacement
sensor
Signal
converter
Stroke
Wire feeder measuring
controller
Waveform
controller
showed that spatter can be eliminated by setting a waiting time
of up to 1.5 ms before switching from EP to EN. This result
affirms the effect of waveform features on welding
performance.
2jIen jTen
%EN ¼

Ip Tu þ Td þ 2Tp þ Ib ðTu þ 2Tb Þ þ Is ðTd þ 2Ts Þ þ 2jIen jTen
ð3Þ
5.1.1 Waveform features of the variable pulsed current
This sub-section discusses how the variables of the waveform
influence the geometry and microstructure of the weld. Four
different configurations of the current waveform are analyzed
(Fig. 8). In EP in Fig. 8a, there is a waiting time prior to and
after the pulse and no waiting time in EN. In Fig. 8b, there is
waiting time in EP after the pulse and none in EN. Figure 8c
has a waiting time in the EP prior pulse and none in EN.
Finally, Fig. 8d has a waiting time after the pulse in EP and
before the pulse in EN. These are the most common con-
figurations found in studies. Table 4 presents examples of
feature parameters used in experiments with different
waveforms [31, 32].
According to Faria et al. [33], who studied the effect of
square-wave AC GMAW on weld beam geometry, whether
the waveform has a background current before or after the
positive peak current does not influence the weld geometry.
In their parameter calculation of VP-GMAW, Vilarinho et al.
[34] concluded that a background current before and after
peak current is beneficial for reducing sudden polarity shift.
A longer negative electrode (EN) time always generates
higher instability. The arc is stable with a background current
before or after the peak current. However, the configuration of
background before peak current is more effective in the
avoidance of spatter.
Vilarinho and Nascimento [35] studied the effect of the
waveform and shielding gas on the melting rate and bead
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 3 Arc control objectives and limitations Table 3 (continued)

Control Aim Observations Control Aim Observations

method method

Setting the Manual setting • Parameters must be reset • Each approach

current and when any welding corresponds to a
pulse circumstance changes specific level of ability
parameters the robustness of the to control data
system • Accurate mapping of
• Changes to arc-length, data input and output is
wire-extension, and required for a successful
wire-feed change are result
inevitable
• The arc length,
metal-transfer mode,
and arc stability change geometry for GMAW-VP and their correlation to the
Self-regulation Regulation of arc length • The metal-transfer mode kinematics of metal transfer. Two waveforms were in-
of arc length by the arc current is disrupted due to the vestigated: a waveform with a positive background (BG)
change in current Ib after the peak current (Fig. 8b) and a waveform with
• Contradiction between a positive background (BG) Ib before the peak current
the improvement of
arc-length (Fig. 8c). The results showed that bead profile could be
self-regulation ability improved regarding lower convexity by using waveform
and maintenance of (Fig. 8c), lower %EN, and an elevated oxygen-based
optimum metal transfer argon blend. On the other hand, the different selection
• Too many parameters to (waveform b, higher %EN, and lesser oxygen-based ar-
be controlled, which
complicates regulation
gon blends) is desirable for reducing heat input and
of operations improving gap bridgeability of the weld bead.
Control The wire-feed rate is taken • Because this is an Although waveform (Fig. 8c) presents lower thermal
method as the input signal, and a open-loop control, its effect, the long time that the droplet travels through
called mathematical model resistance to arc-length the arc in comparison to waveform (Fig. 8b) heats it
synergic determines the welding disturbances is poor
control parameters
up, which increases penetration.
• If disturbance other than
changes in the wire
feed-rate occur, the arc 5.2 Double-pulsed current
length and metal
transfer mode are
The principle of the most popular form of double-pulsed
disrupted
GMAC welding (DP-GMAW) is shown in the schematic
Closed-loop The wire-feed rate is taken • The average arc voltage
control as the input signal to is considered as the
method control the pulse closed-loop input, but
frequency the average arc voltage
does not represent the
instantaneous arc length
• As switching-type
transistors and an
inductor filter are used
for the primary power
circuit, pulsation of the
current is large, and the
dynamic characteristics
are inferior
Artificial Combination of the above • There are different
intelligence control systems to approaches of AI:
(AI) optimize data analysis expert controller, fuzzy
and decision making controller, artificial
neural networks
(ANNs), neuro-network
controller, neuro-fuzzy
controller
Fig. 6 Droplet transfer and stability, domains of the droplet per irregular
transfer of droplets [28]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 7 AC pulse current
waveform parameters
oscillogram presented in Fig. 9. In Fig. 9, DP-GMAW
is characterized by an alternating sequence between the
thermal base (τb) and the thermal pulse (τp) for each
heat period. There is a higher frequency of the current
pulse, where a current thermal pulse and the time dura-
tion (Ip and tp) are preserved and the current thermal
base and time duration (Ib and tb) are adjusted based on
the average current for each heat period. While Imτb
and Imτp are, respectively, the mean current of the ther-
mal base and mean current of the thermal pulse, Imt is
the mean current of the double-pulsed period.
The frequency of the current pulse (thermal pulsation) con-
trols the weld pool stability, whereas the thermal pulse (e.g.,
higher peak pulse) controls the higher heat input responsible
for fusion of the base metal. On the other hand, a thermal base
with lower heat input (e.g., lower peak current) causes the
surface tension and viscosity of the molten metal to become
higher, reducing the risk of melt through [36]. An optimum
pulse waveform parameter control is required to achieve one
Fig. 8 Different AC-GMAW
current waveforms
(a)
(c)
drop detachment per pulse (ODDPP). Chen et al. [37] extend-
ed research on active control of metal transfer in modified
pulsed GMAW suggested by Zhang et. la [38] and implement-
ed in welding titanium in Zhang et al. [39]. The study applied
an analytical model of droplet oscillation and detachment pro-
cess of the molten drop. The result revealed that the model
could help to realize ODDPP at peak current much lower than
traditional current value. Sen et al. [40] studied the correlation
between DP-GMAW parameters and weld geometry and sug-
gested that Eq. 4 can be used to calculate the mean current
(Im), Eq. 5 for the pulse frequency (f), and Eq. 6 for the
thermal frequency (ft).
Liu et al. [41] investigated the weld pool profile character-
istics of alumnium alloys in double-pulsed GMAW. It was
observed that the change of arc size is more significant in
the thermal base than in the thermal peak, which causes var-
iation of arc force with thermal pulse frequency. During
switching from thermal pulse (τp) to thermal base (τb),
the weld pool undergoes a period of expansion followed
(b)
(d)
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

EN%
by shrinking. Also, the fluidity of the weld pool can be

50
50
24
17

60
enhanced. As the thermal frequency grows, the effect of
the thermal pulse on the weld pool is reduced and tends
Tbn1

8.3
to disappear.

–
–
Ibn1

50
– Ip t p þ Ib t b
–
Im ¼ ð4Þ
tp þ tb
2.4
1.5

3.1
Tpn

6,0
6,0

1
f¼ ð5Þ
tp þ tb
198
198
165
140

350
Ipn

1
ft ¼ ð6Þ
Tb1

1.4

2.4

Thermal peak time þ thermal base time

2
2
2
Waveform parameters

Ib 1

90
115
40
40
65

5.2.1 Waveform features of the double-pulsed current

1.1
1.6

2.1
tp

4
4
330
310
300
300
400

Control by pulse has some different options: high pulse,

Ip

base pulse, alternating pulse, high frequency, and low

Current Waveform type

frequency. Different combinations can be used in

double-pulsed processes; for example, a high frequency
with a high current can be combined with a low fre-
quency and a low-current base and a duty cycle of 50%
for each type of pulse. Figure 10 shows possible con-
figurations of DP-GMAW. Both the thermal peak and
A
A

D
B
C

thermal base can be in DCEP (Fig. 10a), or VP-

GMAW can be used for the thermal peak and thermal
Lap joint

base (Fig. 10b). It is also possible to combine DC-

Joint

GMAW and VP-GMAW. Table 5 presents data from

da Silva’s study [42] and indicates DP-GMAW current
Flow rate

18 L/min

waveform parameters.
Zhang et al. [43] studied the microstructure and me-
chanical properties of 30Cr-4Mo ferritic stainless steel
Shielding gas

welded joints made by DP-GMAW using ERNiCr-3

Ar + 17CO2
Ar + 8CO2
Ar + 8CO2

Ni-based filler. Examination of the microstructure re-

Other welding parameters

vealed that the average size of the heat-affected zone

(HAZ) was controlled efficiently because of the reduced
heat input. A linear relationship was established be-
33.3
32.0
TS

tween the size of the HAZ and the heat input. No pres-
ence of sigma (σ) phase, chi (χ) phase, or Laves phase
Examples of welding parameter settings

WFS

was observed. An even distribution of precipitation of

5.0
4.8

Ti, Nb, C, and N was noted, mainly inside the grains,

which preserves the integrity of the grain boundary and
AWS ER70S-6, ϕ1.2 mm

therefore retains the ductility.

Sen et al. [40] evaluated the correlation between DP-
GMAW process parameters and weld morphology. Their
Filler metal

results showed that bead width and height and depth of

ER-5356
ER-4043

ER70S

penetration grow with the rise in mean current (Im) for

a constant thermal pulse frequency (ft). At higher Im
(beyond 250 A), bead width is less likely to change
Base metal

AH36 steel
SAE 1020

with ft. However, bead height grows with the rise in

Material

AA5086
AA5086
Table 4

ft, and more in-depth penetration can be reached at

lower ft values.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 9 Current waveform of DP-
GMAW technique [42]
5.3 Modified short-circuit current
In this study, the term modified short-circuiting metal transfer
refers to current and voltage waveforms that are not set by the
inductance. However, driven by compound features with
more parameters, Fig. 11 shows two current waveforms.
Two features for each metal transfer characterize the conven-
tional waveform (Fig. 11a). The controlled waveform (Fig.
11b), however, is characterized by seven factors, each of
which aims to improve a specific aspect of the metal transfer
[44]. Figure 11a increases in the rate control of the short-
circuiting current, and Fig. 11b is the suppression of the
short-circuiting current. Figure 11c decreases in the rate con-
trol of the arc current, while Fig. 11d is the promotion of short-
Fig. 10 Features of double-pulsed GMAW
circuiting, Fig. 11e is the delay in the rate control or increasing
the timing for the short-circuiting current, Fig. 11f is the break
in the current of short-circuiting, and Fig. 11g is the suppres-
sion of the arc-reigniting current. The increase in the number
of control settings is achieved by optimizing the speed varia-
tion of the current (di/dt), which is possible using electronic
control with a quick control inverter [45].
5.3.1 Waveform features of the short-circuiting mode
The range of current waveform parameters is a crucial
factor in the control of short-circuiting metal transfer. A
large number of possible settings enable adaptation of the
process to the weld procedure specifications of the base
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 5 Setting parameters for DP-GMAW

Welding technique DP-GMAW (τp = 0.6 s and τb = 0.4 s)

Settings WCon1 (Imt/TS) WCon2 (Imt/TS) WCon3 (Imt/TS)

Parameters τb τp τb τp τb τp
Imt 86 94 102
Im τp and Im τb (A) 50 110 70 110 90 110
Ib (A) 20 44 22 44 32 44
tb (ms) 11.2 3.1 6.1 3.1 4.2 3.1
WFSt (m/min) 5.4 5.9 6.3
WFS τp and WFS τb (m/min) 3.6 6.5 4.5 6.7 5.7 6.7
TS (mm/min) 297 320 344

metals and electrodes. Figure 12 shows some different
types of current waveforms. It can be seen that particular
waveforms offer more control options than others.
Figure 12c provides the least number of control parame-
ters, while Fig. 12b provides the most substantial number
[9]. It should be noted that the same waveform can
change appearance depending on the parameter values of
the attributed variables. An example is shown in Fig. 12,
where the super-imposition (SP-MAG) waveform patent-
ed by Panasonic is presented for different settings.
Lertora et al. [46] investigated the influence of welding
parameters in a robotic MAG process. Different settings were
used to identify the effect of varying duration and varying
current intensity for each phase while producing a series of
hard-facing on S355 steel. All the hard-facings were made
using the same filler material (EN 440 G3Si1–ESAB OK
Autrod 12.50 ϕ = 1 mm) and the same shielding gas (80%
Ar–20% CO2). Figure 13 shows a comparison of the individ-
ual phases. Each hard-facing was made by varying just one
parameter at a time. The penetrations observed for the hard-
facings were current waveform dependent. Reinforcement and
penetration were higher with lower peak current, current =
120, and a shorter period of short-circuiting. Longer short-
circuit duration with 220-A current also showed more upper
reinforcement and deeper penetration.
5.4 Mechanically control droplet transfer
In mechanically assisted metal transfer, the wire feeder moves
forward to promote the formation of the droplet and then

Fig. 11 Current waveforms.

a Conventional. b Controlled
(a)

(b)
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 12 Examples of adaptive

(d)
short-circuiting metal transfer (b)
current waveforms. a Dahein
CBT. b Stava, Lincoln STT.
c EWM ColdArc. d SP control (c)
Tawers

(g) (c) (a) (g)

(d)

(c) (d)
(c)
(c)

(g)
(g)
(d)
(d): Waing me (g): Breaking or necking (c): Re-ignion

moves backward to support detachment as soon as the
droplet has grown sufficiently and touched the weld
pool. There could be some little similarity with current
and voltage waveforms of modified short-circuiting.
There are the wetting time and the short-circuiting time.
The variation of this waveform parameters corresponds
to the metal been-welded requirement.
The force generated by the surface tension and the
retraction force act to break the drop. Thus, there is no
need to produce a higher current, and detachment can
be done at relatively low current (Fig. 14). This reduc-
tion in the current results in a reduced amount of heat
input. The alternating motion of the electrode can be
achieved with a stepper motor or servo motor controlled
by a computer. The six parameters necessary to accom-
plish this alternating motion are (a) the average feeding
speed, (b) the alternation frequency, (c) the advancing
velocity, (d) the advancing displacement, (e) the rear-
ward velocity, and (f) the rearward movement [47].
5.4.1 Waveform features of mechanically assisted droplet
transfer
The approach used in mechanically supported detach-
ment varies. Four models are currently available, namely,
controlled short circuit (CSC), patented by jetline engi-
neering, cold metal transfer (CMT), licensed by Fronius,
Micro-MIG, patented by SKS Systems, and the active
wire process (AWP), licensed by Panasonic [49]. The
approaches differ in the trajectory of the electrode during
its forward and backward motion and in the current
waveform. For the particular case of the current curve,
CSC provides a pulse with two steps of current values
before the short circuit. The first step is more significant
than the second step. CMT uses a pulse, followed by a
waiting phase current of low level, which is trailed by
the short-circuit current at a slightly higher value. In
Micro-MIG, a sequence of three pulses is followed by a
fourth lower pulse, and then the short circuit at low

Drop frequency: 37 drops/s

Fig. 13 Comparison of variation Drop frequency: 54 drops/s Drop frequency: 40 drops/s

in wave geometry as a function of

the current waveform for 320
SP-MAG 270
220
170
120
70
20
322.75 327.75 332.75 337.75 342.75 347.75 352.75

Fig. 14 CMT waveform, current, and voltage [48]
current. It was not possible to find a description of the
characteristics of the active wire waveform (AWP) pro-
cess in the literature.
Mezrag et al. [50] studied control of metal transfer and
heat transfer in dissimilar welding between steel and
aluminum using a 4043 filler metal. Figure 15 shows a
Fig. 15 Example of CMT current, voltage, and wire feed speed waveform and metal transfer captured by high-speed video [50]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
current waveform that promotes phase action from the
droplet and transmission of heat to the base metal. This
waveform augments the current phase and allows re-
ignition of the arc after short-circuiting at a low current
value. Table 6 shows some welding parameter of mechan-
ically assisted metal transfer from Mezrag et al. [50]
study. The CMT example here shows that simultaneous
decrease in the duration of the higher current and increase
in the intensity increases the short-circuiting frequency
and decreases the weight of transferred molten metal and
the heat transmitted to the base metal.
5.5 Forced arc
The forced arc waveform is characterized by a short arc
distance, which results in a short circuit after the pulse.
The drop size increases due to the current pulse, after
which it touches the weld pool. Different names are given
to this approach: forced arc EWN or Lincoln Rapid arc.
Figure 16 shows the principle of a pulse followed by a
short circuit. The current waveform has the following fea-
tures: (a) pulse ramp/peak, (b) tailout/background, (c)
short, and (d) puddle repulsion. When the distance of
the arc is shortened, it, not only, causes but also sparks
higher pressure of the arc on the melt, which allows more
precise control of the heat input. The purpose of this type
of approach is to reduce the drive time to increase the
speed of welding compared to traditional pulse processes.
Moreover, the short circuit can be controlled, and its rate
varied according to the desired geometric profile of the
weld. This type of waveform control allows welding at
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 6 Setting parameters of CMT

Test example Boost phase Ib (A) Boost time tb (ms) Wait phase Iw (A) Short circuit Isc (A) Wire feeding speed Vf (m/min)

1 27 22 15 40 20
2 30 15 15 40 20
3 64.3 11.01 17.8 40 20
4 81.4 9.01 19.2 40 20
5 115.7 5.01 22.1 40 20
6 132.8 3.01 23.5 40 20
7 150 1.76 44.2 40 20

low voltage and at higher speed, from 1 to 1.5 m/min,
unlike the GMAW-P process, in which the increased
height of the arc limits welding speed. In addition, Pepe
[8] reported that the approach reduces undercut defects by
up to 75% and decreases the welding time cycle by
around 10 to 30%, thanks to the higher welding speed,
thereby increasing productivity and significantly reducing
production costs. Additionally, due to the minimal amount
of spatter generated, cleaning of the base metal, the fix-
tures, and the torch nozzle is significantly reduced, with a
consequent decrease in production cost [51]. At a wire
feed rate in the region of 9 m/min, the quantity of spatter
is reduced to approximately one fourth that of other
methods. There is also a beneficial effect on undercut,
and a good welding bead is achieved. At Panasonic, this
welding method is called hyper dip pulse.
5.5.1 Waveform features of forced arc current
In the literature, there some research that discusses the reduced
distance between the tip of the electrode and the molten pool,
the resulting current waveform parameters, and the benefit of
such as the weld profile and penetration.
Torbati et al. [51] studied optimization procedures for
GMAW of dissimilar metal pipes. A root weld joint of a pipe
of carbon steel (outer part) and a corrosion resistant alloy
(CRA) (inner part) was welded using three different ap-
proaches: GTAW, GMAW, and a combination of GTAW for
Current [A]
inside and GMAW for outside the pipe. The combined method
aimed to improve the root pass procedure by using short arc
length GMAW for an outward weld from the outside of the
pipe and GTAW weld from inside of the pipe. Satisfactory
penetration was achieved.
Mvola et al. [52] investigated forced arc adaptive GMAW
and a standard GMAW process. Figure 17 shows the con-
trolled waveform principle (WiseFusion) applied as adaptive
GMAW, and Table 7 presents the welding parameters. By
changing the settings of the welding process, it was possible
to evaluate heat input, dilution, microstructure, and hardness.
The results showed that by decreasing the percentage of short
arc circuiting welding to 20%, the penetration and the weld
geometry became close to that of P-GMW with a finger-like
root penetration. On the other hand, by increasing the percent-
age of short-circuiting to 50%, round root penetration tended
to be produced. In addition, it was found that the heat input
could be kept at 0.59 kJ/mm by merely changing the percent-
age of short-circuiting, although the geometry of the weld
changed significantly.
5.6 Mixed waveforms
In traditional GMAW-P, mixed metal transfer mode occurs
randomly [53]. Difficulties observed with variable polari-
ty welding include extinction of the arc at the zero cross-
ing of the line and problems adjusting the balance of EP
and EN. It has been suggested that the problem could be
solved by passing successively not a positive pulse to a
negative pulse, but a sequence of positive to negative
pulses [7]. The alternation would allow more adjustable
flexibility between the two polarizations. By combining
different transfer modes with an advanced control digital

(b) power source and appropriate software, there is more abil-

(a)
ity to control the heat input. For example, a mix of pulse
(d) and short-circuiting transfer waveform (Fig. 18) will al-
(c) low a reduction in heat input, facilitating welding of thin
sheet metal. If the periodic time of short-circuiting is
Time [ ms ] higher, the pulse time can be used to increase the deposi-
Fig. 16 Forced arc principle tion rate [54]; inversely, the heat input can be increased

Fig. 17 Forced arc waveform
features
Current
Long arc length
by increasing the periodic pulse time, thereby making it
possible to weld cross sections of up to 10 mm.
Repeat function sequences of different waveform cur-
rent can be of value for difficult welding positions. The
short-circuit current transfer mode operates at relatively
low current intensities with low heat input, whereas the
one droplet pulsed transfer mode has higher current ener-
gies and greater heat input. Alternating between these two
transfer modes to generate an average heat broadens the
range of possible welding positions to a horizontal posi-
tion (PC), horizontal overhead position (PD), overhead
position (PE), vertical up position (PF), and upright down
position (PG). In addition, by welding a V groove, it
becomes possible to wave the welding torch without the
risk of becoming stuck on one of the bevel faces.
5.6.1 Mixed waveforms
The use of combined waveforms allows advantage to be
taken of different waveforms in the same welding oper-
ation. In the same cycle of welding, two different cur-
rent waveforms are utilized alternatively, which in-
creases the range of parameters and control options.
Figure 19 shows an example of waveform configuration
of mixed current and voltage waveform.
Pickin and Young [55] evaluated mixed waveform
performance when welding aluminum. The following
combination of waveforms was used: 20 pulses/6 CMT
short-circuits, 20 pulses/4 CMT short-circuits, and 20
pulses/2 CMT short-circuits. The results showed that
Table 7 Forced arc welding parameters
Process I (A) U (v) Ws (cm/min)
Pulse + 35% short circuit 167 25.1 34
Pulse + 50% short circuit 167 25.1 34
Pulse + 20% short circuit 167 25.1 34
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Short circuit (SC) occurrence (adjustable in %)
Time (ms )
Short arc length
Small droplet spaer
(Current value: very low)
combining pulse sequences and a modified short-circuit
waveform such as CMT allowed thicker sections to be
welded, improved control of penetration, and produced
a better appearance of the weld bead.
Kolařík et al. [56] evaluated advanced functions of
modern GMAW power sources for steel welding. A V
butt joint of 10-mm thickness in structural steel S275J2
was welded in two layers: a root and a cap layer in the
PF position (vertical). Welding parameters for the cap-
ping passes are presented in Table 8. Alternating two
types of sequences was advantageous for welding the
cap layer and filling in the sense that the total heat
input is reduced significantly due to the lower average
operating current and voltage. A better weld was
achieved with a smaller heat-affected zone compared
to a standard short arc weld.
6 Discussions
Adaptive control by current or voltage curve usually
involves internal sensors. Since arc welding is based
on the difference in polarity between one pole fixed to
the workpiece and the other pole consisting of the elec-
trode, internal current and voltage must be sensed and
recorded, and the information sent to the central algo-
rithm. In early approaches, the current and voltage
waveforms were essentially under manual set inductance
control. The wire feed rate was constant at a preset
value regardless of variation. Although these types of
Wfs (m/min) Flow gas (L/min) CTWD (mm), Q (kJ/mm)
9 14 0.59
9 14 0.59
9 14 0.59
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 18 Mixed waveform: two
positive pulses (EP) and negative
(EN) CMT
controller are still widely used in many welding ma-
chines available in the market, more fumes and spatter
are generated, and the number of suitable applications is
limited [58]. Figure 20 compares a number of welding
processes in terms of heat input, dilution, current, and
deposition area based on data collected from the study
by Rosado [59]. It can be observed that the different waveform
approaches, CMT, MAG, STT, and FastRoot, give different
results because of differences in the waveform design and
waveform features. CMT and STT provide the lowest heat
input and the highest dilution, which offers more room
for adjustment if required. Waveforms with more param-
eters can be adjusted to fit changes in the current and
voltage disturbance at the output. With fewer settings,
there is not the same flexibility to be able to adapt to
welding parameters to factors such as base metal type
and irregularities in the joints.
Fig. 19 Current and voltage
waveforms: a CMT, b CMT-P,
c CMT-ADV, and d CMT-PADV
(WFS = 7.5 m/min) [57]
Successful control of the quality of joints as they are
being produced is not possible in current welding ma-
chines. New algorithm-based (e.g., adaptive control,
neuro network, fuzzy, expert control) approaches have
potential from the point of view of the management of
information based on prior welding operations or obtained
during the welding operation itself.
Because of the integration of computers into welding
equipment and the increasingly fast response speed of
inverters, adaptive control is becoming efficient and ef-
fective. Inverted polarities can be used to combine differ-
ent types of current waveform according to information
received from sensors. In the past, because of control
system inductance, any disturbance in the current net-
work had consequences for the output curve with impli-
cations for the quality of the weld. Figure 21, from
Goecke et al. [60], compares time-averaged current,
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 8 Forced arc welding parameters

Function, metal Weld Current (A) Voltage Wire feed Duration, repeating time Welding speed Heat input (kJ/mm)
transfer pass (V) (m/min) (s) (mm/s)

Sequence repeating Capping Short circuit: 16 2.6 0.6 1.7 SC: 0.66, P: 1.90
85 Average heat input:
Pulsed: 150 26.4 6.7 0.3 1.1

voltage, and power of different waveforms. It can be ob-
served that power and energy are higher with a pulsed arc
than with the arc short-circuit approach and short-circuit
controlled approach (coldArc). The voltage in the short
arc and coldArc are equal, but the coldArc type requires
less power. Short-circuit arc and coldArc have relatively
higher current. The arc properties of the controlled short-
circuit (coldArc) approach provide arc stability and sup-
press spatter.
For adaptive control by the curve of the current and
voltage, it would be presumptive to suggest a standard
curve, as this would go against the principle idea of adap-
tive control. Consequently, a more appropriate approach
would be to expand the general curve form as required by
the materials and type of weld joint and the choice of
curve combination. Changes in the waveform profile can
also be developed based on the control parameters as a
function of the characteristics of the expected weld joint
profile and the metallurgical properties. This information
is essential for the design of algorithms to adapt the pat-
tern of the waveform current and voltage by adjusting
values using information processed after capture by
sensors.
Devakumaran et al. [61] investigated the characteris-
tics of a GMAW welding machine of inverter type op-
erating under static and dynamic conditions. Weld bead
experiments were performed on the mild steel plate of
12-mm thickness. Welding machine operation in tradi-
tional mode (DC-GMAW), pulsating (P-GMAW),
double-pulsed (DP-GMAW), and short-circuit controlled
mode (CS-GMAW) was analyzed. It was observed that
increasing the speed of the feed rate of the electrode
(Wfs) improves the wire feed ratio of welding and mean
current and voltage. Also, CS-GMAW provided a better
quality weld with less spatter than DC GMAW, P-
GMAW, or DP-GMAW. Figure 22 is from Liu et al.’s
[41] study on the characteristics of the weld pool when
welding aluminum with DP-GMAW. It shows that a
change in the thermal frequency, which varied from 0
to 9 Hz for the case of DP-GMAW, influences the ap-
pearance of the weld.
Energy input has an effect on the cooling time, therefore
grain growth and phase transformation throughout solidifica-
tion. For example, when welding low-carbon steel and ferritic
stainless steels, there was the effect of heat input to the grain
growth, carbide presence, and intergranular martensitic at the
HAZ [62, 63]. Masser et al. [64] studied how to reduce pro-
duction costs through the use of an advanced welding process.
The study aimed to devise a strategy for the selection of
welding parameters and develop an advanced GMAW process
for welding carbon steels, alloy steels, and stainless steels. The
study presented an optimized practice for high welding

Fig. 20 Comparison of different

welding processes Comparison of welding processes

Deposite Area [mm2]

Diluon Rate [%]

Heat Imput [J/m]

I [A]

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

CMT MAG STT FastRoot

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

200 50 5

Current
zone (BM), the HAZ, and fusion line (FL) as well as the
Voltage percent of the dilution area. All collected data are used to

Time-Averaged Power in kW
Time-Averaged Voltage in V
Time-Averaged Current in A

160 40 4
Power develop a program that enables offline programming of the
GMAW robot by allowing the modeling software to integrate
120 30 3
a relationship between dilution, penetration, geometry, and
hardness of the weld. This interface is designed to translate
80 20 2 the geometry and mechanical properties of the welded joint
into welding parameters. The results were satisfactory as it
40 10 1 was possible to select the best current settings for thicknesses
varying between 5 and 6 mm. Significant enhancement could
0 0 0 be achieved if current waveform parameters are included in
Pulsed Arc Short Arc ColdArc
the interface. Figure 24 presents image analyses of welding
Welding processes
macrographs, and it can be seen that the dilution percentage
Fig. 21 Time-averaged values of current, voltage, and power in different and geometry of the weld vary significantly depending on the
GMAW processes [60]
power generated by the current.
chromium and stainless steels with an appropriate consumable
electrode, shielding gas, and flow rate. Use of a controlled
7 Effect of waveform features on droplet
short-circuit GMAW process with a non-backing gas
transfer and weld quality
(NBG), P-GMAW, and FCAW achieved three times the higher
metal deposit and a repair rate of one tenth of that of traditional
Increase in DCEN portion increases the droplet size and
SMAW and GTAW methods.
deposition rate, and the penetration reduces significantly,
Mathivanan et al. [65] compared welded joint properties of
while reinforcement (excess deposition) increases. The
AISI: 310S austenitic stainless steel welded with P-GMAW
higher %EN ratio is suitable for lap joints in thin sheet
and DP-GMAW. It was observed that use of the DP-GMAW
metal, while fillet welds with thickness above 5 mm are
process resulted in better weld quality. The enhanced weld
recommended for the lower DCEN ratio.
quality obtained with the DP-GMAW process is primarily
Based on experience with AC-GMAW processes on bead
due to the combined effect of the thermal base and thermal
plates, lap joints, and butt joints, it has been noticed that pen-
peak current pulsation (low-frequency pulse). Figure 23a, b
etration increases with reduction in EN, as does the width of
shows the microstructure of the heat-affected zone for the P-
the weld and weld strength. Increased EN leads to decreased
GMAW process and DP-GMAW process, respectively. The
penetration, and the width of the weld increases, as does the
microstructure in Fig. 23a has coarse grain adjacent to the
reinforcement. In the absence of research explicitly comparing
fusion line. This grain characteristic is due to a considerable
the effect of AC current parameters on the weld geometry of
isothermal effect of the heat input from the weld metal depos-
T-joints, it can be presumed that the length of the legs and
ited. Figure 23b, on the other hand, has less coarse graining in
weld penetration decrease with increasing EN and reinforce-
the area adjacent to the fusion line. This characteristic is relat-
ment increases. EN should not exceed 50% to achieve suc-
ed to the application of a mixed current waveform combining
cessful T-joint weld geometry and quality.
a base and thermal peak current pulse sequence.
Based on the current waveform analysis performed in
Barcellona et al. [66] investigated productivity improve-
this study, Table 9 presents an assessment of the effects of
ment in a robotized GMAW process. The study presented a
waveform features on the forces acting during metal trans-
method, based on practical experiences, which predicts the
fer. A parameter list is shown for each current waveform,
morphology of the dilution area of a welded T-joint.
and the impact of the waveform features is described on a
Different morphologies are well defined as functions of
scale of 0 to 5, where level 0 corresponds to no effect and
welding parameters such as power, ranging from 20 to
level 5 indicates a significant impact on molten metal
100%, and weld properties like the hardness of the base metal
transfer. In addition, some observations are given about

Fig. 22 Typical appearance of the

DP-GMAW joint under different
thermal frequency (Al alloy) [41]

Fig. 23 Typical microstructure. a
(a)
HAZ near to fusion line in P-
GMA weld. b HAZ near to the
fusion line in DP-GMAW [65]
specific variables and forces. It is evident that the more
parameters there are for a waveform, the higher the pos-
sible control of the forces acting during the transfer of
metal and heat transfer from the arc to the base metal is.
8 Conclusions
This study aimed to investigate current waveforms of GMAW
processes and analyze their parameters to assess their effects
Fig. 24 Dilution morphology as a
function of the power level [66]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
(b)
on weld properties. From the modified welding wave-
form examined, the following conclusions can be
made:
& Better geometry and penetration enables fillet weld legs’
length and dilution to be attained and reduces weld de-
fects. Also, the waveform affects arc pressure and depos-
ited metal. Therefore, it is possible to influence the amount
of excess metal and reduce the acute angles at the toes,
which are critical factors in the welded T-joint life cycle.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 9 Effect of waveform

features on the droplet force Waveform Feature of curve Forces acting on droplet Observation
transfer

Fg Fem Fd Fv Fs

Advanced SC Arcing 2 2 2 2 3 • Low forces at arcing. Higher

frequency, smaller drop
Waiting 5 3 3 1 4 • Low Fem, Fv because of low
current at breaking
Short-circuiting 4 3 5 0 5 • Highly controlled heat input
Breaking 3 2 3 0 5
Re-ignition 2 2 2 5 3
Frequency increase 3 3 4 4 3
Reciprocating Arcing 2 2 2 2 3 • Low forces at arcing
wire feed Waiting 5 3 3 1 4 • Higher frequency, smaller drop
Short-circuiting 4 1 5 0 5 • Low force at breaking
Breaking (wire 4 1 2 0 5 • Highly controlled heat input
retraction)
Re-ignition 2 1 3 0 2
Frequency increase 2 2 3 3 2
Pulse-GMAW Peak current and 5 5 4 4 3 • Peak for necking
voltage
Peak time 4 4 3 2 2 • Duration time affect drop number
and size
Background current 0 1 1 2 1 • Multidrop can occur depending on
Background time 0 2 2 3 1 time and level
Frequency increase 3 3 3 2 2
DP-GMAW Thermal peak 4 4 3 3 3 • Single pule affect droplet size and
heat input
Thermal peak time 5 5 5 3 3 • Thermal cycle affect the result in a
Thermal base 3 3 2 2 1 variation of force acting
Thermal base time 4 4 4 2 2
Frequency increase 2 2 2 1 1
AC-GMAW E+ Base before Peak
2 2 3 1 • E+ concentrate on electrode
3
Peak 5 4 4 4 3 • E− concentrate on the weld pool
Base after 4 3 4 3 2 • Forces alternate between droplet
peak and weld pool
E−
Base before 1 1 2 0
background 2
Background 2 1 1 1 2

Level 0–5 effect of the feature on the droplet force, where 0 represents no effect and 5 represents the greatest
effect. Electrode positive (E+), electrode negative (E−)

& The thermal transfer acts on the cooling time of the welded
joint. It is therefore easy to link microstructure and weld
parameters of the current waveform. It was observed that a
controlled current waveform could be used to increase
heat input without affecting stability substantially. This
increase in heat input can increase welding speed and con-
sequently productivity.
& There is a need for self-regulation control, synergic con-
trol, closed-loop system, and artificial intelligence (fuzzy,
neural network, and control expert) to analyze data
collected by the sensors and to provide the required com-
mands to the robot arm and fixture support.
& Weld quality requires a combination of higher and lower
pulses (DP-GMAW); the thermal base stabilizes the

molten pool and the thermal peak transfers enough heat in
the base metal. Also, it is possible to take advantage of
both current electrode forms by using the VP-GMAW
process. The method is known to control the deposition
of mass and gap bridgeability. In addition to known pulse
parameters, the VP-GMAW process introduces new set-
tings to the current waveform.
& Control short-circuit mode requires up to seven parame-
ters. These settings control the arc burn phase, the waiting
time, the short-circuiting, the breaking of the drop, and
finally the re-ignition. Effective adjustment of these pa-
rameters has extended weldability in aluminum, titanium,
stainless steels, and dissimilar metal welding such as alu-
minum and steel, dissimilar high-strength steels, and dis-
similar high-manganese steels.
& Mechanically supported metal transfer helps to re-
duce the number of parameters of the current wave-
form because a part of the forces involved in the
transfer of metal is backed by the reciprocating
movement of the consumable electrode. This ap-
proach optimizes the energy to the burn phase of
the arc and significantly reduces the current ampli-
tude during the short-circuit sequence.
& Forced arc increases the pressure on the weld pool. A
shorter arc achieves this increase. Adjustment of this dis-
tance influences the occurrence of short circuits. The cur-
rent waveform thus has first a pulsation followed by a
short circuit. Noticeable benefits are seen in the weld pen-
etration and the type of microstructure obtained with the
thermal transfer.
& The mixed metal transfer approach consists of a repeated
sequence of controlled waveform type. The objective is to
improve weldability under challenging positions such as
horizontal position (PC), horizontal overhead position
(PD), overhead position (PE), and vertical up position
(PF) and upright down position (PG).
Acknowledgements This research was carried out in the Welding
Technology Laboratory of LUT and funded by the Academy of
Finland, Monitoring and Modeling of Advanced Adaptive Welding
Process Systems for Ultra-High Strength Steel (UHSS) project under
the project number SA 23B25105Y.
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