Chapter 1.

Digital Modulation Techniques

1 DIGITAL MODULATION
TECHNIQUES

1.1. BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (BPSK)

 the BPSK signal is

sBPSK  t   A cos0t  d  t   (1.1)
where d  t     1 is the data signal, d  t   const t   kTb ,  k  1Tb  , Tb is the bit
duration, 0  2f 0 is the carrier frequency and A is the signal amplitude.
 The signal can also be written as

A cos0t , if d  t   1, t  kTb ,  k  1Tb 

sBPSK t   
A cos0t      A cos0t , if d t   1, t   kTb ,  k  1Tb 
(1.3)

or
sBPSK  t   d  t  A cos 0t  (1.4)
 Transmitter / receiver / carrier recovery.

Fig. 1.1. Transmitter. receiver and Carrier recovery for BPSK signals.

 Power spectral density of BPSK

 BPSK signal can be written as

s BPSK , BB (t )   Ad  kT  p  t  kT 
k  
b 1 b (1.12)

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Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

where p1  t     t     t  Tb  is the baseband impulse that gives the duration of

each data bit.
 The modulated BPSK signal is then
  
s BPSK (t )  s BPSK , BB (t ) cos 0 t   
 k 

Ad  kTb  p1  t  kTb   cos 0 t 

(1.13)

 The Fourier transform of the baseband impulse is then

Tb
 j  T 
e 2  2 j sin b  T
P1 ( )  F  (t )   (t  Tb ) 
1
1  e  jTb    2   Tb  T  e  j 2b  sin c Tb
b
j T 2 2
j b
2
(1.14)
 The Average Power Spectral Density (aPSD) of the baseband BPSK
signal is
 1 2  Tb 
S BPSK ( )  P( )  A 2  Tb  sinc 2   (1.15)
BB Tb  2 

 and for the modulated signal is

1
S BPSK ( )    S BPSK (  0 )  S BPSK (  0 ) 
4  BB BB 
A2  Tb  2  (  0 )  Tb 
(1.16)
 (  0 )  Tb 
  sinc    sinc 2  
4   2   2 

2
0.5
A Tb

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1


0
-15  T -10
 Tb-5 0 5  Tb 10
 T 15
b b
(a)

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 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

2
0.5
A Tb/4

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 
-50 -40 
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 
30 40 50
 
(b)
Fig. 1.2. aPSD of the base band BPSK signal (a) and of the modulated BPSK signal (b)

 However, the side lobes of the sinc 2   function decrease with 6 db /

octave. It can be proven that 99% of the energy of the base band signal is
16
comprised in a bandwidth of 99%
BBPSK  around origin.
Tb

 The signal can be filtered such that to keep only the main lobe of the
2
sinc 2   function, reducing the bandwidth to ML
BBPSK  , but in this case
Tb

the received basebad impulse will be distorted (i.e. extended in length),

causing overlapping of adjacent bits. This phenomenon is called inter-
symbol interference (ISI)

1.1.3. Signal space representation of BPSK

 a base vector such that

Tb
 0
 2 (t ) dt  1 (1.16)
2
 (t )   cos 0t , t   0, Tb  (1.19)
Tb

 Representing those two signals as vectors on the axis  (t ) we have

Tb
S1   A  cos 0t   A   (t )
2
(1.20)
T
S 2   A  cos 0t   A  b  (t )
2
 Those two vector points, represented the BPSK signal constellation, are
represented in figure 1.3.

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Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

Fig. 1.3. Geometrical representation (signal space representation) of BPSK signals.

The distanced between the two signals is

Tb
d  2A  2 A 2Tb  2 Eb (1.21)
2
where
 A 2  Tb
Eb  (1.22)
2
is the energy contained in a bit duration.
 Assuming that the channel is affected only by Additive White Gaussian
N0
Noise (AWGN) with zero mean and variance  2  , the noise vector on
2
 (t ) is
2
n  n0 (t )  n0  cos 0t (1.23)
Tb
d
2

  d 2 n
 d   1  0
Pc s1
 P s1  n  0  P   n  0   P n   
 2   2   2 2
e 2 2 dn0  
  (1.24)
 n02  d     2 Eb 
1   d  4 E
 1  e 2 2 dn  1  Q   1  Q   1  Q b 
 1  Q
 N


2 2
0
 2   2N   N0 
d  0   4   0 
2  2 

where
x2
 1 
Q( x)  
x 2
e 2 dx (1.25)

 The overall error probability is then, assuming that the signals are equally
likely
1 1  2 Eb 
Pc  Pc  Pc  1  Q  
2 s1
2 s2  N 
 0 
(1.27)
 2 Eb 
Pe  1  Pc  Q
 N 0 


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 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

Fig. 1.4. Error probability calculation for BPSK signals.

1.2. DIFFERENTIAL PSK (DPSK) AND DIFFERENTIAL ENCODED

PSK (DEPSK)

 Therefore, in BPSK with squaring circuit carrier recovery, we are not able
to determine whether the transmitted base band signal have been d(t) or its
negative -d(t).This problem is known as 1800 phase ambiguity of BPSK.
 The differential phase shift keying (DPSK) and differential encoded phase
shift keying (DEPSK) eliminates the 1800 phase ambiguity of BPSK;
moreover, DPSK does not need synchronous demodulation.

1.2.1. DPSK generation and demodulation

The DPSK modulator is shown in figure 1.5. The source data stream is
applied on one entry to an exclusive OR (XOR) gate; on the other entry is
applied the XOR output, delayed with one bit interval Tb . The XOR gate output
is then modulated on the high frequency carrier by multiplying with A cos 0 t 

Fig. 1.5. The DPSK modulator

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Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

 If we assign to “0” logic a value of -1V and to “1” logic a value of 1V, then
we observe that if we make the product between b t  and b t  Tb  we obtain
the inverted value of d  t  , as shown in table 1.1. This observation will be
used in demodulation the DPSK signal.
Table 1.1.
d(t) b(t-Tb) b(t) b(t) b(t-Tb)
logic Voltage logic voltage logic level voltage
level level
0 -1V 0 -1V 0 -1V 1V
0 -1V 1 1V 1 1V 1V
1 1V 0 -1V 1 1V -1V
1 1V 1 1V 0 -1V -1V

 The transmitted waveform is:

v DPSK (t )  A  b(t )  cos 0t   A  cos 0 t (1.31)
- if d(t)=0 the phase of vDPSK (t ) does not change
- if d(t)=1 the phase of vDPSK (t ) changes with :
so the DPSK signal can be written as
v DPSK (t )  A  cos( 0 t  b(t )   ) (1.32)

 A possible method to demodulate the DPSK signal is shown in figure 1.7.

Considering that the received signal is
r (t )  A  b(t )  cos( 0 t   ) (1.33)

Fig. 1.6. A method to demodulate the DPSK signal

then
 The main advantage if this scheme is that it avoids the necessity of coherent
demodulation, and, therefore, no carrier recovery is involved. On the other

6
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

hand, it requires circuits that operate at radio-frequency, which are more

expensive and difficult to realize than the ones that operates in base-band.
 A second disadvantage is that two received bits, namely b(t ) and b(t  Tb ) ,
are involved in calculating the data value d (t ) . This means that, when an
error occurs the the b(t ) data stream, two successive bits of the d (t ) data
stream are affected. There might be errors that does not occurs in pairs, put
this phenomenon is accidental.

1.2.2. DEPSK generation and demodulation

 The transmitter of the DEPSK system is identical to the transmitter of the
DPSK. At the receiver the signal b(t) is recovered in exactly the manner
for a BPSK system, using a multiplier with the carrier frequency and an
integrate and dump circuit. The recovered signal is then applied directly to
one input of an exclusive-OR logic gate and to the other input is applied
b(t - Tb), as shown in figure 1.7. The gate output will be at one or the other
of its levels depending on whether b t   b t  Tb  or b t   b t  Tb  . In the
first case b(t) did not change level and therefore the transmitted bit is d(t)
= 0. In the second case d(t) = 1.

Fig.1.7. The base band decoder to obtain d(t) from b(t)

1.3. QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING (QPSK)

1.3.1. QPSK transmitter, receiver and carrier recovery schemes

 The block diagram of QPSK is shown in figure 1.8.

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Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

Fig.1.8. The QPSK transmitter

 The transmitted QPSK signal is

sOQPSK  t   A d e (t ) cos o t  A d o (t ) sin 0t

 
const const
t 0, 2Tb  t Tb ,Tb 
(1.34)
 The signal generated as described above is called as “offset” QPSK
(OQPSK), since the in-phase and quadrature data cannot change
simultaneously (at the end of each bit interval either de or do can change, but
not both at the same time). The signal phase can change with {0,900}.
 If we introduce an additional flip-flop before the odd flip-flop that runs at
the rate fb, the lower bit stream will be delayed by one bit interval and the
two bits (even/odd) will appear in time sequence (serially) at the outputs of
the two flip-flops.
 The QPSK signal can be written as
  d   
sQPSK (t )  2 A cos 0t   sgn o   1  d e     2 A cos(0t  (2i  1) ); i  1,4
  de  4 2  4

(1.35)
   
d e   2 cos (2i  1) ; d o   2 sin ( 2i  1)  (1.36)
 4  4

This allows as introducing a phasor diagram that shows the signal changes, for
OQPSK and QPSK, as shown in figure 1.10.

8
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

sin sin

(-1,+1) (+1,+1) (-1,+1) (+1,+1)

180 0
90 0 cos 90 0 cos

(-1,-1) (+1,-1) (-1,-1) (+1,-1)

(b) OQPSK (a) QPSK

Fig.1.10. The phasor diagrams for QPSK and OQPSK

 For the QPSK receiver,

Fig.1.11. QPSK receiver and carrier recovery

1.3.2. Power spectral density of QPSK

 In order to obtain the same power as in BPSK, we need a correction factor of

1 / 2 in amplitude. We can consider that the basic pulse shapes for QPSK

are:
1
p1  t     t     t  2Tb  
2
1
(1.37)
p 2 (t )   (t  Tb )   (t  Tb )
2
Their Fourier Transforms are

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Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

1  e  j 2Tb   Tb 2 j sin Tb  e  jTb  2Tb sinc Tb  e  jTb  Ts sinc Ts e  j 2
Ts
1 1
P1    
2 j 2 jTb 2  2 

P2    
1 1
 e jTb  e  jTb   Tb 2 j sin Tb   2Tb sinc Tb   Ts sinc Ts 
2 j 2 jTb 2  2 

(1.38)
the
 The baseband average power spectral density
A2 A2  T 
P1     P2     A 2Ts sinc 2  s 
2 2
G z ( )  (1.39)
Ts Ts  2 
so the bandwidth of the QPSK is twice the bandwidth of BPSK. The aPSD of
the QPSK and BPSK modulated signals are represented in figure 1.12. The
aPSD of the modulated signal is
1 1
GBPSK ( f )  Gz ( f  f 0 )  Gz ( f  f 0 ) (1.40)
4 4

aPSK(dB)
BPSK
QPSK
0

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50


-60
-10 -5 0 5 10
-1/Tb -1/Ts 1/Ts 1/Tb

Fig.1.12. The base band average Power Spectral Density of QPSK / BPSK

 Note: As in BPSK case the side lobes of the sinc 2   function decrease with 6
db / octave. It can be proven that 99% of the energy of the base band signal is
16 8
comprised in a bandwidth of 99%
BBPSK   around origin. However, in
Ts Tb

many practical applications we can consider that is transmitted only the main
2 1
lobe of the aPSD. so ML
BBPSK   . In this case Inter Symbol Interference
Ts Tb

(ISI) appears at the receiver.

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 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

1.3.3. Signal space representation

 two orthogonal vectors that establish the coordinate system. They are
2 1
1 (t )  cos 0 t  cos  0 t , t   0,2Tb  (1.41)
Ts Tb

2 1
 2 (t )  sin 0t  sin 0t , t    Tb , Tb  (1.42)
Ts Tb

 It can be proven that they are orthogonal one another and normalized,
Ts Ts Ts

 12 (t )  1;
0
  22 (t )  1;
0

0
1 (t ) 2 (t )  0 (1.43)

 The QPSK signal can be written as

TS T
sQPSK (t )  A d e (t )1 (t )  A s d o (t ) 2 (t ); d e (t ); d o (t )    1 , t   0, Tb  (1.44)
2 2
and can be represented in the 1  t  ,  2  t  base system coordinates as shown in
figure 1.13. The distance between two adjacent signal points in the constellation
is given by d  2 Es , where E s  A 2Ts is the symbol energy.

Fig. 1.13. QPSK signal constellation

 The noise can be represented in this coordinate system as

n(t )  ne (t )1 (t )  no (t ) 2 (t ) (1.46)

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Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

where the noise components no(t), ne(t) are independent Gaussian variables with
N0
zero mean and variance  2 
2

1.3.4. Error probability evaluation

 Assuming that the transmitted signal was s 1, the determination will be correct
if the noise does not move s 1 from the first quadrant.
 n12  n22
 d
P  c s1   P n1   , n2    
d 1  1 

 2 2  d 2 2
e 2 dn1  d 2 2
e 2 dn2 
 
2 2 (1.47)
2
 d    d 
 Q2     1  Q 
 2    2 

 From symmetry considerations P c s 2   P c s 3   P c s 4   P c s1  . Thus the

probability of correct decision is
2
4
  d 
Pc   P  c s i  P( s i )  1  Q  (1.48)
1   2 

and the error probability is

2
  d 
2
  2Es     
Pe  1  Pc  1  1  Q   1  1  Q   2Q 2 E s   Q 2  2ES  (1.49)
 2   N   N 
    N0   0   0 
Since the error probability is generally low ( Pe  10 3 ), the second term in (1.49)
can be neglected, and
 2Es 
Pe  2Q  (1.49)
 N 
 0 
 The error probability for BPSK and QPSK signals are represented in figure
1.14. It can be seen that the error performances for QPSK signals are lower
then the BPSK ones, the difference increasing as Eb / N 0 increases.

12
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

-5

QPSK
-10

-15

-20

10* log10(Pe)
BPSK
-25

-30

-35

-40

-45

-50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Eb/N0 dB

Fig. 1.14. Error probability for QPSK and BPSK signals

1.4. M-ARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (MPSK)

 we take N bits at a time, we will form an N bit symbol, with the symbol
period Ts= N Tb, creating M=2N possible symbols that differ in phase by
2/M. Within a symbol period, the MPSK signal is, then,
sMPSK (t ) t 0,T   A  cos(0t  m )  A  cosm  cos 0t  A  sin m  sin 0t
s        
pe ( in phase ) po ( quadrature )
(1.53)

m  (2m  1) ; M  0,  M  1
M

1.4.1. MPSK transmitter, receiver and carrier recovery schemes

 The MPSK transmitter block diagram is shown in figure 1.15. The Serial to
parallel (S/P) converter stores N bits of a symbol, that comes serially from
the data source, and transmits them in parallel; its output stays unchanged
on a duration of NTb = Ts sec. At each Ts time the S/P converter output is
updated. Then, the Digital–to– Analog (D/A) converter generates an output
voltage with 2N = M different values, in one to one correspondence to the
possible symbols applied at the input. The output signal, (sm), depends on the
transmitted symbol sm (m = 0.. M-1). Finally the sinusoidal source generates

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Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

a constant amplitude signal whose phase is determined by the value of v(sm).

The phase can change one symbol at a time.

Fig. 1.15. The MPSK transmitter block diagram

 The M-PSK signal can also be written as:

     
s MPSK (t )  A cos  2m  1   cos  0 t  A sin  2m  1   sin  0 t
      M        M  (1.54)
pe ( in phase ) po ( quadrature )

  
po  t   cos  2m  1
M ; t   0, Ts ; Ts  NTb
 
 
(1.55)

pe  t   sin  2m  1 ; t   0, Ts  Ts  NTb
 M 

 The MPSK receiver and carrier recovery schemes are shown in figure 1.16.
It can be shown, by mathematical induction, that
   1   
cos M   0 t  ( 2m  1)  ...   M 1 cos M   0 t  ( 2m  1) 
 M low freq components
2  M
1
(1.55)
 ...   M 1 cos  M 0 t  ( 2m  1) 
low freq components
2

14
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

Fig. 1.16. MPSK receiver and carrier recovery block diagrams

 The demodulator separates at the integrator outputs the I/O components that
changes every TS=MTb by using an integrate and dump converter on every Ts
interval. The integrate and dump circuits outputs are
Ts
AT
 A cos  cos  t   sin   sin   t   cos  t   2
0
m 0 m 0 o
s
cos  m 

Ts (1.56)
AT s
 A cos m  cos 0t   sin   m  sin  0t   sin  o t    sin   m 
0
2

1.4.2. Power spectral density of M-PSK

 the power spectral densities of the base band in phase and quadrature signals
are
1 2  T   T 
Go ( )  P0 ( )  2 A2TS sinc 2  S   cos 2 m  A2TS sinc 2  S 
TS  2     1
 2 
2
(1.57)
1 2  T   T 
Ge ( )  Pe ( )  2 A2TS sinc 2  S   sin 2 m  A2TS sinc 2  S 
TS  2   1   2 
2

 for the base band signal we have

15
Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

1 1  T 
S zz     Go     Ge     2 A 2TS sinc 2  S  (1.58)
Ts Ts  2 
2 2
so the bandwidth is B  T 
NTb .
S

 The Average Power Spectral Density in dB as a function of  is shown in

figure 1.17.
aPSD
BPSK

0 QPSK
10

16PSK

-1
8PSK
10

-2
10

-3
10

-4
10


-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
1/4Tb 1/3Tb 1/2Tb 1/Tb

Fig.1.17. The base band average Power Spectral Density of BPSK, QPSk, 8PSK, 16PSK

1.4.3. Signal space representation

 Choosing the base vectors

2
1 (t )  cos 0t  t   0, Ts 
Ts
(1.59)
2
 2 (t )  sin  0t  t   0, Ts 
Ts

 the MPSK signal transmitted into a given symbol interval is can be written as
TS T
 sm (t )  pe 1 (t )  po S  2 (t ) (1.60)
2 2
  
where p e  cos  2m  1  , m = 0. M-1 represents the in phase data and
 M

  
po  sin  2m  1  is the quadrature data. The signal coordinates are
 M

16
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques


 T  TS 
 
s 0   A S cos , A sin 

 2 M 2 M

 T 3 TS 3 

s1   A S cos , A sin 

 2 M 2 M  (1.61)
......

 T    TS   

s M 1   A S cos 2  , A sin  2  

 2  M 2  M 

Taking into account that
TS A 2TS
A   ES (1.62)
2 2
 The distance between two neighboring signal points is
   
d  2 E S sin    4 E S sin 2   (1.63)
M  M 

2(t)
s1

sS0
2/M

/M R0

/M 1(t)

sM-1

ES

Fig. 1.18. M-PSK signal constellation

 It is obvious that, as the number of points increases, the distance between two
adjacent points decreases. For small values of  /M, we can approximate
   4 2 E S 4 2 NEb
sin   so that d 2   (1.64)
M  M M2 M2
where it has been taken into account that TS  NTb and 2 N  M

1.4.4. Error probability evaluation

17
Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

 Assuming that s1 was transmitted, an error occurs when, due to the noise, the
received signal corresponding vector is placed outside the decision region R1
 
   
 4 NEb   2Q 2 NEb
2 2
 d  d  d 
P  e | s1   P n    2 P n    2Q   2Q  (1.65)
 2  2  2   2 N0   N0M 2 
 4M   
 2 

 Then, the probability of correct decision is

 
 4 2 NE   
  1  2Q 2 NE2 b
2
 d  d 
P c | s1   P n    1  2Q   1  2Q  b 
 2  2   4M 2 0N   N0M 
   
 2 
(1.66)
so the upper limit for the error probability is
1 M
1  2 2 NE 
Pc 
M
 P c | si   M
MP c | s1   1  2Q
 N0M 2
b 

i 1  
 2 2 NE 
Pe  1  Pc  2Q b 
 N0M 2 
  (1.67)
 If we want to keep the error probability unchanged as the number of signals
increases we must impose
 2 NEb  2 NEb
  k  const. (1.67)
N0 M 2 N0 22N
leading to
Eb k 2 2 N
 (1.68)
N0  2 N

This relation shows that signal to noise ratio increases in exponential manner
with N

1.5. QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (QASK)

 One idea to decrease the error probability is to let the in phase and quadrature
components might have different amplitudes, keeping thus the distance

18
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

between signal points constant. In this case the signal obtained will be
modulated both in amplitude

 The transmitted signal in any k-the symbol interval is one of the M=2N
possible ones
2
S i (t )   Ai cos 0t  Bi sin 0t  , kTs  t   k  1Ts
TS (1.77)

Ai , Bi   a,  3a,  ,   
M 1 a , M 2 N

where a is a parameter chosen such that the average energy is the same for all
signals. Assuming that the signals are equally likely, results

 
M 
Ai , Bi   (2i  1)a | i  1, 

 2 

(1.78)
1
p  Ai   p  Bi  
M

 Using
n
n( n  1)
i 1 2
n (1.79)
n( n  1)(2n  1)
 1
i2 
6

 it can be easily shown that

 M  M  M  M  M  
M
   1 2   1   1 
a2 2
2a 2  2  2  2  2  2   M  
   4   
Ai2  Bi2 
M
2  ( 2i  1) 
2
M 
4 6 2  2  

i 1  
 
 
a2
 ( 2 M  1)
3

(1.80)
 The symbol energy is, then,
2  Ai Bi 
TS TS 2 2
2
ES   si2 (t )dt   Ai cos 0t  Bi sin 0t  dt  

2
 TS
TS TS 2 2 
0 0   (1.81)
2 2 a 2 (2M  1) a 2 (2M  1)
 Ai  Bi  
3 3
3E
resulting the parameter a  2(2 M S 1) , where ES =NEb average energy per

symbol.

19
Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

1.5.1. QASK transmitter, receiver and carrier recovery schemes

 In the following we will consider the case of 16QAM (M=16, N=4). This
means that, for each symbol, four bits are taken from the source.
Ae  t  , Ao  t     a,  3a , t   0, Ts , Ts  4Tb (1.82)
Those signals are then multiplied with the in phase and quadrature carrier
components and summed in order to be transmitted. The block diagram is shown
in figure 1.19. The 16QAM transmitted signal is
s16QAM  t   A Ae  t  cos 0 t   Ao  t  sin   0 t   (1.83)

Fig. 1.19. 16QAM transmitter

20
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

 The 16 QASK receiver, shown in figure 1.20,

Fig. 1.20. 16QAM receiver

1.5.2. Power spectral density of 16QAM

 The baseband impulse for the inphase and quadrature is p t     t     t  Ts  ,

so the average Power Spectral Densities are
| P( ) |2 2 Es Ts  T  Es  T 
E Ai2 
2
SQASK|I      sinc 2  S  sinc 2  S   S QASK|Q    (1.84)
Ts Ts Ts 2 4  2  4  2 
 so the modulated signal aPSD is
ES   (  0 )TS   (  0 )TS 
SQASK     sinc 2    sinc 2   (1.85)
16   2   2 
where Ts  NTb . The bandwidth of the QASK signal is

21
Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

2 2
B  (1.86)
Ts NTb

the same as in the M-PSK case.

1.5.3.Signal space representation and error probability evaluation

 choosing as base vectors
2
1 (t )  cos 0t  t   0, Ts 
Ts
(1.87)
2
 2 (t )  sin  0t  t   0, Ts 
Ts

 The signal constellation is represented in figure 1.21. It can be easily

observed that there are three different types of decision regions.

 For region I, the probability of correct decision is

2
u1{a ,a},u2{ a ,a}
 
u2  2
 a e 2 2    2a 2 
P (C | I )   
 a 
2
du   1  2Q
  
 N0



(1.88)
 
 

N0
where the variance of noise vector projections on both axes is  nI2   nq2 
2

Fig. 1.21. 16QAM signal constellation

22
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

 For region II, the probability of correct decision is

 u1{  a,a}
  u2{ a,}
u2 u2
 
a
e

e   2a 2    2  (1.89)
  1  Q 2a
2σ 2 2σ 2
P(C|II)  
a πσ 2
du  
a πσ 2
du  1  2Q
  N0

 
 
 N0





 For region III, the probability of correct decision is

u2 2


e 2 2   2a 2 
P(C | III )  
a  2
du  1  Q
  N0




(1.90)

 Then the probability of error is

 m signals
 of type I 
 4 8 4 
Pe,s 1   P (C | I )  P (C | II )  P(C | III ) 
 16 16 16  (1.91)
                      
probability of correct reception for all signals

1.6. BINARY FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING (BFSK)

 In BFSK modulation scheme, the binary data waveform d(t) generates the
signal
vBFSK  t   A cos0t  d  t  t ; t   0, Tb  (1.92)
dt  1 vBFSK  t   s H  t   A cos 0    t , t   0, Tb 
d  t   1 vBFSK  t   s L  t   A cos 0    t t   o, Tb 
(1.93)

We call  H  0   the higher frequency and  L  0   the lower frequency.

1.6.1. The BFSK modulator and demodulator

 The BFSK signal can also be written, within a bit interval, as

s BFSK  t   A pH  t  cos( H t )  A pL  t  cos( L t ) (1.94)
where p H  t  , p L  t    0,1 are constant within a bit interval and related to the data
values as shown in table 1.2.
Table 1.2.
d(t) pH(t) pL(t)

23
Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

+1V +1V 0
-1V 0 +1V
 the BFSK signal can be generated by using two balanced modulators, one for
multiplying p H  t  with cos  H t  and the other for multiplying p L  t  with
cos  L t  , The block diagram of BFSK modulator is shown in figure 1.22.

pH  t  A p H  t  cos  H t 
A cos  H t 

s BFSK  t 

A cos  L t  A p L  t  cos  L t 
pL  t 

Fig. 1.21. The BFSK modulator

 The BFSK signal is typically demodulated by a noncoherent receiver that use

two bandpass filters with center frequencies  H and  L , followed by two
envelope detector and a comparator, as shown in figure 1.22.
B=2fb

Envelope
detector
H
FTB
sBFSK(t)
Comparator
B=2fb

Envelope
detector
L
FTB

Fig. 1.22. The BFSK modulator

1.6.2. Power Spectral Density of BFSK

 We may, however, rewrite p H  t  and p L  t  as a sum of a bipolar signal and a

constant term,

24
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

1 1
pL  t    p L (t ); p ' L  t     1,1
2 2
1 1
(1.95)
p H  t    p H (t ); p ' H  t     1,1
2 2
 The BFSK signal can be rewritten as
s BFSK  t   A cos  H t   A cos  L t   A p H  t  cos  H t   A p L  t  cos  L t  (1.96)
The first two terms in (1.96) produce a power spectral density which
consists of two Dirac-type impulses, one at H and one at L. The last two terms
produce the spectrum of two BPSK signals centered arround H and L. The
power spectral density of BFSK signal is shown in figure 1.23.

Fig. 1.22. The BFSK power spectral density

 The minimum frequency offset between H and L is

4
H  L min
 (1.97)
Tb

since, in this case, the two main lobe of the sinc functions does not overlap, so
we can distinguish, without difficulty, the binary waveform of d(t). The occupied
bandwidth, dictated by the main lobe of the DSP is, in this case
8 4
2BBFSK ,min   BBFSK ,min   4 fb (1.98)
Tb Tb

which is twice the bandwidth of BPSK.

1.6.3. Signal space representation and error probability evaluation.

25
Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

 we will establish the base vectors

2
1  t   cos 2mf b t , t   0, Tb 
Tb
(1.99)
2 1
2  t   cos 2nf b t , fb  , m, n  Z, m  n
Tb Tb

These vectors are m-th and n-th harmonics of the (fundamental) bit frequency fb.
Different harmonics (m ± n) are orthogonal over the interval of the fundamental
period Tb = 1/fb, since their scalar product
1 2 b 
Tb T Tb

1 ,  2   1  t  2  t  dt   cos 2  m  n  f b t dt  cos 2  m  n  f b t dt  
 
2 Tb  0
0  0 
1  sin 2  m  n  f t Tb
sin 2  m  n  f b t
Tb

  b
 0
Tb  2  m  n  f b 0
2  m  n  f b 0 

(1.100)
 Selecting f H  mf b , f L  nf b , from (1.97) we have mn  2. The
corresponding signal vectors are
sH  t   Eb 1  t 
(1.101)
sL  t   Eb  2  t 

A 2Tb
where Eb  is the bit energy. The signal space representation is shown in
2
figure 1.23.
2 t 

sL t

d  2Eb
Eb

1  t 
Eb sH  t 

Fig. 1.23. Signal space representation of BFSK signals

 The signals, like the unit vectors are orthogonal. The distance between signal
end points is d = 2 Eb , smaller then the distance separating end points of
BPSK signals, which are antipodal. The error probability is
 d  d   Eb 
Pe  P n    Q   Q 
 (1.102)
 2   2   N 0 

26
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

The error probability in dB versus the signal to noise ratio for BPSK and BFSK
signals is represented in figure 1.24. It can be seen that BPSK acieves better
performances then BFSK, since the distance between the two signal points is
larger.
-5

-10

-15
BFSK
-20

-25
10*log10(Pe)

BPSK
-30

-35

-40

-45

-50

-55
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Eb/N0 dB

Fig. 1.24. Error probablity in dB versus signal to noise ratio for BPSK and BFSK

1.7. M-ARY FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING (MFSK)

The modulation method can be extended in a natural way. If we are using

N bits to form a symbol, each group will select on of the M  2 N possible
frequencies  f 0 , f1 , ... f M 1 . The transmitted signal is
s MFSK  t   A cos 2f k t  , t   kTs ,  k  1Ts  (1.103)
where fk is the frequency generated within the k-th symbol interval

1.7.1. The MFSK modulator and demodulator

 The MFSK modulator block diagram is shown in figure 1.25. The data
stream is converted into a N bit symbol by the Serial to Parallel (S/P)
converter; its outpus stays unchanged on a duration of Ts  NTb sec. The
Digital to Analog (D/A) converter generates an output voltage, v s m  , with

27
Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

2N = M different values, in one to one correspondence to the possible symbols

applied at the input. The sine wave frequency controlled source generates a
constant amplitude carrier, whose frequency is controlled by v s m  . The
frequency will change at the end of each symbol period.
 The demodulator can be implemented as an extension of the BFSK one, as
shown in figure 1.26. The received signal is applied to M parallel bandpass
filters, with the center frequencies  f 0 , f1 , ... f M 1 , each of them followed by
an envelope detector. Their outputs are applied to device which determines
which input is the largest and transmits its index to the output. The value is
converted from an analogue value to a digital one, represented on N bits.

0
1 Sine wave
v(sm) source with SMFSK(t)
d(t) S/P D/A
the frequency
Converter Converter
controlled by
(sm)
N-1

will determine the frequency

of the MPSK signal within
each symbol interval

Fig. 1.25. The MPSK modulator

Fig. 1.26. The MPSK demodulator.

28
 Chapter 1. Digital Modulation Techniques

1.7.2. Power Spectral Density of MFSK

 It can be shown that the error probability is minimized when the

frequencies  f 0 , f1 , ... f M 1 are chosen such that the signals are mutually
orthogonal. It hase been shown in previous chapter that the minimum
separation between two adjacent frequencies is
1 1
fS   (1.104)
TS NTb

 A common approach is to select the carrier frequencies as successive even

1
harmonics of fs  , for instance
Ts

f 0  kf S ; f1   k  2 f S ; f 2   k  4 f S ; f 2   k  3 f S ; ... f N   k  2 N  f S (1.105)
 The power spectral density of the MFSK signal is shown in figure 1.27.
The occupied bandwidth is, in this case, minimum,
fb
B  2 Mf S  2 N 1 f S  2 N 1 (1.106)
N

Fig. 1.26. The MPSK average power spectral density

1.7.3. Signal space representation and error probability evaluation.

 In the case of orthogonal MFSK, the base vectors are the normalized
signal vectors

29
Data transmissions and multiple access techniques

2 1 1
1  t   cos 2kf S t , fS  
Tb TS NTb
2
2 t   cos 2  k  2  f S t
Tb (1.107)
2
2 t   cos 2  k  4  f S t
Tb
......

 The signal points are situated on those axes, at coordinates Es , where

A 2Ts A 2Tb
Es  N  NEb . The signal constellation is represented in figure
2 2
1.27, for N=3. The distance between two adjacent signals is d 2Es .
2 t

Es
2 Es

1  t 
Es
Es

3 t 

Fig. 1.27. Signal space representation for orthogonal MFSK, M=3.

 The probability of correct reception, for signal point s1 is

M
 d  d  d   d 
P c | s1   P n1    P n2     P nM    1  Q  (1.108)
 2  2  2   2 

 Since the signals are equally likely, the probability of correct reception for
all M signals is
M
M
1   d 
Pc  
i 1
p  si  P  c | s i   M
M 1  Q 2 
  
(1.109)

and the error probability is

M
  d   d   Es 
Pe  1  Pc  1  1  Q    M  1 Q    M  1 Q  (1.110)
 2  2  
   2N0 

30