Tap changers

The purpose of a tap changer is to regulate the output voltage of a transformer. It does this
by altering the number of turns in one winding and thereby changing the turns ratio of the
transformer. There are two types of transformer tap changers: an on-load tap changer
(OLTC) and a deenergised tap changer (DETC). Note that not all transformers have tap
changers.

An OLTC varies the transformer ratio while the transformer is energized and carrying load.
The switching principle uses the “make before break” contact concept. An adjacent tap is
bridged before breaking contact with the load carrying tap for the purpose of transferring
load from one tap to the other without interrupting or appreciably changing the load
current. While in a bridging position (i.e., contact is made with two taps), some form of
impedance (resistive or reactive) is present to limit circulating current. A high speed
resistive type OLTC uses a resistor pair to absorb energy and does not use the bridging
position as a service position. A reactive type OLTC uses a reactor that is designed for
continuous loading, e.g., a preventative autotransformer, and therefore uses the bridging
position as a service position.

There are two primary OLTC designs. A diverter design, used for higher voltages and
power, has both a tap selector and a separate diverter switch (also called arcing switch).
The switching arc may occur in oil or may be contained in a vacuum bottle. A non-diverter
design, used for lower voltage ratings, simply uses a so-called selector switch (also called
arcing tap switch) that combines the functions of a diverter switch and tap selector.

A DETC is a tap changer that cannot be moved while the transformer is energized. It often
has 5 positions (A,B,C,D,E, or 1,2,3,4,5). If a DETC is not exercised on a regular basis, there
is increased risk that the DETC will not make properly when next moved.

Tap changers have historically been one of the top causes of transformer failures
(Cigre_WG 12-05 “An international survey on failures in large power transformers in
service“, Electra No. 88, 1983, and ANSI/IEEE, 1985). Faults in OLTC’s can be classified as
dielectric failures (oil quality or clearance related), thermal failures (due to coking or crimp
problems), or mechanical failures (contact wear and misalignment, limit switches, sheared
pins on the linkage that operates the reversing switch, lubrication problems, etc). The
following electrical field tests provide information about the integrity of a transformer tap
changer.

OLTC diagnosis

Electrical field tests:

  Exciting current; exciting current tests have the ability to detect a myriad of
transformer tap changer problems (DETC and OLTC), including: misalignment,
coking and wear of contacts, loose moveable contacts, improper wiring from the tap
winding to the OLTC, reversed connections to the preventative autotransformer
(PA) of an OLTC, open- or short-circuited turns or high resistance connections in the
OLTC PA, series autotransformer or series transformer, and more.
 DC winding resistance; a DC winding resistance test is used to detect any problem
which impacts the integrity of the current carrying path between terminals of a
winding, including the tap changer. It is particularly adept in identifying partial
open-circuited conditions.
 Dynamic winding resistance; a dynamic winding resistance test is the measure of
the DC current and resistance (as a function of time) as the OLTC changes tap
position. It is particularly effective at identifying problems with the diverter switch,
diverter switch contacts and transition resistors of a resistive style OLTC. Generally,
the test assesses the integrity of any component which makes, carries or breaks
current during an OLTC operation.
 Sweep frequency response analysis (SFRA); the mechanical integrity of the tap
windings and their leads are assessed in the mid- to upper-frequency ranges of an
FRA test on a transformer

Oil Tests:

 DGA; normal gassing patterns (produced as insulating materials deteriorate) vary

for each family of OLTCs. DGA on a sample of oil from the OLTC is an effective tool
for identifying problems such as localised overheating or excessive arcing, which
will result in a change in the OLTC’s typical gassing behaviour (for example, the ratio
of the hydrocarbon gasses change).
 Dielectric Strength; checks that the dielectric breakdown voltage of the oil in the
OLTC is above a minimum threshold. This is influenced by the relative saturation of
water in oil and presence of conductive particles (number and size).
 Moisture; a test for excessive water in the tap changer, which reduces the dielectric
breakdown strength of the oil and can accelerate aging of the contacts

Other Tests:

 Infrared; checks for a temperature difference between the transformer’s main tank
and tap compartment; it is atypical for the tap compartment to be as hot or hotter
than the main tank,
 Acoustics
 Inspection