Build. Sci. Vol. 7, pp. 167-174. Pergamon Press 1972.

Printed in Great Britain I I I Yf I J 4 [

The Thermal Properties of Concrete

A. L. MARSHALL*
The thermal properties of concrete are reviewed. The influence of factors such
as age, water/cement ratio, temperature and moisture content on specific heat,
thermal expansion and diffusivity of cement paste, aggregates and concrete are
discussed.

INTRODUCTION surface conductivities. However, this discussion is

C O N C R E T E is a complex material which behaves
in an appropriately complex manner. Its properties
vary with age, temperature and humidity. Further-
more, at early ages heat is generated which may
result in substantial temperature increase. It there-
fore becomes difficult to predict its behaviour with
any real accuracy, even under controlled conditions,
and the use of published information must be care-
fully qualified unless the conditions of application
are close to those under which the information was
obtained.
This has particular relevance to the study of the
thermal behaviour of concrete. It is therefore use-
ful to survey information available on the thermal
properties of the material since it is scattered
amongst a large number of references and there
appears to be little readily accessible covering the
properties in general. Consequently this paper forms
an attempt to collate data from a number of sources
and to set out some at least of the factors which
govern such data.
To do this, it is convenient to consider the subject
from three aspects: the behaviour of hardened
cement paste, of aggregates and of the composite
material concrete. The principal thermal properties
will be discussed for each in turn but first they must
be enumerated.
THERMAL PROPERTIES
The properties which are of prime importance
are thermal expansion, thermal conductivity (k),
specific heat (c) and thermal diffusivity (h 2) which
is related to the last two and density (p) by the
expression
k the atmosphere will result in a dimensional change
h 2 ~ __
pc
i.e. it is the ratio of thermal conductivity to thermal
capacity. There are other properties of course,
including perhaps the so-called U-value or overall
coefficient of heat transfer which takes account of
*Civil Engineering Department, Sunderland Polytechnic.
167
concerned with the four named above because
there appears to be little readily-available data on,
for example, convection loss coefficients and
emissivities.
Such work as has been done generally concerns
the behaviour of concrete as a conductor. This is
important, certainly, but temperature change or
gradient (and hence thermal strain) at any instant is
dependent on heat exchange between the material
and its environment, whether acting as sink or
source, and this exchange is an essential part of
any attempted heat balance. It depends on the
surface characteristics already mentioned to which
can be added evaporative cooling and condensation
heating, because there is also moisture exchange
between material and environment. In many cases
these may be insignificant but they do complicate
the pattern and should be kept in mind when study-
ing available data and its possible applications.
CEMENT PASTE
Thermal expansion
It will be obvious from the discussion which
follows that careful definition of the conditions of
test is necessary in discussing thermal expans!on of
cement paste. Hence any quoted expansion must
itself be carefully defined. For example, if a large
specimen is used (say a 10 cm diameter cylinder)
then, when the temperature is changed, time must
be allowed for the specimen to reach thermal
stability. Under some conditions this can result in
a significant change in properties at very early ages.
On the other hand, if a small specimen is used
(say 2.5 cm square prism) moisture exchange with
due to drying or wetting, unless the specimen is
saturated which is perhaps an unlikely condition
in hardening concrete in practice. Some of the
author's own work is concerned with this problem.
The thermal expansion of cement paste is
moisture dependent[1]--at its lowest when dry or
saturated and at its highest at intermediate humi-
dities (60-70%). (Fineness of grinding also has a
168 .~1. L. Mar.vhaH

significant influence[2].) Meyers[l] used specimens

4 months old and Mitchell's tests[2] were per- The author is not aware of any relevant data: his
formed at ages ranging from 7 to 130 days: con- own programme may shed light on the subject.
tinuously moistcured specimens showed no signi-
T h e r m a l conductit,it.v
ficant change with age. However, tests on mature,
saturated specimens have shown that the pheno- Because it contains moisture the thermal con-
menon is more complex than these comments ductivity of concrete is not easy to measure, since
might suggest[3]. Specimens subjected to a tem- the introduction of a heat source is likely to set up
perature change and then held at constant tempera- moisture gradients. Nevertheless, moisture content
ture continued to change in length for some time has a major influence on the thermal conductivity
afterwards before stabilising. This is attributed to of most materials as Table 115] indicates, con-
interchange of moisture by diffusion between
capillary spaces and gel spaces. On the other hand, Table I. (after Jakobl5]). Factor f to correct ~,alae.~ o/ k li,r
water content w in col. %
self-desiccated specimens showed higher expansions
(twice as much as water-saturated specimens in
w 1 2.5 5 10 15 20 25
some cases) and did not change in length at constant
/ 1.30 1.55 1.75 2.10 2.35 2.55 2-75
temperature after a temperature change. The reason
for this is thought to be that, although a saturated
paste expands on warming, for example, there is a firmed by more recent work[6]. Moisture effects for
concurrent diffusion of moisture from gel spaces a number of materials have been discussed else-
to capillary pores, causing a contraction due to where[7] and data is available[8] on which correc-
moisture loss from the gel. This is less than the tions might be based. Some theoretical considera-
thermal expansion of saturated gel so the result is tions and experimental results have also been
a net expansion. (Presumably, under the conditions presented[9].
of test, the rates of the two processes are different There is evidence[10] to suggest that the thermal
giving the apparent time effect already noted.) In conductivity of moist portland cement paste is
self-desiccated pastes there is not sufficient moisture largely independent of initial water/cement ratio.
available for diffusion so the degree of contraction age and temperature but it does appear[l 1], as the
is reduced, resulting in a higher net expansion. The remarks above suggest, that there is a significant
implication in this work is that there are no dimen- change with moisture content. This confirms
sional changes due to capillary tension changes theoretical assessment[l 1]. The relationship
under the particular conditions of test. between conductivity and moisture content is
Consequently the coefficient of thermal expan- almost linear at temperatures up to about 3ff~C.
sion cannot be uniquely defined for a cement paste Some experimental work[l 1] indicates a value of
and three coefficients have therefore been pro- about 1.10-1.30 Wm/m 2 °C for moist paste.
posed :[4]
Speeih'c heat
~ the "instantaneous" coefficient, used to
measure a process too rapid to permit an There appears to be little published evidence on
appreciable redistribution of moisture within the specific heat of cement paste as affected by
various factors. It has been stated[12], however.
the specimen.
that temperature is an important influence and this
~,, measures a process which is slow enough for seems to be confirmed[4] as Table 2 shows. The
continuous redistribution of moisture to occur
but without change in total moisture content. Table 2. (quoted by Verbeck and Helmuth[41).
~,t for a process in which equilibrium is main- Specific heat o f cement paste cals/gm/~C
tained in a paste which is saturated and has
access to water. Temperature Water/cement ratio
(C) 0.25 0.60
~,,, is the coefficient likely to be of most practical
importance. 21 0.265 0.380
34 0.277 0.408
It is also relevant to note that it has been sug- 43 0.303 0.455
54 0.340 0"505
gested that the compressibility of cement gel varies 65 0.400 0-580
with moisture content[l].
In general, the preceding remarks relate to
mature concrete. At early or very early ages it same trend is evident in the results of other tests[14].
seems at least possible that there are significant There is also some variation with water/cement
changes with time in the coefficient of expansion. ratio[15] and a smaller variation with age, slight
 The Thermal Properties of Concrete
in the first few days. That there is a variation with
water/cement ratio is confirmed by theory and experi-
ment[16] from which it appears that calculation by
the method of mixtures applied to a simple mixture
of cement powder and water is not adequate:
judging by Siegmann's figures[16] it is likely to
lead to an over-estimate, particularly during
hardening.
Thermal diffusivity
This does not appear to have been measured
directly on cement paste although there are a
number of studies on concrete to which reference
will be made later. Since it is a function of con-
ductivity, specific heat and density, it will vary
according to different influences on these. Since
both conductivity and specific heat increase with
moisture content then one might expect a reduced
influence on diffusivity. There are no figures
available to the author for such relative effects but
some concerning the influence of temperature[14]
show that diffusivity decreases with increase in
temperature.
Conclusion
A general conclusion on the thermal behaviour
of cement paste is difficult to arrive at but it is
evident that statement of thermal properties is in-
adequate unless it is related to age, temperature and
moisture content at the least. The thermal behaviour
of hydrating or hydrated cement is complex and
any values used, based on published figures, would
need to be carefully qualified.
AGGREGATES--THERMAL BEHAVIOUR
There is at least one general survey[17] of the
thermal behaviour of aggregates. The quoted range
of thermal expansion is 0.9-16.0x 10-6/°C but
typical values are not given for the other thermal
properties. Emphasis is given to possible aniso-
tropy, particularly in rocks containing calcite, a
feature demonstrated most effectively elsewhere[18].
It is a factor which cannot be ignored although it
might be expected that any such tendency will be
reduced in concrete since the aggregate particles
will probably have a random orientation. On the
Other hand particle shape may result in a "pre-
ferred" orientation--flaky or elongated particles
might tend to behave in such a manner.
It is again convenient to deal with the thermal
properties separately.
Thermal expansion
The results of a comprehensive study on the
thermal expansion of materials for concrete
aggregates have been reported[19]. It is obvious
169
that petrography and mineralogy are of funda-
mental importance and that, without a knowledge
of these, materials from different sources but of
similar composition cannot be compared. Descrip-
tion, source, thermal expansion coefficients, texture
and mineral composition are given for all the
materials tested. In many cases the proportions of
the various mineral constituents are given. It is
stated that rocks from various sources but of similar
composition have approximately the same expan-
sivities. It seems, however, that this is true only if the
number of minerals present is small because, in the
case of igneous and volcanic rocks particularly,
there is considerable variation (these "have several
minerals as part of their essential compositions
and a large number of possible accessory and altera-
tion minerals")[19]. Furthermore, "the cubical
expansion of rocks and minerals, in general, is not
directly related to the linear expansion."[20]
The general study of petrography is dealt with
of course in many appropriate geological textbooks
but its application to aggregates in particular is
dealt with in two papers at least[21, 22]. More
recently, the contribution of petrography to the
study of the physical and mechanical properties of
rocks has been assessed[23] and an index of quality
defined which i s intended to facilitate the inter-
pretation of qualitative data. This might be useful
in the consideration of crushed rock aggregate
sources.
A summary of thermal coefficients is given in
Table 3. This gives an indication of the range of
values which might be expected. Other lists have
also been published[2, 25].
Table 3. (after Skinner[24]). Thermal expansion of rocks.
Temperature interval 20-100°C
Average linear
expansion No. of
R o c k type coefficient determinations
Granites a n d rhyolites 8 + 3 × 10-6 21
Andesites a n d diorites 7+ 2 4
Basalts, gabbros a n d
diabases 5.4 _+ 1 10
Sandstones 10 ___2 I0
Quartzites 11 2
Limestones 8+ 4 20
Marbles 7 _+2 9
Slates 9+ 1 3
The remarks above are generally applicable to
crushed rock aggregates and the quoted references
deal with these in particular. However, a great deal
of concrete is made with gravel aggregates and
relevant information is difficult to obtain. Gravel
sources may be more variable but arguments
analagous to the mineral composition of crushed
rocks can perhaps be applied to the influence of
170 A. L. Marshall

gravel composition. A method has in fact been Values measured for some American dams[30]
described[26] to facilitate the measurement of the are given in Table 4 to indicate the possible range
cubical expansion of materials (such as gravels and while some low temperature values have also been
sands in the present context)--the properties of reported [ 10].
crushed rock can be directly measured,
It is not clear to what extent porosity might Specific heat
affect the thermal expansion of aggregates but it Values appear to be less readily available than
does affect, with permeability and absorption, for the other thermal properties, but the values
other properties such as chemical stability[22]. given in Table 4 suggest that, although there i~
Micro-cracking may also have some influence since some variation, it is less dependent on composition
it can affect the behaviour of the material-- than are other properties.
apparently similar rocks from similar sources can be
quite different in behaviour, particularly in freezing Table 4. (Bureau of Reclamation data[30]). Thermal conduc-
and thawing tests[21 ]. Porosity and micro-cracking tivity and specific heat of some rocks for concrete aggregate
also, as one might expect, have an influence on the
Thermal
index of quality[23]. A table has been published[27] Specific heat Conductivity
(based on a survey of a number of references) which Aggregate (kcal/kg °C) (kcal m/m z h (3
shows a tendency to a reduction in coefficient of
Quartz 0'175 4.45
expansion with a reduction in silica content, but Granite 0"171 2.50
the relationship may be more complex since the Dolomite 0.192 3-70
coefficient of expansion of silicates varies[24] and, Limestone 0.202 2-78
Basalt 0.183 1.47
in some cases, they are also anisotropic. Marble 0.209 2-11
If one can summarise, the following quotation Feldspar 0.194 2-00
in ay serve: [18 ]
" . . . the following features are of decisive im-
portance for thermal dilatation : CONCRETE--THERMAL BEHAVIOUR
I. mineral composition--the thermal dilatation Having discussed the thermal properties of tile
of rock is actually the resultant of thermal main constituents of concrete it is appropriate n o ~
dilatations of minerals of which the rock to consider the composite material. As a guide, it
consists, would be difficult to do better than to reiterate
2. rock structure, some of the main conclusions reached in the
Boulder Canyon Project report :[14]
3. rock texture."
I. Thermal properties of concrete are not
affected by age.
Thermal conductivity 2. Rock type of coarse aggregate is the most
The results of tests on a number of rocks have important variable affecting conductivity.
been reported[28]. Some display a reduction in 3. Original water content has much less effect
conductivity with increase in temperature (for on conductivity than the type of coarse
example calcite, marble, limestone, dolomite and aggregate. Increased (mixing) water content
some holocrystalline rocks) while some others produces decreased conductivity.
exhibit little change or a slight increase with increase
4. High conductivities decrease with an increase
in temperature (anorthosites and diabasic rocks).
of temperature, average conductivities show
Elsewhere[29] values are listed from a number of
little change with variation of temperature and
sources and it is pointed out that such factors as
low conductivities increase with an increase
bedding, schistosity and fracturing may introduce
of temperature.
marked differences in different directions. It also
appears that "even for relatively well-defined sub- 5. Rock type of coarse aggregate produces small
stances, measurements by qualified investigators variation in specific heat.
show startling discrepancies"[29] some of which 6. Specific heat varies with original water
must be attributed to experimental error. From content. This variation, per unit of weight, i~
further tabulated values it is also evident that several times greater than for other materials.
wetting and compression have a significant effect However, since the variation in weight of
on the thermal conductivity of certain rocks water is limited, the total effect of varied
although the compressive load quoted is fairly high water content is limited to about ten per
(68.95 MN/m2). Increase due to wetting appears cent. Specific heat increases as water content
to be not necessarily due to porosity. increases.
 The Thermal Properties o f Concrete
7. Specific heat increases as temperature in-
creases.
8. Diffusivity varies over a wide range due to
change in rock type.
9. Diffusivity decreases as (original) water con-
tent increases.
10. Diffusivity decreases as temperature in-
creases.
By and large these conclusions confirm some of
the comments made previously and the report is an
excellent guide in the absence of specific informa-
tion. Some qualification is necessary, however,
and this relates principally to the influence of age.
The tests reported were carried out on relatively
mature concrete and it is possible, as will be shown,
that during the first few days there are significant
changes. Furthermore, the report does not deal
with thermal expansion. Consequently it should be
useful to consider some of the other available
literature.
Thermal expansion
If concrete is regarded as a cement paste matrix
with aggregate filler then one might expect the
behaviour of the paste to be modified by the filler.
The degree of modification will depend on the
relative coefficients of expansion of the two (or
more) materials and their relative rigidities. For
example,[1] the thermal expansion of concrete
relative to paste is reduced relatively more with
aggregates of low coefficients of expansion than
with those of high expansion. Bonnell and Harper
[25] confirm the influence of aggregate on the
thermal expansion of concrete. Unfortunately they
did not study the influence of water/cement ratio
and, in their oft-quoted work, used concretes of the
same slump. There may have been some masking
of effect, therefore, particularly at intermediate
humidities.
The fine aggregate has an important influence[31 ]
but, as an approximate indication, there is some
evidence[32] to show that aggregates affect the
thermal coefficients of mortar and concrete roughly
in proportion to their quantity in the mixture
(absolute volume of coarse aggregate expressed as
a percentage of the volume of concrete). It has also
been concluded[2] that "The coefficient of thermal
expansion of concrete can be determined from the
weighted averages of the coefficient of thermal
expansion of the various constituents if the correct
moisture effect can be determined." It is important
to reduce thermal expansion differences between
aggregate and matrix[33] and it is therefore recom-
mended that the coefficients be determined for the
constituents as well as the composite.
171
A few mathematical models have been suggested.
Two proposed by Dougill[34] are:
Ea
°co geta + (1 -- g)ctp 4 ~p get, + (1 -- g)ctp
= 2 Ea (1)
2 ~ g+2(l--g)
/~p
and
(~c - ~ta) = (~-- °ta)(1 - g)" (2)
A third, postulated by Hobbs[35] is:
(ot~ - cQg2k a
~c = ~tm k,, + k , + g ( k , - k,,) (3)
is the coefficient of thermal expansion, E is
Young's modulus, k the bulk modulus, g the
aggregate volume concentration and n an exponent.
The suffices c, m, p and a refer to concrete, mortar,
paste and aggregate respectively.
At very early ages, of course, there is a rapid
change in the properties of concrete and this is
thought to apply to thermal expansion[27]. It
might be expected that creep (or stress relaxation)
in the cement paste or mortar would be fairly high,
but at the same time strengths are low and rigidity
of the paste is very low relative to the aggregate.
There might then be some internal disruption of
the material where there are significant temperature
changes and differences in coefficients of expansion.
Hence the relationships given above may not be
applicable at early ages, although some modification
to the elastic modulus might take account of it.
Thermal conductivity and diffusivity
Useful guidance may be obtained from the
Boulder Canyon Project report[14] on the relative
influences of the major variables on the composite
and Table 5 is therefore reproduced from it. One
quoted range of values of diffusivity is 0.00186 m2/h
(basalt aggregate) to 0.00744 m2/h (chert aggregate)
The Boulder Canyon Report gives an empirical
method for predicting conductivity and specific heat
based on "the verified assumption that various con-
crete materials contribute to the conductivity or
specific heat of concrete in proportion to the amount
of material present." The proportions are by weight
and percentage. Reference should be made to the
report for the relevant values but it is obvious that
rock type has the major influence: the factors for
all the rock types quoted are greater than the
cement factors apart from their greater proportion
by weight.
This is evident from theoretical considerations
[11] although the relationship to weight is not as
simple as is expressed above:
k c = km(2M-M2)q kmka(l--M) 2
k . M +k,.(l - M )
172 A. L. Marshall
Table 5. (Boulder Canyon Project report[14]). Relative effec'ts of major cariables on thermal
properties of concrete
Test conditions Conductivity
Type o f coarse aggregate Varied as
varied through range of much as
tests a 2 ".,,
_ 8 '!,;
Water content increased Decreased as
from 4 to 8 ~o of the m u c h as
concrete weight 1 0.0
o 12 o,,
Mean temperature o f Increased as
concrete increased from much as 12)o
10 to 65 ~C and decreased
as m u c h as 6 ~o
where M = 1 - v " ( l - p ) and p is the volume of
mortar per unit volume of concrete, k is thermal
conductivity and the suffices m and a refer to
mortar and aggregate respectively. It has also been
demonstrated theoretically[36] that such relation-
ships are largely independent of variations in pore
or particle geometry, provided the inclusions do
not extend as continuous layers or columns
through the material.
During the first few days of the life of the material
it can be inferred that the important chemical
changes taking place which convert the material
from a viscous liquid or "soil" to a (relatively) rigid
solid will have a significant effect on thermal
properties. This appears to be borne out by some
experimental work[37, 38] which indicates that
thermal conductivity decreases by the order of
30% during the first seven days after casting.
Specific heat
The Boulder Canyon Report[14] gives factors
for calculating specific heat. It appears, J37, 38]
however, that there is a reduction of over 2 0 ~ in
the first few days. Reference[39] has been made to
rapid changes in specific heat of adiabatically
curing concrete at ages earlier than 14 days, a
feature which has been echoed[40]. There is thus
some doubt as to what the values are during the
early stages. This may be due in part to the " n o r m a l "
practice of using the method of simple mixtures
For composite calculations, a practice which may
be doubtful[16].
CONCLUSION
It is evident that a number of factors affect the
thermal behaviour of concrete, in particular, age,
temperature and moisture content. The two latter
are determined by the environment in which the
material is situated, other than during the initial
Thermal properties
Specific
heat Diffusivity
Varied as Varied as
much as much as
47"~,
Increased as Decreased as
much as much as
1 6 o. ,
Increased as Decreased as
much as much as
24!~/i 21 ',.,
period when heat is being generated in the cement
water reaction. However, it is perhaps more true
to say that, within the normal range, it is the cement
paste which is affected by these, particularly where
a non-absorbent aggregate is being used.
The most significant influence on concrete appears
to be variations in the type of aggregate. Con-
sequently, if one is looking for accuracy in estimat-
ing particular thermal properties, it must be related
to the accuracy of measurement of the properties
of the aggregate. Inspection of Table 3 demon-
strates that there are wide variations within in-
dividual rock types. Hence it follows that the type
of aggregate must be very carefully defined before
proper use can be made of published values. Here
it can be argued, of course, that reasonable estimates
can be made but one must then define "reasonable".
For example, is 5~o error, or 10~, or even 20°,,
acceptable? Because, apart from attempting to
understand the behaviour of the material, the chief
value of figures is in attempting to estimate par-
ticular properties. Even the use of formulae such
as those quoted in the paper is dependent on the
actual values fed into the formulae.
Despite the body of information already avail-
able there appears to be no substitute for experi-
mental determination of the required properties,
using the actual materials to be employed in con-
struction. Here again there must be reservations
because environmental influences are extremely
important and it is difficult in many cases to predict
the natural environment with real accuracy al-
though for design purposes the extreme values may
be of more concern. The size of structural member
is also significant here: for example, the smaller it
is, the more rapid is the heat transfer and so the
more rapid is the movement and the less the
possible benefits of creep.
There is still much to be learned and this is
especially true of early-age behaviour. Very little
 The Thermal Properties of Concrete 173

evidence is available but what there is suggests
substantial variation in the first few days. Evidently
there is scope for further work and the author's
own p r o g r a m m e is directed towards throwing
further light on the subject. However, even with
mature concrete there are substantial gaps in the
available data which could usefully be filled.
Acknowledgement--This paper results from a review of the
early-age behaviour of concrete prepared at the suggestion
of The Science Research Council whose award of a travel
grant in the United Kingdom has made it possible and to
whom the author's thanks are due. His thanks are also due
to the many people in this country and overseas who provided
information and references on which the review is based.

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L'article passe en revue les propri6t6s thermiques du b6ton et c o m m e n t e l'influence

de certains facteurs tels que l'hge, le r a p p o r t eau/ciment, la t e m p & a t u r e et la teneur en
humidit6 et I'aptitude/~ la diffusion de la pfite de ciment, des additifs et du b6ton.

Die thermischen Eigenschaften yon Beton werden besprochen. Der Einfluss von
F a k t o r e n wie Alter, Verh/iltnis Wasser zu Zement, T e m p e r a t u r und Feuchtigkeitsgehalt
hinsichtlich der spezifischen W/irme, thermische A u s d e h n u n g und Diffusionskoeffizient
yon Zementpaste, Zuschl/ige und Beton werden behandelt.