SOLUTIONS MANUAL

Fluid Mechanics
for Engineers

David A. Chin

May 6, 2016
Chapter 1

Properties of Fluids

1.1. (a) Find the dimensions of CL as follows,

FL MLT−2 MLT−2
CL = → CL = = =1
1 2
2 ρV A
(ML−3 )(LT−1 )2 (L2 ) MLT−2

Therefore CL is dimensionless and does not depend on the system of units used.
(b) No adjustment factor is necessary when USCS units are used instead of SI units.

1.2. (a) Inserting the dimensions of the variables in the given equation yields
d2 z dz
ρ 2
+a + bz = c
dt dt
[ ][ ] [ ]
M L L
+ a + b[L] = c
L3 T2 T
[ ] [ ]
M L
2 2 + a + b[L] = c
L T T
Therefore, the required dimensions of the parameters a, b, and c are,
[ ] [ ] [ ]
M M M
a= , b= , c=
L3 T L3 T2 L2 T2

(b) If ρ∗ , z ∗ , and t∗ are the given variables in nonstandard units, then the conversion factors
are:
ρ z t
∗
= 103 , ∗
= 10−3 , = 3600
ρ z t∗

1.3. (a) Inserting the dimensions of the variables in the given equation yields
5 5
1 A 3 12 1 (L2 ) 3
L3 T−1 = L3 T−1 = L 3
1 8
Q= S → (−) 2 →
n P 32 0 2
(−) L 3
Since the dimension of the left-had side of the equation is not equal to the dimension on
the right-hand side of the equation, the given equation is not dimensionally homogeneous .

1
 (b) If the length units are changed from m to ft and 1 m = 3.281 ft, then inserting this
conversion factor into the given equations requires that
[ ]5
−2 A′ 3 1
1 (3.281)
(3.281)−3 Q′ = S2
n [(3.281)−1 P ′ ] 32 0

where the primed quantities have length units of ft. Simplifying the above equation and
removing the primes gives
1 5 5
3.281 3 A 3 12 1.486 A 3 12
Q= S → Q= S
n P 23 0 n P 23 0

Therefore, the conversion factor to be added is 1.486 .

1.4.
Quantity Dimension Typical SI Unit
energy FL = ML2 T−2 J
force F = MLT−2 N
heat FL = ML2 T−2 J
moment FL = ML2 T−2 N·m
momentum MV = MLT−1 kg·m/s
power FLT−1 = ML2 T−3 W
pressure FL−2 = ML−1 T−2 Pa
strain LL−1 = − −
stress FL−2 = ML−1 T−2 Pa
work FL = ML2 T−2 J

1.5.
Given With Prefix
5.63 × 107 N 56.3 MN
8.27 × 105 Pa 827 kPa
3.86 × 10 − 4 m2 0.0386 km2
7.88 × 105 m 788 km

1.6.
Quantity USCS Abbreviation In SI Units
12 gallons per minute 12 gpm 45.4 L/min
55 miles per hour 55 mph 88.5 km/h
5 feet per second 5 ft/s 1.5 m/s
125 cubic feet per minute 125 cfm 3.54 m3 /min
1000 gallons 1000 gal 3785 L
25 acres 25 ac 10.1 ha
500 horsepower 500 hp 373 kW

2
 1.7. (a)
ft·lb m N
1 hp = 550 × 0.3048 × 4.448 = 745.7 W
s ft lb
(b)
lb N 1 in2
1 lb/in2 = 1 × 4.448 × = 6.894 × 103 Pa = 6.894 kPa
in2 lb 0.02542 m2
1.8. From the given data: ρ0 = 1000 kg/m3 , and the density deviates most from 1000 kg/m3 at
T = 100◦ C, where ρ = 958.4 kg/m3 . Hence, the maximum error in assuming a density of
1000 kg/m3 is
1000 − 958.4
error = × 100 = 4.3%
958.4
1.9. From the given data: V1 = 3 L, ρ1 = 1030 kg/m3 , V2 = 5 L, and ρ = 920 kg/m3 . The density
of the mixture, ρm , is given by

ρ1 V1 + ρ2 V2 (1030)(3) + (920)(5)
ρm = = = 961 kg/m3
V1 + V2 3+5

Note: The volumes do not need to be converted from L to m3 since the conversion factor
would cancel out.

1.10. (a) The specific weight, γ, is derived from the density, ρ, using the relation: γ = ρg = 9.807ρ.
Obtaining ρ from Appendix B.1 gives:

Temperature ρ γ
(◦ C) (kg/m3 ) (N/m3 )
0 999.8 9805
20 998.2 9789
100 958.4 9399

(b) The specific gravity, SG, is derived from the density, ρ, using the relation: SG = ρ/ρ4◦ C .
Obtaining ρ from Appendix B.1 gives:

Temperature ρ SG
(◦ C) (kg/m3 ) (–)
0 999.8 1.000
20 998.2 0.998
100 958.4 0.958

1.11. From the given data: V1 = 400 L, T1 = 15◦ C, and T2 = 90◦ C. The densities of water
corresponding to T1 and T2 (from Appendix B.1) are: ρ1 = 999.1 kg/m3 and ρ2 = 965.3 kg/m3 .

(a) The initial mass, m1 , in the tank is given by

m1 = ρ1 V1 = (999.1)(0.4) = 399.6 kg

3
 The volume of water after heating to 90◦ C is given by
m1 399.6
V2 = = = 0.4140 m3 = 414.0 L
ρ2 965.3
Therefore, the spilled volume, ∆V , is given by

∆V = V2 − V1 = 414 − 400 = 14 L

(b) The spilled mass, ∆m is given by

∆m = ρ2 ∆V = (965.3)(14 × 10−3 ) = 13.5 kg

The percent change in the mass (= percent change in weight) is 13.5/399.6 × 100 =
3.4%
1.12. From the given data: γ = 12 kN/m3 = 12 000 N/m3 . For water at 4◦ C: ρw = 1000 kg/m3 .
According to the definitions of density and specific gravity,
γ
ρ= = (12000)(9.807) = 1224 kg/m3
g
ρ 1224
SG = = = 1.224
ρw 1000

1.13. From the given data: SG = 1.5. For water at 4◦ C: ρw = 1000 kg/m3 . According to the
definitions of density and specific weight,

ρ = SG · ρw = (1.5)(1000) = 1500 kg/m3

γ = ρg = (1500)(9.807) = 14 710 N/m3 ≃ 14.7 kN·m3

1.14. For any given volume, V , containing a mixture, let Cm = mass ratio, ρf = density of the pure
fluid, ρm = density of the mixture, mf = mass of pure fluid, mm = mass of mixture, ms =
mass of solids in the mixture, SGf = specific gravity of pure fluid, and SGm = specific gravity
of mixture. Therefore,

mf = ρf V, mm = ρm V, ms = mm − mf = (ρm − ρf )V

Using these relationships yields,

ms (ρm − ρf )V ρf SGf
Cm = = =1− → Cm = 1 −
mm ρm V ρ m SGm

1.15. From the given data: ρ = 800 kg/m3 . For water at 4◦ C: ρw = 1000 kg/m3 . According to the
definitions given in Equations 1.9 and 1.10,

γ = ρg = (800)(9.807) = 7846 N/m3 ≃ 7.85 kN·m3

ρ 800
SG = = = 0.80
ρw 1000

4
1.16. From the given data: M = 200 kg, and SG = 1.5. At 4◦ C the density of water is ρw =
1000 kg/m3 . The volume, V , of the reservoir is given by
M 200
V = = = 0.133 m2
ρw · SG (1000)(1.5)

1.17. From the given data: Wc = 10 N, and Wt = 50 N. For kerosene at 20◦ C, ρ = 808 kg/m3 and
γ = 7924 N/m3 (Appendix B.4). Using these data gives the following,
weight of kerosene, Wk = Wt − Wc = 50 − 10 = 40 N
Wk 40
volume of kerosene, Vk = = = 5.048 × 10−3 m3 = 5.05 L
γ 7924
Wk 40
mass of kerosene = = = 4.08 kg
g 9.807

1.18. The bulk modulus, Ev , is defined by Equation 1.12 as

dp
Ev = − (1)
dV /V
where the density of the fluid, ρ, is defined by
M
ρ= (2)
V
where M is the (constant) mass of fluid and V is the volume of fluid that is compressed by
the fluid pressure. Differentiating Equation 2 with respect to V gives
dρ M
=− 2 (3)
dV V
Combining Equations 2 and 3 to eliminate M yields
dρ ρ
=−
dV V
or
dV dρ
=− (4)
V ρ
Finally, combining Equations 1 and 4 gives

dp
Ev =
dρ/ρ

1.19. Equation 1.13 can be approximated by

∆ρ ∆p
= (1)
ρ Ev
and at 20◦ C, Ev = 2.18 × 106 kPa (Table B.1). For ∆ρ/ρ = 0.01, Equation 1 becomes
∆p
0.01 = → ∆p = 2.18 × 104 kPa = 21.8 MPa
2.18 × 106

5
1.20. From the given data: T = 20◦ C, D = 3 m, R = D/2 = 1.5 m, and ∆p = 9 MPa. For water
at 20◦ C, ρ0 = 998.2 kg/m3 and Ev = 2.18 × 106 kPa (from Appendix B.1). Using these data,
the volume, V , of the tank, and the initial mass, m0 is the tank are calculated as

V = 43 πR3 = 43 π(1.5)3 = 14.14 m3 , m0 = ρ0 V = (998.2)(14.14) = 1.411 × 104 kg

From the definition of the bulk modulus, Ev ,

∆p ∆m ∆p ∆p
Ev ≈ → = → ∆m = m0
∆ρ/ρ0 m0 Ev Ev

Substituting the given and derived data into this relationship yields,

9 × 103
∆m = (1.411 × 104 ) = 58.3 kg
2.18 × 106

1.21. From the given data: p1 = 100 kPa, p2 = 20 000 kPa, V1 = 1.700 m3 , and V2 = 1.650 m3 .
Using the definition of the bulk modulus given by Equation 1.12,
∆p 20000 − 100
Ev ≈ − =− = 6.766 × 105 kPa = 677 MPa
∆V /V 1.650 − 1.700
1.700

1.22. From the given data: V1 = 10 m3 , and ∆p = 10 MPa. For benzene, Ev = 1030 MPa (Appendix
B.4). Using the definition of the bulk modulus given by Equation 1.12,

∆p 10
Ev ≈ − → 1030 ≈ − → ∆V ≈ 0.0971 m3
∆V /V1 ∆V
10

1.23. From the given data: T1 = 10◦ C, and T2 = 100◦ C. The average coefficient of volume
expansion, β, between T1 and T2 is derived from Appendix B.1 as β̄ = 0.418 × 10−3 K−1 .

(a) Applying Equation 1.19 (with ∆p = 0) gives

∆ρ
≈ −β̄∆T = −0.418 × 10−3 (100 − 10) = −0.0376 = −3.76%
ρ

(b) Let A be the surface area of the water in the pot (assumed to be constant), h1 is the
depth of water at T1 , and h1 + ∆h be the depth of water at T2 . Therefore, since the
mass of water is constant,
∆h ρ1 − ρ2
ρ1 Ah1 = ρ2 A(h1 + ∆h) → ρ1 h1 = ρ2 h1 + ρ2 ∆h → = (1)
h1 ρ2
The density of water at T1 = 10◦ C and T2 = 100◦ C are obtained from Appendix B.1 as
ρ1 = 999.7 kg/m3 and ρ2 = 958.4 kg/m3 , respectively. Using Equation 1 gives

∆h 999.7 − 958.4
= = 0.0431 = 4.31%
h1 958.4

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1.24. from the given data: β = 5.7 × 10−4 K−1 , T1 = 10◦ C, and T2 = 90◦ C. Applying Equation
1.19 (with ∆p = 0) gives
∆ρ
≈ −β∆T = −5.7 × 10−4 (90 − 10) = −0.0432 = −4.32%
ρ

1.25. From the given data: T1 = 15◦ C, ∆V /V1 = 0.01, and β = 9.5 × 10−4 K−1 . Using the given
data,
V2 − V1 V2 V2
= 0.01 → − 1 = 0.01 → = 1.01 (1)
V1 V1 V1
∆ρ  /V2 − 
m /V1
m ∆ρ V1
= → = −1 (2)
ρ1 /V1
m
 ρ1 V2
∆ρ
= −5.7 × 10−4 ∆T (3)
ρ1
where ∆T is the maximum allowable temperature rise. Combining Equations 1 to 3 yields
∆T = 10.4◦ C .
1.26. From√the given data: T = 20◦ C = 293 K. Noting that the speed of sound, c, is given by
c = Ev /ρ, the calculation of the speed of sound in water and mercury are summarized in
the following table:

Ev ρ c
Medium
(×106 Pa) (kg/m3 ) (m/s)
Water 2171 998 1475
Mercury 26200 13550 1390

Therefore, the speed of sound in water at 20◦ C is 1475 m/s , and the speed of sound in
mercury at 20◦ C is 1390 m/s .

1.27. From the given data: c = 1700 m/s, and SG = 1.8. For water at 4◦ C, ρw = 1000 kg/m3 .
Using Equation 1.15, the bulk modulus, Ev , is calculated as follows:
√ √
Ev Ev
c= → 1700 = → Ev = 3.06 × 106 Pa = 3.06 MPa
SG · ρw (1.8)(1000)

1.28. From the given data: n1 = 1010 molecules per mm3 , and T = 15◦ C = 288 K. For an ideal
gas, Ru = 8.314 J/kg·K.
(a) Using the given data with the ideal-gas law,
1010
n= = 1.660 × 10−14 moles
6.023 × 1023
V = 1 mm3 = 10−9 m3

n 1.660 × 10−14
p= Ru T = (8.314)(288) = 0.0397 Pa
V 10−9

7
 (b) The term used to describe a gas in which the continuum approximation is not valid is a
rarefied gas .

1.29. From the given data: p = 101 kPa, and T = 25◦ C = 298 K. For He, RHe = 8314/4.003 =
2077 J/kg·K, and for air, Rair = 8314/28.96 = 287.1 J/kg·K (from Appendix B.5). Using the
ideal gas law,

p 101 × 103
ρHe = = = 0.1632 kg/m3
RHe T (2077)(298)
p 101 × 103
ρair = = = 1.181 kg/m3
Rair T (287.1)(298)
The specific volume is defined by Equation 1.11 as the volume per unit mass, hence
1 1
vHe = = = 6.13 m3 /kg
ρHe 0.1632
1 1
vair = = = 0.847 m3 /kg
ρair 1.181

1.30. For air at standard atmospheric pressure, p = 101 kPa and R = 287.1 J/kg·K. Taking ρ1 =
density from Appendix B.2, and ρ2 = density from ideal gas law, gives:

T ρ1 T ρ2 ∆
(◦ C) (kg/m3 ) ( K) (kg/m3 ) (%)
−40 1.514 233 1.5098 −0.27
−20 1.394 253 1.3905 −0.25
0 1.292 273 1.2886 −0.26
5 1.269 278 1.2654 −0.28
10 1.246 283 1.2431 −0.23
15 1.225 288 1.2215 −0.29
20 1.204 293 1.2007 −0.28
25 1.184 298 1.1805 −0.29
30 1.164 303 1.1610 −0.25
40 1.127 313 1.1239 −0.27
50 1.092 323 1.0891 −0.26
60 1.059 333 1.0564 −0.24
70 1.028 343 1.0256 −0.23
80 0.9994 353 0.9966 −0.28
90 0.9718 363 0.9691 −0.27
100 0.9458 373 0.9431 −0.28
200 0.7459 473 0.7438 −0.29
300 0.6158 573 0.6140 −0.30
400 0.5243 673 0.5227 −0.30
500 0.4565 773 0.4551 −0.31
1000 0.2772 1273 0.2764 −0.31

8
 Based on these results, the ideal gas law gives quite accurate estimates with errors less than 0.31% .

1.31. From the given data: ρ = 5 kg/m3 , and p = 450 kPa. Properties of O2 from Appendix B.5:
cp = 909 J/kg·K, cv = 649 J/kg·K, and R = cp − cv = 909 − 649 = 260 J/kg·K. The ideal
gas law, Equation 1.24, gives

p 450 × 103
ρ= → 5= → T = 346 K = 73◦ C
RT (260)T

1.32. From the given data: V = 2 m3 , T = 15◦ C = 288 K, and p = 500 kPa. The molar mass of
helium is 4.003 g/mol, and hence the gas constant for helium can be taken as R = 8314/4.003
= 2077 J/kg·K. The density, mass, and weight of helium in the tank are given by

p 500 × 103
ρ= = = 0.08610 kg/m3
RT (2077)(288)

M = ρV = (0.08610)(2) = 0.1722 kg

W = M g = (0.1722)(9.807) = 1.689 N

1.33. From the given data: m = 10 kg, T = 15◦ C = 288 K, p = 10 MPa, and L = 3D. For pure
oxygen, R = Ru /M = 8314/32 = 259.8 J/kg·K. Using the given data and the ideal gas law,

π 2 π 3π 3 pV mRT
V = D L = D2 (3D) = D , m= → V =
4 4 4 RT p

Combining these equations gives

[ ]1 [ ]1
mRT 4mRT 3 4(10)(259.8)(288) 3
3
4 πD
3
= → D= = = 0.317 m
p 3πp 3π(10 × 106

Since the length must be three times the diameter, L = 3(0.317) = 0.950 m. The required
dimensions of the tank are a diameter of 317 mm and a length of 0.950 m .

1.34. From the given data: M = 10 kg, T = 60◦ C = 333 K, and p = 200 kPa. For air, R =
287.1 J/kg·K. The volume, V , can be derived from the ideal gas law, Equation 1.24, as
follows
M p 10 200 × 103
= → = → V = 4.78 m3
V RT V (287.1)(333)

1.35. From the given data: V = 200 L, m = 3 kg, and T = 15◦ C = 288 K. This assumes that
the temperature of the air in the tank is the same as in the room. For standard air, R =
287.1 J/kg·K. Using the ideal-gas law gives

p m 3
ρ= → p= RT = (287.1)(288) = 1.24 × 106 Pa = 1.24 MPa
RT V 0.2

9
1.36. From the given data: V = 0.1 m3 , T = 20◦ C = 293 K, and p = 400 kPa. The gas constant
for air can be taken as R = 287.1 J/kg·K. The density of air in the tank can be calculated
using Equation 1.24, which gives

p 400 × 103
ρ= = = 0.4898 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(293)
Hence the weight of air in the tank , W , is given by

W = ρV g = (0.4898)(0.1)(9.807) = 0.4803 N ≃ 0.48 N

The weight (0.48 N) has been rounded to two significant digits to be consistent with the
accuracy of the given data.

1.37. From the given data: V = 10 m × 12 m × 4 m = 480 m3 , p = 101.3 kPa, T1 = 20◦ C = 293.15 K,
and T2 = 10◦ C = 283.15 K. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K.

(a) Using the given data at a temperature of 20◦ C gives

p 101.3 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.204 kg/m3 , m1 = ρ1 V = (1.204)(480) = 577.7 kg
RT1 (287.1)(293.15)

W1 = m1 g = (577.7)(9.807) = 5.666 × 103 N = 1274 lb

(b) When the temperature in the room is reduced to 10◦ C, then

p 101.3 × 103
ρ2 = = = 1.246 kg/m3 , m2 = ρ2 V = (1.246)(480) = 598.1 kg
RT2 (287.1)(283.15)
m2 − m1 598.1 − 577.7
change = × 100 = × 100 = 3.53%
m1 577.7

1.38. From the given data: p1 = 600 kPa, T1 = 20◦ C = 293 K, and T2 = 30◦ C = 303 K. Taking ρ
and R as constants, the ideal gas law gives
p1 p2 600 p2
= → = → p2 = 620 kPa
T1 T2 293 303

Therefore the change in pressure is 620 kPa − 600 kPa = 20 kPa . This result would be the
same for any gas that obeys the ideal gas law.

1.39. From the given data: p1 = 130 kPa, p2 = 210 kPa, V = 15 L = 0.015 m3 , and T = 30◦ C.
Required constants: R = 8.314 kJ/kmol·K, molar mass of air, M = 28.97 kg/kmol, patm =
101 kPa. Using these data with the ideal gas law,
p1 V1 (101 + 30)(0.015)
n1 = = = 0.00137 kmol
RT1 (8.314)(273.15 + 30)
p2 V2 (101 + 210)(0.015)
n2 = = = 0.00185 kmol
RT2 (8.314)(273.15 + 30)
mass added = (n2 − n1 )M = (0.00185 − 0.00137)28.97 = 0.0139 kg = 13.9 g

10
1.40. Consider three states of the tire: State 1 is the initial state, State 2 is the heated-up state,
and State 3 is the cooled-down state. From the given data: patm = 101.3 kPa, V = 15 L, p1
(gauge) = 207 kPa, p1 (absolute) = 207 kPa + 101.3 kPa = 308.3 kPa, T1 = 20◦ C = 293 K,
T2 = 60◦ C = 333 K, and T3 = T1 = 293 K.

(a) Between the initial state and the heated-up state, the air density in the tire remains
constant, so the ideal-gas law gives

p p1 p2 T2 333
ρR = = constant → = → p2 = p1 = (207) = 350 kPa
T T1 T2 T1 293

Hence, the resulting gauge pressure is 350 kPa − 101.3 kPa = 249 kPa = 36 lb/in2 .
(b) Between the heated-up state and the cooled-down state, the air density in the tire
remains constant and the air pressure at the heated-up state is equal to 308.3 kPa. The
ideal-gas law gives

p p3 p2 T3 293
ρR = = constant → = → p3 = p2 = (308.3) = 271 kPa
T T3 T2 T2 333

Hence, the resulting gauge pressure is 271 kPa − 101.3 kPa = 170 kPa = 25 lb/in2 .

1.41. From the given data: T1 = 20◦ C = 293 K, T2 = 10◦ C = 283 K, p1g = 12.5 lb/in2 , and
p1 = p1g + patm = 12.5 + 14.7 = 27.2 lb/in2 .

(a) In this case the expected pressure, p2 in a football is given by

T2 283
p2 = p1 = (27.2) = 26.3 lb/in2 → p2g = p2 −patm = 26.2−14.7 = 11.6 lb/in2
T1 293

(b) In this case the required temperature, T2 on the field is given by

T2 T2
p2 = p1 → (10.5 + 14.7) = (27.2) = 272 K = −2◦ C
T1 293

(c) Theory: The New England Patriots did not inflate the footballs to the required pressure.

1.42. From the given data: p1 = 207 kPa and p2 = 241 kPa.

(a) From the ideal-gas law,

p p1 p2 T2 p2 241
ρ= → = → = = = 1.164
RT T1 T2 T1 p1 207

Using this relationship, the percentage change in temperature is calculated as follows,

[ ]
T2 − T1 T2
% change in T = × 100 = − 1 × 100 = [1.164 − 1] × 100 = 16.4%
T1 T1

Note that this percentage change applies to a temperature given in degrees kelvin.

11
 (b) From the given data: T1 = 25◦ C = 298 K. Hence, from the result in Part (a), T2 =
1.164(298) = 347 K = 74◦ C . Note that thhe percentage change in ◦ C is much higher
than the percentage change in K.

1.43. (a) From the given data: D = 6 m, T = 20◦ C = 293 K, and p = 200 kPa. For an ideal gas:

pV = nRT (1)

where
π 3 π 3
V = D = (6) = 113.1 m3 , R = 8312 N·m/kmol·K
6 6
Substituting given and derived values into Equation 1 gives

(200 × 103 )(113.1) = n(8312)(293) → n = 9.29 kmol

Since the relative molecular mass of He is 4.003, the mass of 9.29 kmol of He is (9.29)(4.003)kg
= 37.2 kg .
(b) From the given data: T1 = 25◦ C = 298 K, p1 = 210 kPa + 101 kPa = 311 kPa (assuming
atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa), V = 0.025 m3 , and T2 = 50◦ C = 323 K. From the
ideal gas law,
nRT1 nRT2
V = =
p1 p2
which yields ( ) ( )
T2 323
p2 = p1 = 311 = 337 kPa
T1 298
This corresponds to a pressure increase of 337 kPa − 311 kPa = 26 kPa .

1.44. From given data: Wrat = 1.5 N, Wbal = 0.5 N, ρair = 1.17 kg/m3 , p = 100 kPa, T = 25◦ C =
298 K. Take Ru = 8.314 J/mol·K and molar mass of He, mHe , is 4.003 g/mol. To lift the rat:

Wrat + Wbal + ρHe gVbal = ρair gVbal → Wrat + Wbal = (ρair − ρHe )gVbal (1)
| {z } | {z }
Weight lifted buoyant force

For helium in the balloon,

Ru 8.314
RHe = = = 2.077 J/g·K = 2077 J/kg·K
mHe 4.003
p 100 × 103
ρHe = = = 0.162 kg/m3
RHe T (2077)(298)
nRu T
Vbal =
p
Substituting into Equation 1 gives
[ ]
(8.314)(298)
1.5 + 0.5 = (1.17 − 0.162)(9.81) n → n = 8.16 mol
100 × 103

Hence, the mass of helium required is 8.16 × 4.003 = 32.7 g

12
1.45. Form the given data: z = 10 m, D1 = 5.0 mm, T1 = 20◦ C, and patm = 101.3 kPa. At the
bubble release location,

p1 = patm + γz = 101.3 + 9.79(10) = 199.2 kPa, T1 = 20◦ C

At the surface of the lake, p2 = 101.3 kPa and for an isothermal process,
( ) ( ) ( )1
p1 4 3 p1 4 3 r2 D2 p1 3
p1 V1 = p2 V2 → V2 = V1 → πr = πr → = =
p2 3 2 p2 3 1 r1 D1 p2
( )1 ( )1
p1 3 199.2 3
→ D2 = D1 = (5) = 6.3 mm
p2 101.3

Therefore, the diameter of the bubble when it reaches the surface of the lake is 6.3 mm .

1.46. From the given data: V1 = 1.0 m3 , V2 = 0.4 m3 , and p1 = 101 kPa. For air, the ratio of
specific heats is given by k = 1.40.

(a) Under isentropic conditions, the pressure of the compressed volume, p2 , is given by
Equations 1.33 and 1.34 as

p1 v1k = p2 v2k → (101)(1.0)1.40 = p2 (0.4)1.40 → p2 = 364 kPa

(b) Under isothermal conditions, the pressure of the compressed volume, p2 , is given by
Equations 1.33 and 1.34 as

p1 v1 = p2 v2 → (101)(1.0) = p2 (0.4) → p2 = 253 kPa

1.47. From the given data: T = 20◦ C = 293 K, p = 101.3 Pa, f1 = 0.20, and f2 = 0.8. For O2 ,
R1 = 259.8 J/kg·K, and for N2 , R2 = 296.7 J/kg·K. Under the given conditions, the densities
of O2 and N2 , represented by ρ1 and ρ2 , are given by

p 101.3 × 103 p 101.3 × 103

ρ1 = = = 1.331 kg/m3 , ρ2 = = = 1.166 kg/m3
R1 T (259.8)(293) R2 T (296.7)(293)

(a) For each 1 m3 of air there is f1 m3 of O2 and f2 m3 of N2 . Therefore, the partial pressures
of O2 and N2 , denoted by p1 and p2 , are given by

p1 = f1 p = (0.2)(293) = 20.3 kPa , p2 = f2 p = (0.8)(293) = 81.0 kPa

(b) The density, ρm of the mixture is given by

ρm = f1 ρ1 + f2 ρ2 = (0.2)(1.331) + (0.8)(1.166) = 1.199 kg/m3

1.48. From the given data: V1 = 2.0 m3 , V2 = 4.0 m3 , T1 = 20◦ C = 293 K, and p1 = 100 kPa.
For oxygen, cp = 909 J/kg·K, cv = 649 J/kg·K, and k = cp /cv = 909/649 = 1.40. The gas
constant for oxygen, R, is given by

R = cp − cv = 909 − 649 = 260 J/kg·K

13
 (a) Under isentropic conditions, the pressure of the expanded volume, p2 , is given by Equa-
tions 1.33 and 1.34 as

p1 v1k = p2 v2k → (100)(2.0)1.40 = p2 (4.0)1.40 → p2 = 37.9 kPa

The initial density, ρ1 is given by the ideal gas law as follows,

p1 100 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.131 kg/m3
RT1 (260)(293)

The ratio of the final density to the initial density is given by Equation 1.37 as follows:
( )1 ( ) 1
ρ2 p2 k ρ2 37.9 1.40
= → = → ρ2 = 0.566 kg/m3
ρ1 p1 1.131 100

(b) Under isothermal conditions, the pressure of the expanded volume, p2 , is given by Equa-
tions 1.33 and 1.34 as

p1 v 1 = p2 v 2 → (100)(2.0) = p2 (4.0) → p2 = 50 kPa

In this case the temperature remains constant at T = 293 K. The initial density is
1.131 kg/m3 as calculated in Part (a). The final density is given by the ideal gas law
as follows:
p2 50 × 103
ρ2 = = = 0.656 kg/m3
RT (260)(293)
(c) Applying the ideal-gas law (Equation 1.20) gives

p1 V1 = nRu T1 → nRu T1 = (100 × 103 )(293) = 2.93 × 107 J

Since the process is isothermal and reversible, nRu T remains constant and Equation
1.32 gives

V2 4
Q12 = nRu T ln = (2.93 × 107 ) ln = 2.03 × 107 J = 20.3 MJ
V1 4

1.49. From the given data: T1 = 27◦ C = 300 K, p2 = 101 kPa, and T2 = −73◦ C = 200 K. For
air, k = 1.40 and R = 287.1 J/kg·K. Applying the ideal-gas law and assuming an isentropic
process gives

p1 101 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.173 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(300)
( )k−1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1
T1 ρ2 T1 k−1 300 1.4−1
= → ρ2 = ρ1 = (1.173) = 3.231 kg/m3
T2 ρ1 T2 200
( ) k−1 ( ) k ( ) 1.4
T1 p2 k T1 k−1 300 1.4−1
= → p2 = p1 = (101) = 417 kPa
T2 p1 T2 200

14
1.50. From the given data: V1 = 0.3 m3 , T1 = 20◦ C = 293 K, p1 = 120 kPa, and p2 = 700 kPa. The
thermodynamic properties of air are: k = 1.40, and R = 287.1 J/kg·K. The initial density of
air, ρ1 , is given by the ideal gas law as
p1 120 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.427 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(293)
The relationship between variables before and after isentropic compression is given by Equa-
tion 1.37 with n = k = 1.40, which yields
( ) n−1 ( ) 1.40−1
T1 p2 n 293 700 1.40
= → = → T2 = 177 K = −96◦ C
T2 p1 T2 120

1.51. From the given data: T = 20◦ C = 293 K and x = 1 km = 1000 m. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K
and k = 1.40. The speed of sound, c, is given by Equation 1.40 as
√ √
c = RT k = (287.1)(293)(1.40) = 343 m/s
The time, t, for the sound to travel 1 km is given by
x 1000
t= = = 2.9 seconds
c 343
1.52. From ◦
√ the given data: T = 20 C = 293 K. Noting that the speed of sound, c, is given by
c = RT k, where R = cp − cv and k = cp /cv , the calculation of the speed of sound in air and
hydrogen are summarized in the following table:

cp cv R k c
Medium
(J/kg·K) (J/kg·K) (J/kg·K) (–) (m/s)
Air 1003 716 287 1.40 343
Hydrogen 14450 10330 4120 1.40 1300

Therefore, the speed of sound in air at 20◦ C is 343 m/s , and the speed of sound in pure
hydrogen at 20◦ C is 1300 m/s . Air travels much faster in pure hydrogen since it is much
denser than air.
1.53. From the given data: M = 34, cp = 1020 J/kg·K, and T = 20◦ C = 293 K. The universal
gas constant is Ru = 8314 J/kg·K. Assuming that the behavior of the mystery gas can be
approximated by the behavior of an ideal gas,
Ru 8314
R= = = 244.5 J/kg·K
M 34
R = cp − cv → cv = cp − R = 1020 − 244.5 = 775.5 J/kg·K
cp 1020
k= = = 1.32
cv 775.5
√ √
c = RT k = (244.4)(293)(1.32) = 308 m/s

Therefore, the speed of sound in the gas at 20◦ C is estimated as 308 m/s .

15
1.54. There are two methods that can be used to do this problem.

Method 1:
Using the given data in Table B.5 directly gives T = −42.6◦ C and p = 31.5 kPa .

Method 2:
From the given data: z = 8840 m = 8.840 km. For the standard atmosphere: p0 = 101.3 kPa,
T0 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K, and b = 6.5◦ C/km = 0.0065 k/m; for air, M = 28.96 g/mol; and the
universal gas constant is R =8.314 J/mol·K. Hence, at the top of Mount Everest,

T = T0 − bz = 15 − 6.5(8.840) = −42.6◦ C
[ ] [ ] −3
bz gM/Rb (6.5)(8.840) (9.81)(28.96×10 )/(8.314)(0.0065)
p = p0 1 − = (101.3) 1 − = 31.5 kPa
T0 288.15

Measured values put the average temperature between −20◦ C and −35◦ C, which is “warmer”
than the temperature given by the standard atmosphere. A reported typical pressure is
34.6 kPa, which is a higher pressure than the standard value.

1.55. (a) The weight of the atmosphere above sea level is calculated by summing the weight of air
in each increment of elevation given in Appendix B.3. These calculations are summarized

16
 in the following table:

z ρ ∆z ∆m g ∆W
(m) (kg/m3 ) (m) (kg) (m/s2 ) (kN)
0 1.225 9.8067
1 1.1117 1000 1168.35 9.8036 11.455
2 1.0066 1000 1059.15 9.8005 10.382
3 0.90925 1000 957.93 9.7974 9.387
4 0.81935 1000 864.3 9.7943 8.467
5 0.73643 1000 777.89 9.7912 7.618
6 0.66011 1000 698.27 9.7882 6.834
7 0.59 1000 625.055 9.785 6.117
8 0.52579 1000 557.895 9.782 5.458
9 0.4671 1000 496.445 9.779 4.855
10 0.41351 1000 440.305 9.776 4.305
11 0.3639 1000 388.705 9.773 3.799
12 0.3108 1000 337.35 9.77 3.296
13 0.2655 1000 288.15 9.767 2.815
14 0.2268 1000 246.15 9.774 2.405
15 0.1948 1000 210.8 9.761 2.059
20 0.08891 5000 709.275 9.745 6.918
25 0.04008 5000 322.475 9.73 3.140
30 0.01841 5000 146.225 9.715 1.422
40 0.003996 10000 112.03 9.684 1.087
50 0.001027 10000 25.115 9.654 0.243
60 0.0003097 10000 6.6835 9.624 0.064
70 0.00008283 10000 1.96265 9.594 0.019
80 0.00001846 10000 0.50645 9.564 0.005
Total: 10441 102.152

Based on these calculations, the weight of air above 1 m2 is approximately 102.2 kN

(b) The pressure on the surface of the earth at sea level is 102.2 kN/1 m2 = 102.2 kPa . The
close agreement between the pressure caused by the calculated weight of the atmosphere
and the conventional sea-level pressure is due to the fact that the conventional sea-level
pressure is in fact due to the weight of the atmosphere above sea level.
(c) Under standard conditions at sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Taking g = 9.807 m2 /s leads
to the following calculations:
102.2 × 1000
mass of air = = 1.042 × 104 kg
9.807
1.042 × 104
volume of air = = 8.507 × 103 m3
1.225
8.507 × 103 m3
height of air = = 8507 m = 8.507 km
1 m2

17
1.56. From the given data: p = 653 mm = 87 kPa. Interpolating from the standard-atmosphere
table in Appendix B.3 gives the elevation corresponding to p = 87 kPa as 1.28 km = 1280 m
(= 4190 ft).

1.57. Interpolating from the standard atmosphere in Appendix B.3, the expected temperature at
an elevation of 4342 m is −13.2◦ C . This is within the range of the given average high and
low temperatures. Interpolating in the standard atmosphere gives an expected atmospheric
pressure of 59.06 kPa .

1.58. For a standard atmosphere at sea level: p1 = 101.325 kPa, and T1 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K. For a
standard atmosphere at 3000 m: p2 = 70.121 kPa, and T2 = −4.49◦ C = 268.7 K. For oxygen,
R = 8314/32 = 259.8 J/kg·K. The corresponding densities are:

p1 101.325 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.354 kg/m3
RT1 (259.8)(268.7)
p2 70.121 × 103
ρ2 = = = 1.004 kg/m3
RT2 (259.8)(268.7)

The percentage reduction in oxygen intake is given by

1.354 − 1.004
percent reduction = × 100 = 25.8%
1.354

1.59. From the given data: w = 0.270 m, h = 0.380 m, A = wh = 0.1026 m2 , p1 = 100 kPa, and
z = 11 km. In a standard atmosphere (Appendix B.3) the pressure at an altitude of 11 km is
p2 = 22.632 kPa. Therefore, the force, F , on the airplane window is calculated as follows:

F = (p1 − p2 )A = (100 − 22.632)(0.1026) = 7.94 kN = 1785 lb

1.60. From the given data: V = 913 km/h = 253.6 m/s, and z = 10.7 km. For a standard
atmosphere at elevation z, the speed of sound is given by c = 296.4 m/s from Appendix B.3
(by interpolation). Therefore, the Mach number, Ma, is given by

V 253.6
Ma = = = 0.86
c 296.4

Since Ma > 0.3, compressibility must be taken into account .

1.61. From the given data: V = 885 km/h = 246 m/s and Ma = 0.85. Calculate the speed of sound,
c, as follows:
V V 246
Ma = = 0.85 → c = = = 289 m/s
c 0.85 0.85
Interpolating from the standard atmosphere given in Appendix B.3, an elevation of 74.6 km
corresponds to a sonic speed of 289 m/s.

1.62. The dynamic viscosity, ν, is defined as ν = µ/ρ. Using this relation and the properties of
water given in Appendix B.1 gives,

18
 Temperature µ ρ ν
(◦ C) (N· s/m2 ) (kg/m3 ) (10−6 m2 /s)
0 0.001781 999.8 1.781
20 0.001002 998.2 1.004
100 0.000282 958.4 0.294

1.63. From the given data: SG = 0.92, and ν = 5×10−4 m2 /s. For water at 4◦ C, ρw = 1000 kg/m3 .
Using the definitions of specific gravity,

ρ = SG · ρw = (0.92)(1000) = 920 kg/m3

µ µ
ν= → 5 × 10−4 = → µ = 0.46 Pa·s
ρ 920

1.64. From the given data: T = 20◦ C = 293 K, p = 101 kPa, and µ = 13.4 µPa·s = 1.34×10−5 Pa·s.
The molar mass of methane is 16.04 g/mol, and hence the gas constant for helium can be
taken as R = 8314/16.04 = 518 J/kg·K. The density, ρ, and kinematic viscosity, ν, of methane
are calculated as follows:
p 101 × 103
ρ= = = 0.6655 kg/m3
RT (518)(293)

1.34 × 10−5
ν= = 2.01 × 10−5 m2 /s
0.6655

1.65. From the given data: τ0 = 0.5 Pa, and y = 2 mm = 0.002 m. For benzene at 20◦ C, Appendix
B.4 gives µ = 0.65 mPa·s = 6.5 × 10−4 Pa·s. The velocity gradient can be derived from
Newton’s law of viscosity, Equation 1.44, as follows
  
du  −4 du 
 du 
τ0 = µ → 0.5 = (6.5 × 10 ) → = 769 s−1
dy y=0 dy y=0 dy y=0

The velocity at 2 mm (= 0.002 m) from the surface, V2 , can be estimated by


du 
V2 = (0.002) = (769)(0.002) = 1.54 m/s
dy y=0

1.66. From the given data: µ = 0.300 Pa·s, A = 1.5 m2 , and h = 200 mm = 0.2 m.

(a) The shear stress on the top and bottom plates are the same due to symmetry (i.e., same
velocity gradient adjacent to top and bottom plane). The shear stress on the top plate,
τtop is given by
 
du  d [ ]
2 
τtop = µ =µ 0.8(1 − 100y )  = µ [160y]y=0.1 = (0.3)[160(0.1)] = 4.8 Pa
dy y=0.1 dy y=0.1

Therefore the shear stress on both the top and bottom plate is equal to 4.8 Pa .

19
 (b) The shear force on the top plate, Ftop , is given by
Ftop = τtop · A = (4.8)(1.5) = 7.2 N

Due to symmetry, the shear force on both the top and bottom plate is equal to 7.2 N .
NEW From the given data: ρ = 900 kg/m3 , ν = 8.889 × 10−4 m2 /s, µ = ν × ρ = 0.800 Pa·s,
m = 400 kg, ω = 6 rpm = 0.6283 rad/s, R = 1 m, L = 2 m, δ = 1.5 mm = 1.5 × 10−3 m, and
V = 1 m/s.
(a) Using the given data, the following parameters can be calculated:
Vr = Rω = (1)(0.6283) = 0.6283 m/s, A = 2πRL = 2π(1)(2) = 12.57 m2
The required torque, T , is therefore given by
[ ] [ ]
µVr (0.8)(0.6283)
T = Fr R = τ AR = AR = (12.57)(1) = 4212 N·m = 4.21 kN·m
δ 1.5 × 10−3
(b) The required, F , is calculated by summing the shear force and the weight of the cylinder
as follows:
[ ] [ ]
µV (0.8)(1)
F = τ A + mg = A + mg = (12.57) + (400)(9.807) = 10627 N = 10.6 kN
δ 1.5 × 10−3
1.67. From the given data: L = 1.2 m, D = 50 mm = 0.050 m, ∆y = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m, µ
= 0.8 Pa·s, and ∆V = 1.5 m/s. Assuming that the velocity distribution is linear between
cylinders, the shear stress, τ0 , on the inner cylinder can be estimates using the relation
∆V 1.5
τ0 = µ = (0.8) = 2400 Pa
∆y 0.0005
The force, F , required to move the inner cylinder is given by
F = τ0 πDL = (2400)π(0.050)(1.2) = 452 N

1.68. From given data: L = 75 cm = 0.75 m, Di = 15 cm = 0.15 m, Do = 15.24 cm = 0.1524 m,

ṅ = 200 rpm, and µ = 0.023 N·s/m2 . From these given data: ω = 2π ṅ/60 = 20.94 rad/s,
∆R = (Do − Di )/2 = 0.12 cm, Ro = Do /2 = 7.62 cm, and Ri = Di /2 = 7.50 cm.
(a) The following relationship applies to calculating the force, Fo , on the outer cylinder:
∆u Ri ω (0.075)(20.94)
Fo = µ A=µ 2πRo L = (0.023) 2π(0.0762)(0.75) = 10.81 N
∆x ∆R (0.0012)
(b) The force, Fi , on the inner cylinder is given by,
∆u Ri ω (0.075)(20.94)
Fi = µ A=µ 2πRi L = (0.023) 2π(0.0750)(0.75) = 10.64 N
∆x ∆R (0.0012)
Therefore the torque, T , and power, P , required to rotate the inner cylinder are given
by
T = Fi Ri = (10.64)(0.075) = 0.798 N·m

P = T ω = (0.798)(20.94) = 16.7 W

20
1.69. The required equation is:
4π 2 R3 ṅL
T =µ (1)
D
From the given data: R = 0.5(0.20) = 0.10 m, L = 0.30 m, D = 0.5(0.202 − 0.200) = 0.001
m, T = 0.13 Nm, and ṅ = 400 rpm = 6.667 s−1 . Substituting into Equation 1 gives

4π 2 (0.10)3 (6.667)(0.30)
0.13 = µ
0.001

which gives µ = 0.001646 N·s/m2 .

1.70. From the given data: ∆z = 2 mm = 0.002 m, D = 0.5 m, R = D/2 = 0.25 m, and ω =
3 rpm = 0.3142 rad/s. For SAE 30 oil at 20◦ C, µ = 0.44 Pa·s (Appendix B.4). Since the
velocity varies with distance from the center of rotation, an expression for the torque, T , can
be derived as follows,
[ rω ]
dF = τ dA = τ 2πr dr = µ 2πr dr
∆z
2πµω 3
dT = r dF = r dr
∆z
∫ r=R ∫ R
2πµω πµωR4
T = dT = r3 dr =
r=0 ∆z 0 2∆z

Hence, in this case, the torque, T , is given by

πµωR4 π(0.44)(0.3142)(0.25)4
T = = = 0.135 N·m
2∆z 2(0.002)

1.71. From the given data: m = 0.8 kg, D1 = 50 mm = 0.05 m, D2 = 53 mm, ∆y = (D2 − D1 )/2
= 1.5 mm = 0.0015 m, L = 10 cm = 0.10 m, and µ = 0.29 kg/m·s.

(a) Let V be the velocity of the inner cylinder, Newton’s law of viscosity gives

du V
τ =µ =µ
dy ∆y

and hence the shear force on the cylinder, Fτ , is given by

( )
V µV πD1 L
Fτ = τ A = µ (πD1 L) =
∆y ∆y

At the terminal speed,

µV πD1 L
W = Fτ → mg =
∆y
which gives
mg∆y (0.8)(9.81)(0.0015)
V = = = 2.58 m/s
µπD1 L (0.29)π(0.050)(0.10)

21
 (b) Before reaching terminal speed, the net force, Fnet , is given by

µV πD1 L (0.29)V π(0.050)(0.10)

Fnet = W − Fτ = mg − = (0.8)(9.81) − = 7.85 − 3.03V
∆y (0.0015)

Newton’s law of motion gives

dV dV dV
Fnet = ma → Fnet = m → 7.85−3.03V = (0.8) → 9.81−3.79V =
dt dt dt
which yields
∫ Vt ∫ tt
dV
= dt
0 9.81 − 3.79V 0
which integrates to ( )
1 9.81 − 3.79Vt
ln = tt
−3.79 9.81
Taking Vt = 2.58 m/s gives
( )
1 9.81 − 3.79(2.58)
tt = ln = 1.51 s
−3.79 9.81

1.72. From the given data: D1 = 0.3 mm, D2 = 1 mm, µ = 1.4 Pa·s, F = 85 N, and V = 1.2 m/s.
The spacing, s, between the cable and the wall of the cavity is given by

D2 − D1 1 mm − 0.3 mm
s= = = 0.35 mm
2 2
The shear stress, τ , on the cable can be estimated from the velocity gradient as

V 1.2
τ =µ = (1.4) = 4.8 × 103 Pa
s 0.35 × 10−3
Let L be the limiting length of the cavity, then

τ [πD1 L] = F → 4.8 × 103 [π(0.3 × 10−3 )L] = 85 → L = 18.8 m

1.73. From the given data: A = 1.7 m2 , V = 1.5 m/s, h1 = 0.4 mm, µ1 = 0.2 Pa·s, h2 = 0.3 mm,
and µ2 = 0.3 Pa·s.

(a) Let Vi be velocity at the interface between the two fluids. The shear stress at the interface
can be calculated using both the gradient in the upper layer and the gradient in the lower
layer, which gives
Vi V − Vi
µ1 = µ2
h1 h2
which upon rearrangement gives

µ2 /h2 0.3/0.3 × 10−3

Vi = V = (1.5) = 1.00 m/s
µ1 /h1 + µ2 /h2 0.2/0.4 × 10−3 + 0.3/0.3 × 10−3

22
 (b) The force, F , required to move the top plate is given by

V − Vi 1.5 − 1.0
F = τ A = µ2 A = (0.3) = 850 N
h2 0.3 × 10−3

1.74. From the given data: V = 8 m/s, h1 = 30 mm, h2 = 20 mm, and Ap = 1.5 m × 0.8 m = 1.2 m2 .
For SAE 30 oil at 20◦ C, µ = 440 mPa·s (from Appendix B.4). Since the velocity profile is
linear above and below the moving plate,
V 8
τtop = µ = (0.440) = 117.3 Pa, Ftop = τtop Ap = (117.3)(1.2) = 140.8 N
h1 0.03
V 8
τbot = µ = (0.440) = 176.0 Pa, Fbot = τbot Ap = (176.0)(1.2) = 211.2 N
h2 0.02
Adding the forces on the top and bottom of the plate gives

Ftot = Ftop + Fbot = 140.8 + 211.2 = 352 N

1.75. For water at 20◦ C, µ = 1.00 mPa·s = 0.001 Pa·s. Using Newton’s law of viscosity, Equation
1.44, with the given velocity distribution, the shear stress on the bottom of the channel, τ0 ,
is given by
 
du  d 
τ0 = µ  = (0.001) [1.2y(1 − y)] = (0.001) [1.2 − 2.4y]|y=0 = 0.0012 Pa
dy y=0 dy y=0

1.76. At equilibrium, the component of the weight down the incline equal to the shear force, Hence
( )
V W h sin θ
W sin θ = τ0 A → W sin θ = µ A → V =
h µA

For SAE 30 oil at 20◦ C, µ = 0.44 Pa·s, and from the given data: W = mg = (6)(9.81) =
56.86 N, h = 1 mm = 0.001 m, θ = 15◦ , and A = 35 cm2 = 0.0035 m2 , which gives

(58.86)(0.001) sin 15◦

V = = 9.89 m/s
(0.44)(0.0035)

1.77. (a) The shear stress, τ , can be expressed as follows,

( ) ( ) ( )
dV d r2 2r 2µVo
τ =µ = µVo 1 − 2 = µVo − 2 = − r
dr dr R R R2

This result can also be written without the minus sign if the distance is measured from
the wall of the pipe.
(b) Shear stress on pipe boundary, τo , is at r = R, hence

2µVo 2µVo
τo = 2
·R=
R R

23
 The shear force, F , per unit length is therefore given by

F = τo P

where P is the perimeter of the pipe. Since P = 2πR,

2µVo
F = τo P = (2πR) = 4πµVo
R

1.78. The shear stress, τ , is given by Newton’s law as

du du
τ =µ = −µ (1)
dy dr

From the given velocity distribution,

du rn−1
= umax n n (2)
dr R
Combining Equations 1 and 2 yields

rn−1
τ (r) = −µumax n
Rn
At the pipe wall, r = R, and hence the drag force, FD , per unit length of pipe is given by

Rn−1
FD = τ (R) · 2πR = −µumax n 2πR = −2nπµumax
Rn

1.79. For SAE 10 oil: ρ = 918 kg/m3 , and µ = 82 mPa·s; for SAE 30 oil: ρ = 918 kg/m3 , and µ
= 440 mPa·s. From the given expression for Q,
128QµL
∆p =
πD4
and hence for different fluids with the same Q and D,
∆p2 µ2 440
= = = 5.57
∆p1 µ1 82

which gives
∆p2 − ∆p1
% increase = × 100 = (5.37 − 1) × 100 = 437%
∆p1
The shear stress, τ0 , on the wall of the pipe can be calculated from the given velocity distri-
bution using the following relations
 
du  du 
τ0 = µ  =−µ 
dy y=0 dr r=D/2
du ∆p ∆pr
= (−8r) =
dr 16µL 2µL

24
  ( )
du  ∆pr  ∆p
τ0 = − µ  =−µ =
dr r=D/2 2µL r=D/2 4L

Based on this result,

τ02 ∆p2
= = 5.57
τ01 ∆p1
which gives
τ02 − τ01
% increase = × 100 = (5.37 − 1) × 100 = 437%
τ01
Other Possible Answer:
Some sources give different viscosities for oil. If µ1 = 0.10 Pa·s and µ2 = 0.29 Pa·s, then

∆p2 0.29
= = 2.9
∆p1 0.10
% increase = (2.9 − 1) × 100 = 190%

Similarly,
τ2
= 190%
τ1

1.80. Andrade’s viscosity equation is Equation 1.50, and the other estimate is given in Equation
1.51. The standard equation parameters for water that are given in the text are used. The
results of the calculations of viscosity, µ in mPa·s are given in the following table:

Viscosity, µ (mPa·s)
T T App. B.1 Andrade ∆1 Eq.1.51 ∆2
(◦ C) ( K) (mPa·s) (mPa·s) (%) (mPa·s) (%)
0 273.15 1.781 1.753 −1.57 1.792 0.62
5 278.15 1.518 1.501 −1.11 1.536 1.22
10 283.15 1.307 1.300 −0.57 1.330 1.76
15 288.15 1.139 1.136 −0.27 1.162 1.98
20 293.15 1.002 1.002 −0.03 1.023 2.07
25 298.15 0.89 0.890 0.05 0.907 1.96
30 303.15 0.798 0.797 −0.10 0.811 1.61
40 313.15 0.653 0.651 −0.24 0.660 1.08
50 323.15 0.547 0.544 −0.52 0.550 0.50
60 333.15 0.466 0.463 −0.62 0.467 0.23
70 343.15 0.404 0.400 −0.88 0.404 −0.05
80 353.15 0.354 0.351 −0.85 0.354 0.14
90 363.15 0.315 0.311 −1.17 0.315 0.13
100 373.15 0.282 0.279 −1.07 0.284 0.71
Average: −0.64 1.00

(a) The comparison of estimated viscosities for the Andrade equation is given in the above
table. The maximum percentage difference is −1.57% at 0◦ C .

25
 (a) The comparison of estimated viscosities for the alternative empirical expression is given
in the above table. The maximum percentage difference is 2.07% at 20◦ C . Since both
the maximum and average percentage error is less for the Andrade equation, I would
recommend the Andrade equation for use in this temperature range.

1.81. From the given data: µ1 = 16.40 µPa·s, T1 = 0◦ C = 273 K, µ2 = 20.94 µPa·s, T1 = 100◦ C =
373 K, and T3 = 50◦ C = 323 K.

(a) Using linear interpolation,

∆µ 20.94 − 16.40
µ3 = µ1 + (T3 − T1 ) = 16.40 + (323 − 273) = 18.67 µPa·s
∆T 373 − 273

(b) Using the Sutherland equation (Equation 7.105), first determine the value of the constant
e by applying this equation at T = 0◦ C and T = 100◦ C,
( )3 ( )3
µ T 2 T0 + e 20.94 373 2 273 + e
= → = → e = 125.7 K
µ0 T0 T +e 16.40 273 373 + e
Use the Sutherland equation with e = 125.7 K to estimate the value of µ at T = 50◦ C,
( )3
µ3 323 2 273 + 125.7
= → µ3 = 18.76 µPa·s
16.40 273 323 + 125.7

(c) Using the power-law equation (Equation 7.71), first determine the value of the constant
n by applying this equation at T = 0◦ C and T = 100◦ C,
( )n ( )
µ T 20.94 373 n
= → = → n = 0.786
µ0 T0 16.40 273
Use the power-law equation with n = 0.786 to estimate the value of µ at T = 50◦ C,
( )
µ3 323 0.786
= → µ3 = 18.71 µPa·s
16.40 273

(d) Appendix B.6 gives the dynamic viscosity of nitrogen at 50◦ C as 18.74 µPa·s. Comparing
this value with the values estimated in Parts a–c, it is apparent that the Sutherland equation
provides the most accurate estimate, with an error of approximately 0.11%.

1.82. No . Surface tension results from the unbalanced cohesive forces acting on liquid molecules
at the surface of the liquid. Since the attraction force between water and air molecules is
different from the attraction force between water and oxygen molecules, the surface tension of
water in contact with air is necessarily different from the surface tension of water in contact
with oxygen.

1.83. For steel, SG = 7.83, and hence γsteel = 7.83 × 9810 = 76800 N/m3 . For water at 20◦ C, σ =
72.8 mN/m = 0.0728 N/m. If W is the weight of the pin and L is the length of the pin, then

W = 2σL sin θ (1)

26
 which gives the relationship between the deflection angle and the weight of the pin as
( )
−1 W
θ = sin
2σL

The volume of the steel pin, Vpin is given by

πD2
Vpin = L
4
and substituting into Equation 1 gives
γsteel Vpin = 2σL sin θ
πD2
(76800)  L sin 10◦
L = 2(0.0728)
4
which yields the maximum pin diameter that can be supported by the water as D = 0.000647 m
= 0.647 mm for any length of pin.
1.84. For water at 20◦ C: σ = 72.8 mN/m (from Appendix B.1). The reference specific weight
of water at 4◦ C is γw = 9807 N/m3 . At the limit at which a sphere can be supported, the
surface-tension force is equal to the weight of the sphere, which requires that:
( )3 √
4 D 6σ
σπD = γ π → D=
3 2 γ
where D is the diameter of the sphere, and γ is the specific weight of the sphere.
(a) For lead, SG = 11.4 (from Table 1.4), and therefore the limiting diameter of a lead
sphere that can be supported on water is
√
6(72.8 × 10−3 )
D= = 1.98 × 10−3 m ≈ 2.0 mm
(11.4)(9807)

(b) For concrete, SG = 2.4 (from Table 1.4), and therefore the limiting diameter of a concrete
sphere that can be supported on water is
√
6(72.8 × 10−3 )
D= = 4.3 × 10−3 m ≈ 4.3 mm
(2.4)(9807)

1.85. From the given data: D1 = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m, and D2 = 4 mm = 0.004 m. For water at
20◦ C, σ = 0.073 N/m. The pressure difference, ∆p, between the inside and outside of the
droplet is given by Equation 1.59 as
2σ 4σ 4(0.073) 0.292
∆p = = = =
R D D D
For the given range of raindrop diameters,
0.292 0.292 0.292 0.292
∆p1 = = = 584 Pa, ∆p2 = = = 73 Pa
D1 0.0005 D2 0.004
Therefore, the range of pressure differences is 73–584 Pa .

27
1.86. From the given data: D = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m, R = D/2 = 0.00025 m, and patm = 101.3 kPa.
For SAE 30 oil at 20◦ C, σ = 0.036 N/m (from Appendix B.4). The pressure difference, ∆p,
between the inside and outside of the droplet is given by Equation 1.59 as
2σ 2(0.036)
∆p = = = 288 Pa
R 0.00025
Therefore, the absolute pressure inside the droplet is 101.3 kPa + 0.288 kPa ≃ 101.6 kPa .
1.87. (a) The sum of the forces in the vertical direction is equal to zero, hence
p1 πR2 + γ 23 πR3 − p2 πR2 − σ2πR = 0
which simplifies to
2σ 2
p1 − p2 = − γR (1)
R 3
Contrasting this result with the conventional relation (Equation 1.59) shows that there
is an additional term of 23 γR .
(b) From the given data: D = 1.5 mm, R = D/2 = 0.75 mm, and T = 20◦ C. For SAE 30 oil,
Appendix B.4 gives σ = 36 mN/m, ρ = 918 kg/m3 , and γ = 9003 N/m3 . Using Equation
1, the pressure difference is given by
2σ 2 2(36 × 10−3 ) 2
p1 − p2 = − γR = − (9003)(1.5 × 10−3 ) = 48 Pa + 9 Pa = 57 Pa
R 3 1.5 × 10−3 3
Therefore, the error in using Equation 1.59 and neglecting the weight of the liquid is
9/57 × 100 = 16%. Neglecting the weight is not justified .

1.88. From the given data: D = 50 mm = 0.050 m, and σ = 0.0513 N/m. The pressure difference,
∆p, between the inside and outside of the bubble is given by Equation 1.60 as
4σ 8σ 8(0.0513)
∆p = = = = 8.21 Pa
R D 0.050
1.89. From the given data: h = 5 mm = 0.005 m. Take θw = 0◦ , σw = 0.073 N/m, and ρw =
998 kg/m3 (Appendix B.4). Equation 1.63 gives
2σw cos θw 2(0.073) cos 0◦
hw = → 0.005 = → r = 0.00298 m = 2.98 mm
ρw gr (998)(9.807)r
Therefore the minimum diameter capillary tube to limit the capillary rise to 5 mm is 2(2.98)
= 6.0 mm .
1.90. From the given data: D = 1.5 mm = 0.0015 m, r = D/2 = 0.00075 m, h = 15 mm = 0.015 m,
θ = 15◦ , and SG = 0.8. For water at 4◦ C, ρw = 1000 kg/m3 . Using the capillary-rise equation,
Equation 1.63, gives
2σ cos θ 2σ cos 15◦
h= → 0.015 = → σ = 0.0457 N/m
SG · ρw gr (0.8)(1000)(9.807)(0.00075)
The surface tension would be the same if a different tube material were used, since the
surface tension is a property of the fluid, not the tube material.

28
1.91. From the given data: D = 1 mm = 0.001 m, and θ = 127◦ = 2.217 radians. For mercury
at 20◦ C, σ = 0.51 N/m, and ρ = 13 550 Kg/m3 (from Appendix B.4). The capillary rise or
depression, h, is given by Equation 1.63 which yields
2σ cos θ 4σ cos θ 4(0.51) cos 127◦
h= = = = −0.00924 m = −9.2 mm
γr γD (13550)(9.807)(0.001)

Therefore, the depression of mercury in the capillary tube is 9.2 mm .

1.92. From the given data: h = 3D, and θ = 0◦ . For methanol at 20◦ C, σ = 0.0225 N/m, and ρ
= 791 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.4). The capillary rise, h, is given by Equation 1.63 which
yields
√ √
2σ cos θ 4σ cos θ 4σ cos θ 4(0.0225) cos 0◦
h= → 3D = →D= = = 0.001967 m ≃ 1.97 mm
γr γD 3γ 3(791)(9.807)

Therefore, a tube diameter less than or equal to 1.97 mm should be used if the capillary
rise is to be at least three tube diameters.

1.93. For equilibrium, per unit distance along the parallel plates,

2σ(1) cos θ = γW h(1)

which gives
2σ cos θ
h=
γW
From the given data: W = 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10−3 m, σ = 0.0727 N/m (water at 20◦ C), and
taking θ = 0 gives
2(0.0727)(1)
h= = 0.0297 = 29.7 mm
(998)(9.81)(0.5 × 10−3 )

1.94. From the given data: σw = 73 mN/m, θ = 5◦ , and p0 = 101.3 kPa. For water at 20◦ C,
γ = 9.789 kN/m3 and pv = 2.337 kPa (from Appendix B.1). Using the given equation for the
pressure at the meniscus, the limiting condition occurs when
p0 − pv 101.3 − 2.337
pv = p0 − γh → h= = = 10.11 m
γ 9.789
Using this value of h in the capillary-rise equation (Equation 1.63) for a capillary tube of
diameter D gives
2σw cos θ 2(73 × 10−3 ) cos 5◦
h= → 10.11 = → D = 2.93 × 10−6 m = 2.9 µm
γr 9789(D/2)

1.95. (a) Combining Equations 1.68 and 1.69 gives

2σ 2σ
p0 − p = = γh → R= (1)
R γh

29
 (b) From the given data: h = 75 mm. For water at 10◦ C, σ = 74.2 mN/m and γ = ρg =
999.7(9.807) = 9804 N/m3 (from Appendix B.1). Substituting these data into Equation 1
gives
2(74.2 × 10−3 )
R= = 2.02 × 10−4 m ≈ 0.20 mm
(9804)(75 × 10−3

1.96. For gasoline at 20◦ C, Appendix B.4 gives pv = 55.2 kPa. Therefore, the minimum pressure
that can be attained above the gasoline in the storage tank is 55.2 kPa.

1.97. From given data: T = 20◦ C = 273.15 + 20 = 293.15 K, p = 101.3 kPa, fO2 =0.20, and fN2
= 0.80. Also know: mO2 = 32 g/mol, mN2 = 28.02 g/mol, and R = 8.315 J/K·mol.

(a)

pmO2 (101.3 × 103 )(0.032)

ρO2 = = = 1.330 kg/m3
RT (8.315)(293.15)
pmN2 (101.4 × 103 )(0.02802)
ρN2 = = = 1.165 kg/m3
RT (8.315)(293.15)
ρair = 0.2(1.330) + 0.8(1.165) = 1.198 kg/m3

(b) From the ideal gas law:

pV
pV = nRT → = nR
T
The temperature in the tank is T = 15◦ C = 273.15 + 15 = 288.15 K. Putting air into
the tank requires that:

p1 V1 p2 V2 (101.3)V1 (200)(1)
= → =
T1 T2 293.15 288.15

which yields V1 = 2.01 m3 . Since the density of the air is 1.198 kg/m3 , the weight of air
is given by
weight of air = (2.01)(1.198) = 2.408 kg = 23.57 N
Alternative Solution:

p2 mO 2 (200 × 103 )(0.032)

ρO 2 = = = 2.671 kg/m3
RT2 (8.315)(288.15)
p2 mN2 (200 × 103 )(0.02802)
ρN2 = = = 2.339 kg/m3
RT2 (8.315)(288.15)
ρair = 0.2(2.671) + 0.8(2.339) = 2.405 kg/m3

So for 1 m3 ,
weight of air = 2.405 kg = 23.59 N

(c) At 20◦ C, psvp = 2.34 kPa and pvp = 0.80(2.34) = 1.872 kPa. Interpolating from the
properties of water gives that psvp = 1.872 kPa when T = 16.3◦ C .

30
 1.98. In the morning, T = 78◦ F = 25.6◦ C, and RH = 75%. From the table of water properties, the
saturation vapor pressure at 25.6◦ C is psvp = 3.296 kPa. Hence the actual vapor pressure at
25.6◦ C, pvp , is given by

pvp = RH · psvp = (0.75)(3.296) = 2.472 kPa

At T = 90◦ F = 32.2◦ C, psvp = 4.933 kPa and hence the the relative humidity is given by
2.472
RH = × 100 = 50%
4.933

1.99. At 25◦ C, es = 3.167 kPa. Hence, when RH = 80% the actual vapor pressure is 0.80(3.167 kPa)
= 2.534 kPa. The temperature at which the saturation vapor pressure is 2.534 kPa is 21.2◦ C,
and therefore the temperature inside the building is 21.2◦ C or less = 70◦ F or less .

1.100. When the temperature of water is 100◦ C, the saturation vapor pressure is 101.3 kPa, which
is approximately equal to the pressure in the water (which is at atmospheric pressure). To
maintain equilibrium, vapor cavities form in the water, and hence the water boils.
From Table B.1, the temperature corresponding to a vapor pressure of 90 kPa is 96.4◦ C.
hence, when the atmospheric pressure is 90 kPa, the boiling point of water is 96.4◦ C .

1.101. From the given data: T = 50◦ C and patm = 101.3 kPa. At T = 50◦ C Appendix B.1 gives
pv = 12.34 kPa. The water boils at 50◦ C the the absolute pressure of the air in the tank is
equal to 12.34 kPa, in which case the gauge pressure is given by

gauge pressure = pv − patm = 12.34 − 101.3 = −89.0 kPa

1.102. (a) The speed of the propeller surface increases with distance from the hub (v = rω), which
causes the pressure to decrease with increasing distance from the hub. This makes
cavitation more likely with increasing distance from the hub.
(b) At 20◦ C the vapor pressure of water is 2.337 kPa (from Appendix B.1). Since the water
pressure is 5 kPa, which is greater than 2.337 kPa, cavitation is unlikely to occur .

1.103. From the given data: T = 92◦ C. From Appendix B.1, the saturation vapor pressure of water
at 92◦ C is given by psvp = 76.35 kPa. From Appendix B.3, the elevation in the standard
atmosphere where the atmospheric pressure is 76.35 kPa is 2.34 km = 2340 m. Therefore, at
any elevation above 2340 m (7680 ft) water will boil at a temperature less than 92◦ C.

1.104. The saturation vapor pressure of water at 35◦ C can be interpolated from Table B.1 (Appendix
B) as (4.243 + 7.378)/2 = 5.811 kPa. Hence, the (absolute) water pressure in the pipeline
should be maintained above 5.811 kPa to prevent cavitation. For gasoline at 20◦ C, Ap-
pendix B.4 gives the saturation vapor pressure as 55.2 kPa, therefore the minimum allowable
pressure in the gasoline pipeline is 55.2 kPa . Clearly, much greater care should be taken in
transporting gasoline via pipeline.

1.105. From the given data: p = 7 kPa. Interpolating from the properties of water given in Appendix
B.1, the vapor pressure is equal to 7 kPa when the water temperature is 38.8◦ C. Therefore
the maximum allowable water temperature is 38.8◦ C .

31
1.106. For gasoline at 20◦ C the vapor pressure is 55.2 kPa (from Appendix B.4). Hence the
pressure in the space is 55.2 kPa . The molecules in the space are molecules of those
compounds than constitute gasoline , usually around 100 or so different compounds.

1.107. From the given data: d = 40 ft, T = 70◦ F, patm = 14.70 lb/in2 = 2117 lb/ft2 , Q = 10 gpm
= 0.0223 ft3 /s, and D = 2 in = 0.1667 ft. At 70◦ F, γ = 62.30 lb/ft3 , and at sea level g =
32.17 ft/s2 . The absolute pressure in the pumped water at a distance z above the water level
in the well is given by [ ]
Q2
pabs = patm − γ 1 + 0.24 5 z (1)
gD
The saturation vapor pressure of water at 70◦ F is psat = 0.3632 lb/in2 = 52.30 lb/ft2 . Taking
pabs = psat in Equation 1 and substituting the given data:
[ ]
(0.0223)2
53.20 = 2117 − (62.30) 1 + 0.24 z
(32.17)(0.1667)5

which yields z = 32.2 ft. Therefore, the maximum rise height of water in this case is 32.2 ft .
The farmer’s system will not work .

1.108. The vapor pressure of seawater at 20◦ C is 2.34 kPa (from Appendix B.4). When the minimum
pressure, pmin , on the torpedo is equal to the vapor pressure, pv , the corresponding torpedo
velocity, Vv , is derived as follows:

pmin = pv = 120 − 0.402Vv2 → 2.34 = 120 − 0.402Vv2 → Vv = 17.1 m/s

1.109. From the given data: E = 10 MJ/(m2 ·d), and at 15◦ C Table B.1 gives λ = 2.464 MJ/kg, and
ρ = 999.1 kg/m3 . Evaporation resulting from E is

E 10
= = 4.06 × 10−3 m/d = 4.06 mm/d
ρλ (999.1)(2.464)

1.110. At T = 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 and Lv = 2.452 MJ/kg. Therefore,

E
= 5 mm/d = 5 × 10−3 m/d
ρLv
gives
E = (5 × 10−3 )(ρLv ) = (5 × 10−3 )(998.2 × 2.452) = 12.2 MJ/(m2 ·d)

1.111. From the given data: condensation rate = 10 kg/s. At 5◦ C, the latent heat of vaporization
is Lv = 2.487 MJ/kg. Therefore,

energy generated by condensation = 2.487 MJ/kg × 10 kg/s = 24.87 MJ/s

32
Chapter 2

Fluid Statics

2.1. From the given data: patm = 101 kPa, hk = 0.62 m, and hw = 2.05 m. For water, γw =
9.79 kN/m3 , and for kerosene, ρk = 808 kg/m3 , which gives γk = 7.92 kN/m3 (from Appendix
B.4). The absolute pressure on the bottom of the tank, pb , is calculated as follows:
pb = patm + γk hk + γw hw = 101 + 7.92(0.62) + 9.79(2.05) = 125.98 kPa
As a gauge pressure, the pressure on the bottom of the tank is 125.98 kPa − 101 kPa =
24.98 kPa .
2.2. (a) Taking γw = 9.79 kN/m3 and p = 101.3 kPa, the depth, h, below the water surface
corresponding to a gauge pressure of 101.3 kPa is given by
p 101.3
h= = = 10.3 m
γw 9.79
(b) From the given data: ∆h = 1.65 m. Therefore, the pressure difference, ∆p, is given by
∆p = γ∆h = (9.79)(1.65) = 16.2 kPa

2.3. From the given data: SG1 = 0.98, z1 = 0 m, SG2 = 1.07, and z2 = −12 m. Since SG varies
linearly,
SG2 − SG1 1.07 − 0.98
SG = SG1 + (z − z1 ) = 0.98 + (z − 0) = 0.98 − 0.0075z (1)
z2 − z1 −12 − 0
The relationship between specific gravity (SG) and specific weight (γ) is given by
γ (kN/m3 ) = g · SG = 9.807 · SG (2)
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives the following equation for the variation of specific weight
with depth,
γ = 0.611 − 0.0736 z kN/m3 (3)
Using the hydrostatic pressure distribution (Equation 2.10) the difference in pressure between
z = −12 m and z = 0 m is given by Equation 2.11 as
∫ z2 ∫ −12
[ ]−12
p2 −p1 = − γ dz = − (0.611−0.0736 z) dz = − 9.611 z − 0.03678 z 2 0 = 121 kPa
z1 0

This is a gauge pressure , relative to atmospheric pressure on the surface of the liquid.

33
2.4. (a) From the given data: h = 12 m and pA = 200 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .
By definition of absolute pressure,

pA = patm + γh → 200 = patm + (9.789)(12) → patm = 91.5 kPa

(b) From the given data: SG = 0.85, ρ = 850 kg/m3 , γ = 8.336 kN/m3 , and h = 6 m. Since
the pressure distribution is hydrostatic,

pg = γh = (8.336)(6) = 50.0 kPa , pA = patm + pg = 91.5 + 50.0 = 141.5 kPa

2.5. From the given data: h = 10 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kg/m3 . For standard atmospheric
pressure, patm = 101.3 kPa. The gauge pressure, p, at the valve is given by

p = γh = (9.79)(10) = 97.9 kPa

The absolute pressure, pabs , at the valve location is given by

pabs = p + patm = 97.9 + 101.3 = 199.2 kPa

2.6. From the given data: p0 = 14 kPa, and γoil = 0.80, γw = 0.80(9.79) = 7.83 kN/m3 . Hence,
at a depth h = 1.5 m below the surface of the oil, the pressure, p, is given by

p = p0 + γoil h = 14 + (7.83)(1.5) = 25.7 kPa

2.7. From the given data: pB = 5 kPa, ∆z1 = 0.30 m, and ∆z2 = 0.62 m. For water at 20◦ C,
γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . The air pressures in tanks A and C are as follows:

pA = pA + γ∆z1 = 5 + (9.789)(0.30) = 7.94 kPa

pC = pA − γ∆z2 = 7.94 − (9.789)(0.62) = 1.87 kPa

2.8. From the given data: D1 = 5 mm, h = 30 m, and T = 15◦ C. For water at 15◦ C, ρ =
999.1 kg/m3 and γ = 9798 N/m3 . Under standard conditions, patm = 101.3 kPa. The initial
volume of the bubble, V1 , the initial pressure, p1 , and the final pressure, p2 , are given by
πD13 π(0.005)3
V1 = = = 6.545 × 10−8 m3
6 6
p1 = patm + γh = 101.3 × 103 + (9798)(30) = 3.953 × 105 Pa

p2 = patm = 1.013 × 105 Pa

Applying the ideal gas law to the air in the bubble and assuming isothermal conditions gives
( ) ( )
p1 3.953 × 105
p1 V1 = p2 V2 → V2 = V1 = (6.545 × 10−8 ) = 2.554 × 10−7 m3
p2 1.013 × 105
Therefore, the diameter, D2 , at the surface is given by
[ ]1 [ ] 13
6V2 3 6(2.554 × 10−7 )
D2 = = = 0.00787 m ≈ 7.9 mm
π π

34
 2.9. From the given data: ∆z = 20 m, patm = 101.3 kPa, and T = 20◦ C. At 20◦ C, the density of
seawater is given by Appendix B.4 as ρ = 1023 kg/m3 , which corresponds to γ = 10.03 kN/m3 .
Since the pressure distribution in the ocean is hydrostatic and the pressure of the air inside
the bubble is equal to the pressure of the water outside the bubble, and the temperature is
constant, the ratio of densities is given by

ρ1 p1 patm + γ∆z 101.3 + (10.03)(20)

= = = = 2.98
ρ2 p2 patm 101.3

2.10. From the given data: h1 = 7 m, γ1 = 9 kN/m3 , h2 = 2.3 m, and pbot = 92 kPa. For
water at 4◦ C, γw = 9.81 kN/m3 . The specific gravity, SG, can be derived from the following
hydrostatic pressure relationship,

pbot = γ1 h1 + [SG · γw ]h2 → 92 = (9)(7) + [SG · (9.81)](2.3) → SG = 1.3

Yes the liquid on the bottom must necessarily be denser than the liquid on the top.

2.11. For water at 20◦ C, Table 1.9 gives γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The pressure head, h, corresponding to
p = 450 kPa is therefore
p 450
h= = = 46.0 m
γ 9.79

2.12. For p = 800 kPa, the pressure head, h, is given by

p 800
h= = = 81.7 m (of water)
γw 9.79

For crude oil at 20◦ C, ρoil = 856 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.4), which gives γoil = 8.40 kN/m3 .
For p = 800 kPa,
p 800
h= = = 95.2 m (of crude oil)
γoil 8.40

2.13. Pressure, p1 , corresponding to hw = 80 mm of water is

p1 = γw hw = (9.79)(0.080) = 0.783 kPa

and the pressure, p2 , corresponding to hf = 60 mm of a fluid whose specific weight is γf =

2.90γw = 2.90(9.79) = 28.4 kN/m3 is

p2 = γf hf = (28.4)(0.060) = 1.70 kPa

The total pressure, p, is therefore given by

p = p1 + p2 = 0.783 + 1.70 = 2.48 kPa

and the pressure head, hHg , in mm of mercury (taking γHg = 133 kN/m3 ) is

p 2.48
hHg = = × 1000 = 18.6 mm Hg
γHg 133

35
2.14. For patm = 101.3 kPa, the pressure head, hHg , in mm of mercury (γHg = 133 kN/m3 ) is given
by
patm 101.3
hHg = = × 1000 = 762 mm Hg
γHg 133
2.15. From the given data: D = 7 mm, and h′ = 80 mm. For water at 20◦ C, σ = 72.8 mN/m =
0.0728 N/m, and γ = 9789 N/m3 (from Appendix B.1). For water and clean glass, θ = 0◦ .
(a) The rise height, ∆h, due to surface tension is calculated as
4σ cos θ 4(0.0728) cos 0◦
∆h = = = 4.45 × 10−3 m = 4.45 mm
γD (9789)(0.007)
(b) In accordance with Equation 2.20, the pressure head, h, at the attachment point is given
by
h = h′ − ∆h = 80 − 4.45 = 75.75 mm ≈ 75.8 mm
2.16. When the reservoir is half-full, the pipeline pressure is 350 kPa, and the height, h0 , of the
mid-point of the reservoir above the pipeline is
350 350
h0 = = = 35.8 m
γw 9.79
Note that the pressures of liquids in pipes are generally given as gauge pressures unless stated
otherwise. When the pressure in the pipeline is 500 kPa, the height, h1 , of the water in the
reservoir above the pipeline is
500 500
h1 = = = 51.1 m
γw 9.79
Hence the minimum space between the mid-point and top of the reservoir is 51.1 m − 35.8 m
= 15.3 m .
2.17. From the given data: x = 120 mm Hg, y = 70 mm Hg, ∆zhead = 0.5 m, ∆ztoe = 1.5 m, and
ρ = 1060 kg/m3 . From the given density, γ = 10.40 kN/m3 .
(a) The following pressure differences can be calculated:
heart-head = γ · ∆zhead = (10.40)(0.5) = 5.20 kPa = 39 mm Hg
heart-toe = γ · ∆ztoe = (10.40)(1.5) = 15.6 kPa = 117 mm Hg
The blood pressures in the head and toes are:
120 − 39
head = = 81/31
70 − 39
120 + 117
toes = = 237/187
70 + 117
(b) The maximum pressure is p = 120 mm Hg = 16.0 kPa. Therefore, the height, h, that
blood would rise in the tube is given by
p 16.0
h= = = 1.54 m
γ 10.40

36
2.18. From the given data: p = 150 mm Hg = 20.00 kPa, and ρ = 1025 kg/m3 . Taking g =
9.807 m/s2 , the height h between arm level and fluid level is given by
p 20.00 × 103
h= = = 1.99 m
ρg (1025)(9.807)

2.19. From the given data: ∆z = 6 m, and ρ = 1060 kg/m3 . The specific weight of the blood is γ
= 10.4 kN/m3 .
(a) When the giraffe drinks, the change in pressure in the head, ∆p, is given by
∆p = γ · ∆z = (10.4)(6) = 67.6 kPa = 507 mm Hg

(b) The difference in pressure between the head and the heart is 507 mm/2 = 254 mm.
Since the maximum pressure at the heart level is given as 280 mm, then the maximum
pressure in the head is 280 mm + 254 mm = 534 mm Hg .

2.20. From the given data: pair = 300 kPa, A1 = 7 cm2 = 0.0007 m2 , W1 = 50 N = 0.05 kN, A2
= 500 cm2 = 0.05 m2 , W2 = 800 N = 0.8 kN, ∆z = 1 m, ∆s1 = 10 cm, ρ = 900 kg/m3 , and
γ = ρg = 8.83 kN/m3 .
(a) The force, F , exerted by the compressed air on the piston is given by
F = pair A1 = (300)(0.0007) = 0.21 kN
(b) Let W be the weight mounted on the platform, then
F + W1 W + W2 0.21 + 0.05 W + 0.8
− γ∆z = → − (8.83)(1) = → W = 17.3 kN
A1 A2 0.0007 0.05
(c) If ∆s2 is the displacement of the platform, then
A1 ∆s1 = A2 ∆s2 → (7)(10) = (500)∆s2 → ∆s2 = 0.14 cm
2.21. From the given data: F1 = 500 N, D1 = 25 mm, and D2 = 100 mm. If the force on the 100-mm
piston is F2 , and noting that performance of the hydraulic system will not be compromised
if both pistons exert the same pressure, then
F1 F2 500 F2
2 = 2 → 2
= → F2 = 8000 N
D1 D2 25 1002

2.22. From the given data: z = 4342 m = 4.342 km. For the standard atmosphere, T0 = 15◦ C
= 288.2 K, b = 6.5◦ C/km, p0 = 101.3 kPa, and g/Rb = 5.26. The standard-atmosphere
temperature, T , at the summit is calculated using Equation 2.25 as
T = T0 − bz = 15 − (6.5)(4.342) = −13.2◦ C = 259.9 K
The standard-atmosphere pressure, p, at the summit is calculated using Equation 2.26 as
( )g ( )
T Rb 259.9 5.26
p = p0 = 101.3 = 58.8 kPa
T0 288.2
The calculated standard-atmosphere temperature and pressure are fairly close to the measured
values of −11◦ C and 58 kPa.

37
2.23. From the given data: z1 = 11 km, z2 = 20 km, T0 = −56.5◦ C = 216.7 K, and p1 = 22.63 kPa.
The average value of g is ḡ = 9.769 m/s2 . For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. Using Equation 2.29,
the theoretical pressure, p2 , at the top of the stratosphere is given by
[ ] [ ]
ḡ(z2 − z1 ) (9.769)(20000 − 11000)
p2 = p1 exp − = (22.63) exp − = 5.51 kPa
RT0 (287.1)(216.7)

The standard-atmosphere pressure at z = 20 km (from Appendix B.3) is 5.529 kPa , so the

theoretical and standard values are very close.

2.24. From the given data: b = 6.5◦ C/km, p0 = 101.325 kPa, and T0 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K. For
air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, which gives g/Rb = 5.255. Assuming a uniform lapse rate and a
hydrostatic pressure distribution, the temperature, T , and pressure, p, at any elevation are
given by
( )g
T Rb
T = T0 − bz, p = p0
T0
The results of applying these equations and comparing the predictions to the standard atmo-
sphere is given in the following table.

z T T p Tstd pstd ∆T ∆p
(km) (◦ C) ( K) (kPa) (◦ C) (kPa) (◦ C) (kPa)
0 15.0 288.15 101.325 15.00 101.325 0.00 0.000
1 8.5 281.65 89.876 8.50 89.876 0.00 0.000
2 2.0 275.15 79.498 2.00 79.501 0.00 −0.003
3 −4.5 268.65 70.112 −4.49 70.121 −0.01 −0.009
4 −11.0 262.15 61.644 −10.98 61.660 −0.02 −0.016
5 −17.5 255.65 54.024 −17.47 54.048 −0.03 −0.024
6 −24.0 249.15 47.186 −23.96 47.217 −0.04 −0.031
7 −30.5 242.65 41.065 −30.45 41.110 −0.05 −0.045
8 −37.0 236.15 35.605 −36.94 35.651 −0.06 −0.046
9 −43.5 229.65 30.747 −43.42 30.800 −0.08 −0.053
10 −50.0 223.15 26.441 −49.90 26.499 −0.10 −0.058
11 −56.5 216.65 22.636 −56.50 22.632 0.00 0.004

Bases on the results presented in the the above table, the maximum temperature difference
is −0.10◦ C , and the maximum pressure difference is −0.058 kPa .

2.25. Taking the pressure distribution in the atmosphere as hydrostatic,

dp p
= −ρg; ρ= ; T = a + bz
dz RT
Using these equations:

dp g g
=− dz = − dz
p RT R(a + bz)

38
 ∫ 2 ∫
dp g 2 dz
=−
1 p R 1 a + bz
( )
p2 a + bz2 −g/Rb
= (1)
p1 a + bz1
From the given data: p1 = 101 kPa, p2 = 1 Pa, z1 = 0 m, a = 273 + 20 = 293 K, b = −6.3
K/km = −0.0063 K/m, R = 287 J/kg·K (for air), which yields
g 9.81
− = = 5.426
Rb (287)(0.0063)
Substituting into Equation 2.23 gives
( )5.426
0.001 293 − 0.0063z2
=
101 293

which yields z2 = 52,070 m = 52.1 km .

2.26. From the given data: z = 2256 m, T = 5◦ C = 278 K, T0 = 27◦ C = 300 K, and p0 = 101 kPa.
The lapse rate, b, can be estimated as
T0 − T 300 − 278
b= = = 0.00975 K/m = 9.75 K/km
z 2256
For the standard atmosphere, b = 6.50 K/km, g/Rb = 5.26, and so for b = 9.75 K/km it is
estimated that
g 6.50
= 5.26 × = 3.51
Rb 9.75
(a) The pressure, p, at the Peak can be calculated using Equation 2.26 which gives
( )g ( )
T Rb 278 3.51
p = p0 = (101) = 77.3 kPa
T0 300
(b) The vapor pressure of water is equal to 77.3 kPa when the temperature of the water is
92◦ C (from Appendix B.1). Therefore, water boils at 92◦ C at the Peak.
2.27. For the standard atmosphere, b = 6.50 K/km = 0.00650 K/m. For air, M = 28.96 g/mol =
0.02896 kg/mol. Constants are R = 8.314 J/mol·K and g = 9.81 m/s2 . Therefore,
gM (9.81)(0.02896)
= = 5.26
Rb (8.314)(0.00650)
Under standard atmospheric conditions, p0 = 101.3 kPa and T0 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K. In La
Paz, z = 3640 m and estimated atmospheric conditions are as follows:
T = T0 − bz = 288.15 − (0.00650)(3640) = 264.5 K(= −8.66◦ C)
( ) gM ( )
T Rb 264.5 5.26
p = p0 = (101.3) = 64.56 kPa
T0 288.15
The temperature of water at which the saturation vapor pressure is 64.56 kPa is the temper-
ature at which water boils and is equal to approximately 87.6◦ C .

39
2.28. From the given data: ∆z = 3000 m. For standard air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, and for a standard
atmosphere at sea level, p1 = 101.325 kPa and T1 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K. Assume that the
temperature remains constant at 15◦ C over the depth of the shaft. Using Equation 2.29 gives
[ ] [ ]
g(z2 − z1 ) (9.807)(−3000)
p2 = p1 exp − → p2 = (101.325) exp − = 145 kPa
RT0 (287.1)(288.15)

2.29. From the given data: p0 = 755 mm, z = 829.8 m = 0.8298 km, and T0 = 35.5◦ C = 308.7 K.
Assuming standard atmospheric conditions, b = 6.5◦ C/km, and g/Rb = 5.26. The estimated
temperature, T , at the top of the building is calculated using Equation 2.25 as
T = T0 − bz = 35.5 − (6.5)(0.8298) = 30.10◦ C = 303.3 K
The barometric pressure, p, at the top of the building can be estimated using Equation 2.26
as ( )g ( )
T Rb 303.3 5.26
p = p0 = 755 = 688 mm Hg
T0 308.7
2.30. From the given data: p1 = 750 mm, and p2 = 690 mm. For a standard atmosphere: p0 =
760 mm, T0 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K, b = 6.5 K/km, and g/Rb = 5.26. Using Equation 2.26,
[ ]g [ ]
bz1 Rb (6.5)z1 5.26
p1 = p0 1 − → 750 = (760) 1 − → z1 = 0.111 km
T0 288.15
[ ] g [ ]5.26
bz2 Rb (6.5)z1
p2 = p0 1− → 690 = (760) 1 − → z2 = 0.807 km
T0 288.15

Therefore the change in elevation is estimated as 0.807 km − 0.111 km = 0.696 km = 696 m

2.31. From the given data: hair = 0.3 m, hg1 = 1.2 m, hg2 = 0.8 m., hg3 = 1.9 m, and patm =
101 kPa. For gasoline at 20◦ C, ρg = 680 kg/m3 , which gives γg = 6.67 kN/m3 . If p0 is the
pressure at the Bourdon gauge, then
p0 + γg hg1 − γg hg3 = 0 → p0 + 6.67(1.2 − 1.9) = 0 → p0 = 4.67 kPa
Note that the Bourdon gauge reads gauge pressure, and the variation of hydrostatic pressure
in the air is negligible.
2.32. From the given data: SG1 = 0.9, ∆z1 = 0.25 m, SG2 = 2.5, and ∆z2 = 0.25 m. The specific
weights corresponding to the given specific gravities are determined by the relation
γ = SG · ρ0 g = SG · (1000)(9.807) = 9807 · SG N/m3 = 9.807 · SG kN/m3
Using this relation, the specific weights of the light and dense fluids are
γ1 = 9.807(0.9) = 8.826 kN/m3 , γ2 = 9.807(2.5) = 24.52 kN/m3
(a) Assuming that both the top of the light fluid and the air above the liquid are at the
same atmospheric pressure, then
γ1 8.826
  + γ1 ∆z1 − γ2 ∆z = 
patm 
patm → ∆z = ∆z1 = (0.25) = 0.090 m
γ2 24.52

40
 (b) Since the pressure distribution is hydrostatic, the gauge pressure on the bottom of the
tank, p0 , is given by

p0 = γ1 ∆z1 + γ2 ∆z2 = (8.826)(0.25) + (24.52)(0.25) = 8.34 kPa

2.33. From Figure 2.50,

pA = pB − γf (0.10) − γw (0.15)
where pB = 0 kPa (gauge pressure), γf = 40 kN/m3 , and γw = 9.79 kN/m3 . Hence,

pA = 0 − 40(0.10) − 9.79(0.15) = −5.47 kPa

Alternative solution:
In terms of absolute pressure, pB = 101.33 kPa, γf = 40 kN/m3 , and γw = 9.79 kN/m3 .
Hence,
pA = 101.33 − 40(0.10) − 9.79(0.15) = 95.86 kPa
It should be noted that the pressure of liquids in pipes is seldom given in terms of absolute
pressure, so pA = −5.47 kPa is the preferred answer.
2.34. For SAE 30 oil and mercury at 20◦ C: ρoil = 918 kg/m3 , and ρHg = 13550 kg/m3 (from
Appendix B.4). These values correspond to: γoil = 9.00 kN/m3 , and γHg = 133 kN/m3 .
Applying the hydrostatic pressure equation gives

pair + γoil hoil − γHg hHg = patm

pair + (9.00)(1) − (133)(0.25) = patm → pair − patm = 24.3 kPa

2.35. From Figure 2.52,

pA = pB + γw h3 − γf h2 − γw h1
which simplifies to
pA − pB = γw (h3 − h1 ) − γf h2

2.36. From the given data: γw = 9.79 kN/m3 , γg = 18.3 kN/m3 , h1 = 0.5 m, and h2 = 0.3 m.
Applying the hydrostatic pressure relation between points 1 and 2 gives

p1 − γw h1 − γg h2 + γw (h1 + h2 ) = p2

p1 − 9.79(0.5) − 18.3(0.3) + 9.79(0.5 + 0.3) = p2 → p1 − p2 = 2.55 kPa

2.37. For equilibrium,

pw + γw (0.15) − γ1 (0.10) − γ2 (0.20) + γ3 (0.15) = p0

Taking γw = 9.79 kN/m3 :

p0 − pw = γw [0.15 − SG1 (0.10) − SG2 (0.20) + SG3 (0.15)]

= (9.79)[0.15 − (13.6)(0.10) − (0.68)(0.20) + (0.86)(0.15)] = −11.9 kPa

So the pressure difference is 11.9 kPa .

41
 2.38. From the given data: D1 = 1 m, D2 = 10 mm, ∆p = 200 Pa, and ∆s = 200 mm. For SAE 30
oil at 20◦ C, ρ = 918 kg/m3 and γ = ρg = 9003 N/m3 (from Appendix B.4). The following
preliminary calculations of the cross-sectional area, A1 , of the tank and the cross-sectional
area, A2 , of the manometer are useful,

πD12 π12 πD22 π(0.2)2

A1 = = = 0.7854 m2 , A2 = = = 7.854 × 10−5 m2
4 4 4 4
Let ∆h be the change in oil level in the reservoir corresponding to ∆p, and let p0 be atmo-
spheric pressure, then the continuity and hydrostatic-pressure relationships require that

A2
∆hA1 = ∆sA2 → ∆h = ∆s (1)
A1

0 + ∆p − γ∆h − γ∆s sin θ = 

p p
0 (2)

Combining Equations 1 and 2 to eliminate ∆h gives

[ ] [ ]
∆p A2 200 7.854 × 10−5
sin θ = − = − = 0.1110 → θ = 6.37◦
γ∆s A1 (9003)(0.200) 0.7854

2.39. For a water temperature of 15◦ C, γw = 9.80 kN/m3 . For the given manometer setup,

pw = p0 + γw h2 − SGγw L1 sin θ − γw L2 sin θ

Noting that sin θ = 8/12 = 0.667, the above equation gives

pw = 30 + (9.80)(0.50) − (2.4)(9.80)(0.06)(0.667) − (9.80)(0.06)(0.667) = 33.6 kPa

Therefore the water pressure in the pipe is 33.6 kPa .

NEW From the given data: Ixx = 8.553 m4 , and θ = 70◦ . The given dimensions are shown in
Figure 2.1, where the inclined distance from the water surface to the top of the plane surface
is 1.5 sin 70◦ = 1.596 m.

Water surface
6m
1.59

1.5 m

70o
3m

Plane surface

Figure 2.1: Side view of inclined surface

42
 For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . From the given dimensions of the plane surface, the
following geometric properties can be calculated:

A1 = (3)(2) = 6 m2 , A2 = (5)(1) = 5 m2
2 1
ȳ1 = 1.596 + = 2.596 m, ȳ2 = 1.596 + 2 + = 4.096 m
2 2
A1 ȳ1 + A2 ȳ2
ȳ = = 3.278 m, A = 11 m2
A1 + A2
Using the calculated data, the resultant force, F , and location, ycp , are given by

F = γAȳ sin θ = (9.789)(11)(3.278) sin 70◦ = 332 kN

Ixx 8.553
ycp = ȳ + = 3.278 + = 3.52 m
Aȳ (11)(3.278)

2.40. From the given data: b = 3 m, d = 4 m, W = 20 kN, h = 2 m, and µ = 0.05. For water, γ
= 9.79 kN/m3 . The geometric properties of the gate are:
d 4
ȳ = h + = 2 + = 4 m, A = bd = (3)(4) = 12 m2
2 2
The hydrostatic force, F , on the gate is given by

F = γAȳ = (9.79)(12)(4) = 469.9 kN

The frictional force, Ff , and the total force, Flift , required to lift the gate are given by

Ff = µ F = (0.05)(469.9) = 23.50 kN

Flift = Ff + W = 23.50 + 20 = 43.5 kN

2.41. From the given data: h = 4 m, L = 3.5 m, w = 0.3 m, and SG = 2.5. The following preliminary
calculations are useful:

A = Lh = (3.5)(4) = 14 m2 , γ = SG · (9.807) = 24.52 kN/m3

h 4 Lh3 (4)(3.5)3
ȳ = = = 2 m, Icc = = = 18.67 m4
2 2 12 12
Using the given and derived data, the support force, F , and location, ycp , are calculated as
follows,
Icc 18.67
F = γAȳ = (24.52)(14)(2) = 687 kN, ycp = ȳ + =2+ = 2.67 m
Aȳ (14)(2)

Therefore, the magnitude of the required support force on each side of the form is 687 kN .
This support should be located 4 m − 2.67 m = 1.33 m from the bottom of the wall section.
The lateral location is L/2 = 3.5/2 = 1.75 m from the edge of the wall section.

43
2.42. From the given data: b = 2 m, d = 3 m, θ = 60◦ , htop = 2.5 m. For water, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 .
The geometric properties of the gate are calculated as follows:
htop 2.5
A = bd = (2)(3) = 6 m2 , ytop = = = 2.887 m
sin θ sin 60◦
d 3 bd3 (2)(3)3
ȳ = ytop + = 2.887 + = 4.387 m, Ixx = = = 4.500 m4
2 2 12 12
The resultant force, F , and the center of pressure, ycp , are given by

F = γAȳ sin θ = (9.79)(6)(4.387) sin 60◦ = 223 kN

Ixx 4.500
ycp = ȳ + = 4.387 + = 4.558 m
Aȳ (6)(4.387)

The center of pressure is 4.558 sin 60◦ = 3.95 m below the water surface.
2.43. Force, F , on gate given by
F = γAȳ
where γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , A = πD2 /4 = π(2)2 /4 = 3.142 m2 , and ȳ = 4 m. Therefore

F = (9.79)(3.142)(4) = 123 kN
The location of F is given by ycp , where
Icc
ycp = ȳ +
Aȳ
For a circle
πD4 π(2)4
Icc = = = 0.785 m4
64 64
therefore,
0.785
ycp = 4 + = 4.06 m
(3.142)(4)
Moment of hydrostatic force about A, MA , is the minimum moment needed to open the gate,
MA = F (ycp − 3) = 123(4.06 − 3) = 130 kN·m

2.45. From the given data: H = 3 m, T = 1 m, ρc = 2800 kg/m3 , ρs = 1500 kg/m3 , and µ = 0.35.
Considering a unit length of slurry wall (perpendicular to the page), the following preliminary
calculations are useful,
γc = ρc g = 27.46 kN/m3 , γs = ρs g = 14.71 kN/m3

W = γc Vc = (27.46)(3 × 1) = 82.38 kN, Ff = µW = (0.35)(82.38) = 28.83 kN

( )
h Icc h h3 /12 2
Fh = γs Aȳ = (14.71)(h) = 7.355h2 , ycp = ȳ + = + = h
2 Aȳ 2 h · h/2 3
where W = weight of retaining wall, Ff = friction force, and Fh = horizontal hydrostatic
force.

44
 (a) For shear failure, the horizontal hydrostatic force is equal to the friction force, which
requires that

Fh = Ff → 7.355h2 = 28.83 kN → h = 1.98 m

(b) For overturning about the point P, the ground reaction is equal to zero and

T ( )
W· = Fh · (h − ycp ) → (82.38)(0.5) = (7.355h2 ) h − 32 h → h = 2.56 m
2

The more likely failure mode is by shear failure , since this failure will occur at with a lower
slurry depth (1.98 m vs. 2.56 m).

2.46. From the given data: L = 25 m, T = 5 m, s = 4 m, SGc = 2.4, and y2 = 3 m. From the given
specific gravity of concrete, the specific weight of concrete is γc = SG · g = 23.53 kN/m3 . For
water at 20◦ C, γw = 9.789 kN/m3 . The illustrations given in Figure 2.2 are useful in the
calculations.
5m

x
L
p0 (h + 4) m
p1

! P
20 m
(a) Pressure distribu!on (b) Geometry of dam

Figure 2.2: Definition diagrams for calculations

The slope of the downstream side of the dam is measured by θ, which can be expressed in
terms of the upstream height, h using the relation

h+4
sin θ = √ (1)
(h + 4)2 + 202

Using the subscript “1” to designate upstream and the subscript “2” to designate downstream,
and taking a unit length if the dam (perpendicular to the page), the following preliminary
calculations are useful:
( )
3 3
A1 = (1)h = h, A2 = (1) =
sin θ sin θ
h 1.5
ȳ1 = , ȳ2 =
2 sin θ
(1)(h)3 h3 (1)(3/ sin θ)3 2.25
I100 = = , I200 = =
12 12 12 sin3 θ

45
 The centers of pressure are calculated as follows:

I100 h h3 /12 2h
y1cp = ȳ1 + = + =
A1 ȳ1 2 (h)(h/2) 3

I200 1.5 2.25/ sin3 θ 2

y2cp = ȳ2 + = + =
A2 ȳ2 sin θ (3/ sin θ)(1.5/ sin θ) sin θ

The horizontal hydrostatic forces on the upstream and downstream faces are:

F1 = γw A1 ȳ1 = (9.789)(h)(h/2) = 4.895h2

[ ][ ]
3 1.5 44.05
F2 = γw A2 ȳ2 sin θ = (9.789) sin θ =
sin θ sin θ sin θ

The moment, M1 , about the toe of the dam (Point P in Figure 2.2) caused by the uplift
pressure is obtained with the following calculations:

p1 − p0 9.789h − 9.789(3)
p = p0 + x → p = 3(9.789) + x → p = 29.37 + [0.3916h − 1.175]x
L 25
∫ 25 25 25

2

3
M1 = x · p dx = 14.69x  + [0.1305h − 0.3917]x  = 3060.9 + 2039.1h
0 0 0

The moment, M2 , about the toe of the dam caused by the weight of the concrete is obtained
with the following calculations:
( )
20
M2 = 5(h + 4)γc (20 + 2.5) + 2 (20)(h + 4)γc 20 −
1
3
( )
20
= 5(h + 4)(23.53)(20 + 2.5) + 2 (20)(h + 4)(23.53) 20 −
1
→ M2 = 5784(h + 4)
3

At the instant of overturning, the ground reaction is equal to zero and the sum of the moments
about P is equal to zero, which requires that
( )
3
− F1 (h − y1cp ) + F2 − y2cp − M1 + M2 = 0
sin θ
( )
44.05 3 2
→ −4.895h (h − 3 h) +
2 2
− − (3060.9 + 2039.1h) + [5784(h + 4)] = 0
sin θ sin θ sin θ
44.05
→ −1.632h3 + + 7823h + 20075 = 0
sin2 θ
(h + 4)2 + 202
→ −1.632h3 + (44.05) + 3744.9h + 20075 = 0 → h = 50.7 m
h+4

2.48. From the given data: D = 2.5 m, R = D/2 = 1.25 m, θ = 35◦ , hc = 1.5 m, and W = 500 kN.
For water, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 .

46
 (a) The hydrostatic force that would exist on the top surface of the gate is the same as that
which exists on the bottom surface of the gate. Work with a top-of-gate perspective.
The relevant geometric properties of the gate are as follows:
1.5
ȳ = = 2.615 m, ytop = ȳ − R = 2.615 − 1.25 = 1.365 m
sin 35◦
πR4 π(1.25)4
A = πR2 = π(1.25)2 = 4.909 m2 , I= = = 1.918 m4
4 4
Therefore the resultant force, F , and its location, ycp , are given by

F = γAhc = (9.79)(4.909)(1.5) = 72.1 kN

I 1.918
ycp = ȳ + = 2.615 + = 2.765 m
Aȳ (4.909)(2.615)
The location of the resultant relative to the top of the gate is yF = 2.765 m − 1.365 m =
1.400 m .
(b) When the gate is about to open, and Fb is the applied (vertical) force at the bottom of
the gate, taking moments about the top of the gate gives,

F · yF + Fb · (D cos θ) = W · (R cos θ)
(72.1)(1.400) + Fb (2.5 cos 35◦ ) = (500)(1.25 cos 35◦ ) → Fb = 201 kN

2.49. From the given data: θ = 50◦ , d = 15 m, and R = 3 m. For water, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The
useful geometric properties of a semicircle (from Appendix C) are
4R
yc = , Ixc = 0.1098R4
3π
where, in this case, yc is the distance from the shaft to the centroid, and Ixc is the moment
of inertia about an axis parallel to the shaft and passing through the centroid. Using these
properties the following derived geometric properties can be calculated:
[ ] [ ]
d 4R 15 4(3)
ȳ = − R− = − 3− = 17.85 m
sin θ 3π sin 50◦ 3π

hc = ȳ sin θ = (17.85)(sin 50◦ ) = 13.68 m

1 1
A = πR2 = π(3)2 = 14.14 m2
2 2
Ixc = 0.1098R4 = 0.1098(3)4 = 8.894 m4
Ixc 8.894
ycp = ȳ + = 17.85 + = 17.89 m
Aȳ (14.14)(17.85)
Using these results, the hydrostatic force, F , calculated as follows

F = γAhc = (9.79)(14.14)(13.68) = 1893 kN

47
 The distance from the shaft to the center of pressure, ycp1 , is given by
[ ] [ ]
d 15
ycp1 = ycp − − R = 17.89 − − 3 = 1.309 m
sin θ sin 50◦
The support force, FP , is derived by considering the gate as a free body and taking moments
about the shaft, which yields
ycp1 1.309
FP R = F ycp1 → FP = F = 1893 = 826 kN
R 3

2.50. From the given data: θ = 35◦ , R = 420 mm, and ȳ = 3 m. The force, F , on the hatch is

F = γAȳ sin θ

where A = πR2 = π(0.42)2 = 0.554 m2 , and therefore

F = (9.79)(0.554)(3) sin 35◦ = 9.33 kN

This force is located at a distance ycp from the surface, where

Icc
ycp = ȳ +
Aȳ
For the circular hatch,
πD4 π(0.84)4
Icc = = = 0.0244 m4
64 64
hence
0.0244
ycp = 3 + = 3.01 m
(0.554)(3)
The resultant hydrostatic force is therefore 3.01 m below the water surface, measured along
the sloping wall.

2.51. Calculate the force on the gate:

F = γAȳ sin θ (1)
where θ = 90◦ − sin−1 (3/5) = 53.1◦ , ȳ = 4/ sin(53.1◦ ) + 2.5 = 7.502 m, A = (5)(4) = 20 m2 ,
and γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . Substituting into Equation 1 and also calculating the center of pressure
gives:

F = (9.79)(20)(7.502) sin(53.1◦ ) = 1175 kN

(4)(5)3
I 12
ycp = ȳ + = 7.502 + = 7.780 m
Aȳ (20)(7.502)
Taking moments about the hinge and taking into consideration that the reaction force at P
acts normal to the surface gives

[P cos(53.1◦ )](5) = (7.502 + 2.5 − 7.780)(1175)

which gives P = 869 kN .

48
2.52. From the given data: W = 500 kg, w = 5 m, and θ = 45◦ . Taking γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , the
hydrostatic force on the gate, Fh , is given by
( )
3
Fh = γAȳ sin θ = γAh̄ = (9.79) × 5 (0.5 + 1.5) = 415 kN
sin 45◦
The center of pressure, ycp , is given by
( ) ( )3 1
I 2 5 sin345◦ 12
ycp = ȳ + = +( 3 ) ( 2 ) = 3.36 m
Aȳ sin 45◦ sin 45◦ × 5 sin 45◦

(a) If the force is applied at the center of the gate, taking moments about B gives
( )
1.5
F = Fh (ycp − ȳ) + W (1.5)
sin 45◦
( ) ( )
1.5 0.5 500(9.81)(1.5)
F = (415) 3.36 − +
sin 45◦ sin 45◦ 1000

which gives F = 522 kN .

(b) The minimum force would be required if it were applied at the bottom of the gate . In
this case, taking moments about B gives
( ) ( )
3 0.5 500(9.81)(1.5)
F ◦
= 415 3.36 − ◦
+
sin 45 sin 45 1000

which gives F = 261 kN .

2.53. From the given data: ρf = 998 kg/m3 , ρs = 1025 kg/m3 , and w = 100 lb/m = 0.4448 kN/m.
A sketch of the dimensions used in solving this problem is shown in Figure 2.3.

30o Ay
o
30
H-1 m
1m H-1
= 2(H-1) Ax
sin 30o F1
2m
A H
2m W
1m
G Gate
30o Center of F2
gravity of gate

(a) Dimensions (b) Forces on gate

Figure 2.3: Gate dimensions and forces

Using the given data and referring to Figure 2.3,

γw = (998)(9.81) = 9.79 kN/m3

49
 γs = (1025)(9.81) = 10.06 kN/m3
F1 = γw Aȳ1 sin θ = (9.79)(2 × 1)(2 + 1) sin 30◦ = 29.37 kN
I
y1cp = ȳ1 +
Aȳ1
bd3
I=
12
A = bd
d2 22
y1cp = ȳ1 + =3+ = 3.11 m
12ȳ1 12(3)
F2 = γs Aȳ2 sin θ = (10.06)(2 × 1)[2(H − 1) + 1] sin 30◦ = 10.06(2H − 1) kN
d2 22 0.3333
y2cp = ȳ2 + = (2H − 1) + = (2H − 1) +
12ȳ2 12(2H − 1) 2H − 1
∑
Taking moments about A ( M = 0) yields
[ ]
◦ 0.3333
29.37(1.11) + 0.4448 cos 30 (1) = 10.06(2H − 1) 1 +
(2H − 1)
32.99 = 10.06(2H − 1) + 3.353

which yields H = 1.97 m .

2.54. The hydrostatic force, F , on the gate is given by

F = γAȳ sin θ

For an elliptical surface, Table C.1 in Appendix C gives

πbh
A=
4
where
D 1.2
b = D = 1.2 m, h= = = 2.4 m
sin θ sin 30◦
and therefore
πbh π(1.2)(2.4)
A= = = 2.26 m2
4 4
The location of the centroid, ȳ, is given by
9 9
ȳ = = = 18 m
sin θ sin 30◦
and the net hydrostatic force on the gate is

F = γAȳ sin θ = (9.79)(2.26)(18) sin 30◦ = 199 kN

The location of the center of pressure, ycp , is given by

Icc
ycp = ȳ +
Aȳ

50
 where Table C.1 in Appendix C gives
πbh3 π(1.2)(2.4)3
Icc = = = 0.814 m4
64 64
hence
0.814
ycp = 18 + = 18.0 m
(2.26)(18)
The moment of the hydrostatic force about P, MP , is given by
[ ( ) ] [ ( ) ]
1.2 1 1.2 1
MP = 199 ycp − 9 − = 199 18.0 − 9 − = 239 kN·m
2 sin 30◦ 2 sin 30◦

The moment required to keep the gate closed is 239 kN·m .

2.55. Consider the flap gate as a free body as shown in Figure 2.4

Figure 2.4: Flap gate free body

The area, A, of the gate under water is given by

h
A = 1.5 = 1.504h
sin 86◦
and the distance to the centroid of the gate from the water surface, ȳ, measured along the
gate, is given by
1 h
ȳ = = 0.5012h
2 sin 86◦
The hydrostatic force, Fw , exerted by the water is

Fw = γAȳ sin θ (1)

where γ=9.79 kN/m3 (at 20◦ C) and θ = 86◦ . Substituting known and derived data into
Equation 1 gives

Fw = (9.79)(1.504h)(0.5012h) sin 86◦ = 7.362h2 kN

51
 The distance, ycp , below the water surface to the center of pressure is given by
Ioo
ycp = + ȳ (2)
Aȳ
where ( )3
bd3 (1.5) sinh86◦
Ioo = = = 0.1259h3 (3)
12 12
Combining Equations 2 and 3 and taking A = 1.504h and ȳ = 0.5012h gives
0.1259h3
ycp = + 0.5012h = 0.6682h
(1.504h)(0.5012h)
The distance from the hinge to the water surface, measured along the gate (y ′ in Figure 2.4)
is given by
h
y ′ = 1.75 − = 1.75 − 1.002h
cos 4◦
and the horizontal distance from the hinge to the center of gravity of the gate (x′ in Figure
2.4) is given by
x′ = (1 m) cos 86◦ = 0.06976 m
Taking moments about the hinge, with the weight of the gate (W ) equal to 8 kN, yields
Fw · (y ′ + ycp ) = W · x′
(7.362h2 )(1.75 − 1.002h + 0.6682h) = (8)(0.06976)
which simplifies to
7.362h2 (1.75 − 0.3338h) = 0.5581
This cubic equation has the following three solutions
h = 5.23 m, 0.212 m, and − 0.204 m
The only realistic solution is h = 0.212 m .
2.56. From the given data: b = 2 m and the other dimensions are given in the problem diagram.
Take γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . For reference, the sketch shown in Figure 2.5 is useful.

Figure 2.5: Force on gate

52
 Using the given data:
√
sin 45◦ = 2
F = γAȳ sin θ
√
√ 2
ȳ = 3 2 + = 4.950 m
2 ( )
√ 1
F = (9.79)( 2 × 2)(4.950) √ = 96.9 kN
2
I
ycp = ȳ +
Aȳ
3
√
bd (2)( 2)3
I= = = 0.4714 m4
12
√ 12
A = ( 2)(2) = 2.828 m2
0.4714
ycp = 4.950 + = 4.984 m
(2.828)(4.950)

Taking moments about P gives

√
F (ycp − 3 2) = Fs (1)

which yields √
(4.984 − 3 2)
Fs = 96.9 = 71.8 kN
1
2.57. From the given data: b = 5 ft, and a schematic diagram of the important variables is shown
in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Schematic diagram of vertical gate

Assume T = 70◦ F, and so the fluid properties are: γw = 62.30 lb/ft3 , and γsw = 1.025(62.30)
= 63.86 lb/ft3 . Hence,

F1 = γw Aȳ = (62.30)(10 × 5)(5) = 15575 lb

53
 (5)(10)3
I0 12
y1 = ȳ + =5+ = 6.67 ft
Aȳ (5 × 10)(5)
( )
h
F2 = γsw Aȳ = (63.86)(5h) = 159.7h2
2
(5)(h)3
I0 h 12 2
y2 = ȳ + = + = h
Aȳ 2 (5 × h)(h/2) 3

Taking moments about A,

( )
2
F1 (y1 + 2) = F2 12 − h + h
3
( )
h
(15575)(6.67 + 2) = 159.7h 12 −
2
3

which yields h = 9.85 ft. Therefore, the gate will open when the depth of seawater is less
than 9.85 ft .

2.58. From the given data: h1 = 0.5 m, h2 = 0.7 m, and w = 3 m. Use the subscript “b” to indicate
the portion of the gate below the hinge, and the subscript “t” to indicate the portion of the
gate above the hinge. The following preliminary calculations are useful:

wh31 (3)(0.5)3
Ab = wh1 = (3)(0.5) = 1.5 m2 , Ibc = = = 0.03125 m4
12 12
wh32 (3)(0.7)3
At = wh2 = (3)(0.7) = 2.1 m2 , Itc = = = 0.08575 m4
12 12
Calculate the resultant hydrostatic forces and their locations on the portions of the gate below
and above the hinge:

Fb = γAb hbc = γAb (h − 0.25) (1)

Ibc Ibc
ybcp = ȳb + = (h − 0.25) + (2)
Ab ȳb Ab (h − 0.25)

Ft = γAt htc = γAt (h − 0.85) (3)

Itc Itc
ytcp = ȳt + = (h − 0.85) + (4)
At ȳt At (h − 0.85)

When the gate is just about to open, the reaction of the stopper is equal to zero and the sum
of the moments about the hinge is equal to zero. Therefore,

Fb · [ybcp − (h − 0.5)] = Ft · [(h − 0.5) − ytcp ] (5)

Substituting the expressions from Equations 1 to 4 into Equation 5 and making h the subject
of the formula yields
Ibc − 0.252 Ab + (0.35)(0.85)At + Itc
h= (6)
0.35At − 0.25Ab

54
 (a) Substituting the values of the given and derived parameters into Equation 6 yields

(0.03125) − 0.252 (1.5) + (0.35)(0.85)(2.1) + (0.08575)

h= = 1.80 m
0.35(2.1) − 0.25(1.5)

(b) Since the specific weight of the liquid, γ, does not appear in the expression for h given
by Equation 6, the calculated depth of liquid, h does not depend on the specific weight
or the density of the liquid.

2.59. Consider the side of the trough shown as a free body in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: Free-Body Diagram

The hydrostatic force, F , is given by

( )
0.75
F = γAȳ sin θ = (9.79)(0.75 × 6) sin 45◦ = 11.68 kN
2
The center of pressure, ycp , is given by
6×0.75 3
Ic 12
ycp = ȳ + = 0.375 + = 0.50 m
Aȳ (0.75 × 6)(0.375)
Taking moments about the hinge gives

F (0.75 − ycp ) = T (0.75 sin 45◦ )

which yields
F (0.75 − ycp ) 11.68(0.75 − 0.50)
T = ◦
= = 5.51 kN
0.75 sin 45 0.75 sin 45◦
2.60. From the given data: W = 3 m, L = 2 m, θ = 30◦ , p0 = 300 kPa, d1 = 2 m, and d2 = 1 m. For
water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 m/s2 . The following preliminary calculations are useful,

hc = d2 + [d1 + 12 L] sin θ = 1 + [2 + 12 (2)] sin 30◦ = 2.5 m

hc 2.5 W L3 (3)(2)3
A = W L = (3)(2) = 6 m2 , ȳ = = = 5 m, Icc = = = 2 m4
sin θ sin 30◦ 12 12

55
 Substituting these data into Equations 2.41 and 2.48 gives,

F = [p0 + γhc ]A = [300 + (9.789)(2.5)](6) = 1.947 × 103 Pa = 1.947 kPa

γ sin θIcc (9.789) sin 30◦ (2)

ycp = ȳ + =5+ = 5.005 m
[p0 + γ ȳ sin θ]A [300 + (9.789)(5) sin 30◦ ](6)

The depth, hcp , if the resultant force below the water surface is given by

hcp = ycp sin θ = 5.005 sin 30◦ = 2.50 m

2.61. From the given data: R = 2 m, and d = 3 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . Using
these data:

Ixc = Iyc = 0.05488R4 = 0.05488(2)4 = 0.8781 m4

Ixyc = −0.01647R4 = −0.01647(2)4 = −0.2635 m4
1 1
A = πR2 == π(2)2 = 3.142 m2
4 4
4R 4(2)
ȳ = d + =3+ = 3.849 m
3π 3π
4R 4(2)
x̄ = = = 0.849 m
3π 3π [ ]
1
F = γAȳ = (9.79) × π(2) (3.849) = 118 kN
2
4
Ixc 0.8781
ycp = ȳ + = 3.849 + = 3.921 m
Aȳ (3.142)(3.849)
Ixyc −0.2635
xcp = x̄ + = 0.849 + = 0.827 m
Aȳ (3.142)(3.849)
MXX = F · xcp = (118) · (0.827) = 97.6 kN·m

2.62. The ellipse parameters as referenced to the geometric properties in the Appendix are: a = 1 m,
b/2 = 1 m → b = 2 m. From the other given data: d = 2 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ =
9.789 kN/m3 . Using these data with the same axis references as in the Appendix:
3 3
Iyc = 1
128 πba = 1
128 π(2)(1) = 0.04909 m4
4
Ixyc = 0 m
A = 18 πab = 18 π(1)(2) = 0.7854 m2
a 1
ȳ = d + = 2 + = 2.500 m
2 2
2b 2(2)
x̄ = = = 0.4244 m
3π 3π
F = γAȳ = (9.789)(0.7854)(2.5) = 19.22 kN
Iyc 0.04909
ycp = ȳ + = 2.500 + = 2.525 m
Aȳ (0.7854)(2.500)

56
 Ixyc
xcp = x̄ + = 0.4244 + 0 = 0.4244 m
Aȳ
MXX = F · xcp = (19.22) · (0.4244) = 8.157 kN·m

2.63. For the upper portion of the gate: AU = 1 m×1 m = 1 m2 , γU = 9.50 kN/m3 , ȳU = 2 + 1/2
= 2.5 m, IcU = bd3 /12 = (1)(1)3 /12 = 0.08333 m4 , hence

FU = γU AU ȳU = (9.50)(1)(2.5) = 23.75 kN

IcU 0.0833
ycpU = ȳU + = 2.5 + = 2.533 m
AU ȳU (1)(2.5)

For the lower portion of the gate, with depths taken relative to the interface: p0 = γU hU =
(9.50)(3) = 28.5 kPa, AL = 2 m×1 m = 2 m2 , γL = 9.90 kN/m3 , ȳL = 2/2 = 1 m, IcL =
bd3 /12 = (1)(2)3 /12 = 0.6667 m4 , hence

FL = [p0 + γL ȳL ]AL = [28.5 + (9.90)(1)](2) = 76.80 kN

γL IcL γL IcL (9.90)(0.6667)
ycpL = ȳL + = ȳL + =1+ = 1.086 m
[p0 + γL ȳL ]AL FL 76.8

Therefore, the total force, F , and location, ycp , are given by

F = FU + FL = 23.75 + 76.80 = 100.6 kN

FU ycpU + FL (3 + ycpL ) (23.75)(2.533) + (76.80)(3 + 1.086)
ycp = = = 3.72 m
F 100.6

2.64. The parameters of the ellipse, as described in the Appendix, are a = 1 m, and b = 2 m. From
the given data: d = 3 m. For the upper portion of the gate:

AU = 18 πab = 81 π(1)(2) = 0.7854 m2 , γU = 9.40 kN/m3

2b 2(2)
ȳU = d − =3− = 2.576 m, IcU = 1
128 πab
3
= 1
128 π(1)(2)
3
= 0.1963 m4
3π 3π

FU = γU AU ȳU = (9.40)(0.7854)(2.576) = 19.02 kN

IcU 0.1963
ycpU = ȳU + = 2.576 + = 2.673 m
AU ȳU (0.7854)(2.576)

For the lower portion of the gate, with depths taken relative to the interface: p0 = γU d =
(9.40)(3) = 28.2 kPa, and

AL = AU = 0.7854 m2 , γL = 9.80 kN/m3

2b 2(2)
ȳL = = = 0.4244 m, IcL = IcU = 0.1963 m4
3π 3π

FL = [p0 + γL ȳL ]AL = [28.2 + (9.80)(0.4244)](0.7854) = 25.41 kN

57
 γL IcL γL IcL (9.80)(0.1963)
ycpL = ȳL + = ȳL + = 0.4244 + = 0.5001 m
[p0 + γL ȳL ]AL FL 25.41
Therefore, the total force, F , and location, ycp , are given by

F = FU + FL = 19.02 + 25.41 = 44.43 kN

FU ycpU + FL (3 + ycpL ) (19.02)(2.673) + (25.41)(3 + 0.5001)
ycp = = = 3.146 m
F 44.43

NEW For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . For the bent part of the surface the perimeter of the
quarter circle is 1 m, and the radius, R, of the quarter circle is calculated as follows:

P = 1
4 · 2πR → 1= 1
4 · 2πR → R = 0.6366 m

Using the calculated value of R, the horizontal and vertical forces on the surface are given by

Fx = γAv1 ȳv1 + γAv1 ȳv1 = 9.789[(2 × 3)(1.5 + 1) + (0.6366 × 5)(1.5 + 2 + 0.6366)]

= 265.8 kN
[ ] [ ]
Fz = γV = γ 14 πR2 + 3.5R W = 9.789 14 π(0.6366)2 + 3.5(0.6366) (5) = 124.6 kN

2.65. Because of symmetry, the net horizontal hydrostatic force is zero. The pressure at the top of
the cone, p0 , is given by

p0 = 150 − γw (7 m) = 150 − (9.79)(7) = 81.47 kPa

This gives an equivalent height of water, H, of

p0 81.47
H= = = 8.32 m
γ 9.79
Therefore, the vertical force on the cone, F , is given by
[ ] [ ]
2 1 2 2 1 2
F = πR H + πR h γ = π(1) (8.32) + π(1) (4) (9.79) = 297 kN
3 3

2.66. From the given data: F0 = 2500 kN, L = 10 m, and h = 2.4 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ =
9.789 kN/m3 . For any given step height (= width), x, the horizontal force, Fx , is a function
of x as follows:
h + 4x
Av = w(h + 4x) = 10(2.4 + 4x), ȳv = = 1.2 + 2x
2
Fx = γAv ȳv = 9.789[10(2.4 + 4x)](1.2 + 2x)

Setting Fx (x) = 2500 kN yields x = 1.187 m . Using this value of x, the vertical force on the
dam, Fy , is given by

Fy = γV0 = γw(x2 + 2x2 + 3x2 + 4x2 ) = (9.789)(10)(1.187)2 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) = 1379 kN

58
2.67. From the given data: L = 5 m, hf = 4 m, hs = 2 m, and R = 2 m. For fresh water at 20◦ C,
γf = 9.789 kN/m3 , and for salt water at 20◦ C, γs = 10.03 kN/m3 (from Appendix B.4). The
following preliminary calculations are useful:

Af = Lhf = (5)(4) = 20 m2 , ȳf = 12 hf = 21 (4) = 2 m

As = Lhs = (5)(2) = 10 m2 , ȳs = 12 hs = 12 (1) = 1 m

[ ] [ ]
V0f = L R2 − 41 πR2 = (5) (2)2 − 14 π(2)2 = 4.292 m3

where V0f is the volume of the space between the top of the wall and the freshwater surface.
The horizontal and vertical components of the net hydrostatic force on the wall are given by:

Fx = γf Af ȳf − γs As ȳs = (9.789)(20)(2) − (10.03)(10)(1) = 291 kN

Fy = γf V0f = (9.789)(4.292) = 42.0 kN

2.68. From the given data: R = hf = 3.5 m, and w = 4.8 m. For fresh water at 20◦ C, γf =
9.789 kN/m3 , and for salt water at 20◦ C, γs = 10.03 kN/m3 (from Appendix B.4). The
following preliminary calculations are useful:

Avf = hf w = (3)(4.8) = 16.8 m2 , Avs = 21 hw = 2.4h m2

ȳvf = 21 hf = 12 (3.5) = 1.75 m, ȳvs = 12 h

V0f = Rhf w − 41 πR2 w = (3.5)(3.5)(4.8) − 14 π(3.5)2 (4.8) = 12.62 m2

where V0f is the volume of the space between the top of the gate and the freshwater surface.

(a) For the horizontal hydrostatic forces to be equal,

γf Avf ȳvf = γs Avs ȳvs

Substituting the given and derived relationship into this equation and solving for h gives
√( ) √( )
γf 2Avf ȳvf 9.789 2(16.8)(1.75)
h= = = 3.458 m
γs w 10.03 4.8

(b) For the vertical hydrostatic forces to be equal,

( ) ( )
γf 9.789
γf V0f = γs V0s → V0s = V0f = (12.62) = 12.32 m3
γs 10.03

Consider the geometry of the gate shown in Figure 2.8, and recall that the area of a
segment of a circle with central angle θ is equal to 21 R2 θ.

59
 R h

(R2-h2)½ R-(R2-h2)½

Figure 2.8: Segment of a circle

For any height h, the volume above the gate, V0s , is equal to the shaded area and, using
the geometric relations in Figure 2.8 yields
√ [ ( ) ]
1 2 −1 h 1√ 2
V0s = w[h(R − R − h )] − R sin
2 2 − R −h h2
2 R 2

Since V0s = 12.32 m3 when the vertical hydrostatic forces are equal, then
√ [ ( ) ]
1 −1 h 1√ 2
(4.8)[h(3.5 − 3.5 − h )] − (3.5) sin
2 2 2
− 3.5 − h h = 12.32
2
2 3.5 2

which yields h = 2.598 m

2.69. From the given data: R = 1 m, and W = 40 kN/m. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . If
Fh and Fv are the horizontal and vertical hydrostatic forces on the gate, then the magnitude,
F , and direction, θ, of the hydrostatic force are given by
√
Fv
F = Fh2 + Fv2 , sin θ = √ (1)
Fh2 + Fv2

The vertical force on the gate, Fv , is given by

Fv = γ[(h − R)R + 14 πR2 ] = (9.789)[(h − 1)(1) + 41 π(1)2 ] → Fv = 9.789h − 2.101 kN (2)

The resultant hydrostatic force acts through the center of the circular quadrant, the weight
of the gate acts vertically through the centroid of the gate, and the centroid of the gate is
located at a distance 4R/3π from the center of the quadrant. Taking moments about the pin
when the gate is just about to open (i.e., the reaction is equal to zero) and using Equation 1
gives
[ ] √ [ ]
4R  
 √ Fv 4(1)
F R sin θ = W R − →  
2 2
Fh + Fv (1) 
 = 40 1 − → Fv = 23.02 kN
3π Fh
2+F 3π

2
v

Combining this result with Equation 2 gives h = 2.57 m .

2.70. Horizontal force, Fx , on viewing glass

Fx = γAv ȳv

60
 where γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , Av = (3)(20) = 60 m2 , ȳv = 6.5 m, therefore

Fx = (9.79)(60)(6.5) = 3820 kN

Vertical force, Fz , given by

Fz = γV0
where V0 is the volume of water above the viewing glass, given by
[ ]
1π 2
V0 = (8)(3) − (6) (20) = 338.6 m3
44
therefore
Fz = (9.79)(338.6) = 3310 kN
The net force on the viewing glass is given by
√ √
F = Fx2 + Fy2 = (3820)2 + (3310)2 = 5050 kN

2.71. Determine the hydrostatic forces on the plane and curved surfaces separately and then add
them up. Assume that γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The geometric relationships and relevant dimensions
are shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Geometric Relationships

Plane Surface: The force normal to the surface, F , is given by

F = γAȳ sin θ (1)

Using the given data and the geometric relationships shown in Figure 2.9:

A = (3)(2) = 6 m2

61
 3
ȳ sin θ = 2 + 2 sin 45◦ + sin 45◦ = 4.475 m
2
Substituting these parameters into Equation 1 gives

F = (9.79)(6)(4.475) = 262.9 kN

This force has x and y components as follows:

Fx = 262.9 cos 45◦ = 185.9 kN

Fy = −262.9 sin 45◦ = −185.9 kN

Curved Surface: The x-component of the force on the curved surface is given by

Fx = γAyv (2)

Using the given data and the geometric relationships shown in Figure 2.9:

A = (2 × 0.7071)(2) = 2.828 m2
yv = 2 + 0.7071 = 2.7071 m

Substituting these parameters into Equation 2 gives

Fx = (9.79)(2.828)(2.7071) = 74.95 kN

The y component of the hydrostatic force on the upper curved surface is given by

Fy1 = −γV1 (3)

Using the given data and the geometric relationships shown in Figure 2.9:
1
A1 = (0.7071)(0.7071) = 0.2500 m2
2
π π
A0 = r2 = (1)2 = 0.3927 m2
8 8
∆A = A0 − A1 = 0.3927 − 0.2500 = 0.1427 m2
V1 = [(2 + 0.7071)(0.2929) − 0.1427](2) = 1.300 m3

Substituting into Equation 3 gives

Fy1 = −(9.79)(1.300) = −12.73 kN

The y component of the hydrostatic force on the lower curved surface is given by

Fy2 = γV2 (4)

Using the given data and the geometric relationships shown in Figure 2.9:

A3 = (0.2929)(0.7071) − ∆A = (0.2929)(0.7071) − 0.1427 = 0.0644 m2

V2 = [(2 + 2 × 0.7071)(0.2929) − 0.0644](2) = 1.871 m3

62
 Substituting into Equation 4 gives

Fy2 = (9.79)(1.871) = 18.32 kN

Therefore, the net vertical hydrostatic force on the curved portion of the gate is given
by
Fy = Fy1 + Fy2 = −12.73 + 18.32 = 5.59 kN
This force could also be determined by simply calculating the buoyant force on the gate.
Total Hydrostatic Force: The x and y components of the total hydrostatic force are equal
to the sum of the hydrostatic forces on the plane and curved portions of the gate, so

Fx = 185.9 + 74.95 = 260.9 kN

Fy = −185.9 + 5.59 = −180.3 kN

2.72. From the given data: width of the gate = 5 m, weight of gate = 10 kN. Let Rx and Ry be
the reaction of the gate to the hydrostatic force. Hence,

Rx = γAv ȳv

where γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , Av = 3 × 5 = 15 m2 , and ȳv = 3/2 = 1.5 m. Substituting gives

Rx = (9.79)(15)(1.5) = 220 kN

This force is located at ycp below the water surface, where

Icc
ycp = ȳv +
Av ȳv

where
bd3 5(3)3
Icc = = = 11.25 m4
12 12
and hence
11.25
ycp = 1.5 + = 2.0 m
(15)(1.5)
The vertical reaction, Ry , is equal to the weight of water above the gate,
[]
π(3)2
Ry = γV = (9.79) (5) = 346 kN
4

This force acts through the centroid of the circle quadrant occupied by the gate, which is
4r/3π from P, where
4r 4(3)
= = 1.27 m
3π 3π
The net hydrostatic force, R, on the gate is therefore given by
√ √
R = Rx2 + Ry2 = 2202 + 3462 = 410 kN

63
 The moment, M , tending to open the gate is

M = 346(1.27) − 220(2.0) − 10(1) = −10.6 kN·m

Hence the moment required to open the gate is 10.6 kN·m .

Note: This moment is numerically equal to the moment due only to the weight of the gate.
This is an expected result since the resultant hydrostatic force on a circular gate will neces-
sarily act through the center of the gate.
2.73. From the given data: H = 15.25 m and assume γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The horizontal component
of the force is given by
( )
15.25
Fh = γAȳv = (9.79)(15.25 × 1) = 1138 kN
2
The vertical force is the weight of the fluid above the dam. The x coordinate at the water
level, x0 , is given by
x2 x20
y= → 15.25 = → x0 = 6.050 m
2.4 2.4
and the vertical force on the dam is given by
∫ 6.050 ( ) [ ]6.050
x2 x3
Fv = γV = 9.79 (1) 15.25 − dx = 9.79 15.25x − = 602.1 kN
0 2.4 7.2 0
√
Therefore the resultant force is 11382 + 602.12 = 1287 kN and this force makes an angle
of tan−1 (1138/602.1) = 62.1◦ with the vertical. The horizontal force acts at the center of
pressure given by
(1)(15.25)3
I 15.25 12(
ycp = ȳ + = + ) = 10.17 m
Aȳ 2 15.25
(15.25 × 1)
2
The vertical force acts through the center of gravity given by
∫ 6.050 ( ) [ ]6.050
1 x2 15.25x2 x4
xcg = ( ) x 15.25 − dx = 0.01626 − = 2.269 m
602.1 0 2.4 2 9.6 0
9.79
Using these data give

AB = 2.269 m + (15.25 m − 10.17 m) tan 62.1◦ = 11.87 m

2.74. Considering the normal force on the viewing glass, FN , and the limit of 100 N that can be
supported by each rivet,
( )
π(1)2
FN = γAȳ = (9.79) (5) = 38.45 kN
4

64
 38450
required rivets = = 385 rivets
100
Considering the shear force on the viewing glass, FS , and the limit of 5 N that can be supported
by each rivet,
[ ] [ ]
1 4 3 1 4 3
FS = γ πR = (9.79) π(0.5) = 2.56 kN
2 3 2 3
2560
required rivets = = 512 rivets
5
Therefore, at least 512 rivets are needed to support the weight of the water in the viewing
glass, plus additional rivets to support the weight of the glass itself. If a flat viewing glass is
used instead, at least 385 rivets would be required.

The force on the top half of the viewing glass, FT , is given by

[ ][ ] [ ][ ]
1 2 4R 1 4(0.5)
FT = γAȳ = γ πR 5− = (9.79) π(0.5) 2
5− = 18.41 kN
2 3π 2 3π
The force on the bottom half of the viewing glass, FB , is given by
[ ][ ] [ ][ ]
1 2 4R 1 2 4(0.5)
FB = γAȳ = γ πR 5+ = (9.79) π(0.5) 5+ = 20.04 kN
2 3π 2 3π

Therefore the force ratio is 18.41/20.04 = 0.92 . More rivets will be required on the bottom .
2.75. Take one-half of the trough as a free body. The horizontal component of the hydrostatic
force, Fh , is given by
( )
0.5
Fh = γAȳ = (9.79)(3 × 0.5) = 3.67 kN
2
The vertical component of the hydrostatic force, Fv , is given by
[ ]
1
Fv = γV = (9.79) π(0.5) × 3 = 5.77 kN
2
4
The line of action of Fh is yh from the water surface, where
3(0.5)2
I 0.5 12 (
yh = ȳ + = + ) = 0.333 m
Aȳ 2 (3)(0.5) 0.5
2

The line of action of Fv is xv from the centerline of the trough, where

4R (4)(0.5)
xv = = = 0.2122 m
3π 3π
Taking moments about the hinge gives
(R − yh )Fh + xv Fv = RT
(0.5 − 0.333)(3.67) + (0.2122)(5.77) = (0.5)T

which yields T = 3.67 kN .

65
2.76. Look at the gate as a free body as shown in Figure 2.10, where 2 − 2 sin 45◦ = 0.586 m. The
net horizontal force, FH , is given by

Figure 2.10: Gate as a Free Body

[ ( )]
0.586
FH = γA1v ȳ1 − γA2v ȳ2 = (10.05) (2 × 3)(3) − (0.586 × 3) 2 + = 140.4 kN
2
The net vertical force, FV , is given by

Fh = γV
[ ( ) ]
1 1 1
= (10.05) 4 × 2 − π(2)2 + 4 × 2 cos 45◦ − × 2 cos 45◦ × 2 sin 45◦ − π(2) (3)
2
4 2 8
= 239.5 kN

The net hydrostatic force on the gate acts through the center of the circle. Taking moments
about the center of the circle gives

2By = 2A → By = A (1)

For equilibrium in the x-direction,

Bx + 140.4 = A cos 45◦ (2)

and for equilibrium in the y direction

By + A sin 45◦ = 239.5 kN (3)

Combining Equations 1 to 3 gives

A = 140.3 kN, Bx = −41.2 kN, By = 140.3 kN

2.77. From the given data: D = 400 mm, t = 4 mm, and p = 800 kPa. For equilibrium:
pD
pA = 2σLt → p(LD) = 2σLt → σ=
2t

66
 where σ is the circumferential stress, and L is any arbitrary length of pipe. Substituting given
values:
(800)(400)
σ= = 40000 kPa = 40 MPa
2(4)

2.78. From the given data: Wair = 40 N, and Wwater = 25 N. For water at 20◦ C, γw = 9.79 kN/m3 .
Let γs be the density of the solid object and let Vs be its volume, then
40
γs Vs = 40 N → Vs = (1)
γs
25
γs Vs − γw Vs = 25 N → Vs = (2)
γs − γw
Combining Equations 1 and 2 yields
40 25 40 25
= → = → γs = 26.1 kN/m3
γs γs − γw γs γs − 9.79
The volume of the object, Vs , can therefore be estimated as
40 40
Vs = = = 1.53 × 10−3 m3
γs 26.1 × 103

2.79. (a) Use the subscript “o” to denote the object, “w” to denote water, and “a” to denote air.
The basic equations to be used are as follows:
Wa = γo Vo , Ww = γo Vo − γw Vo
where W represents weight, and V represents volume. Dividing the second equation by
the first equation gives
Ww γw 1 1
=1− =1− → SG =
Wa γo SG 1 − Ww /Wa

(b) From the give data: Wa = 40 N, and Wo = 25 N. Substituting these data into the
derived equation gives
1 1
SG = = = 2.67
1 − Ww /Wa 1 − 25/40

2.80. From the given data: Db = 15 m, Rb = Db /2 = 7.5 m, and W = 2 kN. For standard
atmospheric conditions at sea level, p0 = 101.3 kPa and T0 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K. For air,
R = 287.1 J/kg·K. The volume of the balloon, Vb , is given by
Vb = 34 πRb3 = 34 π(7.5)3 = 1767 m3
At liftoff, the weight of the air in the balloon plus the attached weight to be lifted is equal to
the volume of air displaced by the balloon. If T is the temperature of the air in the balloon
under this condition, then using the ideal gas law to calculate the density of air gives
[ ]−1
p0 g p0 g p0 gVb p0 gVb
Vb + W = Vb → T = −W
RT RT0 R RT0

67
 [ ]−1
(101.1 × 103 )(9.807)(1767) (101.3 × 103 )(9.807)(1767)
→ T = − 2000 = 318.1 K
287.1 (287.1)(288.15)
Therefore, the temperature of the air in the balloon must be raised to 318.1 K − 273.15 K =
45.0◦ C .

2.81. From the given data: D = 3 m, and M = 8 kg. The volume of the balloon is given by

πD3 π(3)3
V = = = 14.14 m3
6 6
The balloon stabilizes when the weight of the balloon is equal to the weight of the air displaced
by the balloon, which requires that
M 8
M g
= ρair gV

→ ρair = = → ρair = 0.5658 kg/m3
V 14.14
Referring to the standard atmosphere in Appendix B.3, the density in the atmosphere is equal
to 0.5658 kg/m3 at an elevation of 7.38 km. Therefore, the balloon stabilizes at an elevation
of 7.38 km .

2.82. From the given data: W = 1.5 kN, patm = 101 kPa, Ta = 20◦ C = 293.15 K, w = 80 g/m2 , and
Tb = 80◦ C = 353.15 K. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. The density of the atmospheric air, ρa ,
and the density of the air in the balloon, ρb , can be derived from the ideal gas law as follows:

p 101 × 103 p 101 × 103

ρa = = = 1.200 kg/m3 , ρb = = = 0.9962 kg/m3
RTa (287.1)(293.15) RTb (287.1)(353.15)
Under stable conditions, the weight of the balloon plus the air in the balloon plus the sup-
ported weight is equal to the weight of the air displaced by the balloon, which requires that

πD3 πD3
W + wg · πD2 + ρb g · = ρa g ·
6 6
πD3 πD3
1500 + (0.080)(9.807)πD2 + (0.9962)(9.807) = (1.200)(9.807) → D = 12.1 m
6 6

2.83. When the sum of the forces equal zero,

πD3 πD3
FD + FB − W = 0 → 3πµvD + γw − γp =0
6 6
which simplifies to

1 πD3 (γp − γw )D2

v= (γp − γw ) → v= (1)
3πµD 6 18µ

In this case, γp = 2.65γw = 2.65(9.79) = 25.9 kN/m3 = 25900 N/m3 , γw = 9.79 kN/m3 =
9790 N/m3 , D = 2 mm = 0.002 m, and µ = 1.00 × 10−3 N·s/m2 at 20◦ C. Substituting into
Equation 1 gives
(25900 − 9790)(0.002)2
v= = 3.58 m/s
18(1.00 × 10−3 )

68
2.84. From the given data: L = 10 m, L1 = 7 m, L2 = 3 m, W = 15 m, H = 4 m, SG1 = 1.5,
and SG2 = 3.0. For fresh water at 20◦ C, γfw = 9.79 kN/m3 . For fresh water at 4◦ C, γw =
9.807 kN/m3 . The specific weights of the two parts of the body are calculated as follows,

specific weight of light section, γ1 = SG1 · γw = 1.5(9.807) = 14.71 kN/m3

specific weight of heavy section, γ2 = SG2 · γw = 3.0(9.807) = 29.42 kN/m3

The volumes of the sections of cabin are calculated as follows,

volume light section, V1 = L1 × W × H = (7)(15)(4) = 420 m3

volume of heavy section, V2 = L2 × W × H = (3)(15)(4) = 180 m3
volume of entire cabin, Vc = V1 + V2 = 420 + 180 = 600 m3

The forces on various parts of the body are as follows,

buoyant force on the entire body, Fc = γfw Vc = (9.79)(600) = 5874 kN

weight of light section, W1 = γ1 V1 = (14.71)(420) = 6178 kN
weight of heavy section, W2 = γ2 V2 = (29.42)(180) = 5296 kN

If the support force is F , then equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction requires that

F = W1 + W2 − Fc = 6178 + 5296 − 5874 = 5600 kN

Considering the cabin as a free body and taking moments about the centroid, accounting for
the fact that the buoyant force acts through the centroid of the body, the moment equation
gives
[ ] [ ]
L − L1 L − L2
W1 · + F · x = W2 ·
2 2
[ ] [ ]
10 − 7 10 − 3
(6178) · + (5600) · x = (5296) · → x = 1.66 m
2 2

2.85. From the given data: Lc = 0.15 m, and fo = 0.15. For water at 20◦ C, ρw = 998.2 kg/m3
(Appendix B.1), and for SAE 30 oil at 20◦ C, ρo = 918 kg/m3 (Appendix B.4). If ρc is the
density of the cube, noting that the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of fluid displaced,
then for equilibrium,

ρc L3 g = L3 g[fo ρo + (1 − fo )ρw ] → ρc = fo ρo + (1 − fo )ρw

→ ρc = (0.15)(918) + (1 − 0.15)(998.2) = 986 kg/m3

2.86. The weight, W , of a floating object in a fluid of specific weight γf is related to the displacement
volume, V , by the relation: W = γf V . Therefore,

W2 − W1 γf V2 − γf V1 V2 − V1
× 100 = × 100 = × 100
W1 γf V1 V1

This shows that the percentage change in V is the same as the percentage change in W .

69
2.87. From the given data: f = 0.90, t = 25 mm, Wi = 500 N, and ρs = 8000 kg/m3 . For seawater,
ρs = 1023 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.4). The specific weights corresponding to the given
densities are γs = 78.56 kN/m3 and γw = 10.03 kN/m3 . If D is the (outer) diameter of the
sphere, then for 90% (= f ) of the sphere below water, putting the buoyant force equal to the
weight of the sphere plus the instrumentation gives
[ ]
πD3 πD3 π(D − 2t)3
f · γw = γs − + Wi
6 6 6
[ ]
πD3 πD3 π(D − 50 × 10−3 )3
(0.9)(10.03) = (78.56) − + 500 × 10−3
6 6 6

which yields D = 1.12 m .

2.88. From the given data: d1 = 1 m, d2 = 0.1 m, and SG = 0.85. Assume that the specific
gravity specification applies to this object in this water. Use the subscript “o” to denote
the total object, the subscript “s” to denote the portion of the object that is submerged,
and the subscript “w” to denote water. Taking L to be the length of the object, for vertical
equilibrium,
( )
γo
γo Vo = γw Vs → γo Ao  L → As =
L = γw As  Ao → As = SG · πR2 (1)
γw
The geometry of the partially submerged object is shown in Figure 2.11.

R
h-R !/2
h

Figure 2.11: Geometry of partially submerged object

In this case, h = d1 − d2 = 1 m − 0.1 m = 0.9 m and the submerged area, As , is given by

[ ( ) ( ) ] ( )
2 θ θ θ −1 h − R
As = πR − R
2
− R sin (h − R) , where = cos (2)
2 2 2 R

Combining Equations 1 and 2 and solving for R (with h = 0.9 m and SG = 0.85) yields
R = 0.568 m and hence D = 2R = 1.14 m. Therefore, the maximum diameter of the object
that will satisfy the given constraints is 1.14 m .

2.89. From the given data: W1 = 800 N and W2 = 200 N. For water at 20◦ C, γw = 9790 N/m3 .
Let L be any given load carried by the canoe, and let V1 and V2 be the displacement volumes
corresponding to W1 and W2 , respectively, then

L + γw V 1 = W 1 → L + 9790 V1 = 800 (1)

L + γw V 2 = W 2 → L + 9790 V2 = 200 (2)

70
 Subtracting Equations 1 and 2 to eliminate L gives

800 − 200
V1 − V2 = = 0.0613 m3
9790

2.90. Let Vt be the total volume of the body, Va be the volume of the body above the surface of
the liquid, γ1 be the specific weight of the body, and γ2 be the specific weight of the liquid.
For equilibrium,

Va SG2 − SG1
γ1 Vt = γ2 (Vt − Va ) → SG1 · Vt = SG2 · (Vt − Va ) → =
Vt SG2

The fraction, fa , of the body that is above the water surface is given by

Va SG2 − SG1
fa = = (1)
Vt SG2

In the case of the iceberg in seawater, SG1 = 0.92 and SG2 = 1.03, and Equation 1 gives

1.03 − 0.92
fa = = 0.11
1.03

2.91. From the given data: SG = 0.8, and D = 10 mm. Let N = number of bubbles per m3 , Vb =
volume of each bubble, ρ = density of water, and ρb = density of bubbly water. Using these
definitions and neglecting the mass of air in the bubbles,

volume of air in 1 m3 = N Vb

volume of water in 1 m3 = 1 − N Vb

mass of water in 1 m3 = ρ(1 − N Vb )

density of bubbly water, ρb = ρ(1 − N Vb )

The ship sinks when the density of the bubbly water is equal to the density of the ship, in
which case
1 − SG
SG · ρ = ρb → SG · ρ = ρ(1 − N Vb ) → N = (1)
Vb

From the given bubble diameter, Vb = 61 πD3 = 5.236 × 10−7 m3 , and Equation 1 gives

1 − 0.8
N= = 3.82 × 105 bubbles/m3
5.236 × 10−7

2.92. For equilibrium, the weight of the pool must at least equal the buoyant force. Let the depth
of water in the pool be x, then for equilibrium (see Figure 2.12)

71
 Figure 2.12: Swimming pool

Wt. of pool + Wt. of water in pool = Buoyant force

500 + (10 × 5 × x)(9.79) = [10 × 5 × (2.5 − 1.25)](9.79
500 + 490x = 612
x = 0.23 m

Therefore at least 23 cm of water must be maintained in the pool.

2.93. When the barge is fully loaded, the draft, V , is given by

γsw V = (20 + 250) kN

For S = 1.03,
20 + 250
V = = 26.78 m3 (1)
(1.03)(9.79)
and from geometry ( )
y2 3
V = 6y + 2 (3) = 18y + y 2 (2)
4 2
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
3
18y + y 2 = 26.8
2
and solving gives the draft as y = 1.34 m .
2.94. From the given data: f1 = 0.75, and f2 = 0.90. For water, ρw = 998 kg/m3 . The average
density of the body, ρ̄b , can be derived from Equation 2.75 as follows
Vf ρ̄b ρ̄b
= → f1 = → ρ̄b = f1 ρw = (0.75)(998) = 749 kg/m3
Vb ρf ρw
The average density of the solid material is ρ̄s and the fraction of the body that is open space
is f2 . Representing the mass of the solid by Ms and the volume of the solid by Vs , then
Ms Ms 1
ρ̄b = = = (1 − f2 )ρ̄s → ρ̄s = ρ̄b
Vb Vs /(1 − f2 ) 1 − f2

72
 Substituting the known values of f2 and ρ̄b yields
1
ρ̄s = (749) = 7490 kg/m3
1 − 0.9

2.95. From the given data: H = 2 m, A = LW , SG1 = 1.2, ∆z1 = 1.2 m, and SG2 = 1.6. Denote
the specific weights of the body, top layer, and bottom layer by γb , γ1 , and γ2 , respectively.
For vertical equilibrium, where h is the depth of penetration into the bottom layer,:
γb γ1 SGb SG1
γb AH = γ1 A∆z1 + γ2 Ah → h= H − ∆z1 → h= H− ∆z1 (1)
γ2 γ2 SG2 SG2
(a) The minimum specific gravity of the body for full penetration of the top layer can be
derived by setting h = 0 in Equation 1 which gives
∆z1 1.2
SGb · H = SG1 ∆z1 → SGb = SG1 = (1.2) = 0.72
H 2
(b) The depth of penetration, h, into the bottom layer when SGb = 1.0 can be obtained by
substituting directly into Equation 1, which yields
1.0 1.2
h= (2) − (1.2) = 0.35 m
1.6 1.6
2.96. From the given data: L = 3 m, D = 200 mm = 0.2 m, and SG = 0.6. For seawater, γsw =
10.03 kN/m3 (from Appendix B.4). The the relevant forces and dimensions in the problem
are shown in Figure 2.13, where W is the weight of the buoy, T is the tension in the support
cable, and Fb is the buoyant force.

Fb

L1
L=3m

T W

Figure 2.13: Buoy at low tide

Let A be the cross-sectional area of the buoy and Vb be the volume of the buoy, then

πD2 π0.22
Abuoy = = = 0.03142 m2
4 4
Vbuoy = Abuoy L = (0.03142)(3) = 0.09426 m3

The magnitudes of W and Fb can be expressed in terms of other variables as follows:

W = γbuoy Vbuoy
Fb = γsw Vsub

73
 (a) This is the case of the partially submerged buoy. Taking moments about the point where
the support cable is attached to the buoy,
√
 L    L1   L1 γbuoy √
γbuoy  L 
Abuoy cos θ = γsw L1 
Abuoy cos θ → = = SG (1)
2
2
L γsw
For vertical equilibrium,

T + γbuoy Vbuoy = γsw Vsub → T + γbuoy Abuoy L = γsw Abuoy L1

→ T + SG · γsw Abuoy L = γsw Abuoy L1

which simplifies to
[ ] [ ]
L1 L1
T = γsw Abuoy L − SG = γsw Vbuoy − SG (2)
L L
Combining Equations 1 and 2 and evaluating gives
[√ ] [√ ]
T = γsw Vbuoy SG − SG = (10.03)(0.09426) 0.6 − 0.6 = 0.165 kN

(b) This is the case of the fully submerged buoy. For vertical equilibrium,

T = γsw Vbuoy − γbuoy Vbuoy = γsw Vbuoy (1 − SG) = (10.03)(0.09426)(1 − 0.6) = 0.378 kN

2.97. From the given data: W = 0.246 N and D0 = 10 mm = 0.01 m. For pure water at 20◦ C,
γw = 9790 N/m3 . Calculate the cross-sectional area, A0 , of the hydrometer stem and the
volume, V0 , of the hydrometer below the water mark in pure water:
π 2 π
A0 = D = (0.01)2 = 7.854 × 10−5 m2
4 0 4
γw V0 = 0.246 N → 9790V0 = 0.246 → V0 = 2.513 × 10−5 m3

For ∆h = 2 cm = 0.02 m, the specific gravity of the fluid, SGf , is given by

V0 2.513
SGf = = = 0.94
V0 + A0 ∆h 2.513 + (7.854)(0.02)

2.98. From the given data: D = 9 mm, V0 = 20 cm3 = 2 × 104 mm3 , and SG = 1.2. The cross-
sectional area, A0 , of the hydrometer stem is given by
π 2 π 2
A0 = D = (9) = 63.62 mm2
4 4
The relationship between the hydrometer displacement, ∆h, and the specific gravity, SG, is
given by Equation 2.78 as
[ ] [ ]
V0 V0 1 2 × 104 1
SG = → ∆h = − V0 = − 2 × 104 = −52.4 mm
V0 + A0 ∆h SG A0 1.2 63.62

Therefore the distilled-water mark will be 52.4 mm above the liquid surface.

74
 2.99. From the given data: D = 0.70 m, R = D/2 = 0.35 m, L = 0.60 m, SGb = 0.65, and
SGℓ = 0.90. The centroidal moment of inertia, I00 , of the circular area that intersects the
liquid surface is given by (Appendix C.1):

πR4 π(0.35)4
I00 = = = 1.179 × 10−2 m4 (1)
4 4
When the cylindrical body is placed in the liquid, the weight of the body is equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced, which requires that
γb 0.65
γℓ Vsub = γb πR2 L → Vsub = πR2 L = π(0.35)2 (0.60) → Vsub = 0.1668 m3
γℓ 0.90
(2)
where the relation γb /γℓ = SGb /SGℓ has been used. The submerged height, h, can be derived
from the buoyancy relationship given in Equation 2 as follows,
γb  γb  SGb 0.65
Vsub = πR2 L → 
πR 2
h= πR
2
L → h= L= (0.60) = 0.4333 m
γℓ γℓ SGℓ 0.90
The distance between the center of gravity and the center of buoyancy, GB, is therefore given
by
L h 0.60 0.4333
GB = − = − = 0.0833 m (3)
2 2 2 2
The metacentric height, GM, can be calculated from Equation 2.79 using the results from
Equations 1 to 3 to yield

I00 1.179 × 10−2

GM = − GB = − 0.0833 = −0.0127 m
Vsub 0.1668

Since the metacentric height is negative, the cylindrical body is unstable at the orientation
at which it is placed in the liquid.

NEW From the given data: D = 300 mm, R = D/2 = 150 mm = 0.15 m, and ρlog = 512 kg/m3 . For
water at 20◦ C, ρwat = 998 kg/m3 . Let x be the depth of the log below water when the axis is
vertical, then for equilibrium

  ρlog 512
ρlog  2 L = ρwat
gπR  2x
gπR → x= L= L → x = 0.5130L
ρwat 998
At the limit of stability,

πR4 ( )
I00 4 L x
GM = 0 = − GB → 0= − −
Vsub πR2 x 2 2

substituting known quantities gives

π 0.154 ( )
4 L 0.5130L
0= − − → L = 0.212 m
π 0.152 (0.5130L) 2 2

75
2.100. At the limit of stability, the metacentric height is equal to zero, so

I00 I00 I00

GM = − GB → − GB = 0 → GB =
Vsub Vsub Vsub
bd3 4(0.70)3
I00 = = = 0.114 m4
[12 12 ]
1
Vsub = (0.70)(0.15) + (0.3)(0.7) (4) = 1.05 m3
2
I00 0.114
GB = = = 0.109 m
Vsub 1.05

Find the distance of the center of buoyancy, zB above the bottom:

A1 z1 + A2 z2 (0.7 × 0.3)(0.15 + 0.30/2) + ( 21 × 0.7 × 0.15)( 2×0.15

3 )
zB = = = 0.26 m
A1 + A2 0.21 + 0.0525
If the height of the center of gravity above the bottom is zG , then

zG − zB = 0.109 m → zG = zB + 0.109 = 0.26 + 0.109 = 0.37 m

Hence, the limit of stability occurs when the center of gravity is 0.37 m above the bottom
of the canoe.

2.101. From the given data: D = 0.3 m, ∆z = 0.5 m, ax = 0, and az = 1 m/s2 . For kerosene
at 20◦ C, ρ = 808 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.4). Applying Equation 2.95 gives the pressure
increase from bottom to top, ∆p, as follows

∆p = −ρax ∆x − ρ(g + az )∆z = −808(0)(0) − 808(9.81 + 1)(0.5) = −4367 Pa = −4.37 kPa

Therefore, the gauge pressure on the bottom of the cylinder is 4.37 kPa . The area, A, of
the bottom of the container is given by
1 1
A = πD2 = π(0.3)2 = 0.07069 m2
4 4
Hence the force, F , exerted by the fluid in the cylinder on the elevator is given by

F = pbottom A = (4.37)(0.07069) = 0.309 kN = 309 N

2.102. From the given data: ∆x = 10 m, D = 2 m, ax = 2 m/s2 , and az = 0. For water at 20◦ C, ρ
= 998 kg/m3 . The pressure difference, ∆p, between opposing locations at the front and back
of the tank is given by Equation 2.95 as

∆p = −ρax ∆x − ρ(g + az )∆z → ∆p = −(998)(2)(10) − 0 = 19 960 Pa = 19.96 kPa

The area of the front and back of the tank is A = πD2 /4 = 3.142 m2 , so the force difference,
∆F , is given by
∆F = ∆p · A = (19.96)(3.142) = 62.7 kN

76
2.103. From the given data: ρ = 1040 kg/m3 . For spillage to occur: ∆z = −0.8 m for ∆x = 2 m,
and az = 0.

(a) Taking g = 9.81 m/s2 , the limiting acceleration, ax , is obtained from Equation 2.96 as
follows
∆z ax −0.8 ax
=− → =− → ax = 3.92 m/s2
∆x g + az 2 9.81 + 0

(b) Under the limiting (spill) condition, the depth of liquid at the front of the tank is
1.2 m − 0.8 m = 0.4 m. In accordance with Equation 2.23, the gauge pressure, pbf , at the
bottom front of the tank is therefore given by

pbf = ρg(0.4 m) = (1040)(9.807)(0.4) = 4.08 × 103 Pa = 4.08 kPa

Under the limiting (spill) condition, the depth of liquid at the back of the tank is 2 m.
In accordance with Equation 2.23, the gauge pressure, pbb , at the bottom back of the
tank is therefore given by

pbb = ρg(2 m) = (1040)(9.807)(2) = 2.04 × 104 Pa = 20.4 kPa

2.104. From the given data: L = 3 m, W = 0.8 m, H = 1.6 m, and d = 1.2 m. Consider both
alignments of the tank separately.

(a) Long side aligned with the direction of truck motion. For spillage to occur: ∆z = 0.4 m
for ∆x = 1.5 m. The limiting acceleration, ax , is obtained from Equation 2.96 as follows
∆z ax 0.4 ax
= → = → ax = 2.62 m/s2
∆x g 1.5 9.81

(b) Short side aligned with the direction of truck motion. For spillage to occur: ∆z = 0.4 m
for ∆x = 0.4 m. The limiting acceleration, ax , is obtained from Equation 2.96 as follows
∆z ax 0.4 ax
= → = → ax = 9.81 m/s2
∆x g 0.4 9.81

Therefore, the maximum allowable acceleration of 9.81 m/s2 occurs with the side orientation .

2.105. From the given data: θ = 10◦ . Applying Equation 2.96 gives
ax ax
tan θ = − → tan 10◦ = − → ax = −1.73 m/s2
g 9.81

2.106. From the given data: ∆V = 90 km/h = 25 m/s, and ∆t = 10 s. Since the truck decelerates
at a constant rate,
∆V 25
ax = = = 2.5 m/s2
∆t 10
Let θ be the slope of the liquid surface, then Equation 2.96 gives
ax 2.5
tan θ = − → tan θ = − → θ = −14.3◦
g 9.81

77
2.107. From the given data: a = 5 m/s2 and θ = 25◦ . The components of the acceleration are:

ax = 5 cos 25◦ = 4.532 m/s2

az = 5 sin 25◦ = 2.113 m/s2

Taking g = 9.807 m/s2 and substituting into Equation 2.96 gives

∆z ax 4.532
=− =− = −0.3802
∆x g + az 9.807 + 2.113

The slope of the surface in the tanker is therefore equal to tan−1 (0.3802) = 20.1◦ . Therefore
the slope of the liquid in the tank is less than the slope of the incline.

2.108. Under the given conditions, the truck is free-falling down the incline with ax = 0 and az = −g.
Substituting these values into Equation 2.96 gives

∆z ax 0 0
=− =− =
∆x g + az g−g 0

Therefore, the slope of the water surface is indeterminate . This result is a consequence of
there being no effective gravity force to keep the liquid contained in the tank.

2.109. From the given data: W = 300 mm = 0.3 m, H = 280 mm = 0.28 m, and patm = 101 kPa.
For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 and psvp = 2.34 kPa (from Appendix B.4).

(a) In this case ∆z = 40 mm and ∆x = 300 mm, and Equation 2.96 gives the required
acceleration, ax , as

∆z ax −40 ax
=− → =− → ax = 1.308 m/s2
∆x g + az 300 9.81 + 0

(b) In this case r1 = 0, r2 = 0.15 m, z1 = 0, z2 = 0.28 m, p1 = psvp = 2.34 kPa, and p2 =

patm = 101 kPa. The required rate of rotation, ω, for these conditions to occur is given
by Equation 2.104 as follows:

ρω 2 2
p2 − p1 = (r2 − r12 ) − ρg[z2 − z1 ]
2
(998)ω 2
101 − 2.34 = (0.282 − 02 ) − (998)(9.81)[0.28 − 0] → ω = 15.90 rad/s = 152 rpm
2

2.110. From the given data: z1 − z2 = 40 mm = 0.04 m, r1 = 0.15 m + 0.05 m = 0.20 m, and
r2 = 0.15 m − 0.05 m = 0.10 m. The corresponding rate of rotation can be derived from
Equation 2.103 as follows

ω2 2 ω2
z1 − z2 = (r1 − r22 ) → 0.04 = (0.22 − 0.12 ) → ω = 5.114 rad/s = 48.8 rpm
2g 2(9.807)

78
2.111. From the given data: R = 0.2 m, ω = 450 rpm = 47.12 rad/s, and ∆ = 0.1 m. Identify
locations in the tube using the axes shown in Figure 2.83.

x
P
R

Figure 2.14: Reference axes

Since the U-tube has a circular shape of radius R, then

x2 + z 2 = R 2 (1)

The pressure distribution in the U-tube is given by Equation 2.104, from which the gauge
pressure can be expressed as

ρω 2 2
pg = [x∗ − x2∗0 ] − ρg(z − z0 ) (2)
2
where x∗ = x-coordinate measured from the axis of rotation, x∗0 = x-coordinate liquid surface
that is open to the atmosphere, and z0 (= 0) = z coordinate of the open surface.

(a) Combining Equations 1 and 2 and noting that the axis of rotation is ∆ from the origin
(P) gives
ρω 2 √
pg = [(x + ∆)2 − (R + ∆)2 ] − ρg(− R2 − x2 ) (3)
2
The pressure is a minimum where dpg /dx = 0. Differentiating Equation 3 and setting
the result equal to zero gives

dpg ρω 2 ρg
[2(x + ∆)] + [(R2 − x2 )− 2 (−2x)] = 0
1
=
dx 2 2
which simplifies to

ω4 47.124
2
(x + ∆)2 (R2 − x2 ) − x2 = 0 → (x + 0.1)2 (0.22 − x2 ) − x2 = 0 → x = −0.1026 m
g 9.8072

Therefore, the minimum gauge pressure occurs at a location that is 0.1026 − 0.1 ≈ =
0.003 m to the left of the rotation axis.
(b) The gauge pressure as a function of x is given by Equation 3 and is plotted in Figure
2.15.

79
 0

-20

pg (kPa)
-40

-60

-80

-100
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
x (m)

Figure 2.15: Gage pressure in U-tube

(c) Setting x = −0.1026 m in Equation 3 gives the minimum gauge pressure as −98.06 kPa,
which corresponds to an absolute pressure of 101.3 kPa − 98.06 kPa = 3.24 kPa . The
vapor pressure of water at 20◦ C is 2.337 kPa, so cavitation will not occur under the
given conditions.
2.112. From the given data: D = 0.5 m, R = D/2 = 0.25 m, and ω = 30 rad/s. For crude oil at
20◦ C, ρ = 856 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.4). The pressure difference, ∆p, between the center
and perimeter is given by Equation 2.104 as
ρω 2 2 (856)(30)2
∆p = (r2 − r12 ) = (0.252 − 02 ) = 24080 Pa = 24.1 kPa
2 2
2.113. From the given data: R = 0.5/2 = 0.25 m, ω = 400 rpm = 41.89 rad/s, and p0 = 200 kPa. For
water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . The pressure distribution on the top of the cylinder is given
by Equation 2.104, which can be expressed as
ρω 2 2
p0 − p = (R − r2 ) → p = a + br2 (1)
2
where
ρω 2 R2 (998.2)(41.89)2 (0.25)2
a = p0 − = 200 × 103 − = 1.453 × 105 Pa
2 2
ρω 2 (998.2)(1.89)2
b= = = 8.757 × 105 Pa/m2
2 2
Using Equation 1, the force, F , on the top surface of the cylinder is given by
∫ R [∫ R ∫ R ] [ 2 ]
aR bR4
F = 2
(a + br )2πr dr = 2π ar dr + 3
br dr → F = 2π +
0 0 0 2 4
Substituting the values of the given and derived parameters into the above equation yields
[ ]
(1.453 × 105 )(0.25)2 (8.757 × 105 )(0.25)4
F = 2π + [×10−3 kN/N] = 33.9 kN
2 4

80
2.114. From the given data: D = 3 cm, R = D/2 = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m, and ∆z = 1 cm = 0.01 m.
In accordance with Equation 2.108,
[ 2 2] [ 2 ]
ω R ω (0.015)2
∆z = 2 → 0.01 = 2 → ω = 29.5 rad/s = 282 rpm
4g 4(9.81)

2.115. From the given data: D = 1.5 m, R = D/2 = 0.75 m, and d = 1 m.

(a) In accordance with Equation 2.108, the liquid surface intersects the bottom of the cylin-
der when
ω 2 R2 ω 2 (0.75)2
d= → 1= → ω = 8.35 rad/s = 79.8 rpm
4g 4(9.81)

(b) From the given data: ω = 40 rpm = 4.189 rad/s. In accordance with Equation 2.108,
the required height, ∆z, above the static water level is given by

ω 2 R2 (4.189)2 (0.75)2
∆z = = = 0.25 m
4g 4(9.81)

The cylinder must be at least 1 m + 0.25 m = 1.25 m high to avoid spillage.

81
82
Chapter 3

Kinematics and Streamline Dynamics

3.1. From the given data: x = 2, y = 1. Use the following relations:

√ x y
r = x2 + y 2 , cos θ = √ , sin θ = √
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2

cos θ x sin θ y
vx = − =− 2 , vy = − =− 2
r x + y2 r x + y2
∂vx x2 − y 2 ∂vx 2xy
= 2 , = 2
∂x (x + y 2 )2 ∂y (x + y 2 )2
∂vy 2xy ∂vy y 2 − x2
= 2 , = 2
∂x (x + y 2 )2 ∂y (x + y 2 )2
Taking x = 2 and y = 1 yields
∂vx ∂vx
vx = −0.4 m/s ax = vx + vy = −0.08 m/s2
∂x ∂y
∂vy ∂vy
vy = −0.2 m/s ay = vx + vy = −0.04 m/s2
∂x ∂y

3.2. (a)
∂u ∂u
ax = u +v = (1.1 + 3.0x + 0.74y)(3.0) + (0.9 − 2.5x − 5.3y)(0.74)
∂x ∂y
= 3.97 + 7.15x − 1.702y
∂v ∂v
ay = u +v = (1.1 + 3.0x + 0.74y)(−2.5) + (0.9 − 2.5x − 5.3y)(−5.3)
∂x ∂y
= −7.52 + 5.75x + 26.24y

(b) At the stagnation point: u = v = 0

1.1 + 3.0x + 0.74y = 0 (1)

0.9 − 2.5x − 5.3y = 0 (2)

83
 Solving Equations 1 and 2 gives
x = −0.462 y = 0.388

3.3. From the given data: a = 0.1 m/s, b = 0.15 m/s, and ω = 2π/24 = 0.2618 h. The velocity
and acceleration fields are given by
vx = a cos ωt = 0.1 cos 0.2618t, vy = b sin ωt = 0.15 sin 0.2618t
∂vx ∂vy
ax = = −0.02618 sin 0.2618t, ay = = 0.03927 cos 0.2618t
∂t ∂t
Therefore the acceleration vector, a, is given by
a = −(0.02618 sin 0.2618t)i + (0.03927 cos 0.2618t)j m/s

There are no values of t that make a = 0.

3.4.
∂u ∂u
ax = u +v = (0.20 + 1.3x + 0.85y)(1.3) + (−0.50 + 0.95x − 1.3y)(0.85)
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v
ay = u +v = (0.20 + 1.3x + 0.85y)(0.95) + (−0.50 + 0.95x − 1.3y)(−1.3)
∂x ∂y
Therefore, at (1,2),
ax = (3.2)(1.3) + (−2.15)(0.85) = 2.333
ay = (3.2)(0.95) + (−2.15)(−1.3) = 5.835
√
a = a2x + a2y = 6.28

3.5. From the given velocity field, the velocity components are given by
vx = 2z + 3y + 1, vy = x + 2z − 2, vz = y − 3x + 1
(a) The velocity vector at the origin is obtained by taking (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0), which yields
v = [2z + 3y + 1]i + [x + 2z − 2]j + [y − 3x + 1]k
= [2(0) + 3(0) + 1]i + [0 + 2(0) − 2]j + [0 − 3(0) + 1]k = i − 2j + k
The magnitude of the velocity at the origin is given by
√
|v| = (1)2 + (−2)2 + (1) = 2.45 m/s

(b) The components of the acceleration field are determined using Equations 3.8 to 3.10
which yield
ax = 3(x + 2z − 2) + 2(y − 3x + 1) = −3x + 2y + 6z − 4
ay = (2z + 3y + 1) + 2(y − 3x + 1) = −6x + 5y + 2z + 3
az = −3(2z + 3y + 1) + (x + 2z − 2) = x − 9y − 4z − 5
Therefore, the acceleration field is given by
a = (−3x + 2y + 6z − 4)i + (−6x + 5y + 2z + 3)j + (x − 9y − 4z − 5)k

84
 (c) The location of the stagnation point(xs , ys , zs ) satisfies the the relations

vx = 0 → 2zs + 3ys + 1 = 0
vy = 0 → xs + 2zs − 2 = 0
vz = 0 → ys − 3xs + 1 = 0

The solution of this set of equations is (xs , ys , zs ) = (0, −1, 1) .

(d) The location where the acceleration, a, is equal to zero, (x0 , y0 , z0 ) must necessarily
satisfy the the relations

ax = 0 → −3x0 + 2y0 + 6z0 − 4 = 0

ay = 0 → −6x0 + 5y0 + 2z0 + 3 = 0
az = 0 → x0 − 9y0 − 4z0 − 5 =0

The solution of this set of equations is (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (0, −1, 1) .

3.6. The relationship between radial coordinates (r, θ) and Cartesian coordinates (x, y) can be
expressed as
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
or √ y x
r= x2 + y 2 , sin θ = √ , cos θ = √
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
The velocity components in terms of Cartesian coordinates are

vr = 4r cos θ = 4x
8xy
vθ = −4r sin 2θ = −8r sin θ cos θ = − √
x2 + y 2

The x, y components of the velocity are related to the radial components of the velocity as
follows (using geometry),

vx = vr cos θ − vθ sin θ
vy = vr sin θ + vθ cos θ

Substituting for vr and vθ gives

( ) ( )( )
x 8xy y
vx = (4x) √ − −√ √
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
4x2 8xy 2
→ vx = √ +
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
( ) ( )( )
y 8xy x
vy = (4x) √ + −√ √
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2

85
 4xy 8x2 y
→ vy = √ −
x2 + y 2 x2+ y2

Since cos θ and sin 2θ are not both zero at any point is x, y > 0, then vr ̸= 0 and vθ ̸= 0, and
hence there are no stagnation points in this domain.

3.7. From the given velocity field, vx = 5x and vy = 2y. Applying Equation 3.13 using vx gives
∫ ∫
dx dx dx dx
= vx → = 5x → = 5 dt → = 5 dt → ln x = 5t + C1
dt dt x x
Applying the initial condition that x = 1 when t = 0 yields

ln 1 = 5(0) + C1 → C1 = 0

The variation of the x coordinate with time of a point on the pathline is given by

ln x = 5t → x = e5t

Repeating the above analysis for the y component of flow gives

∫ ∫
dy dy dy dy
= vy → = 2y → = 2 dt → = 2 dt → ln y = 2t + C2
dt dt y y
Applying the initial condition that y = 2 when t = 0 yields

ln(2) = 2(0) + C2 → C2 = ln 2

and the variation of the y coordinate with time of a point on the pathline is given by

ln y = 2t + ln 2 → y = 2e2t

The equation of the pathline can be expressed in parametric form as x = e5t and y = 2e2t .
A particle released at (1,2) remains in the prescribed domain as long as

e5t ≤ 100 and 2e2t ≤ 100 → t ≤ 0.921 s and t ≤ 1.956 s

Therefore, both conditions are satisfied as long as t ≤ 0.921 s , and hence this is the time
within which the pathline remains in the prescribed domain. The pathline is plotted in Figure
3.1 for values of t in the range 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.45 s.

20
y (m)

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
x (m)

Figure 3.1: Pathline

86
3.8. From the given data: L = 5 m, x0 = 0 m, y0 = 0 m, and the velocity field is given by

u = 5 + 2x, v = −2y

(a) The x coordinate of the pathline as as function of time can be calculated as follows:
∫ ∫
dx dx dx
=u→ = dt → = dt → x = C1 e2t − 2.5
dt 5 + 2x 5 + 2x
Applying the initial condition that x = 0 when t = 0 gives

0 = C1 e2(0) − 2.5 → C1 = 2.5

Hence the x coordinate of the pathline originating at x = 0 m is given by

x = (2.5)e2t − 2.5 → x = 2.5(e2t − 1)

The y coordinate of the pathline as as function of time can be calculated as follows:

∫ ∫
dy dy 1 dx
=v→ = dt → − = dt → y = C2 e−2t
dt −2y 2 y
Applying the initial condition that y = 0 when t = 0 gives

0 = C2 e−2(0) → C2 = 0

Hence the y coordinate of the pathline originating at y = 0 m is given by

y = (0)e−2t → y=0

(b) If t∗ is the time required for the particle to traverse a distance of ∆x = L = 5 m (=

length of the duct), then
∗ ∗
∆x = 2.5(e2t − 1) → 5 = 2.5(e2t − 1) → t∗ = 0.549 s

(c) The x coordinate of the pathline as a function of time is the same as that calculated in
Part (a) so
x = 2.5(e2t − 1)
For the y coordinate of the pathline as a function of time, applying the initial condition
that y = 2 m when t = 0 s gives

2 = C2 e−2(0) → C2 = 2

Hence the y coordinate of the pathline originating at y = 2 m is given by

y = 2e−2t

Since the x coordinate as a function of time is the same for a particle originating at
(0 m, 0 m) and (0 m, 2 m), both particles will take the same time to move through the
duct.

87
 3.9. For the given velocity field,

vx = 3x cm/s, vy = 2xy cm/s

which gives
dy vy 2xy 2
= = = y
dx vx 3x 3
where x and y are in meters (the conversion factor cancels out). Integrating this expression
yields,
1 2 2
dy = dx → ln y = x + C
y 3 3
The required streamline passes through (1 m,1 m), so
2 2
ln 1 = (1) + C → C=−
3 3
Therefore the equation of the streamline is

2
ln y = (x − 1)
3
This streamline is plotted in Figure 3.2.

6
y (m)

2
0
0 2 4 6 8
x (m)

Figure 3.2: Streamlines

3.10. For the given velocity field,

vx = 1 − 2y, vy = 2
which gives
dy vy 2
= =
dx vx 1 − 2y
Integrating this expression yields,

1
(1 − 2y) dy = 2 dx → y − y 2 = 2x + C ′ → x = y(1 − y) + C
2
These streamlines are plotted in Figure 3.3 for various values of C, where the flow directions
(indicated by arrows) are determined from the given velocity field.

88
 10
8 40
30

y (m)
6
4 15
10
2 5
0 C =1
0 2 4 6 8 10
x (m)

Figure 3.3: Streamlines

3.11. (a) For t = 0 → 8 s, the particle moves from [0 m, 0 m] to [0+8(3), 0+8(1)] = [24 m, 8 m].
For the 7-second interval from t = 8 → 15 s, the particle moves from [24 m, 8 m] to
[24+7(5), 8+7(−4)] = [59 m, −20 m]. The pathline is shown in Figure 3.4.
(b) For t = 0 → 8 s, the dye streak extends from [0 m, 0 m] to [0+8(3), 0+8(1)] = [24 m, 8 m].
For the 7-second interval from t = 8 → 15 s, the existing dye streak is advected such that
each point on the dye streak moves by ∆x = 7(5) = 35 m and ∆y = 7(−4) = −28 m.
The new dye streak for t = 7 → 15 s, extends from [0 m,0 m] to [0+7(5), 0+7(−4)] =
[35 m, −28 m]. The streakline is shown in Figure 3.4.
(c) The streamlines at t = 15 s are shown in Figure 3.4.

(24 m, 8 m)

(0,0) Pathline
Streamlines at t = 15 s
Streakline

(59 m, -20 m)

(35 m, -28 m)

Figure 3.4: Pathline, streakline, and streamlines at t = 15 s

3.12. From the given data: a = 15 cm/s, b = 20 cm/s, and T = 12 h. The components of the
velocity are:
( )
2π
vx = a sin ωt = 15 sin t → vx = 15 sin(0.5236t) cm/s
12
( )
2π
vy = b cos ωt = 20 cos t → vy = 20 cos(0.5236t) cm/s
12
The movement of a fluid particle (in meters) is described by
∫ xi+1 ∫ ti+1
dx
= 0.15 sin(0.5236t) → dx = [0.15 sin(0.5236t)] dt
dt xi ti

89
 ∫ yi+1 ∫ ti+1
dy
= 0.20 cos(0.5236t) → dy = [0.20 cos(0.5236t)] dt
dt yi ti

Performing the integrations gives

∆x = −0.2865[cos(0.5236ti+1 ) − cos(0.5236ti+1 )]

∆y = 0.3820[sin(0.5236ti+1 ) − sin(0.5236ti+1 )]
The streaklines can be estimated by recursively applying
xi+1 = xi + ∆x, yi+1 = yi + ∆y
From the given data, the original location is x1 = 0 m and y1 = 0 m, and for purposes of
approximation, use ∆t = 1 hour. The results are given in the following table.

x1 y1 t1 t2 ∆x ∆y x2 y2
(m) (m) (h) (h) (m) (m) (m) (m)
0 0 0 1 0 0 0.046 0.187
0.046 0.187 1 2 0.046 0.187 0.165 0.303
0.165 0.303 2 3 0.119 0.116 0.313 0.303
0.313 0.303 3 4 0.148 0.000 0.432 0.187
0.432 0.187 4 5 0.119 −0.116 0.477 0.000
0.477 0.000 5 6 0.046 −0.187 0.432 −0.187
0.432 −0.187 6 7 −0.046 −0.187 0.313 −0.303
0.313 −0.303 7 8 −0.119 −0.116 0.165 −0.303
0.165 −0.303 8 9 −0.148 0.000 0.046 −0.187
0.046 −0.187 9 10 −0.119 0.116 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 10 11 −0.046 0.187 0.046 0.187
0.046 0.187 11 12 0.046 0.187 0.165 0.303

A plot of the streakline is shown in Figure 3.5.

0.4

0.2
Release loca!on
y (m)

-0.2 Streakline

-0.4
-0.1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
x (m)

Figure 3.5: Streakline

90
3.13. From the given data: V = 1.1 m/s, and R = 1.7 m. The normal and tangential components
of the acceleration are given by Equation 3.22 as

∂V
as = V = (1.1)(0) = 0 m/s2
∂s
V2 1.12
an = = = 0.712 m/s2
R 1.7

Note that ∂V /∂s = 0 because the velocity does not change along the streamline.

3.14. From the given data: V = 0.5 + 0.8t m/s, and R = 1.9 m. The normal and tangential
components of the acceleration at t = 2 s are given by Equation 3.23 as

∂V ∂V
as = +V = (0.8) + (0.5 + 0.8t)(0) = 0.8 m/s2
∂t ∂s
V2 [0.5 + 0.8(2)]2
an = = = 2.32 m/s2
R 1.9

Note that ∂V /∂s = 0 because the velocity does not change along the streamline.
3
3.15. From the given data: V = s3 t 2 m/s, and R = 0.5 m. The acceleration, a, along a pathline is
given by Equation 3.23. Applying the velocity field in this particular case yields:
[ ] [ 2] [ ] [ 6 3]
∂V ∂V V 3 3 1 ( 3 3)( 2 3) s t
a= +V s+ n → a= s t2 + s t2 3s t 2 s + n
∂t ∂s R 2 0.5
[ ]
3 3 1 [ ]
→ a= s t 2 + 3s t s + 2s6 t3 n
5 3
2

Hence, when s = 2 m and t = 1 s, the acceleration is given by

[ ]
3 3 1 [ ]
a= (2) (1) + 3(2) (1) s + 2(2)6 (1)3 n
2
5 3
→ a = 108 s + 128 n m/s2
2

3.16. From the given data: h0 = 2 m, and R = 3 m.

(a) The normal acceleration as a function of θ is given by

V2 2gh 2g(h0 + R − R cos θ) 2(9.81)(2 + 3 − 3 cos θ)

an = = = =
R R R 3

which gives
an = 6.54(5 − 3 cos θ) m/s2

A plot of this function is given in Figure 3.6.

91
 60

40

an (m/s2)
20

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
 (radians)

Figure 3.6: Normal acceleration as a function of θ.

(b) When an = 20 m/s2 ,

6.54(5 − 3 cos θ1 ) = 20 → θ1 = 0.8668 rad

The corresponding vertical distance, h1 , from the water surface is given by

h1 = h0 + R − R cos θ1 = 2 + 3 − 3 cos(0.8668) = 2.28 m

(c) It is useful to note the following relationships:

dh d dh
= (h0 + R − R cos θ) → = R sin θ
dθ dθ dθ
dθ 1
s = Rθ → =
ds R ( )
dh dh dθ 1 dh
= · = (R sin θ) · → = sin θ
ds dθ ds R ds

The streamwise acceleration, as , is given by

dV 1 d 1 d dh
as = V = (V 2 ) = (2gh) = g = g sin θ → as = g sin θ
ds 2 ds 2 ds ds

A plot of this function is given in Figure 3.7.

92
 10

as (m/s2)
5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
 (radians)

Figure 3.7: Streamwise acceleration as a function of θ.

(d) When as = g,
π
as = g sin θ = g → sin θ = 1 → θ= → h = h0 + R = 2 m + 3 m = 5 m
2

3.17. From the given velocity field,

√
1 ( 2 2
) 1
V = cos + sin =
r2 r
( )
∂V ∂ 1 1
= =− 2
∂r ∂r r r
( )( )
∂V 1 1 1
ar = V = − 2 =− 3
∂r r r r

Since the streamlines are straight and in a direction opposite to the radial direction,

1
as = −ar → as = − , an = 0
s3

3.18. From the given data: r1 = 1 m, and r2 = 51 m. Using the given data,
( )
πt
30 sin
dr 6 3600
V = = ×
dt ( )r 100
πt
r dr = 30 sin × 36
6
∫ 51 ∫ t ( )
πt
r dr = 30 sin dt × 36
1 0 6
51 ( )t
r2  6 πt 
 = −30 cos (36)
2 π 1 6  0

93
 ( ) [ ( ) ]
1 2 6 πt
(51 − 12 ) = −(30) (36) cos −1
2 π 6

which yields t = 2.28 h . The velocity field seems reasonable since it decreases with distance
from the shoreline and fluctuates sinusoidally.
3.19. From the given data:
(a)
V = 2 + 0.01x m/s
∂p
p = 8x2 Pa → = 16x Pa/m
∂x
dp ∂p
=V = (2 + 0.01x)(16x)
dt ∂x
At x = 5 m,
dp
= 16x(2 + 0.01x) Pa/s = 16(5)[2 + 0.01(5)] Pa/s = 164 Pa/s
dt
(b) The rate of change of pressure for a fixed observer at x = 5 m is given by
∂p ∂ ( 2)
= 8x = 0 Pa/s
∂t ∂t
3.20. From the given data:
vx = 1.5 m/s
∂T ∂
= (15 + 2x + 3y − 1.5z) = 2 ◦ C/m
∂x ∂x
dT ∂T
= vx = (1.5)(2) = 3 ◦ C/s
dt ∂x
3.21. The rate of change of temperature with time is given by the material derivative of temperature
with respect to time. Care should be taken in handling the units. The material derivative is
evaluated as follows:
DT ∂T ∂T
= +w
Dt ∂t ∂z
[ ( ) ] [ ( )]
πt π πt
= 15(1 − 0.5y ) cos
2
+ 1.8(1 + 0.8z )(15)(1 − z) sin
2
[×3.6(km/h)/(m/s)]
12 12 12
[ ( )] [ ( )]
DT πt πt
→ = 3.927(1 − 0.5y ) cos
2
+ 97.2(1 + 0.8z )(1 − z) sin
2
(1)
Dt 12 12
Substituting z = 1 km and t = 1 h in Equation 1 gives
{ [ ]} { [ ]}
DT π(1) π(1)
= 3.927[1 − 0.5(0.8) ] cos
2
+ 97.2[1 + 0.8(0.8) ](1 − 0.8) sin
2
= 10.2◦ C/h
Dt 12 12

Therefore, the rate of change of temperature in the wind is 10.2◦ C/h = 0.170◦ C/min .

94
3.22. (a) Since the flow is at steady state and the velocity varies only in the x direction, then the
acceleration, ax , is given by
[ ]
dV 8 0 − 8(−1) 64
ax = V = = m/s2
dx 1 − x (1 − x)2 (1 − x)3
Substituting x = 0.3 m yields
64
ax = = 187 m/s2
(1 − 0.3)3

(b) The pathline is calculated as follows,

dx 8
= → (1 − x) dx = 8 dt → t = 18 (x − 21 x2 ) + C
dt 1−x
Since x = 0 when t = 0, then C = 0. Therefore, the equation of the pathline is

t = 18 (x − 12 x2 ) → t = 81 x(1 − 21 x)

A fluid particle exits the nozzle when x = 0.6 m, so the travel time T through the nozzle
is given by
T = 18 (0.6)[1 − 12 (0.6)] = 0.0525 s

3.23. The velocity as a function of x is derived as follows:

(D1 − D2 )
D(x) = D1 − x
L
[ ]
π π (D1 − D2 ) 2
2
A(x) = D(x) = D1 − x
4 4 L
Q Q
V (x) = = [ ] = V (x)
A π (D1 − D2 ) 2
D1 − x
4 L

The acceleration as a function of x is derived as follows:

[ ][ ]
π (D1 − D2 ) (D1 − D2 )
Q D1 − x −
dV d dA 2 L L
= Q A−1 = −QA−2 =− [ ]4
dx dx dx π 2 (D1 − D2 )
D1 − x
16 L
[ ]
(D1 − D2 )
8Q
L
= [ ]
(D1 − D2 ) 3
π D1 − x
L
[ ]
(D1 − D2 )
8Q
dV Q L
a(x) = V = [ ]2 × [ ]
dx π (D1 − D2 ) (D1 − D2 ) 3
D1 − x π D1 − x
4 L L

95
 [ ]
(D1 − D2 )
2
32Q
L
= [ ] = a(x)
(D1 − D2 ) 5
π D1 −
2
x
L

3.24. From the given data: γ = 7.00 N/m3 , ρ = γ/g = 0.714 kg/m3 , ṁ = 0.400 kg/m3 , and
A = (0.300)(0.400) = 0.12 m2 . The average velocity, V , in the duct is calculated as follows
ṁ 0.400
ṁ = ρAV → V = = = 4.67 m/s
ρA (0.714)(0.12)

3.25. From the given data: SG = 1.2, ρ = SG(1000) = 1200 kg/m3 , D = 200 mm, A = πD2 /4 =
1.257 × 10−3 m2 , and V = 1.2 m/s.

(a) The volume flow rate, Q, is given by

Q = AV = (1.257 × 10−3 )(1.2) = 1.508 × 10−3 m3 /s = 90.5 L/min

(b) The mass flow rate, ṁ, is given by

ṁ = ρQ = (1200)(1.508 × 10−3 ) = 1.81 kg/s

3.26. From the given data: Q = 400 CFM = 0.1888 m3 /s, T = 25◦ C = 298 K, p = 98 kPa,
D = 350 mm, and A = πD2 /4 = 9.621 × 10−2 m2 . For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. The density of
the intake air can be calculated using the ideal-gas law, which gives

p 98 × 103
ρ= = = 1.145 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(298)
The average velocity, V , and the mass flow rate, ṁ, are calculated as follows:
Q 0.1888
V = = = 1.96 m/s , ṁ = ρQ = (1.145)(0.1888) = 0.216 kg/s
A 9.621 × 10−2

3.27. From the given data: D = 400 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 0.1257 m2 , T = 10◦ C = 283.15 K,
p = 300 kPa, and V = 10 m/s. For carbon dioxide, Ru /M = 188.9 J/kg·K (from the data in
Appendix B.5). The density of CO2 can be calculated using the ideal gas law as follows,

p 300 × 103
ρ= = = 5.609 kg/m3
RT (188.9)(283.15)
The mass flow rate, ṁ, is given by

ṁ = ρAV = (5.609)(0.1257)(10) = 7.05 kg/s

3.28. From the given data: A = 325 m2 , h = 2.74 m, ACH = 0.35 h−1 , and Vmin = 4 m/s. The
volume of the house, V , is derived from the given data as V = Ah = 890.5 m3 .

96
 (a) The minimum required ventilation capacity, Q, is calculated as follows:

ACH · V (0.35)(890.5)
Q= = = 8.658 × 10−2 m3 /s = 183 ft3 /min = 183 CFM
3600 3600

(b) Let x be the length of a side of the square vent. Then when the inflow velocity is equal
to Vmin ,

Q = Vmin A → 8.658 × 10−2 = (4)(x2 ) → x = 0.147 m = 147 mm

3.29. From the given data: Qe = 25 L/min = 4.167 × 10−4 m3 /s, De = 25 mm, Ae = πDe2 /4 =
4.909×10−4 m2 . Note that the surface area of a hemisphere of radius r is 2πr2 (from Appendix
C.2). The average velocity, Ve , at the exit is given by

Qe 4.167 × 10−4
Ve = = = 0.849 m/s
Ae 4.909 × 10−4

(a) The relationship between the average velocity, V , and the distance r from the exit is
given by √
Qe 4.167 × 10−4 6.632 × 10−5
V = = 2
→ r= (1)
A 2πr V
The velocities V = 0.1Ve , V = 0.01Ve , and V = 0.001Ve , are 0.0849 m/s, 0.00849 m/s,
and 0.000849 m/s, respectively. Substituting into Equation 1 gives the following radial
distances (converted to mm): 28 mm, 88 mm, and 279 mm .
(b) The convective acceleration, ar is given by
[ ][ ]
∂V 4.167 × 10−4 4.167 × 10−4 8.797 × 10−9
ar = V = − = −
∂r 2πr2 πr3 r5

Taking r = 100 mm = 0.1 m gives

8.797 × 10−9
a100mm = − = 8.80 × 10−4 m/s2
(0.1)5

3.30. From the given data: b = 1.5 m, d = 30 mm = 0.03 m, and v(z) = 100z. For SAE 10 oil at
20◦ C, ρ = 918 kg/m3 . The volume flow rate, Q, is given by
∫ ∫ 0.030 m ∫ 0.030 m ∫ 0.030 m
Q= v dA = (100z)b dz = (100z)(1.5) dz = 150 z dz
A 0 0 0

which integrates to
[ ]0.03
Q = 75 z 2 = 0.0675 m3 /s = 67.5 L/s
0
The mass flow rate, ṁ, is given by

ṁ = ρQ = (918)(0.0675) = 62.0 kg/s

97
3.31. From the given data: h = 20 mm, V1 = −2 m/s, V2 = 3 m/s, and w = 0.8 m. For SAE 30
oil at 20◦ C, ρ = 918 kg/m3 . Taking the vertical coordinate as z and noting that the velocity
varies linearly, the velocity distribution between the flat surfaces is as follows:

V2 − V1 3 − (−2)
u(z) = V1 + z = −2 + z → u(z) = −2 + 250z
h 0.020
The volume flow rate, Q, and mass flow rate, ṁ, are given by
∫ h ∫ 0.02 [ ]0.02
Q= wu dz = (0.8) (−2 + 250z) dz = (0.8) − 2z + 125z 2 = 0.008 m3 /s
0 0 0

ṁ = ρQ = (918)(0.008) = 7.34 kg/s

3.32. The velocity distribution in the pipe is

[ ( r )2 ]
v(r) = V0 1 − (1)
R

and the average velocity, V , is defined as

∫
1
V = V dA (2)
A A

where
A = πR2 and dA = 2πr dr (3)

(a) Combining Equations 1 to 3 yields

∫ R [ ( r )2 ] [∫ R ∫ R ] [ ]
1 2V0 r3 2V0 R2 R4
V = V0 1 − 2πr dr = 2 r dr − dr = 2 −
πR2 0 R R 0 0 R2 R 2 4R2
2V0 R 2 1
= → = V = V0
R2 4 2

The flow rate, Q, is therefore given by

( )
V0 1
Q = AV = πR 2
→ Q = πR2 V0
2 2

(b) If the velocity were constant across the cross section, then the average velocity would be
equal to the centerline velocity. In this case, the average velocity is equal to one-half the
centerline velocity, therefore it is not a good assumption to take the velocity as being
constant across the cross section.

3.33. The velocity distribution in the pipe is

( r ) 17
v(r) = V0 1 − (1)
R

98
 and the average velocity, V , is defined as
∫
1
V = V dA (2)
A A

where
A = πR2 and dA = 2πr dr (3)

(a) Combining Equations 1 to 3 and using the substitution x = 1 − r/R yields

∫ ( ∫ 1
1 R
r ) 71 1 8 98
V = V0 1 − 2πr dr = 2V0 (x 7 − x 7 ) dx → V = V0 ≈ 0.82V0
πR2 0 R 0 120

The flow rate, Q, is therefore given by

( )
98 98
Q = AV = πR 2
V0 → Q= πR2 V0
120 120

(b) If the velocity were constant across the cross section, then the average velocity would
be equal to the centerline velocity. In this case, the average velocity is equal to approxi-
mately 82% of the centerline velocity, therefore it is a crude approximation to take the
velocity as being constant across the cross section.

3.34. (a) The volume flow rate, Q, per unit width is given by
∫ h ∫ h [ ]h [ ]
1 dp 1 dp y 3 hy 2 1 dp h3 h3
Q= u dy = (y − hy) dy =
2
− = −
0 2µ dx 0 2µ dx 3 2 0 2µ dx 3 2

which yields
h3 dp
Q= −
12µ dx

(b) The average flow velocity, V , is given by

h3 dp
−
Q 12µ dx h2 dp
V = = = −
A h 12µ dx

(c) The mass flow rate, ṁ, is given by

ρh3 dp
ṁ = ρQ = −
12µ dx

3.35. Since d = 1 m, and umax = 3 m/s, the velocity distribution is given by

(y )1 (y )1 1
7 7
u = umax =3 = 3y 7
d 1

99
 The flow rate per unit width, q, is
∫ d ∫ 1 [ ] [ ]
1 7 8 1 7
q= u dy = 3y 7 dy = 3 y 7 = 3 − 0 = 2.63 m3 /s
0 0 8 0 8

The average velocity, V , is given by

q 2.63
V = = = 2.63 m/s
d 1

3.36. (a) The relationship between the pressure gradient, dp/dx and the velocity gradient, dV /dx,
is derived from Equation 3.42 which gives
dp dV dz dp dV
+ ρV + ρg =0 → = −ρV (1)
dx dx dx dx dx
where dz/dx = 0 for a horizontal conduit. Under steady-state one-dimensional flow
conditions, the acceleration along the conduit, ax , is given by
dV
ax = V (2)
dx
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives

dp
= −ρax
dx

(b) From the given data: dp/dx = −1 kPa/m = −1000 Pa/m. For water at 20◦ C, ρ =
998 kg/m3 . Substituting into the expression derived in Part (a) gives
dp
= −ρax → −1000 = −(998)ax → ax = 1.00 m/s2
dx

(c) From the given data: ax = 5 m/s2 . Using the relationship derived in Part (a):
dp
= −ρax = −(998)(5) = −4.99 × 103 Pa/m = −4.99 kPa/m
dx

3.37. From the given data: θ = 20◦ , and as = 4 m/s2 . For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .
The pressure gradient can be obtained by applying Equation 3.42 along the centerline of the
conduit, which requires that
dp dV dz
+ ρV + ρg =0 (1)
ds ds ds
In this particular case:
dV dz
V = as = 4 m/s2 , = sin θ = sin 20◦ = 0.3420 (2)
ds ds
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
dp
= −ρ[as + g sin θ] = −(998.2)[4 + (9.807)(0.3420)] = −7.34 × 103 Pa/m = −7.34 kPa/m
ds

100
3.38. (a) When the flow is vertically upward, dz/dx = 1 and, for any orientation of the conduit,
by definition for steady-state one-dimensional flow, ax = V dV /dx. The relationship
between the pressure gradient, dp/dx and acceleration, ax , can be derived from Equation
3.42 as follows

dp dV dz dp dp
+ ρV + ρg =0 → = −ρax − ρg → = −ρ(ax + g)
dx dx dx dx dx

(b) When the flow is vertically downward, dz/dx = −1 and hence

dp dV dz dp dp
+ ρV + ρg =0 → = −ρax + ρg → = −ρ(ax − g)
dx dx dx dx dx

(c) From the given data: ax = 7 m/s2 . For gasoline at 20◦ C, ρ = 680 kg/m3 from Appendix
B.4. Using the relationship derived in Part (a):
dp
= −(680)(7 + 9.807) = −11.4 × 103 Pa/m = −11.4 kPa/m
dx

3.39. From the given data: x1 = 0 m, and x2 = 1 m. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 .

(a) The velocity gradient, dV /dx, as a function of x, is derived as follows

dV d
= [1.2(1 + 0.3x)] = 0.36 s−1
dx dx
The relationship between the pressure gradient, dp/dx and the velocity gradient, dV /dx,
is derived from Equation 3.42 which gives
dp dV dz dp dV
+ ρV + ρg =0 → = −ρV
dx dx dx dx dx
dp
= −(998) [1.2(1 + 0.3x)] (0.36) = −431.1(1 + 0.3x)
dx
Integrating this relationship yields
∫ p2 ∫ x2
[ ]1
dp = − 431.1(1 + 0.3x) dx = − 431.1x + 64.67x2 0 = −496 Pa
p1 x1

(b) Using the given formula for the velocity,

V1 = 1.2[1 + 0.3(0)] = 1.2 m/s, V2 = 1.2[1 + 0.3(1)] = 1.56 m/s

Applying the Bernoulli equation directly requires that

1 [ ] 1 [ ]
∆p = ρ V12 − V22 = (998) (1.2)2 − (1.56)2 = −496 Pa
2 2
3.40. From the given data: p1 = 550 kPa, V1 = 1.5 m/s, p2 = 101 kPa, and z1 = z2 . For water at
20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 and ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .

101
 (a) The Bernoulli equation as given by Equation 3.47 requires that
p1 V12 p2 V22 550 1.52 101 V22
+ = + → + = + → V2 = 30.0 m/s
γ 2g γ 2g 9.789 2(9.807) 9.789 2(9.807)
The actual exit velocity will be less than the calculated maximum velocity due to
energy losses within the nozzle.
(b) When the inflow velocity is negligible, the Bernoulli equation gives
√
p1 p2 V22 2(p1 − p2 )
= + → V2 =
γ γ 2g ρ

For the pressures given in Part (a),

√
2(550 − 101)
V2 = → V2 = 30.0 m/s
998.2
This is the same value (to three significant digits) as calculated with an inflow velocity
of 1.5 m/s. Therefore, in this case, the importance of the inflow velocity is negligible .

3.41. From the given data: ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 , and p∞ = 101 kPa. From the given velocity distribution
at x = ∞, V∞ = 5 m/s. For z = constant, the Bernoulli equation gives
p V2 p∞ V∞ 2 101 × 103 52
+ = + = + = 8.418 × 104 m2 /s2
ρ 2 ρ 2 1.2 2
(a) Substitute the expression for the velocity distribution yields the pressure distribution as
follows:
p V2
+ = 8.418 × 104 m2 /s2
ρ 2
[ ]2
p 1 2 8
+ 5 1− = 8.418 × 104 m2 /s2
1.2 2 (2 + x)3
which gives
[ ]2
8
p = 1.010 × 10 − 15 1 −
5
(2 + x)3

(b) At the stagnation point x = 0, and so the difference between the stagnation pressure
and the free-stream pressure is given by
[ ]2
8
p0 − p∞ = 15 1 − = 15 Pa
(2 + 0)3

3.42. From the given data: V1 = 70 mph = 31.3 m/s, p1 = 99 kPa, and p2 = 0.95p1 . For air at
20◦ C, ρ = 1.204 kg/m3 . Using the Bernoulli equation,
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ = +
γ 2g γ 2g

102
 V22 p1 V2
= (1 − 0.95) + 1
2g γ 2g
√ √
p1 99 × 103
V1 = 0.10 + V12 = 0.10 + 33.12 = 96.5 m/s = 215 mph
ρ 1.204

This velocity is much higher than would be expected under hurricane conditions.

3.43. From the given data: ptank = 5 kPa, Ttank = 15◦ C = 288◦ C, patm = 101.3 kPa, De = 20 mm
= 0.020 m, Ae = πDe2 /4 = 3.141 × 10−4 m2 , Di = 40 mm = 0.040 m, and Ai = πDi2 /4 =
0.001257 m2 . For air, R = 287 J/kg·K.

(a) The density, ρ, of the gas in the storage tank can be estimated using the ideal gas law
as
p (5 + 101.3)103
ρ= = = 1.286 kg/m3
RT (287)(288)
Applying the Bernoulli equation along the central streamline between the storage tank
and the exit gives
√ √
1 2 2ptank 2(5 × 103 )
ptank + patm = patm + ρVe → Ve = = = 88.18 m/s
2 ρ 1.286

The volume discharge rate, Q, is therefore given by

Q = Ae Ve = (3.141 × 10−4 )(88.18) = 0.0277 m3 /s

(b) Applying the Bernoulli equation along the central streamline between the storage tank
and the intermediate location gives
( )2
1 1 Q
ptank = pi + ρVi2 → pi = ptank − ρ
2 2 Ai

Substituting known values gives

( )2
1 0.0227 [ ]
pi = 5 − (1.286) ×10−3 kPa/Pa = 4.69 kPa
2 0.001257

3.44. From the given data: ∆zs = 3 m, D = 150 mm = 0.15 m, A = πD2 /4 = 0.01767 m2 , and Q
= 100 L/s = 0.1 m3 /s. For water, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The velocity, Vs in the suction pipe is
given by
Q 0.1
Vs = = = 5.659 m/s
A 0.01767
The pressure on the suction side of the pump, ps can be derived by applying the Bernoulli
equation between the reservoir and the suction side of the pump. which gives

ps Vs2 ps 5.6592
0= + + ∆zs → 0= + +3 → ps = −45.3 kPa
γ 2g 9.79 2(9.807)

103
3.45. (a) Using the surface of the reservoir as the datum and applying the Bernoulli equation to
a streamline between the surface of the reservoir and the exit of the tube gives
Ve2 √
0=0+ − ∆ze → Ve = 2g∆ze
2g
Hence the volume flow rate, Q, is given by
√
Q = AVe → Q = A 2g∆ze

(b) For water, the (absolute) saturation vapor pressure of water is 2.34 kPa (from Appendix
B.4), and the specific weight is γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The (gauge) saturation vapor pressure
of water can be estimated as psvp = 2.34 kPa − 101.325 kPa = −98.99 kPa. Applying the
Bernoulli equation between the exit of the tube and the critical location for cavitation
(taking the exit as the elevation datum and working with gauge pressure) gives
Ve2 psvp Ve2 psvp −98.99
= + + ∆zmax → ∆zmax = − =− = 10.1 m = 33.2 ft
2g γ 2g γ 9.79

3.46. Take the maximum section in the tube as Section 1, and the exit as Section 2. Fluid properties
at each of these sections are denoted by subscripts. From the given data: D = 25 mm, and,
at the failure condition, p1 = −50 kPa. For water, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 .
(a) Take V as the velocity of the liquid in the siphon tube. Apply the Bernoulli equation
between the source reservoir and Sections 1 and 2:
p1 V 2
Section 1: 0 = + + z1 (1)
γ 2g
V2
Section 2: 0 = − z2 (2)
2g
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
p1 p1 p1 −50
0= + (z1 + z2 ) → 0= + ∆zmax → ∆zmax = − =− = 5.11 m
γ γ γ 9.79
(b) From the given data: z2 = 2 m. For D = 25 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 4.909 × 10−4 m2 .
Applying Equation 2 to find the flow rate, Q, gives
Q2 Q2
0= − z2 → 0 = − 2 → Q = 0.003075 m3 /s = 3.08 L/s
2gA2 2(9.81)(4.909 × 10−4 )2

The functional expression for Q is Q = 3.08 L/s , where Q is independent of ∆zmax . At

∆zmax , the flow rate is 3.08 L/s .
(c) For De = 10 mm, the exit area of the nozzle is Ae = πDe2 /4 = 7.854 × 10−5 m2 . The
velocity at the exit is the same as that without the nozzle. Applying Equation 2 to find
the flow rate, Q, gives
Q2 Q2
0= − z2 → 0 = − 2 → Q = 0.0004920 m3 /s = 0.49 L/s
2gA2 2(9.81)(7.854 × 10−5 )2

104
3.47. From the given data: Aspa = 10 m2 , H = 1.5 m, ∆z = 2 m, D = 25 mm = 0.025 m, and
A = πD2 /4 = π(0.025)2 /4 = 4.909 × 10−4 m2 . Let h be the depth of water in the spa.
Applying the Bernoulli equation to the hose gives

V2 √ √
h + ∆z = → V = 2g(h + ∆z) → Q = AV = A 2g(h + ∆z)
2g

Substituting known and derived values gives

√ √
Q = (4.909 × 10−4 ) 2(9.807)(h + 2) → Q = 0.002174 (h + 2)

Applying the continuity equation to the spa gives

dh √ dh √
−A = 0.002174 (h + 2) → −(10) = 0.002174 (h + 2)
dt dt
dh √
= −0.0002174 (h + 2)
dt
∫ ∫ te 0 te
0
dh √  
√ = −0.0002174 dt → 2 (h + 2) = −0.0002174te 

1.5 (h + 2) 0 1.5 0

which gives

[2.828 − 3.742] = −0.0002174te → te = 4204 s = 70.1 min

3.48. From the given data: V∞ = 60 km/h = 16.67 m/s, p∞ = pinside = 100 kPa, Vroof = 80 km/h =
22.22 m/s, and Awindow = 1.3 m2 . For standard air at sea level, ρair = 1.225 kg/m3 . Assume
that a stagnation point is located at the center of the window on the side of the house. Using
the Bernoulli equation and the fact that p∞ = pinside , the net pressure and force on the side
window can be estimated as
1 2 1
pnet = ρair V∞ = (1.225)(16.67)2 = 170 Pa
2 2
Fnet = pnet Awindow = (170)(1.3) = 221 N inward to the house

Using the Bernoulli equation and the fact that p∞ = pinside , the net pressure and force on
the roof window can be estimated as
1 1 1 [ ]
2
pnet = ρair V∞ − ρair Vroof
2
= (1.225) (16.67)2 − (22.22)2 = −81 Pa
2 2 2
Fnet = |pnet Awindow | = (81)(1.3) = 105 N outward from the house

Upon failure, the side window will be blown inward to the house and the roof window would
be blown outward .

3.49. From the given data: p∞ = 101 kPa, T = 20◦ C, and ∆p = ps − p∞ = 0.15(101) = 15.15 kPa.
Under the given conditions the density of air is ρ = 1.205 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.5).

105
 (a) Neglecting compressibility effects, Equation 3.51 gives

1 1
∆p = ρV 2 → 2
15.15 = (1.205)V∞ [×10−3 kPa/Pa] → V∞ = 155 m/s
2 ∞ 2

(b) The speed of sound in air at 20◦ C is given in the text as c = 345 m/s. Including
compressibility effects, Equation 3.52 gives
2
[ 2
]
V∞ V∞
∆p ≈ ρ 1+ 2
2 4c
2
[ 2
]
V∞ V∞
15.15 ≈ (1.205) 1+ [×10−3 kPa/Pa] → V∞ ≈ 159 m/s
2 4(345)2

3.50. (a) Consider a fixed airfoil with an approach velocity of V and apply the Bernoulli equation
between the free stream and the point P, then

p∞ + 12 ρV 2 = pP + 21 ρVP2 → p∞ + 12 ρV 2 = pP + 21 ρ(1.30V )2
√
p∞ − pP
→ V = 1.703 (1)
ρ

(b) For an elevation of 5 km in a standard atmosphere, p∞ = 54.048 kPa and ρ = 0.73643 kg/m3
(from Appendix B.3). From the given data: pP = 48.5 kPa. Substituting into Equation
1 gives √
(54.048 − 48.5) × 103
V = 1.703 = 148 m/s = 532 km/h
0.73643
3.51. From the given data: V∞ = 400 km/h = 111.1 m/s, z = 2700 m = 2.7 km, and V2 = 480 km/h
= 133.3 m/s. For a standard atmosphere at an elevation of 2.7 km, p∞ = 72.935 kPa, and ρ
= 0.93846 kg/m3 . Applying the Bernoulli equation along the stagnation streamline gives

1 2 1
p∞ + ρV∞ = p1 → 72.935 + (0.93846)(111.1)2 [×10−3 kPa/Pa] = 78.7 kPa
2 2
Applying the Bernoulli equation along the streamline from ∞ to Point 2 gives
1 2 1 1
p∞ + ρV∞ = p2 + ρV22 → p1 = p2 + ρV22
2 2 2
1
78.7 = p2 + (0.93846)(133.3)2 [×10−3 kPa/Pa] → p2 = 70.39 kPa
2

3.52. A person will sense the magnitude of the stagnation pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.
At 20◦ C, ρair = 1.205 kg/m3 . According to the Bernoulli equation, the gauge stagnation
pressure, pgs , is given by
√
1 2pgs
pgs = ρair V∞ → V∞ =
2
2 ρair

106
 For pgs = 1 Pa,
√ √
2pgs 2(1)
V∞ = = = 1.29 m/s = 4.64 km/h = 3 mph
ρair 1.205
For pgs = 1 kPa,
√ √
2pgs 2(1000)
V∞ = = = 40.7 m/s = 147 km/h = 92 mph
ρair 1.205

3.53. From the given data: V∞ = 100 km/h = 27.78 m/s, A = (6)(18) = 108 m2 , and h = 10 m. For
a standard atmosphere at sea level, ρair = 1.225 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.3). The average
pressure, p, force, F , and support moment, M , are given by
1 2 1
p = ρair V∞ = (1.225)(27.78)2 = 472.7 Pa
2 2
F = pA = (472)(108) = 51050 N = 51.05 kN

M = F · h = (51.05)(10) = 511 kN·m

3.54. From the given data: p = p0 at r = r0 . This boundary condition and the given velocity
distribution can be used directly in Equation 3.58, noting that dz = 0 and dn = −dr,
Equation 3.58 gives
∫ p ∫ r ∫ r ∫ r
V2 (Cr)2 2
dp = ρ dr = ρ dr = ρC r dr
p0 r0 r r0 r r0

Performing the integrations yields

ρC 2 2 ρC 2 2
p − p0 = (r − r02 ) → p = p0 + (r − r02 )
2 2

3.55. From the given data: p = p0 at r = r0 . This boundary condition and the given velocity
distribution can be used directly in Equation 3.58, noting that dz = 0 and dn = −dr,
Equation 3.58 gives
( )2
C
∫ p ∫ r 2 ∫ r ∫ r
V r 2 1
dp = ρ dr = ρ dr = ρC 3
dr
p0 r0 r r0 r r0 r

Performing the integrations yields

( ) ( )
ρC 2 1 1 ρC 2 1 1
p − p0 = − − → p = p0 − −
2 r2 r02 2 r2 r02

3.56. From the given data: V = 40 m/s, and R = 15 m. For air at 20◦ C, ρ = 1.205 kg/m3 (from
Appendix B.5). In the horizontal plane, dz = 0 and Equation 3.56 gives
V2 dp V2 402
−dp − γ dz = ρ dn → = −ρ = −(1.205) = −138 Pa/m
R dn R 15

107
3.57.
For constant R:
From the given data: V = V0 = 0.40 m/s, and θ = 15◦ . An average radius of curvature can be
taken as R = 3 m + 0.3/2 m = 3.15 m. The momentum equation normal to the streamlines
gives,
( ) ( ) ∫
p2 p1 1 2 V2
+ z2 − + z1 = − dn
γ γ g 1 R
∫
V2 2 (0.4)2
≈− 0 dn = − (0.3 − 0) = −0.00155 m
gR 1 (9.81)(3.15)
The pressure difference (inside bend − outside bend) is given by
p2 − p1 = γ(3.3 cos θ − 3 cos θ) − 0.00155 = (9.79)(3.3 cos 15◦ − 3 cos 15◦ ) − 0.00155 = 2.84 kPa

which can also be expressed as ∆p = 2.84 kPa .

For variable R:
The radius of curvature R is given by
R=3+n
The momentum equation normal to the streamlines gives,
( ) ( ) ∫
p2 p1 1 2 V2
+ z2 − + z1 = − dn
γ γ g 1 R
∫
V02 2 1 V2
=− dn = − 0 (ln |3 + n2 | − ln |3 + n1 |)
g 1 3+n g
V 2 3 + n2 (0.4)2 3 + 0.3
= − 0 ln =− ln = −0.00155 m
g 3 + n1 9.81 3+0
Since this is the same result (to three significant digits) that was found by assuming a constant
radius of curvature, then the calculated pressure difference will be the same and given by
∆p = 2.84 kPa

3.58. From the given data: Do = 50 mm, Ao = πDo2 /4 = 0.001963 m2 , Cd = 0.62, hw = 2 m, hm

= 2.9 m, and pair = 250 kPa. At 20◦ C, γw = 9.79 kN/m3 , ρm = 791 kg/m3 (from Appendix
B.4), and γm = ρm g = 7.76 kN/m3 . Using these data, the pressure on the surface of the
water, ps , is given by
ps = pair + γm hm = 250 + (7.76)(2.9) = 273 kPa
Equation 3.68 gives the discharge, Q, from the orifice as
√ ( )
ps − po
Q = Cd Ao 2g + zs − zo
γw
√ ( )
273 − 0
= (0.62)(0.001963) 2(9.81) + 2 − 0 = 0.0295 m3 /s = 29.5 L/s
9.79

108
3.59. From the given data: A = 144 m2 , H = 4 m, Cd = 0.6, Do = 50 mm, and Ao = πDo2 /2 =
0.001963 m2 .
(a) Let h be the depth of water in the pool at any time t, then conservation of (water) mass
requires that
[ √ ] ∫ 0 [ √ ] ∫ te
dh √ dh Cd Ao 2g dh Cd Ao 2g
−A = Cd Ao 2gh → − √ = dt → − √ = dt
dt h A H h A 0

where te is the time to empty the pool. Performing the integration gives
[ √ ] [ √ ]−1
√ Cd Ao 2g √ Cd Ao 2g
2 H= te → te = 2 H
A A
Substituting known quantities yields
[ √ ]−1
√ (0.6)(0.001963) 2(9.807)
te = 2 4 = 1.101 × 105 s = 30.7 h
144

(b) When h = 4 m, the rate, Q, at which liquid must be added to the reservoir is given by
√ √
Q = Cd Ao 2gh = (0.6)(0.001963) 2(9.81)4 = 0.0104 m3 /s = 10.4 L/s

3.60. From the given data: L = 2 m, b = 1 m, w = 1 cm = 0.01 m, Cd = 1, θ = 60◦ , and y0 =

1 m. The volume of the tank, V , as a function of the depth, y, of liquid in the is given by
[ ] [ ]
y2 y2
V = + by L = + (1)y (2) = 1.155y 2 + 2y
tan 60◦ tan 60◦
The rate if change of volume as a function of time is given by
dV dy dy
= 2.309y +2
dt dt dt
Applying the continuity equation to water in the tank, using the orifice formula to estimate
the discharge, gives
√ dV
Cd 2gywL = −
dt
√ dy
(1) 2(9.81)y(0.01)(2) = − [2.309y + 2]
dt
[ ]
dy √ 22.58
1=− 26.06 y + √
dt y
∫ te ∫ 0[ ]
√ 22.58
dt = − 26.06 y + √ dy
0 1 y
 te [ ]0

 3
t = − 17.37y + 45.16y
2
1
2 → te = 62.5 s
0 1

Since the density of the liquid does not appear in the calculations, the drain time is insensitive
to the density of the liquid.

109
3.61. From the given data: L = 3 m, Cd = 0.80, ∆V = 12000 m3 , and ∆t = 1 d = 86400 s. The
maximum surface-elevation difference across the slot, ∆zmax is as follows

∆zmax = (2.2 + 0.6) − (1.4 − 0.4) = 1.8 m

and the maximum allowable flow rate, Qmax , through the slot is given by
∆V 12000
Qmax = = = 0.1389 m3 /s
∆t 86400
Applying the submerged-orifice discharge formula given by Equation 3.76 with the height of
the slot represented by H yields
√
Qmax = Cd Ao 2g∆zmax
√
0.1389 = (0.80)(3H) 2(9.81)(1.8) → H = 0.00974 m ≃ 9.7 mm

3.62. From the given data: Do = 40 mm, zs1 = 0.5 m, h1 = 1.2 m, zs2 = 1.3 m, h2 = 0.6 m, SG
= 0.88, Cd = 0.94, p2 = 200 kPa, and Q = 8 L/s. For water at 20◦ C, γw = 9.79 kN/m3 , and
for the oil, γoil = SG(9.81) = 8.63 kN/m3 . Using the given data, the following quantities can
be derived:
π π
Ao = Do2 = (0.040)2 = 0.001257 m2
4 4
ps1 = p1 + γoil h1 = p1 + (8.63)(1.2) = p1 + 10.36 kPa

ps2 = p2 + γoil h2 = 200 + (8.63)(0.6) = 205.2 kPa

The flow through the submerged orifice is given by Equation 3.74, and substituting the given
and derived data yields
√ ( )
ps1 − ps2
Q = Cd Ao 2g + zs1 − zs2
γw
√ ( )
p1 + 10.36 − 205.2 [ ]
8 = (0.94)(0.001257) 2(9.81) + 0.5 − 1.3 ×103 L/m3
9.79

which yield p1 = 226 kPa .

3.63. From the given data: Do = 50 mm, Cd = 0.62, and ∆p = 30 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, γ =
9.79 kN/m3 . Calculate the following preliminary quantity:

πDo2 π(0.05)2
Ao = = = 0.001963 m2
4 4
Applying the orifice equation across the orifice meter gives
√ √
∆p 30
Q = Cd Ao 2g = (0.62)(0.001963) 2(9.81) = 0.009487 m3 /s = 9.5 L/s
γ 9.79

110
3.64. From the given data: Ac = 2 m2 , Y = 1 m, Cd = 1, and Do = 20 mm, which gives Ao =
πDo2 /4 = 0.0003142 m2 . Applying the continuity and orifice equation to the liquid in the tank
gives

√ ∫ ∫
dh dh A √ 0
dh A √ tf
−Ac = Ao 2gh → √ = − o 2g dt → √ = − o 2g dt
dt h Ac Y h Ac 0

where tf is the time taken to fill the tank. Performing the integration gives
[ ]−1
Ao √ √
tf = 2g 2 Y
Ac

Substituting the given and derived data yields

[ ]−1
0.0003142 √ √
tf = 2(9.81) 2 1 = 2874 s = 47.9 min
2

The calculated time is independent of the density of the liquid and the cross-sectional shape
of the volume. So, the result would be unchanged if these properties were changed.

3.65. From the given data: V = 300 km/h = 83.33 m/s, and z = 3000 m = 3 km. Assuming a
standard atmosphere at elevation 3 km, p = 70.12 kPa, and ρ = 0.9093 kg/m3 (from Appendix
B.3). Therefore, the static pressure at an elevation of 3000 m is p∞ = 70.12 kPa .

(a) In accordance with the Bernoulli equation, the stagnation pressure, ps is given by

1 1 [ ]
ps = p∞ + ρV 2 = 70.12 + (0.9093)(83.33)2 ×10−3 kPa/Pa = 73.28 kPa
2 2
Hence, the pressure difference measured by the Pitot-static tube is 73.28 kPa − 70.12 kPa
= 3.16 kPa .
(b) The measured stagnation pressure should be approximately the same as the maximum
pressure on the fuselage.
(c) In this case, ps − p∞ = 4 kPa. In accordance with the Bernoulli equation, the air speed,
V , is related to the pressure differential by
√ √
2(ps − p∞ ) 2(4 × 103 )
V = → V = = 93.8 m/s = 338 km/h
ρ 0.9093

3.66. From the given data: D1 = 200 mm = 0.2 m, A = πD12 /4 = 0.03142 m2 , p1 = 20 kPa, and
h2 = 2.5 m. For water, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 .

(a) Applying the Bernoulli equation along the centerline of the flow, from Section 1 to the
Pitot stagnation point, gives

p1 + γD1 /2 V12 γh2 p1 D1 Q2

+ = → + + = h2
γ 2g γ γ 2 2gA2

111
 Making Q the subject of the formula gives
√ ( ) √ ( )
p1 D1 20 0.2
Q = A 2g h2 − − = (0.03142) 2(9.81) 2.5 − − = 0.0832 m3 /s
γ 2 9.79 2

In alternative units, the flow rate is 83.2 L/s .

(b) Applying the Bernoulli equation between the nozzle exit and the stagnation point of the
Pitot tube, and noting that p2 = patm = 0 and z2 = 0, the exit velocity, V2 , is calculated
as follows:
V22 √ √
= h2 → V2 = 2gh2 = 2(9.807)(2.5) = 7.000 m/s
2g
The exit diameter, D2 , can be calculated from the continuity equation as follows:
√ √
[π ] 4Q 4(0.0832)
Q = V2 A2 = V2 D22 → D2 = = = 0.123 m = 123 mm
4 πV2 π(7.000)

3.67. From the given data: D = 200 mm = 0.2 m, A = πD2 /4 = 0.03142 m2 , T = 5◦ C = 278 K,
p = 250 kPa, and ∆p = 0.4 kPa = 400 Pa. For CO2 , M = 44.01 g/mol, and R = Ru /M =
8314/44.01 = 188.9 J/kg·K. The density, ρ, of CO2 , velocity, V∞ , (from Equation 3.77), and
flow rate, Q, are given by
√ √
p 250 × 103
3 2∆p 2(400)
ρ= = = 4.761 kg/m , V∞ = = = 12.96 m/s
RT (188.9)(278) ρ 4.761

Q = AV∞ = (0.03142)(12.96) = 0.407 m3 /s

3.68. From the given data: ∆h = 2.4 cm, T = 45◦ C, p = 98 kPa.

(a) From hydrostatics, and taking γw = 9.79 kN/m3 ,

p + γw (0.024) = pstag

which gives
pstag − p = 9.79(0.024) = 0.235 kPa = 235 Pa
(b) The air velocity is given by √
2(pstag − p)
V = (1)
ρair
At T = 45◦ C = 318 K, p = 98 kPa, and R = 0.287 kPa·m3 /kg·K,
p 98
ρair = = = 1.074 kg/m3
RT (0.287)(318)
Substitute into Equation 1 gives
√
2(235)
V = = 20.9 m/s
1.074

112
3.69. From the given data: D1 = 75 mm = 0.075 m, D2 = 50 mm = 0.050 m, and Q = 10 L/s =
0.010 m3 /s. The cross-sectional area, A1 , and velocity, V1 in the upstream pipe are given by

π 2 π Q 0.010
A1 = D = (0.075)2 = 0.004418 m2 , V1 = = = 2.263 m2
4 1 4 A1 0.004418
Assume that the central streamline is a stagnation streamline. Applying the Bernoulli equa-
tion along the central streamline gives

p1 V12 p2 V12 2.2632

+ = → h1 + = h2 → ∆h = h2 − h1 = = 0.261 m
γ 2g γ 2g 2(9.81)

The density of the fluid was not used in the above calculation, so if a lighter fluid were used
the calculated value of ∆x would be the same .

3.70. From the given data: h = 40 mm. Let ∆z be the depth of the submerged end of the Pitot tube
below the river surface. Applying the Bernoulli equation along the stagnation streamline, and
using the fact that the pressure distribution is hydrostatic in the Pitot tube, gives:

 + 1 ρV 2 = γ∆z

p0 + 12 ρV 2 = γ(∆z + h) → γ∆z + 12 ρV 2 = γ(∆z + h) → γ∆z
 2  + γh
√ √
→ V = 2gh = 2(9.807)(0.040) = 0.89 m/s

3.71. From the given data: Q = 10 L/s = 0.01 m3 /s, D = 100 mm = 0.1 m, A = πD2 /4 =
0.007854 m2 , ρ1 = 850 kg/m3 , γ1 = ρ1 g = 8.34 kN/m3 , ρ2 = 1500 kg/m3 , and γ2 = ρ2 g =
14.7 kN/m3 . For water at 20◦ C, γw = 9.79 kN/m3 . The average velocity, V , in the pipe is
given by
Q 0.01
V = = = 1.273 m/s
A 0.007854
Assuming that the center streamline in the conduit is a stagnation streamline, the Bernoulli
equation gives
V2 1.2732
ps − pc = γ w = (9.79) = 0.8092 kPa
2g 2(9.807)
where ps is the stagnation pressure, and pc is the pressure at the center of the pipe. Applying
the hydrostatic equation to the upstream Pitot-static tube and invoking the known result
that the pressure distribution normal to straight parallel streamlines is hydrostatic,
ps − pc 0.8092
pc − γw h1 − γ1 ∆h1 = ps − γw (h1 + ∆h1 ) → ∆h1 = = = 0.558 m
γw − γ1 9.79 − 8.34
Applying the hydrostatic equation to the downstream Pitot-static tube,
ps − pc 0.8092
pc + γw h2 + γ2 ∆h2 = ps + γw (h2 + ∆h2 ) → ∆h2 = = = 0.165 m
γ2 − γw 14.7 − 9.79

It is not possible to use the same gauge fluid in the upstream and downstream Pitot-static
tubes. For stability, the upstream fluid must be lighter than water and the downstream fluid
must be heavier than water.

113
3.72. From the given data: ṁ = 0.5 kg/s, D1 = 200 mm = 0.2 m, A1 = πD12 /4 = 0.03142 m2 , D2
= 1500 mm = 0.15 m, A2 = πD22 /4 = 0.01767 m2 , p1 = 300 kPa, and T = 15◦ C = 288 K.
For CO2 , M = 44.01 g/mol, and R = 8314/44.01 = 188.9 J/kg·K. The density of the gas, ρ,
in the conduit can be estimated as
p 300 × 103
ρ= = = 5.514 kg/m3
RT (188.9)(288)
The volume flow rate, Q, and the velocities V1 and V2 in the upstream and downstream
sections, respectively, are given by
ṁ 0.5 Q 0.09068
Q= = = 0.09068 m3 /s, V1 = = = 2.886 m/s
ρ 5.514 A1 0.03142
Q 0.09068
V2 = = = 5.131 m/s
A2 0.01767
Applying the Bernoulli equation between the uncontracted and contracted section gives the
pressure difference, ∆p, as
ρ 2 5.514
∆p = (V1 − V22 ) = (2.8862 − 5.1312 ) = −49.6 Pa
2 2

3.73. From the given data: Q = 15 gpm = 0.0009464 m3 /s, D1 = 2 in. = 0.05080 m, T = 20◦ C,
and p1 = 20 psi = 206.9 kPa. For cavitation at 20◦ C, p2 = 2.34 kPa (abs), which corresponds
to a gauge pressure of p2 = 2.32 − 101 = −98.66 kPa. The following parameters can be
derived from these data:
π 2 π Q 0.0009464
A1 = D = (0.05080)2 = 0.002027 m2 , V1 = = = 0.4669 m/s
4 1 4 A1 0.002027

Using the Bernoulli equation with γ = 9.79 kN/m3 gives

p1 V12 p2 V22 V22 V 2 p1 − p2 0.46692 206.9 + 98.66

+ = + → = 1 + = + = 31.22 m
γ 2g γ 2g 2g 2g γ 2(9.81) 9.79

which yields V2 = 24.75 m/s. Since the flow rate, Q, is known,

π 2 π 2
Q= D V2 → 0.0009464 = D (24.75) → D2 = 0.006978 m = 6.98 mm = 0.27 in.
4 2 4 2

3.74. From the given data: DA = 0.1 m, DB = 0.2 m, AA = πDA 2 /4 = 0.007854 m2 , A = πD 2 /4

B B
= 0.03142 m , AC = π(DA + DB ) /16 = 0.01767 m , L = 2 m, θ = 30◦ , pA = 2.0 bar =
2 2 2

200 kPa, and pB = 2.3 bar = 230 kPa. Applying the Bernoulli equation for flow from A to B
gives
2 2
pA v A pB vB
+ + zA = + + zB
γ 2g γ 2g
200 Q2 230 Q2
+ +0= + + 2 sin 30◦
9.79 2g(0.007854)2 9.79 2g(0.03142)2

114
 which gives Q = 0.0724 m3 /s . Therefore, vA = Q/AA = 9.22 m/s, vC = Q/AC = 4.099 m/s,
and the Bernoulli equation gives
2 2
pA v A pC vC
+ +0= + + (1) sin 30◦
γ 2g γ 2g
200 9.222 pC 4.0992
+ +0= + + sin 30◦
9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)

which yields pC = 229 kPa = 2.29 bar.

3.75. From the given data: Q = 10 L/s = 0.01 m3 /s, θ = 40◦ , D1 = 100 mm = 0.1 m, A1 =
πD12 /4 = 0.007854 m2 , D2 = 50 mm = 0.05 m, A2 = πD22 /4 = 0.001963 m2 , and L = 2 m.
For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9790 N/m3 . Applying the Bernoulli equations between the centerlines
of the upstream and downstream sections gives
[ 2 ]
p1 V12 p2 V22 V − V12
+ + z1 = + + z2 → p1 − p2 = γ 2 + (z2 − z1 ) (1)
γ 2g γ 2g 2g
The velocities at Section A and B are given by
Q 0.01 Q 0.01
V1 = = = 1.273 m/s, V2 = = = 5.093 m/s
A1 0.007854 A2 0.001963
Substituting the known and calculated values into Equation 1 gives
[ ]
5.0932 − 1.2732 ◦
p1 − p2 = (9790) + (2 cos 40 − 0) = 2.472 × 104 Pa
2(9.807)
Recognizing that the pressure distribution normal to the streamlines are as follows
( ) ( )
D1 ◦ D2
pg1 = p1 − γ cos 40 , pg2 = p2 − γ cos 40◦
2 2
then
γ
pg1 − pg2 = (p1 − p2 ) + (D2 − D1 ) cos 40◦
2
9790
= 2.472 × 104 + (0.05 − 0.10) cos 40◦ = 2.454 × 104 Pa = 245 kPa
2

3.76. From the given data: D1 = 75 mm = 0.075 m, A1 = πD12 /4 = 0.004418 m2 , D2 = 50 mm =

0.050 m, A2 = πD22 /4 = 0.001963 m2 , and Cd = 0.97. For gasoline at 20◦ C, ρ = 680 kg/m3 .
Rearranging Equation 3.81 gives
[ ( )2 ]
A2 1
p1 − p2 = ρQ 1 −
2
A1 Cd A22
2

For Q = 4 L/s = 0.004 m3 /s,

[ ( ) ]
0.001963 2 1 [ ]
p1 − p2 = ρ(0.004) 1 −
2
2 2
×10−3 kPa/Pa = 1.20 kPa
0.004418 (0.97) (0.001963)

115
 For Q = 40 L/s = 0.04 m3 /s,
[ ( ) ]
0.001963 2 1 [ −3
]
p1 − p2 = ρ(0.04) 1 −
2
×10 kPa/Pa = 120 kPa
0.004418 (0.97)2 (0.001963)2

Therefore, the expected range of pressure differences is 1.20–120 kPa .

3.77. Let Section 1 be at the upstream manometer tap and Section 2 be at the downstream manome-
ter tap. Assume that the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, and γ = 9.79 kN/m3 (for water),
and hence γHg = 13.6(9.79) = 133.1 kN/m3 .

(a) Let ∆z be the distance between the elevation of the downstream manometer tap and
the Hg surface, then from the given data

3.5 cm + 4.2 cm + 1.5 cm = 6.3 cm + ∆z + 0.5 cm

which gives ∆z = 2.4 cm. This distance will be used in subsequent calculations. The
Bernoulli equation requires that

p1 Q2 p2 Q2
+ 2 = +
γ 2gA1 γ 2gA22

which can be expressed in the more useful form (for this problem)
√( )−1 ( )
1 1 p1 − p2
Q= − (1)
2gA22 2gA21 γ

From the given information

π 2 π π 2 π
A1 = D = (0.030)2 = 7.069×10−4 m2 , A2 = D = (0.010)2 = 7.854×10−5 m2
4 1 4 4 2 4
For pressure continuity in the manometer,

p1 + γ(0.015 + 0.042) − γHg (0.063 − 0.035) − γ(0.024 + 0.005) = p2

which yields
p1 − p2 = 3.55 kPa
Substituting the calculated quantities into the Bernoulli equation (Equation 1) gives
√( )−1 ( )
1 1 3.45
Q= −
2(9.81)(7.069 × 10−4 )2 2(9.81)(7.854 × 10−5 )2 9.79

which yields Q = 2.078 × 10−4 m3 /s = 0.21 L/s = 12.5 L/min.

(b) When the mercury is just about to be sucked out, pressure continuity in the manometer
requires that

p1 + γ(0.015 + 0.042 + 0.024) − γHg [0.063 + 0.024 − (0.035 − 0.024)] − γ(0.005) = p2

116
 which yields
p1 − p2 = 9.37 kPa
Substituting the calculated quantities into the Bernoulli equation (Equation 1) gives
√( )−1 ( )
1 1 9.37
Q= −
2(9.81)(7.854 × 10−5 )2 2(9.81)(7.069 × 10−4 )2 9.79

which yields Q = 3.425 × 10−4 m3 /s = 0.34 L/s = 20.5 L/min.

3.78. From the given data: D1 = 90 mm, A1 = 0.006362 m2 , D2 = 15 mm, A2 = 1.767 × 10−4 m2 , h
= 0.5 m, V2 = 30 m/s, T = 15◦ C = 288 K, and patm = 101.3 kPa. For air, M = 28.96 g/mol,
and R = 8314/28.96 = 287.1 J/kg·K. For methanol, ρmethanol = 791 kg/m3 (from Appendix
B.4), which gives γmethanol = 7.757 kN/m3 . For methanol to be pulled into the contracted
section the pressure must be no greater than p2 , where
p2 = 101.3 − γmethanol h = 101.3 − (7.757)(0.5) = 97.422 kPa = 97422 Pa
The density of the air, ρ, can be estimated using the ideal gas law:
p1 p1
ρ= = = 1.209 × 10−5 p1
RT (287.1)(288)
The velocity, V2 , in the contracted section is derived from the continuity equation as follows:
Q = A2 V2 = (1.767 × 10−4 )(30) = 0.005301 m3 /s
Q 0.005301
V1 = = = 0.8333 m/s
A1 0.006362
Applying the Bernoulli equation between the approach and the contracted section gives
1 1
p1 + ρV12 = p2 + ρV22
2 2
1 1
p1 + (1.209 × 10−5 p1 )(0.8333)2 = 97422 + (1.209 × 10−5 p1 )(30)2 → p1 = 97955 Pa
2 2
The gauge pressure at the approach section is therefore given by 97.955 kPa − 101.3 kPa =
−3.34 kPa = −3340 Pa .
3.79. From the given data: p0 = 414 kPa and V0 = 0.60 m/s. Following a streamline that starts
from inside the leaky pipe (point “0”) to the top of the jet of water (point “1”) and taking
the height of the jet as h gives
p0 V02 p1 V12
+ + z0 = + + z1
γ 2g γ 2g
414 0.62 0 0
+ +0= + +h
9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)
42.29 + 0.02 + 0 = 0 + 0 + h
which yields h = 42.31 m. Hence the jet of water rises 42.31 m. It is also useful to note
how small the velocity head is in comparison to the pressure head, this is usually the case in
water-supply applications.

117
3.80. From the given data: D0 = 0.12 m and h = 20 m. Apply the Bernoulli equation:

p0 v2 p1 v2
+ 0 + z0 = + 1 + z1
γ 2g γ 2g
0 v2 0 02
+ 0 +0= + + 20
γ 2g γ 2g

which gives v0 = 19.81 m3 /s and

π π
Q = v0 D02 = (19.81) (0.12)2 = 0.224 m3 /s
4 4
At h = 10 m, the Bernoulli equation gives

0 v2 0 v2
+ 0 +0= + + 10
γ 2g γ 2g
√
which gives v = 2g(10) = 14.00 m/s and
√ √
4Q 4(0.224)
D= = = 0.1427 m = 14.27 cm
πv π(14.00)

3.81. From the given data: zmax = 0.40 m and D0 = 19 mm = 0.019 m. The discharge area is
A0 = πD02 /4 = 2.835 × 10−4 m2 . For water at 20◦ C, take γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .

(a) Using Equation 3.87, the discharge velocity, V0 , and volume flow rate, Q, are calculated
as follows:
√ √
V0 = 2gzmax = 2(9.807)(0.4) = 2.801 m/s

Q = A0 V0 = (2.835 × 10−4 )(2.801) = 7.943 × 10−4 m3 /s = 47.8 L/min = 12.6 gpm

(b) The power requirement, P , is given by Equation 3.88 as follows

V02
P = γQ = (9789)(7.943 × 10−4 )(0.4) = 3.11 W
2g

3.82. From the given data: h1 = 6 m, h2 = 1 m, and ∆z = h1 − h2 = 5 m. For water at 20◦ C,

γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .

(a) Take the air pressure in the tank as pa and the height of rise of the fountain as zjet .
Applying the Bernoulli equation between the water surface in the tank and the top of
the jet emanating from the discharge nozzle gives
pa pa
+ ∆z = zjet → + 5 = zjet → zjet = 0.1022pa + 5
γ 9.789

where pa is in kPa.

118
 (b) For zjet = 10 m, the required pressure in the tank is calculated as follows

zjet = 0.1022pa + 5 → 10 = 0.1022pa + 5 → pa = 48.9 kPa

3.83. From the given data: zmax = 8 m, D0 = 25 mm, Dc = 100 mm, and z0 = 1 m. For water, γ
= 9.79 kN/m3 . From Equation 3.87,

V02 V02
zmax = → 8= → V0 = 12.53 m/s
2g 2(9.81)

The velocity in the conduit, Vc , can be calculated using the continuity equation as follows

A0 D2 252
Vc = V0 = 02 V0 = (12.53) = 0.7831 m/s
Ac Dc 1002

Applying the Bernoulli equation between the gauge location and the nozzle exit gives

pc Vc2 V2
+ = 0 + z0
γ 2g 2g
pc 0.78312
+ =8+1 → pc = 87.8 kPa
9.79 2(9.81)

3.84. From the given data: D1 = 30 mm = 0.03 m, D2 = 0.02 m, z1 = 1 m, and z2 = 0 m. The

cross-sectional areas at Sections 1 and 2 are:
π 2 π
A1 = D = (0.03)2 = 7.068 × 10−4 m2
4 1 4
π π
A2 = D22 = (0.02)2 = 3.142 × 10−4 m2
4 4
Applying the Bernoulli equation between Sections 1 and 2 and re-arranging gives

V12 V2
+ z1 = 2 + z2
2g 2g
√ [ ]−1
Q2 Q2 1 1
+ z1 = + z2 → Q= 2g(z1 − z2 ) − 2
2gA21 2gA22 2
A2 A1

Substituting the given and derived data yields

√ [ ]−1
1 1
Q= 2(9.81)(1 − 0) −4
− = 0.001553 m3 /s = 1.55 L/s
(3.142 × 10 ) 2 (7.068 × 10−4 )2

3.85. From the given data: D1 = 20 mm, A1 = 3.142 × 10−4 m2 , Q = 0.4 L/s = 0.0004 m3 /s, and
z1 = 0.5 m.

119
 (a) Applying the Bernoulli equation between the drain hole exit and just before the liquid
stream hits the ground gives:

V12 V2 Q2 Q2
+ z1 = 2 → + z 1 =
2g 2g 2gA21 2gA22
which simplifies to
√[ ]−1 2
Q2 Q
A2 = 2 + z1
2gA1 2g
√[ ]−1
0.00042 (3.142 × 10−4 )2
= + 0.5 = 1.183 × 10−4 m2
2(9.807)(3.142 × 10−4 )2 2(9.807)

Therefore, the diameter, D2 , of the liquid stream when it hits the ground is given by
√ √
4A2 4(1.183 × 10−4 )
D2 = = = 0.0123 m = 12.3 mm
π π
(b) The initial and final velocities of the liquid stream are as follows:
Q 0.0004
V1 = = = 1.27 m/s
A1 3.142 × 10−4
Q 0.0004
V2 = = = 3.38 m/s
A2 1.183 × 10−4

3.86. From the given data: V = 15 m/s, and θ = 60◦ . Using these data

Vx0 = V cos θ = 15 cos 60◦ = 7.50 m/s

Vz0 = V sin θ = 15 sin 60◦ = 12.99 m/s
2
Vz0 12.992
zmax = = = 8.60 m
2g 2(9.81)
Using the Bernoulli equation,

V2 V2 V2 152
+z = 0 → + 8.60 = → V = 7.50 m/s
2g 2g 2(9.81) 2(9.81)

3.87. (a) Applying the Bernoulli equation between the water surface and the nozzle exit gives

p V2
+ zw = 0 + z0 (1)
γw 2g
Applying the Bernoulli equation to the jet trajectory, using Equation 3.86 gives

Vx0 Vz0 (V0 cos θ)(V0 sin θ) xmax V2

xmax = = → = 0 (2)
g g 2 cos θ sin θ 2g

120
 Combining Equations 1 and 2 and simplifying gives
[ ]
p xmax p
+ zw = + z0 → xmax =2 + zw − z0 cos θ sin θ
γw 2 cos θ sin θ γw

(b) From the given data: p = 100 kPa, zw = 3 m, z0 = 5 m, and θ = 45◦ . For water, γw =
9.79 kN/m3 . Substituting into the derived formula for xmax gives
[ ]
100
xmax =2 + 3 − 5 cos 45◦ sin 45◦ = 8.21 m
9.79

3.88. From the given data: ∆z = 15 m, ∆x = 9 m, D1 = 100 mm, and D2 = 25 mm. For water,
γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . At the minimum pressure, the target location is at the maximum elevation
of the jet, so xmax = 9 m and ymax = 15 m. From Equations 3.86 and 3.87,
2
Vz0 2
Vz0
zmax = → 15 = → Vz0 = 17.16 m/s
2g 2(9.81)
Vx0 Vz0 Vx0 (17.16)
xmax = → 9= → Vx0 = 5.145 m/s
g 9.81

Hence the nozzle discharge angle, θ, is given by

( )
−1 17.16
θ = tan = 73.31◦
5.145

The magnitude of the nozzle discharge velocity, V2 , is given by

√ √
V2 = 2 +V2 =
Vx0 5.1452 + 17.162 = 17.91 m/s
y0

The velocity, V1 , in the hose at the entrance to the nozzle can be calculated using the conti-
nuity equation as
A2 D2 252
V1 = V2 = 22 V2 = (17.91) = 1.120 m/s
A1 D1 1002
Applying the Bernoulli equation between the entrance and exit of the nozzle (noting that the
exit pressure is atmospheric) gives

p1 V12 V2 p1 1.1202 17.912

+ = 2 → + = → p1 = 159 kPa
γ 2g 2g 9.79 2(9.81) 2(9.81)

3.89. From the given data: V0 = 40 m/s, x = 25 m, and z = 20 m. The trajectory equation given
by Equation 3.85 must be satisfied, hence
[ ] [ ]
Vz0 g 40 sin θ 9.807
z= x− x → 20 =
2
25 − 25 → θ = 43.4◦ , 85.3◦
2
Vx0 2Vx0 Vz0 40 cos θ (40 cos θ)(40 sin θ)

121
3.90. From the given data: D1 = 75 mm, D2 = 30 mm, and Q = 16 L/s = 0.016 m3 /s. For water,
γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . Using the given data:
π 2 π π 2 π
A1 = D = (0.075)2 = 0.004418 m2 , A2 = D = (0.035)2 = 0.0007069 m2
4 1 4 4 2 4
Q 0.016 Q 0.016
V1 = = = 3.622 m/s, V2 = = = 22.63 m/s
A1 0.004418 A2 0.0007069
Applying the Bernoulli equation across the nozzle gives

p1 V12 V2 p1 3.6222 3.6222

+ = 1 → + = → p1 = 249 kPa = 36 lb/in2
γ 2g 2g 9.79 2(9.81) 2(9.81)

3.91. From the given data: D = 0.08 mm, and V0 = 650 m/s. For water, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The
pressure in the conduit, p0 , is derived from the Bernoulli equation as follows,

p0 V2 p0 6502
= 0 → = → p0 = 2.11 × 105 kPa = 211 MPa
γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81)

The water-supply rate, Q, to operate the cutter is given by

π 2 π
Q= D V = (0.08 × 10−3 )2 (650) = 3.27 × 10−6 m3 /s = 0.196 L/min
4 4

3.92. From the given data: D = 200 mm = 0.200 m, and Q = 60 L/s = 0.06 m3 /s. At 20◦ C, ρ =
998 kg/m3 . Using the given data,
π
A= (0.200)2 = 0.03142 m2
4
Q 0.06
V = = = 1.910 m/s
A 0.03142
Since V1 = V2 and z1 = z2 , the Bernoulli equation for viscous flow is given by
p1 p2 τ0 P L
− =
γ γ γA
p1 − p2 τ0 πD 4[0.04ρV 2 ] 4[0.04(998)(1.910)2 ]
= 1 2
= = = 2913 Pa/m
L 4 πD
D 0.200

3.93. From the given data: DA = DC = 300 mm, DB = 200 mm, QA = 400 L/s = 0.4 m3 /s, pA =
400 kPa, pC = 410 kPa, and ∆z = 1 m. Calculations are facilitated by first determining the
values of the following quantities,
π 2 π
AA = D = (0.3)2 = 0.07069 m2
4 A 4
π 2 π
AB = DB = (0.2)2 = 0.03142 m2
4 4
AC = AA = 0.07069 m2

122
 QA 0.4
VA = = = 5.659 m/s
AA 0.07069
pA VA2 400 5.6592
hA = + + zA = + + 0 = 42.49 m
γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81)
Applying the branched-pipe Bernoulli equation, Equation 3.112, between Pipe A and Pipe C
gives
pC VC2 410 VC2
hA = + + zC → 42.49 = + +0 → VC = 3.462 m/s
γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81)
Therefore the volume flow rate, QC in Pipe C is given by
QC = VC AC = (3.462)(0.07069) = 0.2447 m3 /s = 245 L/s
The flow rate in Pipe B, QB , is given by

QB = QA − QC = 400 L/s − 245 L/s = 155 L/s

The velocity in pipe B is VB = QB /AB = 0.155/0.03142 = 4.944 m/s. Applying the branched-
pipe Bernoulli equation between Pipe A and Pipe B gives
pB VB2 pB 4.9442
hA = + + ∆z → 42.49 = + +1 → pB = 394 kPa
γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81)

3.94. From the given data: Q = 4 m3 /s, z0 = 0.5 m, D1 = 250 mm, z1 = 0.6 m, D2 = 400 mm,
and z2 = −0.7 m. For water, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The port areas are calculated as follows:
πD12 π(0.25)2 πD22 π(0.4)2
A1 = = = 0.04909 m2 , A2 = = = 0.1257 m2
4 4 4 4
Applying the branched-pipe Bernoulli equation between the tank and the upper discharge
port (i.e., Port 1) gives
√ ( )
pair Q21 pair
+ z0 = + z1 → Q1 = A1 2g + z0 − z1 (1)
γ 2gA21 γ
and applying the branched-pipe Bernoulli equation between the tank and the lower discharge
port (i.e., Port 2) gives
√ ( )
pair Q22 pair
+ z0 = + z2 → Q 2 = A2 2g + z 0 − z 2 (2)
γ 2gA22 γ
Combining Equations 1 and 2 and substituting the known data gives,
√ ( ) √ ( )
pair pair
Q = Q1 + Q2 = A1 2g + z0 − z1 + A2 2g + z0 − z2
γ γ
√ (p ) √ (p )
air air
4 = (0.04909) 2(9.81) + 0.5 − 0.6 + (0.1257) 2(9.81) + 0.5 + 0.7
9.79 9.79
which yields pair = 253 kPa .

123
3.95. From the given data: D1 = 200 mm, D2 = 300 mm, T = 20◦ C = 293 K, p1 = 30 kPa, patm =
101.3 kPa, and d = 10 mm. For air, R = 8314/28.96 = 287.1 J/kg·K. Calculate the following
preliminary quantities:
(p1 + patm ) (30 + 101.3)103 πD12 π(0.2)2
ρair = = = 1.561 kg/m3 , A1 = = = 0.03142 m2
RT (287.1)(293) 4 4
A2 = πD2 d = π(0.3)(0.01) = 0.009425 m2
Application of the branched-flow Bernoulli equation, Equation 3.112, between the section
where the pressure is measured in the conduit and the periphery of the cone, and recognizing
that the effect of elevation change is negligible, gives
( )2 ( )2
1 1 1 Q 1 Q
2
p1 + ρair V1 = ρair V2 2
→ p1 + ρair = ρair
2 2 2 A1 2 A2
which yields the following explicit equation for Q,
√ [ ] √ [ ]−1
2p1 1 1 −1 2(30 × 103 ) 1 1
Q= − = − = 1.94 m3 /s
ρair A22 A21 1.561 0.0094252 0.031422

3.96. From the given data: r1 = 0 m, r2 = 0.075 m, and ω = 600 rpm = 62.8 rad/s. At 20◦ C, ρ =
998 kg/m3 . For solid-body rotation:
p2 p1 ω2 2
− = (r − r12 )
γ γ 2g 2
ρω 2 2 (998)(62.8)2
p2 − p1 = (r2 − r12 ) = (0.0752 − 02 ) = 11, 070 N/m2 = 11.1 kPa
2 2
3.97. From the given data: D = 800 mm, R = D/2 = 400 mm, and z0 = 1 m. At the desired
rotational speed, the difference in the water surface elevation between the center and wall of
the cylinder is 2 m, so z2 − z1 = 2 m. Applying Equation 3.118 gives
ω2 2 ω2
z2 − z1 = (r − r12 ) → 2= (0.42 − 02 ) → ω = 15.65 rad/s = 149 rpm
2g 2 2(9.807)

3.98. From the given data: D1 = 200 mm, R1 = 100 mm, D2 = 600 mm, R2 = 300 mm, H =
75 mm, ω = 900 rpm = 94.25 rad/s, and Q = 300 L/s = 0.3 m3 /s. For water at 20◦ C,
γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are useful:
Q 0.3
A1 = 2πR1 H = 2π(0.1)(0.075) = 4.712 × 10−2 m2 , V1 = = = 6.367 m/s
A1 4.712 × 10−2
Q 0.3
A2 = 2πR2 H = 2π(0.3)(0.075) = 1.414 × 10−1 m2 , V2 = = = 2.122 m/s
A2 1.414 × 10−1
The pressure increase, p2 − p1 , is given by Equation 3.121, which yields
p2 − p1 ω2 2 V 2 − V22 p2 − p1 94.252 6.3672 − 2.1222
= (R2 − R12 ) + 1 → = (0.32 − 0.12 ) +
γ 2g 2g 9.789 2(9.807) 2(9.807)

→ p2 − p1 = 373 kPa

124
 3.99. From the given data: r1 = 0.15 m, r2 = 0.40 m, W = 0.80 m, ω = 450 rpm = 47.12 rad/s,
and ∆p/γ = 35 m. Using these data and assuming a spiral forced vortex:

A1 = 2πr1 W = 2π(0.15)(0.80) = 0.7540 m2

A2 = 2πr2 W = 2π(0.40)(0.80) = 2.011 m2
Q Q
v1 = = = 1.326Q
A1 0.7540
Q Q
v2 = = = 0.4973Q
A2 6.535
Substituting these data in the Bernoulli equation gives
∆p ω2 2 v 2 − v22
= (r2 − r12 ) + 1
γ 2g 2g
47.12 2 (1.3262 − 0.49732 )Q2
35 = (0.402 − 0.152 ) +
2(9.81) 2(9.81)

which yields Q = 15.9 m3 /s .

3.100. From the given data: r1 = 100 m, p1 = 98.0 kPa, V1 = 80 m/s, and p2 = 101 kPa. At 20◦ C,
ρ = 1.204 kg/m3 . Assuming a cylindrical free vortex and using the Bernoulli equation gives:
[ ( 2 )2 ] [ ( 2 )2 ]
p2 p1 V12 r1 ρV12 r1
− = 1− 2 → p2 − p1 = 1−
γ γ 2g r2 2 r22
[ ( ) ]
(1.204)(80) 2 100 2 2
→ (101 − 98)103 = 1− → r2 = 146 m
2 r22

3.101. From the given data: p2 = 101 kPa, V22 = 62 + 32 = 45 m2 /s2 , and p1 = 98 kPa. At 20◦ C,
ρ = 1.204 kg/m3 . Assuming a spiral free vortex and substituting into the Bernoulli equation
gives:
p2 p1 V2 V2 1
− = 1 − 2 → p2 − p1 = ρ(V12 − V22 )
γ γ 2g 2g 2
1
→ (101 − 98)103 = (1.204)(V12 − 45) → V1 = 70.9 m/s
2
3.102. From the given data: V1 = 0, V2 = 295 km/h = 81.94 m/s, p1 = 88.2 kPa, and T = 25◦ C =
298 K. For an ideal gas, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. For seawater at 20◦ C, ρsw = 1023 kg/m3 and
γsw = 10.03 kN/m3 . The density, ρa , of the air in the eye of the hurricane can be estimated
as
p 88.2 × 103
ρa = = = 1.031 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(298)
(a) Applying the Bernoulli equation, Equation 3.128, between the center of the eye and the
eye wall gives

p2 = p1 + 21 ρa (V12 − V22 ) = 88.2 + 12 (1.031)(02 − 81.942 )[×10−3 kPa/Pa] = 84.74 kPa

125
 Therefore, the pressure difference between the center and eye wall is given by

p1 − p2 = 88.2 − 84.74 = 3.46 kPa

The corresponding difference in sea-surface elevation, ∆z1 , is given by

p1 − p2 3.46
∆z1 = = = 0.345 m (= 1.13 ft)
γsw 10.03

(b) The difference in sea-surface elevation, ∆z2 , between the eye wall and the outer limit of
the hurricane is given by
p0 − p2 101 − 84.74
∆z2 = = = 1.62 m (= 5.32 ft)
γsw 10.03

The implications to coastal communities is the additional flooding due to increased sea-
surface elevation when the eye wall approaches the coastline.

126
Chapter 4

Finite Control Volume Analysis

4.1. The flow rate on the discharge side of the pump is equal to the flow rate on the intake side
of the pump.
4.3. From the given data: Q = 9.5 L/min = 1.583 × 10−4 m3 /s, V = 5 m/s, D = 0.75 mm, and
A = πD2 /4 = 4.418 × 10−7 m2 . Let n be the number of nozzles required to give a velocity of
5 m/s, then the continuity equation requires that
Q 1.583 × 10−4
nAV = Q → n= = = 71.7
AV (4.418 × 10−7 )(5)
Therefore, no more than 71 nozzles should be used if the velocity of the jets from the shower
head is to be at least 5 m/s.
4.3. From the given data: Q = 3.5 m3 /min = 0.05833 m3 /s, and A = (0.6)(0.8) = 0.48 m2 . The
average velocity, V , in the exhaust duct is given by
Q 0.05833
V = = = 0.122 m/s
A 0.48
4.4. From the given data: D1 = 100 mm, V1 = 1200 m/s, D2 = 300 mm, V2 = 700 m/s, and
ρ1 = 1.1 kg/m3 . The steady-state conservation of mass equation requires that
A2 V2 D 2 V2 3002 700
ρ1 V1 A1 = ρ2 A2 V2 → ρ1 = ρ2 = 22 ρ2 = 1.1 = 5.78 kg/m3
A1 V1 D1 V1 1002 1200

4.5. From the given data: Ṁin = 200 kg/h, and Ṁout = 195 kg/h. Hence,

rate of drainage of liquid water = Ṁin − Ṁout = 200 − 195 = 5 kg/h

4.6. From the given data: V1 = 10 mm/s = 0.01 m/s, D1 = 100 mm, and D2 = 25 mm. Using
A = πD2 /4, A1 = 0.007854 m2 and A2 = 4.909 × 10−4 . Using these data yields the following
results:
Q2 = V1 A1 = (0.10)(0.007854) = 7.854 × 10−5 m3 /s = 0.0786 L/s = 4.72 L/h
Q2 7.854 × 10−5
V2 = = = 0.16 m/s
A2 4.909 × 10−4

127
4.7. From the given data: Vtank = 1.2 m3 , Q1 = 0.5 m3 /s, T1 = 20◦ C = 293 K, p1 = 101 kPa,
Q2 = 0.3 m3 /s, p2 = 150 kPa, and dM/dt = 0.1 kg/s. For air, M = 28.96 g/mol, and
R = Ru /M = 8314/28.96 = 287.1 J/kg·K. The density, ρ1 , of the inflow air is calculated as
follows:
p1 101 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.201 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(293)
Taking ρ2 as the density of the discharge air, and applying the law of conservation of mass
(of air) gives
dM
ρ1 Q1 −
dM
= ρ1 Q1 − ρ2 Q2 → ρ2 = dt = (1.201)(0.5) − 0.1 = 1.668 kg/m3
dt Q2 0.3
The temperature, T2 , of the released air is calculated using the ideal gas law as follows:
p2 150 × 103
T2 = = = 313 K = 40◦ C
Rρ2 (287.1)(1.668)

4.8. From the given data: D1 = 20 mm, V1 = 0.30 m/s, D2 = 30 mm, V2 = 0.25 m/s, D3 = 35 mm,
V1 = 0.40 m/s, and D4 = 50 mm. From Appendix B.4, ρ1 = 680 kg/m3 , ρ2 = 998 kg/m3 ,
and ρ3 = 791 kg/m3 . Taking A = πD2 /4, gives

A1 = 3.142×10−4 m2 , A2 = 7.069×10−4 m2 , A3 = 9.621×10−4 m2 , A4 = 1.963×10−3 m2

Taking Q = AV in each pipe (i.e., Q1 = A1 V1 , Q2 = A2 V2 , and Q3 = A3 V3 ) gives

Q1 = 9.425 × 10−5 m3 /s, Q2 = 1.767 × 10−4 m3 /s, Q3 = 3.849 × 10−4 m3 /s

Since the liquids are incompressible, the volume flow rate of the mixture is equal to the volume
flow rate of the components, hence

Q4 = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 9.425 × 10−5 + 1.767 × 10−4 + 3.849 × 10−4 = 6.558 × 10−4 m3 /s

= 0.656 L/s

Conservation of mass requires that

ρ1 Q1 + ρ2 Q2 + ρ3 Q3
ρ4 =
Q4
(680)(9.425 × 10−5 ) + (998)(1.767 × 10−4 ) + (791)(3.849 × 10−4 )
= = 831 kg/m3
6.558 × 10−4

4.9. From the given data: Q = 20 L/min = 3.333 × 10−4 m3 /s, D = 10 mm, A = πD2 /4 =
7.854 × 10−5 m2 , and R = 0.2 m. The velocity of the discharge relative to each discharge
port, Vr , is given by
Q 3.333 × 10−4
Vr = = = 1.061 m/s
4A 4(7.854 × 10−5 )
The absolute velocity of the discharge is equal to zero when

Vr = Rω → (1.061) = (0.2)ω → ω = 5.305 rad/s = 50.7 rpm

128
4.10. The continuity equation requires that

Q2 = Q1 − Q3 (1)

where Q1 = 10 L/s, and

(π )
Q3 = V3 A3 = (1) 0.052 = 0.00196 m3 /s = 1.96 L/s
4
Hence Equation 1 gives
Q2 = 10 − 1.96 = 8.04 L/s
The velocity at Section 2, V2 , is given by
Q2 0.00804
V2 = = π 2
= 1.82 m/s
A2 4 (0.075)

4.11. D1 = 0.1 m, D2 = 0.15 m, V1 = 2 m/s, and

π 2 π π 2 π
A1 = D = (0.1)2 = 0.007854 m2 , A2 = D = (0.15)2 = 0.01767 m2
4 1 4 4 2 4
Volume flow rate, Q, is given by

Q = A1 V1 = (0.007854)(2) = 0.0157 m3 /s

According to continuity,
A1 V1 = A2 V2 = Q
Therefore
Q 0.0157
V2 = = = 0.889 m/s
A2 0.01767
At 20◦ C, the density of water, ρ, is 998 kg/m3 , and the mass flow rate, ṁ, is given by

ṁ = ρQ = (998)(0.0157) = 15.7 kg/s

4.12. From the given data: D1 = 200 mm, D2 = 100 mm, V1 = 1 m/s, and
π 2 π π 2 π
A1 = D = (0.2)2 = 0.0314 m2 , A2 = D = (0.1)2 = 0.00785 m2
4 1 4 4 2 4
The flow rate, Q1 , in the 200-mm pipe is given by

Q1 = A1 V1 = (0.0314)(1) = 0.0314 m3 /s

and hence the flow rate, Q2 , in the 100-mm pipe is

Q1 0.0314
Q2 = = = 0.0157 m3 /s
2 2
The average velocity, V2 , in the 100-mm pipe is
Q2 0.0157
V2 = = = 2 m/s
A2 0.00785

129
4.13. From the given data:
Qin = πR2 U0
∫ R[ ( ] ∫ R (
r ) 17 r ) 17
Qout = umax 1 − 2πr dr = 2πumax r 1− dr (1)
0 R 0 R
(a) The volume flow rate for the velocity distribution given in Equation 4.170 is determined
by evaluating the expression for Qout . Change variables
r 1
x=1− , dx = − dr (2)
R R
r = 0 → x = 1, r = R → x = 0 (3)
Combining Equations 1 to 3 gives
∫ 0 ∫ 0
1 1 8
Qout = 2πumax (1 − x)Rx 7 (−R) dx = 2πR2 umax (x 7 − x 7 ) dx
1 1
[ ]1
7 8 7 15 49
= 2πR2 umax x 7 − x 7 = πR2 umax
8 15 0 60

(b) Since Qin = Qout ,

49 2 U0 49
πR2 U0 = πR umax → =
60 umax 60

4.14. From the given data: V0 = 1 m3 , ρ0 = 1000 kg/m3 , Q1 = 100 L/min = 0.001667 m3 /s, ρ1 =
900 kg/m3 , and ρ∗ = 950 kg/m3 . Subscripts 0, 1, and 2 refer to the tank, inflow, and outflow,
respectively; the asterisk refers to conditions at the target level. For the liquid level in the
tank to remain constant, Q2 = Q1 = Q. If ρ is the density of the liquid in the tank at any
given time, conservation of mass requires that
d dρ Q dρ Q
(ρV0 ) = ρ1 Q1 − ρQ2 → = (ρ1 − ρ) → = − dt
dt dt V0 ρ − ρ1 V0
Integrating both sides, using the condition that ρ = ρ0 at t = 0, and letting t∗ be the time
that the density is equal to 950 kg/m3 , gives
∫ 950 ∫ ∗ [ ]950 [ ]t∗
dρ Q t 0.001667
=− dt → ln(ρ − 900) =− t
1000 ρ − ρ1 V0 0 1000 1 0

which is evaluated as follows

ln(1000 − 900) − ln(950 − 900) = −0.001667(t∗ − 0) → t∗ = 415 s = 6.92 min

Ultimately, the density in the tank will asymptote to the inflow density of 900 kg/m3 .

4.15. From the given data: R = 0.10 m, H = 0.25 m, and r0 = 0.025 m. By geometry, if z0 is the
height from the imaginary “tip of the cone”, then z0 = 0.00641 m. The volume of the cone,
V , can be calculated using the following relations,
1
V = πr2 (h + z0 ) − V0
3

130
 R r
=
H + z0 h + z0
Combining these equations yields
( )2
1 R
V = π (h + z0 )2 (h + z0 ) − V0
3 H + z0
( )2
1 R
V = π (h + z0 )3 − V0
3 H + z0

The continuity equation gives

dV
Q=
dt
( )2
√ R dh
2ghπr02 = −π (h + z0 )2
H + z0 dt
( )2
√ 0.10 dh
2(9.81)hπ(0.0025) = −π
2
(h + 0.00641)2
0.25 + 0.00641 dt

which yields
√
dh h
= −0.000572
dt (h + 0.00641)2
When h = 0.125 cm,
√
dh 0.125
= −0.000572 = 0.0117 m/s = 1.17 cm/s
dt (0.125 + 0.00641)2

4.16. Applying the continuity equation to the reservoir,

net volume inflow = rate of change of fluid volume in reservoir

Hence, the continuity equation can be written as

dh
QA − QB = Ar (1)
dt
where QA = 2.80 L/s = 0.00280 m3 /s, and
√ π √
QB = VB AB = 2gh (0.05)2 = 0.00870 h
4
and Ar = π(0.60)2 /4 = 0.283 m2 . Substituting into Equation 1 gives
√ dh
0.00280 − 0.00870 h = 0.283
dt
Separating variables
dh
dt = √
0.00989 − 0.0307 h

131
 and hence the time, t, for the water surface to drop from h = 2 m to h = 1 m is given by
∫ t ∫ 1m
dh
dt = √ (2)
0 2m 0.00989 − 0.0307 h
√
Let x = h, then h = x2 , dh = 2x dx, and Equation 2 can be written as
∫ 1 ∫ 1
2x dx x dx
t= √ = √ (3)
2 0.00989 − 0.0307x 2 0.00495 − 0.0154x

From integral tables, ∫

x 1
dx = 2 [(a + bx) − a ln |a + bx|]
a + bx b
For the integral in Equation 3, a = 0.00495, b = −0.0154, and therefore
1
t= [0.00495 − 0.0154x − 0.00495 ln |0.00495 − 0.0154x|]1√2
(−0.0154)2
= 4220[0.0121 − 0.00339] = 36.8 s

4.17. According to the continuity equation:

√ dV
2ghA0 = − (1)
dt
Using the cone geometry shown in Figure 4.1,
r 10
= → r = 0.2(h − h0 )
h + h0 50
Hence

Figure 4.1: Geometry of cone

1 1 1
V = πr2 h = π[0.2(h − h0 )]2 (h + h0 ) − π(0.1)2 (0.5) = 0.04189(h + h0 )3 − 0.005236
3 3 3
(2)

132
 π
A0 = (0.005)2 = 0.00001964 m2 (3)
4
h0 = 0.50 m (4)

Combining Equations 1 to 4 gives

√ d [ ]
2(9.81)h(0.00001964) = − 0.04189(h + 0.50)3 − 0.005236
dt
[ ]
√ 2 dh
0.00008699 h = − (0.04189)3(h + 0.50)
dt
√ dh
0.00006922 h = −(h + 0.50)2
dt
∫ t ∫ 0.25 ∫ 0.25 ( )
(h + 0.50)2 3 1 0.25
dt = −1445 √ dh = −1445 h2 + h2 + 1 dh
0 0.5 h 0.5 h2
[ ]0.25
2 5 2 3 1
t = −1445 h 2 + h 2 + 0.5h 2 = −1445[0.3458 − 0.6600]
5 3 0.5

which yields t = 454 seconds = 7.57 minutes .

4.18. The volume of the cone is given by

1 1
Vcone = πr2 h = π(0.5)2 (2) = 0.5236 m3
3 3
When the cone is half-full,
h h
r = 0.5 =
2 4
and therefore
1 1
(0.5236) = πr2 h
2 3
( )2
1 h π
= π h = h3
3 4 48

which yields h = 1.587 m. For continuity,

( )2
2 dh −3 1 h dh
Q = −πr = −7.8 × 10 (h − 0.02) = −π
2
dt 4 dt
1 dh
0.03972(h − 0.02) 2 = −h2
dt
h2
0.03972 dt = − 1 dh
(h − 0.02) 2
∫ t ∫ 1.587
h2
0.03972 dt = − 1 dh
0 2 (h − 0.02) 2

Use the substitution that

x = h − 0.02, dh = dx

133
 then the required integral is
∫ t ∫ 1.567
(x + 0.02)2
0.03972 dt = − 1 dh
0 1.98 x2
[ ]1.567
3 1 4 × 10−4
0.03972t = − x + 0.04x +
2 2
1
x2 1.98

which yields t = 20.9 seconds .

NEW From the given data: D = 0.8 m. Applying the continuity equation to the intermediate
reservoir gives
dh dh
AB = QAB − QBC → 41 π 0.82 = 0.001382(4 − h) − 0.001771(h − 0.5)
dt dt
Separating variables and simplifying gives
∫ 2m ∫ T
0.5027 dh
= dt
1 m 0.006414 − 0.003153h 0
Make the following change of variables from h to X:
X = 0.006414 − 0.003153h → dX = −0.003153 dh → dh = −317.2 dX
Note that h = 1 m and h = 2 m correspond to X = 0.003261 and X = 0.0001080, respectively.
Substitute into the original integral gives
∫ 0.0001080 ( )
−159.5 dX 0.001080
= T → −159.5 ln = T → T = 543 s = 9.06 min
0.006414 X 0.003261

4.19. From the given data: V = 0.1 m3 , Do = 10 mm, Ao = πDo2 = 7.854 × 10−5 m2 , and Vo =
200 m/s.
(a) In this case, ρ = 5 kg/m3 . The air coming out of the tank has the same density as the
air in the tank. So, at the instant that the tank is opened and at any other instant, the
density of the air in the tank is 5 kg/m3 . If M is the mass of air in the tank, then the
continuity equation requires that
dM d(ρV ) dρ ρo Ao Vo
= ρo Ao Vo → = ρo Ao Vo → = (1)
dt dt dt V
Substituting the given and derived data into this Equation 1 yields
dρ (5)(7.854 × 10−5 )(200)
= = 0.785 kg/s
dt 0.1
(b) In this case, To = −15◦ C = 258 K and po = 350 kPa. For standard air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K.
Applying the ideal-gas law gives
po 350 × 103
ρo = = = 4.725 kg/m3
RTo (287.1)(258)
Substituting the given and derived data into this Equation 1 yields
dρ (4.725)(7.854 × 10−5 )(200)
= = 0.672 kg/s
dt 0.1

134
4.20. The momentum correction factor, β, is calculated from its definition as follows:
∫
1
β= v 2 dA
AV̄ 2 A
∫ R [ ]
4 2r2 r4
= V 1 − 2 + 4 2πr dr
2
πR2 V02 0 0 R R
[∫ R ∫ R 3 ∫ R 5 ] [ ]
8 2r r 8 R2 R4 R6 4
= 2 r dr − 2
dr + 4
dr = 2 − 2
+ 4
=
R 0 0 R 0 R R 2 2R 6R 3

4.21. From the given data: y1 = 3 m, y2 = 2.79 m, b = 5 m, Q = 15 m3 /s, and ∆z = 0.2 m. Hence
Q 15
A1 = by1 = (5)(3) = 15 m2 , V1 = = = 1 m/s
A1 15
3
ȳ1 = = 1.5 m A2 = by2 = (5)(2.79) = 14.0 m2
2
Q 15 2.79
V= = = 1.07 m/s, ȳ2 = = 1.40 m
A2 14.0 2
Taking Rx as the reaction at the step, and applying the momentum equation to the control
volume bounded by Sections 1 and 2:
∑ ∫
Fx = ρvx v · n dA
S
γA1 ȳ1 − γA2 ȳ2 − Rx = ρV1 (−V1 A1 ) + ρV2 (V2 A2 )
(9.79)(15)(1.5) − (9.79)(14.0)(1.40) − Rx = (0.998)(1)(−15) + (0.998)(1.07)(15)

which gives
Rx = 27.3 kN

4.22. From the given data: b = 10 m, Q = 30 m3 /s, y1 = 3 m, and y2 = 2.5 m. At 20◦ C, γ =

9.79 kN/m3 and ρ = 998 kg/m3 . Using the momentum equation:

γA1 ȳ1 − γA2 ȳ2 − F = ρQ(V2 − V1 )

which gives
[ ]
γb [ 2 ] 1 1
F = y − y2 + ρQ
2 2
−
2 1 A1 A2
[ ]
(9.79)(10) [ 2 ] 998 1 1
F = 3 − 2.5 +
2
(30)2
− = 128.7 kN
2 1000 (10)(3) (10)(2.5)

Therefore, the force on each pier is 128.7/3 = 42.9 kN .

4.23. (a) Take the density of water as 998 kg/m3 . From the given data:
Q 35 Q 35
V1 = = = 0.833 m/s, V2 = = = 3.333 m/s
A1 (6)(7) A2 (1.5)(7)

135
 ṁ = ρQ = (998)(35) = 34930 kg/s

If F is the shear force, then

γA1 ȳ1 − F − γA2 ȳ2 = ṁ(V2 − V1 )

( ) ( )
6 1.5 (34930)(3.333 − 0.833)
(9.79)(6 × 7) − F − (9.79)(1.5 × 7) =
2 2 103

which yields F = 1069 kN .

(b) Since each pile can resist 100 kN,
1069
number of piles required = = 10.69 → 11 piles
100

4.24. From the given data: V = 25 m/s, and d = 2 m (= half the width of the given upstream
velocity profile). For air under standard conditions, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The velocity profile
from the centerline is
y
v(y) = V , for 0 ≤ y ≤ d
d
(a) For the upstream volume flow rate to be equal to the downstream volume flow rate
between the bounding streamlines,
∫ d ∫
V d d
2V d = 2V δ+2 v(y) dy = 2V δ+2 y dy = 2V δ+V d → V d = 2V δ → δ = = 1 m
0 d 0 2

(b) Applying the momentum equation, the force, F , of the air on the structure is given by
∫ d
2
F = 2ρV δ + 2 ρv 2 dy − 2ρV 2 d
0
∫
V2 d 2
2
F = 2ρV δ + 2ρ 2 y dy − 2ρV 2 d
d 0
2 d 2
F = 2ρV 2 δ + ρV 2 d − 2ρV 2 d = 2ρV 2 + ρV 2 d − 2ρV 2 d = − 23 ρV 2 d
3 2 3
Therefore, the force on the structure is

F = − 23 (1.225)(25)2 (2) = 1020 N

NEW From the given data: v1 = 20 mph = 8.941 m/s, ρair = 1.225 kg/m3 , h1 = 10 m, and w = 1 m.
Using the conversion factor 1 mph = 0.44704 m/s gives

v2 = 5 + 0.2y 2 mph → v2 = 0.44704(5 + 0.2y 2 ) m/s → v2 = 2.235 + 0.08941y 2 m/s

(a) Let h2 be the height of the duct at the downstream section. The continuity equation
requires that:
∫ 0.5h2 ∫ 0.5h2
v1 h1
w = 2
w v2 dy → (8.941)(10) = 2 (2.235 + 0.08941y 2 ) dy
0 0

136
 [ ]0.5h2
→ 89.41 = 2 2.235y + 0.02980y 3
0
[ ]
→ 89.41 = 2 2.235(0.5h2 ) + 0.02980(0.5h2 ) 3
→ h2 = 18.59 m

(b) The momentum correction factor, β, is defined as

∫ ( )2
1 v
β= dA
A A V
Applying this definition of β at the downstream section,

A2 = wh2 = (1)(18.59) = 18.59 m2

∫ 0.5h2 ∫ 0.5h2
1 1
V2 = v2 dy = (2.235 + 0.08941y 2 ) dy = 4.810 m/s
0.5h2 0 0.5h2 0
∫ 0.5(18.59) [ ]2
1 2.235 + 0.08941y 2
β2 = (2) dy → β2 = 1.229
18.59 0 4.810

At the upstream section the velocity is uniform so β1 = 1.00 .

(c) The mass flux through the duct, ṁ, is given by

ṁ = ρair V 1 h1 w = (1.225)(8.941)(10)(1) = 109.5 kg/s

Applying the momentum equation between the upstream and downstream sections gives

−Fx = ṁ[β2 V 2 − β1 V 1 ] = (109.5)[(1.229)(4.810) − (1.000)(8.941)] = −331.7 N

Therefore the force on the strut is 331.7 N .

4.25. From the given data: D1 = 150 mm, A11 = πD12 /4 = 1.767 × 10−2 m2 , V11 = 40 m/s,
V12 = 4 m/s, D2 = 350 mm, and A2 = πD22 /4 = 9.621 × 10−2 m2 . For water at 20◦ C,
ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . At Section 1, the area of flow outside of the jet is A12 = A2 − A11 =
7.854 × 10−2 m2 . The average velocity at Section 2 can be calculated using the continuity
equation, which requires that

V11 A11 + V12 A12 = V2 A2

→ (40)(1.767 × 10−2 ) + (4)(7.854 × 10−2 ) = V2 (9.621 × 10−2 ) → V2 = 10.61 m/s

The mass flow rates at sections 1 and 2 are given by

ṁ11 = ρV11 A11 = (998.2)(40)(1.767 × 10−2 ) = 705.6 kg/s

ṁ12 = ρV12 A12 = (998.2)(4)(7.854 × 10−2 ) = 313.6 kg/s

ṁ2 = ρV2 A2 = (998.2)(10.61)(9.621 × 10−2 ) = 1019 kg/s

137
 Applying the momentum equation between Section 1 and Section 2 and assuming the friction
force is negligible yields

(ṁ11 V11 + ṁ12 V12 ) − ṁ2 V2

(p1 − p2 )A2 = ṁ2 V2 − [ṁ11 V11 + ṁ12 V12 ] → p2 − p1 =
A2
[(705.6)(40) + (313.6)(4)] − (1019)(10.61)
→ p2 − p1 = = 1.940 × 105 Pa = 194 kPa
9.621 × 10−2

4.26. From the given data: Q = 200 L/s = 0.2 m3 /s, D1 = 400 mm = 0.4 m, and D2 = 300 mm =
0.3 m. At 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 and γ = (998)(9.807)10−3 = 9.787 kN/m3 . Using these data:

π 2 π Q 0.2
A1 = D = (0.4)2 = 0.1257 m2 , V1 = = = 1.591 m/s
4 1 4 A1 0.1257
π 2 π Q 0.2
A2 = D = (0.3)2 = 0.07069 m2 , V2 = = = 2.829 m/s
4 2 4 A2 0.07069
Since p1 = 400 kPa,

p1 V12 p2 V22 400 1.5912 p2 2.8292

+ = + → + = +
γ 2g γ 2g 9.787 2(9.807) 9.787 2(9.807)

which gives p2 = 397.3 kPa. Equation 4.47 gives the reaction, Rx , of the reducer as

Rx = p1 A1 − p2 A2 − ρQ(V2 − V1 )
= (400)(0.1257) − (397.3)(0.07069) − (0.998)(0.2)(2.829 − 1.591) = 21.9 kN

4.27. From the given data: D1 = 25 mm, D2 = 10 mm, h = 100 mm, M = 0.2 kg, and Q =
20 L/min = 3.333 × 10−4 m3 /s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 , and γ = 9.790 kN/m3 .
The following preliminary calculations are useful:

πD12 π(0.025)2 Q 3.333 × 10−4

A1 = = = 4.909 × 10−4 m2 , V1 = = = 0.6791 m/s
4 4 A1 4.909 × 10−4
πD22 π(0.010)2 Q 3.333 × 10−4
A2 = = = 7.854 × 10−5 m2 , V2 = = = 4.244 m/s
4 4 A2 7.854 × 10−5
The volume, Vw , of water in the nozzle is calculated using the truncated-cone equation (see
Table C.2 in Appendix C) which gives,
1 1
Vw = πh[D12 +D22 +D1 D2 ] = π(0.1)[(0.025)2 +(0.01)2 +(0.025)(0.01)] = 2.553×10−5 m3
12 12
The Bernoulli equation can be applied to estimate the pressure at the entrance to the nozzle
(Section 1), knowing that the pressure at the exit (Section 2) is equal to zero (i.e., atmo-
spheric),

p1 V12 p2 V22 p1 0.67912 0 4.2442

+ + z1 = + + z2 → + + 0.1 = + +0
γ 2g γ 2g 9.790 2(9.807) 9.790 2(9.807)

138
 which yields p1 = 7.782 kPa. The reaction force, R, of the nozzle can be calculated by
applying the momentum equation to a control volume consisting of the water in the nozzle,
which gives

− R + p1 A1 − p2 A2 + γVw = ρQ(V2 − V1 )
− R + (7.782)(4.909 × 10−4 ) − 0 + (9.790)(2.553 × 10−5 ) =
(998)(3.333 × 10−4 )(4.244 − 0.6791) [×10−3 kPa/Pa]

which yields R = 2.884 × 10−3 kN = 2.884 N. The thread connection must support both the
nozzle reaction and the weight of the nozzle, so

support force =R + M g = 2.884 N + (0.2)(9.807) N = 4.85 N

4.28. From the given data: D = 150 mm, V1 = 70 m/s, p1 = 600 kPa, T1 = −23◦ C = 250 K, p2
= 150 kPa, and T2 = −73◦ C = 200 K. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. The following preliminary
calculations are useful:
p1 600 × 103 p2 150 × 103
ρ1 = = = 8.360 kg/m3 , ρ2 = = = 2.612 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(250) RT2 (287.1)(200)
πD2 π0.152
A= = = 0.01767 m2 , ṁ = ρ1 V1 A = (8.360)(70)(0.01767) = 10.34 kg/s
4 4
(a) The steady-state conservation-of-mass equation requires that the mass flow rate at the
upstream section be equal to the mass flow rate at the downstream section, which gives

ṁ = ρ2 V2 A → 10.34 = (2.612)V2 (0.01767) → V2 = 224 m/s

(b) The momentum equation requires that the sum of the forces in the downstream direction
equal the rate of change of momentum. Taking the friction force as Ff , the momentum
equation gives

p1 A − Ff − p2 A = ṁ(V2 − V1 )
(600)(0.01767) − Ff − (150)(0.01767) = (10.34)(224 − 70) [×10−3 kPa/Pa]

which yields Ff = 6.36 kN .

4.29. The components of the reaction force can be calculated using Equations 4.51 and 4.54, where
the weight component of the fluid in the horizontal plane is zero. Equation 4.51 gives

Rx = p1 A1 − p2 A2 cos θ − ρQ(V2 cos θ − V1 )

where p1 = p2 = 350 kPa = 3.5 × 105 Pa, A1 = A2 = π(0.3)2 /4 = 0.0707 m2 , θ = 90◦ ,

ρ = 998 kg/m3 , V1 = V1 = 3 m/s, and Q = A1 V1 = (0.0707)(3) = 0.212 m3 /s. Substituting
these values gives

Rx = (3.50×105 )(0.0707)−(350×105 )(0.0707) cos 90◦ −(998)(0.212)(3 cos 90◦ −3) = 25400 N = 25.4 kN

139
 The y-component of the reaction force is given by Equation 4.54 as

Rz = p2 A2 sin θ+ρQV2 sin θ = (3.50×105 )(0.0707) sin 90◦ +(998)(0.212)(3) sin 90◦ = 25400 N = 25.4 kN

The magnitude, R, of the force required to keep the bend in place is

√ √
R = Rx2 + Ry2 = 25.42 + 25.42 = 35.9 kN

This support force could be supplied by the bolts or threaded connection that attaches the
bend to the upstream pipeline

4.30. From the given data: Q = 100 L/s = 0.1 m3 /s, D = 200 mm, p1 = 500 kPa, p2 = 450 kPa,
and θ = 90◦ . Hence,

π 2 π Q 0.1
A1 = A2 = D = (0.2)2 = 0.0314 m2 , V1 = V2 = = = 3.18 m/s
4 4 A 0.0314
and the weight, W , of the fluid in the bend is given by

W = γ(Vol) = (9.79)(0.16) = 1.57 kN

Equation 4.51 gives

Rx = p1 A1 − p2 A2 cos θ − ρQ(V2 cos θ − V1 )

= (500)(0.0314) − (450)(0.0314) cos 90◦ − (0.998)(0.1)(3.18 cos 90◦ − 3.18)
= 16.0 kN

and Equation 4.54 gives

Rz = p2 A2 sin θ + W + ρQV2 sin θ

= (450)(0.0314) sin 90◦ + 1.57 + (0.998)(0.1)(3.18 sin 90◦ )
= 16.0 kN

4.31. From the given data: Vb = 0.25 m3 , D1 = 0.60 m, D2 = 0.30 m, v2 = 10 m/s, Mb = 250 kg,
and ρ = 998 kg/m3 . The momentum equation is given by
∑ ∫ ∑
F= ρv(v · n) dA → F = ṁ(V2 − V1 )
S

The following quantities are derived from the given data,

( )2 ( )2
D2 0.30 π 2 π
v1 = v2 = 10 = 2.5 m/s, A1 = D = (0.60)2 = 0.283 m2
D1 0.60 4 1 4
π 2 π
A2 = D = (0.30)2 = 0.0707 m2 , Q = A2 v2 = (0.0707)(10) = 0.707 m3 /s
4 2 4
ṁ = ρQ = (998)(0.707) = 706 kg/s

140
 Using the Bernoulli equation,
p1 v2 p2 v2 p1 2.52 0 102
+ 1 = + 2 → + = +
γ 2g γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)
which gives p1 = 46.78 kPa. The momentum equation gives

Fx = p1 A1 + ṁ(v1x − v2x ) = (4678)(0.283) + (706)(2.5 − (−10 cos 60◦ )) = 6614 N = 6.61 kN

Fy = −ṁv2y = −(706)(−10 sin 60◦ ) = 6110 N = 6.11 kN

Fz = Mb g + γw Vb = (250)(9.81) + (9790)(0.25) = 4900 N = 4.90 kN

NEW From the given data: LAB = 10 cm, LBC = 5 cm, Q = 110 L/min = 1833 cm3 /s = 0.001833 m3 /s,
D1 = 5 cm, D2 = 1 cm, and Wn = 2 N. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 and γ =
9.789 kN/m3 . From the given data, the following preliminary calculations are useful:
π 2 π 2 π 2 π 2
A1 = D = 5 = 19.64 cm2 , A2 = D = 1 = 0.7854 cm2
4 1 4 4 2 4
Q 1833 Q 1833
V1 = = = 93.33 cm/s, V2 = = = 2334 cm/s
A1 19.64 A2 0.7854
∆z = LBC sin 38◦ = 5 sin 38◦ = 3.078 cm, ṁ = ρQ = (998)(0.001833) = 1.829 kg/s
π 2 π
Vw = D1 (LAB + LBC ) = 52 (15) = 294.5 cm3 , Ww = γVw = 9789(295.5 × 10−6 ) = 2.884 N
4 4
Estimate the pressure at the inflow section using the Bernoulli equation and noting that the
exit pressure is atmospheric gives:
p1 V12 V2 p1 0.93332 23.342
+ = 2 + ∆z → + = + 0.03078 → p1 = 271.7 kPa
γ 2g 2g 9.789 2(9.807) 2(9.807)
Apply the momentum equation in the horizontal (x) and vertical (z) directions give:

x-direction: p1 A1 − Fx = ṁ(v2x − v1x )

→ (271.7)(19.64 × 10−4 ) − Fx = 1.829(23.34 cos 38◦ − 0.9333) × 10−3 → Fx = 0.5017 kN
z-direction: Fz − Ww = ṁv2z
→ Fz − 2.884 = 1.829(23.34 sin 38◦ ) → Fz = 29.17 N

Therefore, the tensile force to be supported by the glue is 502 N . Taking into account the
weigh of the nozzle (= 2 N), the shear force to be supported by the nozzle is 29.17 N + 2 N =
31.2 N .

4.32. From the given data: D1 = 0.25 m, D2 = 0.05 m, and F = 1 kN = 1000 N. For water, ρ =
998 kg/m3 .

(a) Using the given data:

π 2 π π 2 π
A1 = D = (0.25)2 = 0.04909 m2 , A2 = D = (0.05)2 = 0.001963 m2
4 1 4 4 2 4

141
 Estimate p1 using the Bernoulli equation, with p2 = 0, gives

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ = +
γ 2g γ 2g
( ) ( )
1 2 1 1 1 1 1
→ p1 = ρQ − = (998)Q 2
− = 1.293 × 108 Q2 Pa
2 A22 A21 2 0.0019632 0.049092

Substituting into the momentum equation gives

( ) ( )
Q Q 1 1
p1 A1 − F = ṁ(V2 − V1 ) = ρQ − = ρQ 2
−
A2 A1 A2 A1
( )
1 1
→ (1.293 × 108 Q2 )(0.04904) − 1000 = (998)Q2 −
0.001963 0.04909

which yields Q = 0.01297 m3 /s = 778 L/m . If the firemen were to let go of the nozzle,
it would move in the flow direction .
(b) Exit velocity of jet, V2 , given by
Q 0.01297
V2 = = = 6.61 m/s
A2 0.001963
For jet pointed vertically upward, Bernoulli equation gives

V22 V2 6.612 02
z2 + = z3 + 3 → 0+ = z3 + → z3 = 2.23 m
2g 2g 2(9.81) 2(9.81)

4.33. From the given data: D = 0.3 m, R = D/2 = 0.15 m, s = 0.2 m, Q = 0.2 m3 /s, and
p0 = 600 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . Let A be the opening between the valve
and the pipe, which corresponds to the segment area of a circle, and is calculated using the
geometric relations in Appendix C.2 as follows,

d = 0.05 m
( ) ( )
−1 d −1 0.05
θ = 2 cos = 2 cos = 1.231 rad
R 0.15

R2 0.152
A= (θ − sin θ) = (1.231 − sin 1.231) = 3.241 × 10−3 m2
2 2
Other derived parameters that are relevant to this problem are the upstream area, A0 , up-
stream velocity, V0 , velocity through the area segment, V , and mass flux, ṁ, calculated as
follows:
πD2 π(0.30)2 Q 0.2
A0 = = = 7.069 × 10−2 m2 , V0 = = = 2.829 m/s
4 4 A0 7.069 × 10−2
Q 0.2
V = = = 61.71 m/s, ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(0.2) = 199.6 kg/s
A 3.241 × 10−3

142
 Applying the momentum equation to a control volume whose upstream face is the approach
pipe and whose downstream face is the valve opening yields the reaction force, R, as follows

− R + p0 A0 = ṁ(V − V0 )

→ R = p0 A0 − ṁ(V − V0 )

→ R = (600)(7.069 × 10−2 ) − (199.6)(61.71 − 2.829)[×10−3 kN/N] = 30.7 kN

4.34. From the given data: θ = 30◦ , D1 = 250 mm, D1 = 400 mm, p1 = 500 kPa, and the volume
of the bend is 0.20 m3 . The following derived parameters are useful:

π Q Q
A1 = (0.25)2 = 0.0491 m2 , V1 = = = 20.4Q
4 A1 0.0491
π Q Q
A2 = (0.40)2 = 0.126 m2 , V2 = = = 7.96Q
4 A2 0.126

The x-momentum equation is ∫

∑
Fx = ρvx v · n dA
S

which in this case becomes

p1 A1 − p2 A2 cos 30◦ − Rx = ρV1 (−Q) + ρ(V2 cos 30◦ )Q (1)

The given relationship between the inflow and outflow pressures is

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ = +
γ 2g γ 2g
500 (20.4Q)2 p2 (7.96Q)2
+ = +
9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)

which simplifies to
p2 = 500 + 18.0Q2 (2)
Substituting the values of the given and derived parameters into Equation 1 and taking Rx
= 18 kN gives

(500)(0.0491) − (500 + 18.0Q2 )(0.126) cos 30◦ − 18 = (0.998)[20.4Q(−Q) + (7.96Q cos 30◦ (Q)]

which simplifies to

−48 − 1.96Q2 = −13.5Q2 → Q = 4.16 m3 /s

In the y-direction, the momentum equation is

∑ ∫
Fy = ρvy v · n dA
S

143
 which in this case becomes

−p2 A2 sin 30◦ − W + Rz = ρV2 sin 30◦ (Q) (3)

Let Rz = 40 − 0.4 = 39.6 kN and W = γ(Vol) = 9.79(0.2) = 1.96 kN then Equation 3 can be
written as

−(500+18.0Q2 )(0.126) sin 30◦ −1.96+39.6 = (0.998)(7.96Q) sin 30◦ (Q) → Q = 1.10 m3 /s

Therefore the allowable vertical load is the limiting condition, and is exceeded when the flow
rate is 1.10 m3 /s .

4.35. Let Rx and Ry be the components of the reaction of the junction. The x-component of the
momentum equation is

Rx + p1 A1 cos 30◦ + p2 A2 cos 40◦ − p3 A3 = ρ[V1 cos 30◦ (−Q1 ) + V2 cos 40◦ (−Q2 ) + V3 (Q3 )] (1)

where p1 = 350 kPa, p2 = 400 kPa, p3 = 420 kPa, Q1 = 0.04 m3 /s, Q2 = 0.06 m3 /s, and Q3
= 0.04 + 0.06 = 0.1 m3 /s, and
π 2 π π 2 π
A1 = D = (0.15)2 = 0.0177 m2 , A2 = D = (0.20)2 = 0.0314 m2
4 1 4 4 2 4
π π Q1 0.04
A3 = D32 = (025)2 = 0.0491 m2 , V1 = = = 2.26 m/s
4 4 A1 0.0177
Q2 0.06 Q3 0.10
V2 = = = 1.91 m/s, V3 = = = 2.04 m/s
A2 0.0314 A3 0.0491
Substituting into Equation 1 gives

Rx + 350(0.0177) cos 30◦ + 400(0.0314) cos 40◦ − 420(0.0491) =

(0.998)[2.26 cos 30◦ (−0.04) + 1.91 cos 40◦ (−0.06) + 2.04(0.10)] → Rx = 5.68 kN

The y-component of the momentum equation is

Ry − p1 A1 sin 30◦ + p2 A2 sin 40◦ = ρ[(−V1 sin 30◦ )(−Q1 ) + V2 sin 30◦ (−Q2 )]
Ry − 350(0.0177) sin 30◦ + 400(0.0314) sin 40◦ = (0.998)[(−2.26 sin 30◦ )(−0.04) + 1.91 sin 30◦ (−0.06)]

which simplifies to
Ry = −4.99 kN
Therefore the magnitude, R, of the force required to support the junction is given by
√ √
R = Rx2 + Ry2 = 5.682 + 4.992 = 7.56 kN

at an angle θ to the x axis, where

( )
−1 −4.99
θ = tan = −41.2◦
5.68
If the junction were in the vertical plane, the weight of the water in the junction would have
to be taken into account.

144
4.36. From the given data: W = 200 lb = 890 N, p1 = 400 kPa, Q1 = 0.04 m3 /s, Q2 = 0.6Q1 ,
Q3 = 0.4Q1 , and T = 20◦ C. Using these data,
π 2 π Q1 0.04
A1 = D = (0.2)2 = 0.03142 m2 , V1 = = = 1.27 m/s
4 1 4 A1 0.03142
π 2 π Q2 (0.6)(0.04)
A2 = D = (0.16)2 = 0.02011 m2 , V2 = = = 1.19 m/s
4 2 4 A2 0.02011
π 2 π Q3 (0.4)(0.04)
A3 = D = (0.12)2 = 0.01131 m2 , V3 = = = 1.41 m/s
4 3 4 A3 0.01131
z1 = 0 m, z2 = 2 sin 40◦ = 1.286 m
z3 = −2 sin 30◦ = −1.0 m, W2 = γV2 = (9.79)(2 × 0.02011) = 0.394 kN
W3 = γV3 = (9.79)(2 × 0.01131) = 0.221 kN, WT = W2 + W3 = 0.394 + 0.221 = 0.615 kN

Apply the Bernoulli equation between sections 1 and 2:

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
which gives

p2 p1 V12 V2 400 1.272 1.192

= + + z1 − 2 − z2 = + +0− − 1.286
γ γ 2g 2g 9.79 2(9.81) 2(9.81)
which yields p2 = 388 kPa. Similarly, apply the Bernoulli equation between sections 1 and 3:

p1 V12 p3 V32
+ + z1 = + + z3
γ 2g γ 2g
which gives

p3 p1 V12 V2 400 1.272 1.412

= + + z1 − 3 − z3 = + +0− +1
γ γ 2g 2g 9.79 2(9.81) 2(9.81)

which yields p3 = 410 kPa. Apply the momentum equation in the x-direction (taking β = 1):
∑
Fx = ṁ2 Vx,2 + ṁ3 Vx,3 − ṁ1 Vx,1
−Fx + p1 A1 − p2 A2 cos θ2 − p3 A3 cos θ3 = ṁ1 [0.6Vx,2 + 0.4Vx,3 − Vx,1 ]

which becomes

−Fx + (400)(0.03142) − (388)(0.02011) cos 40◦ − (410)(0.01131) cos 30◦ =

(998 × 0.04)
[0.6(1.19 cos 40◦ ) + 0.4(1.41 cos 30◦ ) − 1.27]
1000
which yields Fx = 2.58 kN. Apply the momentum equation in the y-direction (taking β = 1):
∑
Fy = ṁ2 Vy,2 + ṁ3 Vy,3 − ṁ1 Vy,1

145
 Fy − p2 A2 sin θ2 + p3 A3 sin θ3 = ṁ1 [0.6Vy,2 + 0.4Vy,3 ]

which becomes

Fy − (388)(0.02011) sin 40◦ + (410)(0.01131) sin 30◦ =

(998 × 0.04)
[0.6(1.19 sin 40◦ ) + 0.4(−1.41 sin 30◦ )]
1000
which yields Fy = 2.704 kN. Therefore the support forces required are:

FH = Fx = 2.58 kN
FV = Fy + W + W2 + W3 = 2.704 + 0.890 + 0.615 = 4.209 kN

4.37. From the given data: V1 = 12 m/s, p1 = 500 kPa, D1 = D2 = 6 cm, D3 = 4 cm, and V3 = 8
m/s. These data give A1 = A2 = 0.002827 m2 , A3 = 0.001257 m2 , Q1 = 0.03393 m3 /s, and
Q3 = 0.01005 m3 /s. Apply the continuity equation,

V1 A1 = V2 A2 + V3 A3 → (12)(0.002827) = V2 (0.002827) + (8)(0.001257)

which yields V2 = 8.44 m/s, and Q2 = V2 A2 = 0.02387 m3 /s. Applying the Bernoulli equation
between Sections 1 and 2, and taking γ = 9.79 kN/m3 (T = 20◦ C) gives

p1 V12 p2 V22 500 122 p2 8.442

+ = + → + = + → p2 = 536 kPa
γ 2g γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)
Similarly, between Sections 1 and 3,

p1 V12 p3 V32 500 122 p3 82

+ = + → + = + → p3 = 540 kPa
γ 2g γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)
The x-component of the momentum equation is:
∑
Fx = ṁ2 V2x − ṁ1 V1x → p1 A1 − p2 A2 − Fx = ρQ2 V2 − ρQ1 V1
1
→ (500)(0.002827) − (536)(0.002827) − Fx = [(998)(0.02387)(8.44) − (998)(0.03393)(12)]
1000
→ Fx = 104 kN

The y-component of the momentum equation is:

∑
Fy = ṁ2 V2y − ṁ1 V1y → p3 A3 − Fy = ρQ3 V3
1
→ (540)(0.001257) − Fy = [(998)(0.01005)(8)] → Fy = 598 kN
1000

4.38. From the given data: p1a = 200 kPa, ṁ1 = 30 kg/s, p2a = 150 kPa, patm = 100 kPa, ṁ2 =
22 kg/s, ṁ3 = 8 kg/s, β = 1.03, Ww = 280 N, and Wb = 200 N. Converting the pressures to
gage pressures gives:

p1 = 200 kPa − 100 kPa = 100 kPa, p2 = 150 kPa − 100 kPa = 50 kPa

146
 The section areas are given by
π π π
A1 = (0.05)2 = 0.001963 m2 , A2 = (0.10)2 = 0.007854 m2 , A3 = (0.03)2 = 0.0007069 m2
4 4 4
Taking the density of water as 998 kg/m3 , the section velocities are given by

30 kg/s 22 kg/s
v1 = = 15.31 m/s, v2 = = 2.807 m/s
(998 × 0.001963) (998 × 0.007854)
8 kg/s
v3 = = 11.34 m/s
(998 × 0.0007069)

Applying the momentum equation in the x direction,

Fx + p1 A1 + p2 A2 = β[ṁ2 v2 − ṁ1 v1 ]
Fx + (100 × 10 )(0.001963) + (50 × 103 )(0.007854) = 1.03[(22)(−2.807) − (30)(15.31)]
3

which yields
Fx = −1126 N = −1.13 kN = 1.13 kN (towards right)
In the vertical, z, direction, the momentum equation is given by:

Fz − Ww − p3 A3 = β ṁ3 v3 → Fz − 280 − 0 = (1.03)(8)(11.34) → Fz = 373 N

The downward force of the water on the flanges is 373 N (note that the reaction is upward).
Since the weight of the bend is 200 N, the total force to be supported by the flanges is 373 N
+ 200 N = 573 N (downward) .

4.39. From the given data: Q1 = 20 L/s, Q2 = 8 L/s, Q3 = 12 L/s, D1 = 15 cm, D2 = 10 cm, D3
= 12 cm, θ2 = 45◦ , θ3 = 60◦ , and p1 = 500 Pa. It is assumed that β = 1, ρ = 998 kg/m3 ,
and γ = 9790 N/m3 (at 20◦ C).

(a) Denote the inflow section as Section 1 and the outflow sections as Sections 2 and 3. The
pressures can be calculated using the Bernoulli equation which requires that

p1 V12 p2 V22 p3 V32

+ = + = +
γ 2g γ 2g γ 2g

which can be expressed as

( )
p2 p1 V12 V2 ρ( 2 )
= + − 2 ⇒ p2 = p1 + V1 − V22 (1)
γ γ 2g 2g 2
( )
p3 p1 V12 V2 ρ( 2 )
= + − 3 ⇒ p3 = p1 + V1 − V32 (2)
γ γ 2g 2g 2

Using the given data:

π 2 π π 2 π
A1 = D = (0.15)2 = 0.01767 m2 , A2 = D = (0.10)2 = 0.00785 m2
4 1 4 4 2 4

147
 π 2 π Q1 0.020
A3 = D = (0.12)2 = 0.01131 m2 , V1 = = = 1.132 m/s
4 3 4 A1 0.01767
Q2 0.008 Q3 0.012
V2 = = = 1.019 m/s, V3 = = = 1.061 m/s
A2 0.00785 A3 0.01131

Substituting into the Bernoulli equations (Equations 1 and 2) give

998 [ ]
p2 = (500) + (1.132)2 − (1.019)2 = 621 Pa
2
998 [ ]
p3 = (500) + (1.132)2 − (1.061)2 = 577 Pa
2

(b) The momentum equations in the x direction is given by:

p1 A1 − p2 A2 cos θ2 − p3 A3 cos θ3 − Fx = ṁ2 V2 cos θ2 + ṁ3 V3 cos θ3 − ṁ1 V1 (3)

and the momentum equation in the y direction is

−p2 A2 sin θ2 + p3 A3 sin θ3 − Fy = ṁ2 V2 sin θ2 − ṁ3 V3 sin θ3 (4)

From the given data:

ṁ1 = ρQ1 = (998)(0.020) = 19.96 kg/s, ṁ2 = ρQ2 = (998)(0.008) = 7.98 kg/s
ṁ3 = ρQ3 = (998)(0.012) = 11.98 kg/s

Substituting into the x-momentum equation (Equation 3) gives

(500)(0.01767)−(621)(0.00785) cos 45◦ − (577)(0.01131) cos 60◦ − Fx =

(7.98)(1.019) cos 45◦ + (11.98)(1.061) cos 60◦ − (19.96)(1.132)

which yields Fx = 12.6 N . Substituting into the y-momentum equation (Equation 4)

gives

−(621)(0.00785) sin 45◦ +(577)(0.01131) sin 60◦ − Fy =

(7.98)(1.019) sin 45◦ − (11.98)(1.061) sin 60◦

which yields Fy = 7.5 N .

4.40. From the given data: T = 20◦ C, Q = 500 gpm = 0.03155 m3 /s, D = 10 cm = 0.10 m, d =
6 cm = 0.06 m, and p1 − p2 = 145 kPa. Apply the momentum equation between Sections 1
and 2:
∫
p1 A1 − p2 A2 − F = ρv(v · n) dA → (p1 − p2 )A − F = ρV 2 A − ρV 2 A = 0
cs

Which can be rearranged to give

(π )
F = (p1 − p2 )A = 145 × 0.12 = 1.14 kN
4

148
4.41. From the given data: V = 4 m/s, R = 300 mm = 0.3 m, and H = 25 mm = 0.025 m. For
water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 . For an incremental discharge area,
dA = HR dθ,
dṁ = ρV dA = ρV HR dθ
which gives
dFx = dṁ Vx = ρV HR dθ (V cos θ)) = ρV 2 HR cos θ dθ
dFy = dṁ Vy = ρV HR dθ (V sin θ)) = ρV 2 HR sin θ dθ
which yield
∫ π/2
Fx = ρV 2 HR cos θ dθ = ρV 2 HR = (998)(4)2 (0.025)(0.3) = 120 N
0
∫ π/2
Fy = ρV 2 HR sin θ dθ = ρV 2 HR = (998)(4)2 (0.025)(0.3) = 120 N
0
Therefore, the force, F , need to hold the nozzle in place is given by
√ √
F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 1202 + 1202 = 170 N

4.42. From the given data: p1 = 110 kPa, D1 = 12 cm, and D2 = 4 cm. Applying the Bernoulli
equation between the pipe and the outlet gives:
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ = + (1)
γ 2g γ 2g
Let Q be the volume flow rate and
π 2 π
A1 =D = (0.12)2 = 0.01131 m2
4 1 4
π 2 π
A2 = D = (0.04)2 = 0.001257 m2
4 2 4
3
Taking p2 = 0 kPa and γ = 9.79 kN/m and substituting into Equation 1 gives
110 Q2 Q2
+ = 0 +
9.79 2(9.81)(0.01131)2 2(9.81)(0.001257)2
which yields Q = 0.0188 m3 /s. Since ρ = 998 kg/m3 at 20◦ C, the mass flow rate, ṁ, is given
by
ṁ = ρQ = (998)(0.0188) = 18.7 kg/s
At the nozzle exit,
Q 0.0188
V2 == = 15.0 m/s
A2 0.001257
and at the stagnation tube the pressure is ps where
ps V2 V22
= 2 and ps = γH → H =
γ 2g 2g
Hence,
15.02
H= = 11.5 m
2(9.81)

149
4.43. From the given data: Q = 10 m3 /s, θ = 45◦ , V1 = 10 m/s, and V2 = 9 m/s. Equation 4.59
gives the reaction, Rx , of the deflector as

Rx = ρQ(V1 − V2 cos θ)
= (998)(10)(10 − 9 cos 45◦ ) = 3.63 × 104 N = 36.3 kN

and Equation 4.60 gives

Ry = ρQV2 sin θ
= (998)(10)(9 sin 45◦ ) = 6.35 × 104 N = 63.5 kN

Therefore the magnitude of the force, R, required to keep the deflector in place is
√ √
R = Rx2 + Ry2 = 36.32 + 63.52 = 73.1 kN

and the angle that the force makes with the x-axis is tan−1 (−63.5/ − 36.3) = 240◦ .

4.44. From the given data: L = W = 1.4 m, H1 = 0.9 m, H2 = 1.2 m, B = 0.3 m, ρc = 2300 kg/m3 ,
and Dj = 200 mm. For water at 20◦ C, ρw = 998 kg/m3 . The area of the jet, Aj , the volume
of the structure, Vc , the weight of the structure, Wc , and the force exerted by the jet, Fj , are
given by

Aj = 14 πDj2 = 14 π(0.2)2 = 0.03142 m2

Vc = LW H1 + BH2 W = (1.4)(1.4)(0.9) + (0.3)(1.2)(1.4) = 2.268 m3

Wc = ρc gVc = (2300)(9.807)(2.268) [×10−3 kN/N] = 51.3 kN

Fj = ρw QVj = ρw Aj Vj2 = (998)(0.03142)Vj2 [×10−3 kN/N] = 0.03135Vj2 kN

Taking moments about the line QR when the structure is about to turn over gives

Wc · 12 L = Fj · (H1 + 12 H2 ) → (51.3) · (0.7) = (0.03135Vj2 ) · (1.5) → Vj = 26.6 m/s

4.45. From the given data: pair = 600 kPa, h = 1 m, Dt = 1 m, Dj = 50 mm, Aj = πDj2 /4 =
0.007854 m2 , Wt = 1 kN, and Cd = 0.8. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 , and γ =
9.787 kN/m3 . Assuming that the velocity of water in the tank is negligibly small, the Bernoulli
equation gives
√ [ ] √ [ ]
pair Vj2 pair pair
+ z0 = + zo → Vj = 2g + (z0 − zo ) = 2g +h
γ 2g γ γ

Substituting the given data yields

√ [ ]
600
Vj = 2(9.807) + 1 = 34.96 m/s
9.787

150
 The weight, W , of the tank plus the weight of water in the tank is calculated as follows,
π π
W = γ Dt2 h + Wt = (9.787) (1)2 (1) + 1 = 8.687 kN
4 4
The tension, T , in the support cable is given by the momentum equation as

T = W − ρQVj = W − ρCd Aj Vj2

= 8.687 − (998)(0.8)(0.007854)(34.96)2 [×10−3 kPa/Pa] = 1.02 kN

4.46. From the given data: D = 100 mm, and V = 20 m/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .
Using the data, the mass flux, ṁ, and the reaction of the plate, Fx , is calculated as follows:
[π ]
ṁ = ρAV = (998.2) (0.1)2 (20) = 156.8 kg/s
4
−Fx = ṁV2x − ṁV1x = 0 − (156.8)(20) = −3.136 × 103 N = −3.136 kN

Therefore, the force of the water on the plate is approximately equal to 3.14 kN .

4.47. From the given data: D1 = 100 mm, A1 = πD12 /4 = 7.854 × 10−3 m2 , D2 = 50 mm, A2 =
πD22 /4 = 1.963 × 10−3 m2 , and V = 20 m/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . Using the
data, the mass flux approaching the plate, ṁ1 , and the mass flux through the orifice, ṁ2 , are
calculated as follows:

ṁ1 = ρA1 V = (998.2)(7.854 × 10−3 )(20) = 156.8 kg/s

ṁ2 = ρA2 V = (998.2)(1.963 × 10−3 )(20) = 39.20 kg/s

It is assumed that the jet velocity remains unaltered as it passes through the orifice, and
also remains unaltered as it is deflected by the plate. The reaction of the plate, Fx , can be
calculated by applying the momentum equation in the x direction as follows:

−Fx = ṁ2 V2x − ṁ1 V1x = (39.20)(20) − (156.8)(20) = −2.352 × 103 N = −2.352 kN

Therefore, the force of the water on the plate is approximately equal to 2.35 kN .

4.48. From the given data: Q = 4 L/min = 6.667 × 10−5 m3 /s, D = 0.25 mm, and A = πD2 /4 =
4.909 × 10−8 m2 . For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/s. The velocity, V , and mass flow rate, ṁ,
are calculated as follows:
Q 6.667 × 10−5
V = = = 1358 m/s, ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(6.667×10−5 ) = 6.655×10−2 kg/s
A 4.909 × 10−8
The momentum equation gives the force, F , on the plate as

F = ṁV = (6.655 × 10−2 )(1358) = 90.38 N

Therefore, the force per unit area, p, exerted on the plate is given by
F 90.38
p= = = 1.841 × 109 Pa = 1.84 GPa
A 4.909 × 10−8

151
4.49. From the given data: T = 20◦ C, ρ = 1.20 kg/m3 , p = 1 atm, D1 = 25 cm, and V1 = 15 m/s.
The following preliminary calculations are useful,
π 2 π
A1 = D = (0.25)2 = 0.04909 m2 , Q = A1 V1 = (0.04909)(15) = 0.7363 m3 /s
4 1 4
Q 0.7363
A2 = πD2 h2 = π(0.40)(0.01) = 0.01257 m2 , V2 = = = 58.58 m/s
A2 0.01257
ṁ = ρQ = (1.20)(0.7363) = 0.8836 kg/s

From the momentum equation,

−Fx = ṁ(V2x − V1x ) = (0.8836)[58.58 cos 45◦ − 15] → Fx = −23.4 N

4.50. From the given data: D = 15 mm, W = 100 N=0.1 kN, and patm = 101 kPa. The area of
the orifice is A = πD2 /4 = 1.767 × 10−4 m2 . Assuming that the flow velocity in the tank is
negligible, the following two equations must be satisfied:
p
W = ρAV 2 = AV 2 (1)
RT
p patm V2
= + (2)
ρ ρ 2
Combining Equations 1 and 2 yields
1W 1 0.1
p = patm + = 101 + = 384 kPa
2A 2 1.767 × 10−4

4.51. From the given data: V1 = 18 m/s, Vb = 8 m/s, θ = 85◦ , A1 = A2 = 1.5 m2 . Hence,
V1r = V1 − Vb = 18 − 8 = 10 m/s, and Q′ = A1 V1r = (1.5)(10) = 15 m3 /s. Since the inflow
and outflow areas are the same, V1r = V2r , and the momentum equation gives

Rx = ρQ′ (V1r − V2r cos θ) = (998)(15)(10 − 10 cos 85◦ ) = 1.37 × 105 N = 137 kN
Ry = ρQ′ V2r sin θ = (998)(15)(10 sin 85◦ ) = 1.49 × 105 N = 149 kN

The magnitude of the force, R, on the blade is therefore given by

√ √
R = Rx2 + Ry2 = 1372 + 1492 = 202 kN

and the angle that the force makes with the x-axis is tan−1 (149/137) = 47.4◦ . The power,
P , transferred to the turbine rotor is

P = Rx Vb = (137)(8) = 1096 kW

4.52. From the given data: Vj = 30 m/s, Dj = 150 mm, and θ = 15◦ . For water at 20◦ C, ρ =
998.2 kg/m3 . The following preliminary calculation is useful:

πDj2 π(0.15)2
Aj = = = 1.767 × 10−2 m2
4 4

152
 where Aj is the area of the incident jet. Denote the velocity of the vane by Vv , the relative
velocity of the incident jet, Vr , and the relative mass flux, ṁr , are give by

Vr = (Vj − Vv ) = 30 − Vv m/s

ṁr = ρVr Aj = (998.2)(30 − Vv )(1.767 × 10−2 ) = 17.64(30 − Vv ) kg/s

Denote the reaction force of the vane by F , and apply the momentum equation relative to
the moving vane, which gives
( )
ṁr
− F = −2 Vr cos θ − ṁr Vr
2

→ −F = −ṁr Vr (cos θ + 1) = 17.64(30 − Vv )2 (cos 15◦ + 1) N

→ F = 0.01764(30 − Vv )2 (cos 15◦ + 1) kN (1)

(a) When the vane is moving at a speed of 10 m/s in the same direction as that of the
incident jet, Vv = 10 m/s and equation 1 gives

F = 0.01764(30 − 10)2 (cos 15◦ + 1) kN = 13.9 kN

(b) When the vane is moving at a speed of 10 m/s in the opposite direction as that of the
incident jet, Vv = −10 m/s and equation 1 gives

F = 0.01764(30 + 10)2 (cos 15◦ + 1) kN = 55.5 kN

4.53. From the given data: s = 6 mm, ṁ = 20 kg/s, r1 = 5 cm, r2 = 20 cm, and D = 2 cm.
Assuming ρ = 998 kg/m3 (at 20◦ C), then Q = ṁ/ρ = 0.02 m3 /s. The steady-state angular
momentum equation requires that

T = ṁV r → T = ṁ(Vr + Vn )r

where V is the absolute velocity, Vr is the relative velocity, and Vn is the nozzle velocity. If T
is equal to zero, then

Vr + Vn = 0 → Vr = −Vn → Vr = rω

Expressing the volumetric flow rate, Q, in terms of the relative velocity, Vr , gives
∫ r2 ∫ r2 r
r2  2
2 Vr s dr = Q → 2 rωs dr = Q → 2ωs  = Q
r1 r1 2 r1

which yields
Q 0.02
ω= = = 88.9 rad/s
s(r22 − r1 )
2 (0.006)(0.202 − 0.052 )

4.54. From the given data: M0 = 600 kg, ṁ = 7 kg/s, and ve = 2800 m/s. The mass, M , of the
rocket at any time, t, is given by
M = M0 − ṁt

153
 Utilizing a control volume that encompasses the entire rocket, direct application of Equation
4.72 in the direction of motion (i.e., in the x direction) gives

−M g = ṁ(−ve ) + M a (1)

where the gravity force (= M g) is the only force acting on the rocket. Noting that a = dv/dt,
Equation 1 can be expressed as

dv dv ṁve
−M g = −ṁve + M → = −g
dt dt M0 + ṁt

Substituting the given values of the parameters yields

dv (7)(2800) dv 19600
= − (9.81) → a= = − 9.81 (2)
dt 600 − 7t dt 600 − 7t
The velocity, v, as a function of time can be determined by integrating Equation 2 which
gives
∫ ∫ t′ ∫ t′ ( )
v
′ 19600 600 − 7t
dv = dt′ − 9.81 ′
dt → v = −2800 ln − 9.81t (3)
0 0 600 − 7t′ 0 600

where t is in seconds and v is in meters per second.

(a) The velocity and acceleration 10 seconds after launch are given by Equations 3 and 2,
which yield
[ ]
600 − 7(10)
v = −2800 ln − 9.81(10) = 249 m/s
600
19600
a= − 9.81 = 27.2 m/s2
600 − 7(10)

(b) The acceleration at launch is given by Equation 2, which yields

19600
a= − 9.81 = 22.9 m/s2
600 − 7(0)

Therefore, the acceleration has increased over the 10 seconds since launch.

4.55. From the given data: Dj = 60 mm, Aj = πDj2 /4 = 2.827 × 10−3 m2 , Vj = 30 m/s, M = 100 kg,
and θ = 50◦ . For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . From the given data the following
parameters can be calculated:

ṁ = ρVj Aj = (998.2)(30)(2.827 × 10−3 ) = 84.66 kg/s

V 1x = Vj = 30 m/s

V 2x = Vj cos 50◦ = (0.6428)(30) = 19.28 m/s

154
 The momentum equation requires that

Fx = ṁ(V 2x − V 1x ) = 84.66(19.28 − 30) = −907.6 N

When the vane is first released, the acceleration, a, is given by

−Fx 907.6
a= = = 9.08 m/s2
M 100

4.56. From the given data: D = 70 m. Under standard conditions at sea level, ρair = 1.225 kg/m3 .
Locating Miami on the wind-speed map in Figure 4.24 indicates that the average annual
wind velocity at 50 m above ground is 0–5.6 m/s, so assume an average wind velocity of V
= 2.8 m/s (= 6 mph). The wind power density can be calculated using Equation 4.83 which
gives
Pmax 8 8
wind power density = = ρair V 3 = (1.225)(2.8)3 = 8.0 W/m2
A 27 27
Since the wind power density corresponds to that of a Class 1 location and is much less than
the minimum feasible power density (Class 3, 200 W/m2 ), the development of wind energy
in Miami is not feasible .

4.57. From the map of wind speeds (@50 m) given in the text, the maximum average annual wind
speed is V = 11.9 m/s. Standard air density is ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Hence

Pmax 8
wind power density, WPD = = (1.225)(11.9)3 = 614 W/m2
A 27
The land area is AL = 1 mi2 = 259 ha, and assume a turbine spacing of 10 rotor diameters.
hence
π
land area per turbine, ALT = (10 × 90)2 = 6.36 × 105 m2 = 63.6 ha
4
π π
power per turbine, PT = WPD · D2 = 612 · (90)2 = 3.89 × 106 W = 3.89 MW
4 4
AL 259
number of turbines, NT = = = 4.07 → 4 turbines
ALT 63.6
total power, P = NT PT = (4)(3.89) = 15.6 MW

An approximate layout of the wind farm is shown in Figure 1.32.

≈ 900 m

Land boundary
Wind turbine
(1 mi2 = 259 ha)

Figure 4.2: Layout of wind farm

155
4.58. From the given data: D = 0.03 m, and h = 1 m. For water at 20◦ C, ρw = 998 kg/m3 . The
force, F , on the barrel is given by the following calculations
π 2 π
A= D = (0.03)2 = 7.069 × 10−4 m2
4
√ 4√
V = 2gh = 2(9.81)(1) = 4.429 m/s
F = ρw QV = ρw AV 2 = (998)(7.069 × 10−4 )(4.429)2 = 13.8 N

4.59. From the given data: θ = 45◦ , D1 = 25 mm, D2 = 35 mm, h = 1.2 m. For water, ρ =
998 kg/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are useful:
√ √ π 2 π
V2 = 2gh = 2(9.81)(1.2) = 4.852 m/s, A1 = D = (0.025)2 = 0.0004909 m2
4 1 4
π 2 π
A2 = D = (0.035)2 = 0.0009621 m2 , Q = A2 V2 = 0.004668 m3 /s
4 2 4
Q 0.004668
ṁ = ρQ = (998)(0.004668) = 4.659 kg/s, V1 = = = 9.509 m/s
A1 0.0004909
V2x = V2 cos θ = 4.852 cos 45◦ = 3.431 m/s, V2z = V2 sin θ = 4.852 sin 45◦ = 3.431 m/s

(a) The x-component of the force on the reservoir, Fx , is given by

Fx = ṁV2x = (4.659)(3.431) = 15.98 N

This force acts to the left on the reservoir. The z component of the force on the reservoir,
Fz , is given by the z component of the momentum equation, which requires that

−W + Fz = ṁ(V2z − V1z ) = 4.659[3.431 − (−9.509)] = 60.28 N

where W is the weight of the water in the container. Under static conditions, Fz = W .
Under flowing conditions, the hydrodynamic force is Fz − W , which is equal to 60.28 N.
Therefore, the magnitude of the hydrodynamic force, F , on the reservoir is calculated
as follows √ √
F = Fx2 + (Fz − W )2 = 15.982 + 60.282 = 62.4 N

(b) The maximum elevation of the jet, zmax , above the discharge elevation can be estimated
as
V2 3.4312
zmax = 2z = = 0.60 m
2g 2(9.81)

4.60. From the given data: v1r = 250 m/s, A1 = 1.5 m2 , ṁf = 25 kg/s, v2r = v1r + 200 m/s
= 450 m/s. At an elevation of 8 km in the standard atmosphere: pa = 35.65 kPa, and
Ta = −36.94◦ C = 236.1 K. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. Using these data gives the following,

pa 35.65 × 103
ρ1 = = = 0.5260 kg/m3
RTa (287.1)(236.1)
ṁ1r = ρ1 v1r A1 = (0.5260)(250)(1.5) = 197.3 kg/s

156
 ṁ2r = ṁ1r + ṁf = 197.3 + 25 = 222.3 kg/s

The thrust, F , provided by the engine is given by the momentum equation as follows,

F = ṁ2r v2r − ṁ1r v1r = (222.3)(450) − (197.3)(250) = 50.7 × 103 N = 50.7 kN

4.61. From the given data: Veng = 845 km/h = 235 m/s, ρa = 0.400 kg/m3 , ρf = 820 kg/m3 ,
Din = 2.57 m, v2r = 800 m/s, and Qf = 1.5 L/s = 0.0015 m3 /s. Assume that the exhaust
pressure is equal to the intake pressure, so pe ≈ pa . Using the given data gives,
π 2 π
intake area, Ain = Din = (2.57)2 = 5.187 m2
4 4
air mass flow rate, ṁa = ρa Ain Veng = (0.400)(5.187)(235) = 487.6 kg/s
fuel mass flow rate, ṁf = ρf Qf = (820)(0.0015) = 1.23 kg/s

Applying the momentum equation gives the thrust, F , produced by the engine as

F = ṁ2r v2r − ṁ1r v1r + (pn − pa )A2 = (ṁa + ṁf )v2r − ṁa Veng + 0
= (487.6 + 1.23)(800) − (487.6)(235) + 0 = 2.76 × 105 N = 276 kN

4.62. From the given data: A1 = 1.2 m2 , V1 = 250 m/s, p1 = 50 kPa (gage) = 151 kPa (absolute),
T1 = −50◦ C = 223 K, p2 = 0 kPa (gage), and V2 = 550 m/s. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. The
following preliminary calculations are useful:

p1 151 × 103
ρ1 = = = 2.359 kg/m3 , ṁ = ρ1 V1 A1 = (2.359)(250)(1.2) = 707.7 kg/s
RT1 (287.1)(223)

(a) In this case the mass flow rate of the exhaust gasses is equal to the mass flow rate of the
intake air. Therefore, the thrust force, F , is given by

F + p1 A1 − p2 A2 = ṁ(V2 − V1 )
→ F = (707.7)(550 − 250) [×10−3 kPa/Pa] + 0 − (50)(1.2) = 152.3 kN

(b) In this case the mass flow rate of the exhaust gasses is equal to 102% of the the mass
flow rate of the intake air. Therefore, the thrust force, F , is given by

F + p1 A1 − p2 A2 = ṁ2 V2 − ṁ1 V1 = ṁ1 [(1.02)V2 − V1 ]

→ F = (707.7)[(1.02)550 − 250] [×10−3 kPa/Pa] + 0 − (50)(1.2) = 160.1 kN

The thrust calculated by taking into account the fuel consumption is more accurate.

4.63. From the given data: De = 200 mm, Ae = πDe2 /4 = 0.03142 m2 , Ve = 1500 m/s, pe = 150 kPa,
patm = 101 kPa, and ṁe = 10 kg/s.

(a) The thrust force, F , on the rocket is given by

F = ṁe Ve +(pe −patm )Ae = (10)(1500) [×10−3 kPa/Pa]+(150−101)(0.03142) = 16.54 kN

157
 (b) The fuel consumption rate is approximately equal to the mass flow rate of the exhaust
gasses.

4.64. From the given data: m0 = 6000 kg, ṁf = ṁ2r = 40 kg/s, and vf = v2r = 3000 m/s. If the
rocket produces a thrust of F , then applying the momentum equation with pn ≈ pa gives

F − mg = ma
dV
ṁ2r v2r − mg = m (1)
dt
where m is the mass of the rocket and V is the velocity of the rocket at any time t. The
acceleration, a, of the rocket as a function of time is derived from Equation 1 as

dV ṁ2r v2r
a= = −g
dt m0 − ṁf t
and at t = 0 this equation gives

(40)(3000)
a= − 9.81 = 10.2 m/s2
6000 − 40(0)

As also shown in the textbook, velocity as a function of time is derived as follows:

dV ṁ2r v2r
= −g
dt m0 − ṁf t
∫ t
1
V (t) = ṁ2r v2r ′
dt′ − gt
m 0 − ṁ f t
0
[ ] [ ]
ṁ
 2r v2r m0 − ṁf t m0
V (t) = − ln − gt → V (t) = v2r ln − gt
ṁf
 m0 m0 − ṁf t

So, when t = 10 s the velocity is

[ ]
6000
V (10) = 3000 ln − (9.81)(10) = 109 m/s
6000 − (40)(10)

4.65. Take the x axis as horizontal and the z axis as vertical. Hence, the y axis goes into the
page and clockwise moments (about the y axis) are positive. For steady flow, the moment of
momentum equation gives ∑ ∑
My = rṁV − rṁV
out in

Taking moments about A, with ρ = 998 kg/m3

and using the given data in the above equation,
∑ ∑ ( π )
rṁV = 0, rṁV = (2) 4 × × 0.122 × 998 (4) = 361 N·m, My = 361−0 = 361 N·m
out
4
in

(a) For a downward discharge, with clockwise moments positive,

MA −My +2(15)(9.81)(1) = 0 → MA −361+2(15)(9.81)(1) = 0 → MA = 66.7 N·m

158
 (b) For an upward discharge, with clockwise moments positive,

MA +My +2(15)(9.81)(1) = 0 → MA +361+2(15)(9.81)(1) = 0 → MA = −655 N·m

(c) The vertical discharge causes the greatest stress on the elbow at A.

4.66. From the given data: p1 = 128 kPa, D1 = 8 cm, r1 = 0.10 m, v2 = 16 m/s D2 = 1 cm, and
r2 = 0.20 m. Take ρ = 998 kg/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are useful:

A1 = πD12 /4 = 0.005027 m2 A2 = πD22 /4 = 7.854 × 10−5 m2

Q = v2 A2 = 0.001257 m3 /s

Using the continuity equation,

v1 A1 = Q → v1 (0.005027) = 0.001257 → v1 = 0.25 m/s

ṁ = ρQ = (998)(0.001257) → ṁ = 1.254 kg/s

Applying the moment of momentum equation about gives

−[p1 A1 ]r1 + MX = ṁ[v2 r2 − v1 r1 ]

−[(128 × 103 )(0.005027)](0.10) + MX = (1.254)[(−16)(0.2) − (−0.25)(0.10)]

which gives MX = 60.6 N·m .

4.67. From the given data: D1 = 27 cm = 0.27 m, D2 = 13 cm = 0.13 m, T = 20◦ C, Q = 4000 gpm
= 0.2524 m3 /s, and p1 = 194 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 . Using these data,

π 2 π Q 0.2524
A1 = D = (0.27)2 = 0.05726 m2 , V1 = = = 4.41 m/s
4 1 4 A1 0.05726
π 2 π Q 0.2524
A2 = D = (0.13)2 = 0.01327 m2 , V2 = = = 19.02 m/s
4 2 4 A2 0.01327
ṁ = ρQ = (998)(0.2524) = 251.9 kg/s

(a) Applying the moment-of-momentum equation about Point B gives:

∑
M = ṁ[rout Vout − rin Vin ] = (251.9)[(0.5)(19.02) − 0] = 2396 N·m = 2.396 kN·m

Hence the required torque to hold the bend in place is approximately 2.40 kN·m .
(b) Applying the momentum equation gives:

x dir: Fx = ṁ(v2x − v1x ) = (251.9)(19.02 − 0) = 4791 N = 4.791 kN

y dir: p1 A1 + Fy = ṁ(v2y − v1y ) → (194)(0.05726) + Fy = (251.9)(0 − 4.41)[10−3 ]
→ Fy = −12.22 kN

159
 The resultant reaction force, F , is therefore given by
√ √
F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 4.7912 + (−12.22)2 = 13.12 kN

Let r be the distance of the line of action of F from the point B, then

M = Fr → 2.396 = (13.12)r → r = 0.183 m

4.68. From the given data: D = 2 in. = 0.1667 ft, F = 100 lb, z1 = 4 ft, and z2 = 0.0 ft. It can be
assumed that γ = 62.4 lb/ft3 , ρ = 1.938 slugs/ft3 , and sections 1 and 2 are the entrance and
exit of the bend, respectively. Using the given data,
π 2 π
p2 = γh2 = (62.4)(3) = 187.2 lb/ft2 , A = A1 = A2 = D = (0.1667)2 = 0.02182 ft2
4 4
Q Q
V1 = V2 = = = 45.84 Q
A 0.02182
The x-momentum equation requires that

p1 A1 + p2 A2 − F = ρQ(V2x − V1x )
p1 (0.02182) + (187.2)(0.02182) − 100 = (1.938)Q(−45.84Q − 45.84Q)
p1 = 4396 − 8144Q2 (1)

The energy equation requires that

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
[ ]
Q2
p1 = γ [z2 − z1 + hL ] + p2 = (62.4) 0 − 4 + 2 + 187.2
2(32.2)(0.02182)2
p1 = 4070Q2 − 62.4 (2)

Solving Equations 1 and 2 simultaneously gives Q = 0.6041 ft3 /s = 271 gpm = 17.1 L/s ,
p1 = 1423 lb/ft2 , and V1 = V2 = 27.69 ft/s. The moment of momentum equation applied
about the point C requires that
∑
M = ṁ(rout Vout − rin Vin )

−r [p1 A1 ] + (4 − r) [p2 A2 ] = ρQ [(4 − r)V2 − rV1 ]

−r [(1423)(0.02182)] + (4 − r) [(187.2)(0.02182)] = (1.938)(0.604) [(4 − r)(−27.69) − r(−27.69)]

which yields r = 1.46 ft. Therefore, the support location should be 1.46 ft below the entrance
to the bend.

4.69. From the given data: D = 0.200 m, Q = 0.028 m3 /s, and hence
π 2 π
A = A1 = A2 = D = (0.200)2 = 0.03142 m2
4 4

160
 Q 0.028
V = V1 = V2 = = = 0.891 m/s
A 0.03142
At 15◦ C: ρ = 999.1 kg/m3 , γ = (999.1)(9.81) = 9.80 kN/m3 , and ṁ = ρQ = (999.1)(0.028) =
27.97 kg/s. Take subscripts 1 and 2 to indicate the entrance and exit of the bend, respectively.

(a) The momentum equation is

p1 A1 − p2 A2 − Fx = ρQ(V2x − V1x ) = 0 (1)

−Wb + Fy = ρQ(V2y − V1y ) = 0 (2)

where Wb is the weight of the water in the bend. The pressure p2 can be calculated
using the energy equation, where

p1 V12
p2 V22
25 p2
+
+ z1 = +
+ z2 → +1= + 0 → p2 = 34.8 kPa
γ
2g γ
2g 9.80 9.80

Substituting into Equation 1 gives

(25 − 34.8)(0.03142) − Fx = 0 → Fx = −0.308 kN = −308 N

The volume of the bend, Vb , can be estimated as the cross-sectional area of the conduit
multiplied by the length of conduit in the bend such that

Vb = AL = (0.03142)(0.3 + 1.0 + 0.3) = 0.05027 m3

Wb = γVb = (9.80)(0.05027) = 0.493 kN = 493 N

Substituting into Equation 2 gives

−493 + Fy = 0 → Fy = 493 N

Hence, the magnitude of the force on the support, F , is given by

√ √
F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 3082 + 4932 = 581 N

(b) Apply the moment of momentum equation at P:

∑
Mz = ṁr2 V2θ − ṁr1 V1θ = (27.97)(0.5)[0.891−(−0.891)] = 24.93 N·m = 0.0249 kN·m

Let the location of the resultant be rF m from P, and recognizing that the net moment
of the weight of the water in the bend is zero, then

−p1 A1 (0.5) − p2 A2 (0.5) + rF F = 0.0249

−0.5A(p1 + p2 ) + rF F = 0.0249
−0.5(0.03142)(25 + 34.8) + rF (0.581) = 0.0249 → rF = 1.66 m

So the resultant force acts 1.66 m from P.

161
4.70. From the given data: D = 100 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 7.854 × 10−3 m2 , V = 5 m/s, p1 = 550 kPa,
p2 = 450 kPa, r1 = 80 mm, and r2 = 300 mm. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . The mass
flow rate, ṁ, of water through the bend calculated as

ṁ = ρAV = (998.2)(7.854 × 10−3 )(5) = 39.20 kg/s

Let M be the moment of the pipe reaction on the water contained in the bend, then the
moment-of-momentum equation gives

p1 Ar1 − p2 Ar2 + M = ṁ(r2 V − r1 V ) → M = ṁV (r2 − r1 ) + A(p2 r2 − p1 r1 )

Substituting the values of the given parameters yields

M = (39.20)(5)(0.300 − 0.080)[×10−3 kPa/Pa] + (7.854 × 10−3 )[(450)(0.300) − (550)(0.080)]

→ M = 0.758 kN·m

The moment on the support is in the opposite direction to M (which is positive in the
anticlockwise direction). Therefore, the moment on the support is 0.758 kN·m and this
moment acts in the clockwise direction .

4.71. From the given data: D = 225 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 3.976 × 10−2 m2 , L = 0.8 m, h = 30 mm,
V0 = 6 m/s, V1 = 18 m/s, and p = 80 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . Let x be the
distance measured from the support section, so the velocity distribution can be expressed as
V1 − V0 18 − 6
V = V0 + x=6+ x → V = 6 + 15x
L 0.8
Using the linear velocity distribution, the volume flow rate, Q, at the approach section can
be calculated as
∫ 0.8 ∫ 0.8 [ ]0.8
15
Q=h V dx = (0.030) (6 + 15x) dx = 0.03 6x + x2 = 0.288 m3 /s
0 0 2 0

Using this volume flow rate, the mass flow rate, ṁ, and the average velocity, V , at the support
section are calculated as follows:
Q 0.288
ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(0.288) = 287.5 kg/s, V = = = 7.243 m/s
A 3.976 × 10−2
Applying the x component of the momentum equation to the slotted pipe gives

− Fx + pA = ṁ(V2x − V )

→ −Fx + (80)(3.976 × 10−2 ) = (287.5)(0 − 7.243)[×10−3 kN/N]

→ Fx = 5.26 kN

Applying the x component of the momentum equation to the slotted pipe gives
∫ 0.8 ∫ 0.8
− Fy = −ρh V 2 dx = −(998.2)(0.030) (6 + 15x)2 dx = −3.778 × 103 N = −3.778 kN
0 0

162
 → Fy = 3.78 kN

Applying the moment of momentum equation (Equation 4.106) to the slotted pipe gives
∫ 0.8 ∫ 0.8
M = −ρh xV dx = −(998.2)(0.030)
2
x(6 + 15x)2 dx = −1.955 × 103 N·m
0 0

→ M = 1.96 kN·m

4.72. From the given data: D1 = 0.2 m, R1 = 0.1 m, D2 = 0.4 m, R2 = 0.2 m, H = 30 mm, θb2
= 25◦ , ω = 1800 rpm = 188.5 rad/s, and Q = 10 m3 /min = 0.1667 m3 /s. For standard air,
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are useful,

A1 = πD1 H = π(0.2)(0.03) = 0.01885 m2 , A2 = πD2 H = π(0.4)(0.03) = 0.03770 m2

Q 0.1667 Q 0.1667
Vn1 = = = 8.844 m/s, Vn2 = = = 4.422 m/s
A1 0.01885 A2 0.03770
U1 = ωR1 = (188.5)(0.1) = 18.85 m/s, U2 = ωR2 = (188.5)(0.2) = 37.70 m/s

ṁ = ρQ = (1.225)(0.1667) = 0.2042 kg/s

The inflow and outflow velocity vectors are shown in Figure 4.3.

V1
V2
Vrel Vrel
o
! 25
R1ω R2ω
(a) Inflow (b) Ou"low

Figure 4.3: Inflow and outflow velocity vectors

(a) Consider the inflow velocity vectors shown in Figure 4.3(a). Since the (absolute) inflow
velocity must be normal to the inflow surface, then
( ) ( )
−1 Vn1 −1 8.844
θ = tan = tan = 25.1◦
ωR1 18.85

(b) Consider the outflow velocity vectors shown in Figure 4.3(b). The tangential component
of the outflow velocity is given by
Vn2 4.422
Vθ2 = ωR2 − ◦
= 37.72 − = 28.22 m/s
tan 25 tan 25◦
The power delivered to the air, Ẇshaft , is given by Equation 4.111 as

Ẇshaft = ṁω[Rout Vθ,out − Rin Vθ,in ]

Ẇshaft = (0.2042)(188.5)[(0.2 × 28.22) − 0] = 217 W

163
4.73. From the given data: D1 = 0.1 m, R1 = 0.05 m, D2 = 0.4 m, R2 = 0.2 m, H = 0.08 m,
Q = 1000 L/s = 1 m3 /s, ω = 1800 rpm = 188.5 rad/s, and V2 = 18 m/s. The following
preliminary calculations are useful:
Q 1
A2 = πD2 H = π(0.4)(0.08) = 0.1005 m2 , V2n = = = 9.950 m/s
A2 0.1005
U2 = ωR2 = (188.5)(0.2) = 37.70 m/s

The θ-component of the exit velocity, V2 , can be derived using the following relation

V22 = V2θ
2 2
+ V2n → 182 = V2θ
2
+ 9.9502 → V2θ = 15.00 m/s

The head, hp , added by the pump is equal to the energy added per unit weight. Using
Equation 4.113 and recalling that the inflow velocity is normal to the inflow surface (i.e.,
V1θ = 0) gives
ẇshaft ω 188.5
hp = = [R2 V2θ − R1 V1θ ] = [(0.2 × 15.00) − 0] = 57.6 J/N = 57.6 m
g g 9.81

4.74. From the given data: D1 = 4 m, R1 = 2 m, D2 = 1.5 m, R2 = 0.75 m, ω = 60 rpm =

6.283 rad/s, θ1 = 50◦ , and V2n = 15 m/s. The following preliminary calculations are useful,

A1 = πD1 H = π(4)H = 4πH, A2 = πD2 H = π(1.5)H = 1.5πH

Using the continuity equation, the inflow normal velocity, Vn1 , can be calculated as follows
Q V2n A2 (15)(1.5πH)
V1n = = = = 5.625 m/s
A1 A1 4πH
Since the direction of the inflow velocity is given as 50◦ , then
V1n 5.625
tan 50◦ = → tan 50◦ = → V1θ = 4.720 m/s
V1θ V1θ
The head extracted by the turbine, ht , can be determined using Equation 4.115 which yields
ω 6.283
ht = [R2 V2θ − R1 V1θ ] = [0 − (2 × 4.720)] = 6.05 J/N = 6.05 m
g 9.81
The answer would be the same whether the fluid is water or air.

4.75. From the given data: D1 = 0.8 m, R1 = 0.4 m, D2 = 2 m, R2 = 1 m, V1 = 15 m/s, θ1 = 25◦ ,

H = 0.4 m, and ω = 180 rpm = 18.85 rad/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 . Using these
data gives the following,

A1 = πD1 H = π(2)(0.4) = 2.513 m2 , V1n = V1 sin θ = 15 sin 25◦ = 6.339 m/s

Q = V1n A1 = (6.339)(2.513) = 15.93 m3 /s, ṁ = ρQ = (998)(15.93) = 1.590 × 104 kg/s

V1θ = V1 cos θ = 15 cos 25◦ = 13.59 m/s

164
 Since the outflow velocity is normal to the outflow surface, then V2θ = 0. Equation 4.115
gives the power generated by the turbine runner, Ẇshaft , as

Ẇshaft = ṁω[R2 V2θ − R1 V1θ ]

Ẇshaft = (1.590 × 104 )(18.85)[0 − (1 × 13.59)] = −4.073 × 106 W = −4073 kW

Therefore, the turbine can be expected to generate approximately 4073 kW .

4.76. From given data: Q = 40 L/s, D = 1.2 cm, T = 50 N·m, r = 40 cm. From the given data:
π
ṁtot = ρQ = 998(40 × 10−3 ) = 39.92 kg/s, Ajet = (0.012)2 = 1.131 × 10−4 m2
4
40 × 10−3 Qjet 0.01333
Qjet = = 0.01333 m3 /s, Vjet = = = 117.9 m/s
3 Ajet 1.131 × 10−4
Vnozzle = rω = 0.4ω m/s, Vr = Vjet − Vnozzle = 117.9 − 0.4ω m/s

The angular momentum equation gives

T = 4rṁnozzle Vr = rṁtot Vr → 50 = (0.40)(39.92)(117.9−0.4ω) → ω = 287 rad/s = 2740 rpm

4.77. From the given data: Q = 10 L/min = 1.667 × 10−4 m3 /s, r = 175 mm = 0.175 m, Dn =
5 mm = 0.005 m, An = πDn2 /4 = 1.963 × 10−5 m2 , θ = 15◦ , ω = 40 rpm = 4.189 rad/s. The
following preliminary calculations are useful,
ρQ (998.2)(1.667 × 10−4 )
ṁr = = = 8.320 × 10−2 kg/s
2 2
0.5Q 0.5(1.667 × 10−4 )
Vj = = = 4.246 m/s
A 1.963 × 10−5
V r,θ = Vj cos θ − rω = (4.426) cos 15◦ − (0.175)(4.189) = 3.542 m/s

The torque, T , is calculated using Equation 4.117, which gives

T = 2rṁr V r,θ = 2(0.175)(8.320 × 10−2 )(3.542) = 0.103 N·m

4.78. From the given data: R = 0.7 m, A = 30 mm2 = 30 × 10−6 m2 , θ = 40◦ , and Q = 8 L/s =
0.008 m3 /s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 . Whether the sprinkler is rotating or not, the
exit velocity, Ve , from the nozzle is given by
Q 0.008
Ve = = = 66.67 m/s
4Ae (4)(30 × 10−6 )
(a) If the sprinkler is not rotating, the required restraining torque, T , is given by the moment-
of-momentum equation as

T = ρQ(RVθ ) = ρQ(RVe cos θ) = (998)(0.008)(−0.7 × 66.67 cos 40◦ ) = −285.4 N·m

Therefore the required restraining torque is approximately 285 N·m .

165
 (b) If the sprinkler is rotating, the moment-of-momentum equation gives

T = ρQ[RVθ,r ] = ρQ[R(Rω − Ve cos θ)]

Therefore, if the torque, T , is equal to zero, then

Rω = Ve cos θ → (0.7)ω = (66.67) cos 40◦ → ω = 72.96 rad/s = 697 rpm

4.79. From the given data: r = 10 cm, D = 1 cm = 0.01 m, Q = 8 L/s = 8 × 10−3 m3 /s. Using
these data:

π 2 π Q/8 8 × 10−3 /8
A= D = (0.01)2 = 7.854 × 10−5 m2 , Vj = = = 12.73 m/s
4 4 A 7.854 × 10−5
Vn = rω, Vr = Vj − Vn = Vj − rω
∑
T = ṁrVr = ρQr(Vj − rω), P = T ω = ρQrω(Vj − rω)

where A = flow area of nozzle, Vj = velocity of jet exiting the nozzle, Vn = velocity of nozzle,
ω = rotational speed of nozzle, Vr = relative speed at which water exits the nozzle, T =
torque on sprinkler shaft, ρ = density of water, ṁ = mass flow rate, and P = power delivered
to sprinkler shaft.

(a) When P = Pmax ,

dP
= 0 → ρQrVj − 2rω = 0
dω
which yields

ρQrVj ρQVj (998)(8 × 10−3 )(12.73)

ω= = = = 50.82 rad/s = 485 rpm
2r 2 2

where the density of water is taken as ρ = 998 kg/m3 .

(b) The power generated is given by

P = ρQrω(Vj − rω) = (998)(8 × 10−3 )(0.1)(50.82)(12.73 − 0.1 × 50.82) = 310 W

4.80. (a) From the given data: ṁ = 0.05 kg/s, and take ρ = 1.205 kg/m3 and cv = 716 m2 /s2 ·K.
Since the duct is insulated, Q̇ = 0 J/s. The energy equation gives

p1 V2 p2 V2 1
+ α1 1 + 
z
1 = + α2 2 + z
2+ (u2 − u1 )
γ 2g γ 2g g
p1 − p2 (10 − 8)
→ u2 − u1 = → u2 − u1 = (1000) = 1660 J/kg
ρ 1.205

Using the specific heat, cv ,

u2 − u1 = cv (T2 − T1 ) → 1660 = 716(T2 − T1 ) → T2 − T1 = 2.32 K = 2.32◦ C

166
 (b) Applying the energy equation between sections immediately before and after the blower,
p1 1 2 p2 1 2 Ẇs
+ V1 +  gz
1 = + V2 +  gz
2+
ρ 2 ρ 2 ṁ
Ẇs p1 − p2 (10 − 8)(1000)
→ = = = 1660 J/kg
ṁ ρ 1.205
→ Ẇs = (1660)(0.05) = 83 J/s = 83 W

For 90% efficiency, the energy input is 83/0.9 = 92 W .

4.81. From the given data: V = 1.2 m/s, D = 300 mm = 0.3 m, and ∆p = 15 kPa. The flow rate,
Q, can be calculated as follows,
Q = 14 πD2 V = 41 π(0.3)2 (1.2) = 0.08482 m3 /s
The energy equation requires that
p1 V12
p2 V22
∆p
+
+z
1 = +
+z
2 + hℓ → hℓ =
γ
2g γ
2g γ
Therefore, the rate of energy loss (= power loss), P , is given by
( )
∆p
P = γQhℓ = γQ = Q∆p = (0.08482)(15) = 1.27 kW
γ

4.82. Denote the lower-elevation section as Section 1 and the higher-elevation section as Section 2.
From the given data: D = 200 mm, p1 = 400 kPa, p2 = 360 kPa, θ = 15◦ , and L = 10 m.
For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . In whatever direction flow occurs, the head loss, hℓ ,
must be positive. From the energy equation (noting that the velocities are the same at both
sections), and assuming flow is from Section 1 to 2 gives
( ) ( )
p1 − p2 400 − 360
hℓ = + (z1 − z2 ) = + (0 − 10 sin 15◦ ) = 1.50 m
γ 9.79

Therefore, flow from Section 1 to 2 is confirmed, and the head loss is 1.50 m .
4.83. From the given data: D1 = 250 mm, D2 = 400 mm, V1 = 2.0 m/s, ∆p = 50 kPa, and ∆z =
0 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are useful,
π π π π
A1 = D12 = (0.25)2 = 0.04909 m2 , A2 = D22 = (0.4)2 = 0.1257 m2
4 4 4 4
Q 0.09817
Q = V1 A1 = (2.0)(0.04909) = 0.09817 m3 /s, V2 = = = 0.7810 m/s
A2 0.1257
The energy equation gives the head loss, hℓ , across the valve as
p1 − p2 V12 − V22 50 2.02 − 0.78102
hℓ = + = + = 5.28 m
γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81)
The power loss, P , across the valve is given by
P = γQhℓ = (9.79)(0.09817)(5.28) = 5.07 kW

167
4.84. The energy equation is given by
∫
dQh dW
= + ρev · n dA
dt dt A
∫ ∫ ( )
V2
= pv · n dA + ρ gz + v · n dA
A A 2
[ ∫ ∫ ] [ ∫ ( )
V22
= (−V1 ) p1 dA + (V2 ) p2 dA + ρV2 gz + dA−
A1 A2 A2 2
∫ ( ) ]
V12
ρV1 gz + dA
A1 2

where V1 = 15/(3×5) = 1 m/s, V2 = 15/(2.79×5) = 1.08 m/s, b = 5 m, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The

change in internal energy between the upstream and downstream section has been neglected
in accordance with the problem statement. The energy equation becomes
[ ∫ 3
dQh
= (−1) γy1 (5) dy1 +
dt 0
∫ 2.79 ] [ ∫ 2.79 ( )
1.082
(1.08) γy2 (5) dy2 + (0.998)(1.08) 9.81(z + 0.2) + (5) dz−
0 0 2
∫ 3( ) ]
12
(0.998)(1) 9.81z + (5) dz
0 2
= [−220 + 206] + [5.39(4.91z 2 + 2.545z)2.79
0 − 4.99(4.91z 2 + 0.5z)30 ]
= [−14] + [244 − 228] = [−14] + [16] = 2 kW

4.85. From the given data: V1 = 1.8 m/s, D1 = 150 mm, p1 = 150 kPa, ∆z = 1.2 m, and D2 =
50 mm. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . Since the nozzle discharges to the atmosphere,
p2 = 0 kPa. Using the continuity equation, the exit velocity, V2 is given by

D12 1502
V2 = V1 = 1.8 = 16.2 m/s
D22 502

Using the given and derived data in the energy equation gives the head loss, hℓ , as follows,
[ ] [ ]
p1 V12 p2 V22
hℓ = + + z1 − + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
[ ] [ ]
150 1.82 16.22
= + +0 − 0+ + 1.2 = 0.911 m
9.79 2(9.81) 2(9.81)

4.86. From the given data: D1 = 150 mm, D2 = 75 mm, Q = 30 L/s = 0.03 m3 /s, p1 = 150 kPa,
p2 = 500 kPa, and T2 − T1 = 0.1◦ C = 0.1 K. For water at 20◦ C: ρ = 998 kg/m3 , γ =
9.79 kN/m3 , and c = 4187 J/kg·K. The head loss, hℓ , through the pump can be estimated by

c 4187
hℓ = (T2 − T1 ) = (0.1) = 42.69 m
g 9.807

168
 The following preliminary calculations are useful:
Q 0.03
A1 = 14 πD12 = 14 π(0.15)2 = 0.01767 m2 , V1 = = = 1.698 m/s
A1 0.01767
Q 0.03
A2 = 41 πD22 = 14 π(0.075)2 = 0.004418 m2 , V2 = = = 6.791 m/s
A2 0.004418
Taking α1 = α2 = 1, the energy equation gives
[ ] [ ]
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ α1 + z1 = + α2 + z2 + hℓ + hs
γ 2g γ 2g
[ ] [ ]
150 1.6982 500 6.7912
+ +0 = + + 0 + 42.69 + hs → hs = −80.65 m
9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)

The negative sign occurs since the pump does work on the water. The power input by the
pump, −Ẇs , is given by

−Ẇs = −ṁghs = −ρQghs = −(998)(0.03)(9.807)(−80.65) = 2.37 × 104 W = 23.7 kW

The percentage of the power input by the pump that goes towards raising the temperature
is given by

hℓ 42.69
percentage of pump power used to raise temperature = × 100 = × 100 = 53%
hs 80.65

4.87. The energy equation is given by

( ) ( )
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 = + α2 2 + z2 + hℓ
γ1 2g γ2 2g

Taking α1 = α2 = 1 and assuming that the inlet and outlet elevations are equal, z1 = z2 ,
then the energy equation can be expressed as
( ) ( )
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ = + + hℓ
γ1 2g γ2 2g

Comparing this equation with the equation used to calculate the pressures in Problem 4.26
gives that hℓ = 0. Hence the rate of energy loss (= γQhℓ ) is zero .

4.88. From the given data: ∆z = 40 m, Q = 100 L/s = 0.1 m3 /s, D1 = 100 mm, p1 = 150 kPa,
D2 = 80 mm, and θ = 50◦ . For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The following preliminary
calculations are useful,
π 2 π Q 0.1
A1 = D = (0.1)2 = 0.007854 m2 , V1 = = = 12.73 m/s
4 1 4 A1 0.007854
π 2 π Q 0.1
A2 = D = (0.08)2 = 0.005027 m2 , V2 = = = 19.89 m/s
4 2 4 A1 0.005027

169
 Let V3 be the velocity at the maximum elevation of the jet. Note that V3 is in the horizontal
direction, and the only force acting on the jet is gravity, which acts in the vertical direction,
hence
V3 = V2 cos θ (1)
Applying the energy equation between the hydrant and the maximum elevation of the jet,
and neglecting energy losses gives
[ ] [ ]
p1 V12 p3 V32
+ + z1 + hp = + + z3 (2)
γ 2g γ 2g
Combining Equations 1 and 2, and noting that p2 = 0 kPa gives
(V2 cos θ)2 p1 V12
hp = + (z3 − z1 ) − −
2g γ 2g
(19.89 cos 50◦ )2 150 12.732
→ hp = + 40 − −
2(9.807) 9.789 2(9.807)

→ hp = 24.8 m

The power, P , to drive the pump can be estimated by

P = γQhp = (9.789)(0.1)(24.75) = 24.2 kW

4.89. The Bernoulli equation was used to calculate the pressures in Problem 4.35, hence zero head
loss was assumed. Therefore, using the calculated results from Problem 4.35 must lead to a
rate of energy loss equal to zero .

4.90. Applying the energy equation to the pool, where h is the depth of water in the pool, yields
L Q2 Q2
h−f = (1)
D 2gA2 2gA2
where the small distance between the bottom of the pool and the centerline of the drain pipe
is neglected. From the given data: D = 3 cm = 0.030 m, f = 0.022, L = 25 m, and A =
πD2 /4 = π(0.03)2 /4 = 0.0007069 m2 . Substituting into Equation 1 and rearranging gives
[ ]
25 Q2
h = 1 + 0.022 = 1.971 × 106 Q2
0.030 2(9.81)(0.0007069)2
which can be put in the form √
Q = 7.12 × 10−4 h (2)
The continuity equation requires that:
dV dh π dh π dh dh
Q=− = −A = D2 = (10)2 = −25π (3)
dt dt 4 dt 4 dt dt
Combining Equations 2 and 3 yields
dh √
−25π = 7.12 × 10−4 h
dt

170
 ∫ 0 ∫ t0
− 12
h dh = − 9.067 × 10−6 dt
2 0

1 0
2h 2  = 9.067 × 10−6 [t0 − 0]
2
2[0 − 2 ] = 9.067 × 10−6 t0
1 1
2 2

which yields t0 = 311947 s = 86.7 h .

4.91. From the given data: Q = 0.025 m3 /s, D1 = 6 cm, D2 = 11 cm, hL = 0.45 m, and α1 = α2 =
1.05. The energy equation requires that

p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 = + α2 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g

which can be put in the form

[ ]
V2 V2
p2 − p1 = γ α1 1 − α2 2 + (z2 − z1 ) − hL (1)
2g 2g

From the given data,

π 2 π π 2 π
A1 = D = (0.06)2 = 0.002827 m2 , A2 = D = (0.11)2 = 0.009503 m2
4 1 4 4 2 4
Q 0.025 Q 0.025
V1 = = = 8.843 m/s, V2 = = = 2.631 m/s
A1 0.002827 A2 0.009503
z1 = z2

Substituting the given and derived data into Equation 1 gives

[ ]
(8.843)2 (2.631)2
p2 − p1 = (9.789) (1.05) − (1.05) + 0 − 0.45
2(9.807) 2(9.807)

which yields p2 − p1 = 32.9 kPa .

4.92. From the given data: D = 150 mm, Q = 1600 L/min = 0.025 m3 /s, p1 = 30 kPa, p2 = 300 kPa,
and Pin = 8 kW. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . The head, hp , and the power, P ,
added to the water as it moves through the pump are given by
p2 − p1 300 − 30
hp = = = 27.58 m, P = γQhp = (9.789)(0.025)(27.58) = 6.75 kW
γ 9.789

Therefore, the efficiency, η, of the pump under this operating condition is given by
P 6.75
η= × 100 = × 100 = 84%
Pin 8

4.93. From the given data: Q = 1 m3 /s, D = 0.50 m, ∆z = 5 m, and η = 0.80. Assume γ =
9.79 kN/m3 .

171
 (a) The energy equation requires that

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 + hp − hL = + + z2 (1)
γ 2g γ 2g
From the given data:

p1 = 0 kPa, p2 = 0 kPa
π 2 π
A= D = (0.50)2 = 0.1963 m2 , V1 = 0 m/s
4 4
Q 1
V2 = = = 5.09 m/s, z1 = 0 m
A 0.1963
z2 = 5 m, hL = 1.05Q2 = 1.05(1)2 = 1.05 m

Substitute these parameters into Equation 1 gives

0 02 0 (5.09)2
+ + 0 + hp − 1.05 = + +5
γ 2g γ 2g

which yields hp = 7.37 m and hence the power requirement, P , (where 1 hp = 745.7 W)
is
γQhp (9.79)(1)(7.37)
P = = = 90.2 kW = 121 hp
η 0.80
(b) With a 0.25-m diameter nozzle at the discharge location, all parameters remain the same
except the discharge area and exit velocity, in this case
π 2 π Q 1
A= D = (0.50)2 = 0.04909 m2 , V2 = = = 20.37 m/s
4 4 A 0.04909
Substitute into Equation 1 gives

0 02 0 (20.37)2
+ + 0 + hp − 1.05 = + +5
γ 2g γ 2g

which yields hp = 27.20 m and hence the power requirement, P , (where 1 hp = 745.7 W)
is
γQhp (9.79)(1)(27.20)
P = = = 333 kW = 447 hp
η 0.80

4.94. From the given data: Ẇp = 30 kW, ∆z = 15 m, and hℓ = 6 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ =
9.79 kN/m3 . The head added by the pump, hp , is given by

Ẇp 30 3.064
hp = = = m
γQ (9.79)Q Q

The energy equation, Equation 4.156, requires that

3.064
zs1 + hpump = zs2 + hℓ → hpump = (zs2 − zs1 ) + hℓ → = 15 + 6 → Q = 0.146 m3 /s
Q

172
 The power loss, Pℓ , and the fraction of input power that is lost, fℓ are given by
Pℓ = γQhℓ = (9.79)(0.146)(6) = 8.57 kW
8.57
fℓ = × 100 = 28.6%
30

4.95. From the given data: ∆z = 10 m, Q = 15 L/s = 0.015 m3 /s, and P = 5 kW. For water at
20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . Denoting the air pressure in the upper reservoir by pu , the energy
equation gives
pu pu
0 + hp = + ∆z → hp = + ∆z
γ γ
The power, P , delivered to the water is given by
( )
pu
P = γQhp → P = γQ + ∆z
γ
Substituting the given values yields
( p )
u
5 = (9.79)(0.015) + 10 → pu = 235 kPa
9.79

4.96. From the given data: D = 200 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 0.03142 m2 , ∆z1 = 2 m, and ∆z2 = 5 m.
(a) Consider the case where the water surface in the terminal reservoir is 2 m below the
water surface in the source reservoir. The energy equation gives
z1 + hp = z2 + hℓ

V2 Q2
0 + 18(1 − 100Q2 ) = −2 + 3 = −2 + 3
2g 2gA2
Q2
0 + 18(1 − 100Q2 ) = −2 + 3 → Q = 0.1011 m3 /s = 101 L/s
2(9.81)(0.03142)2
(b) Consider the case where the water discharges freely 5 m below the water surface in the
source reservoir. The energy equation gives
V2
z1 + hp = + z2 + hℓ
2g
V2 V2 Q2
0 + 18(1 − 100Q2 ) = + (−5) + 3 = −5 + 4
2g 2g 2gA2
Q2
18(1 − 100Q2 ) = −5 + 4 → Q = 0.1071 m3 /s = 107 L/s
2(9.81)(0.03142)2

4.97. From the given data: D1 = 125 mm, D2 = 75 mm, Q = 40 L/s = 0.04 m3 /s, p1 = 150 kPa,
p2 = 450 kPa, hℓ = 18 m, and ηmotor = 0.90. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The
following preliminary calculations are useful,
π π π π
A1 = D12 = (0.125)2 = 0.01227 m2 , A2 = D22 = (0.075)2 = 0.004418 m2
4 4 4 4

173
 Q 0.04 Q 0.04
V1 = = = 3.26 m/s, V2 = = = 9.054 m/s
A1 0.01227 A2 0.004418
The energy equation gives the head added by the pump, hp , as
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
p2 V22 p1 V12 450 9.0542 150 3.262
hp = + − + = + − + = 34.28 m
γ 2g γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)
Using this result yields the following:

head delivered by impeller = 34.28 m + 18 m = 52.28 m

52.28
head delivered to motor, hT = = 58.09 m
0.9
power delivered to motor = γQhT = (9.79)(0.04)(58.09) = 22.8 kW
34.28
efficiency of pump/motor system = × 100 = 59.0%
58.09

4.98. From the given data: D1 = 400 mm, D2 = 500 mm, Q = 1 m3 /s, and P = 100 kW. For water
at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 , and ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are
useful:
πD12 π(0.4)2 πD22 π(0.5)2
A1 = = = 0.1257 m2 , A2 = = = 0.1963 m2
4 4 4 4
Q 1 Q 1
V1 = = = 7.958 m/s, V2 = = = 5.093 m/s
A1 0.1257 A2 0.1963
The head, ht , extracted by the turbine is given by
P 100
ht = = = 10.22 m
γQ (9.789)(1)
Using ht , in the energy equation gives
( ) ( )
p1 V12 p2 V22
ht = + − + → p1 − p2 = γht + 21 ρ(V22 − V12 )
γ 2g γ 2g
Substituting the values of the given and derived parameters into the above equation yields

p1 − p2 = (9.780)(10.22) + 21 (998.2)(5.0932 − 7.9582 )[×10−3 kPa/Pa] = 81.3 kPa

4.99. From the given data: z1 = 110 m, z2 = 85 m, V2 = 1 m/s, η = 0.80, and P = 1 MW =

1000 kW. Using the given data,
127.7
P = ηγQhT → 1000 = 0.8(9.79)QhT → hT =
Q
The energy equation gives
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hT + hL
γ 2g γ 2g

174
 12 127.7
0 + 0 + 110 = 0 + + 85 + + 0.0826Q2
2(9.81) Q
127.7
24.95 = + 0.0826Q2
Q

which yields Q = 13.8 m3 /s or 5.75 m3 /s .

4.100. From the given data: D = 1 m, and z1 = 30 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 .

(a) Consider the case where Q = 10 m3 /s. The following preliminary calculations are useful:

π 2 π 2 Q 10
A= D = (1) = 0.7854 m2 , V = = = 12.73 m/s
4 4 A 0.7854
V2 12.732
= = 8.260 m
2g 2(9.81)

Applying the energy equation between the reservoir and the free discharge gives

V2 V2 V2 V2
z1 = + z 2 + ht + hℓ = + z2 + ht + 0.8 = 1.8 + z 2 + ht
2g 2g 2g 2g
30 = 1.8(8.260) + 0 + ht → ht = 15.13 m

Therefore, the power, P , extracted by the turbine is given by

P = γQht = (9.79)(10)(15.13) = 1481 kW = 1.48 MW

(b) Consider the case where there is no turbine. Applying the energy equation between the
reservoir and the free discharge gives

V2 V2 V2 V2
z1 = + z2 + hℓ = + z2 + 0.8 = 1.8 + z2
2g 2g 2g 2g
V2
30 = 1.8 → V = 18.08 m/s
2(9.81)

This corresponds to a discharge, Q, given by

Q = AV = (0.7854)(18.08) = 14.2 m3 /s

4.101. From the given data: D1 = 1.2 m, D2 = 1.7 m, ∆z = 4 m, Q = 6 m3 /s, p1 = 450 kPa,
p2 = −30 kPa, and hℓ = 20 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The following preliminary
calculations are useful,
π 2 π π 2 π
A1 = D = (1.2)2 = 1.131 m2 , A2 = D = (1.7)2 = 2.270 m2
4 1 4 4 2 4
Q 6 Q 6
V1 = = = 5.305 m/s, V2 = = = 2.643 m/s
A1 1.131 A2 2.270

175
 Applying the energy equation between the inflow and outflow sections gives,
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + ht + hℓ
γ 2g γ 2g
450 5.3052 −30 2.6432
+ +4= + + 0 + ht + 20 → ht = 34.11 m
9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)
Therefore, the power, P , delivered to the turbine is given by
P = γQht = (9.79)(6)(34.11) = 2.004 × 103 kW = 2.00 MW

4.102. From the given data: ∆z = 979 m. The specific heat of water can be taken as c = 4187 J/kg·K.
Noting that hpump = 0, hturb = 0, and zs1 − zs2 = ∆z, the energy equation (Equation 4.156)
gives
zs1 +   = zs2 + 
hpump + h
hturb → hℓ = zs1 − zs2 = ∆z = 979 m
ℓ

For adiabatic conditions, the temperature change, ∆T , can be derived from the head loss, hℓ ,
as follows
c 4187
hℓ = ∆T → 979 = ∆T → ∆T = 2.29 K = 2.29◦ C
g 9.81
It is highly unlikely that conditions will be adiabatic during the water fall, so this temperature
increase is unlikely to be realistic.
4.103. From the given data: V = (10)(10)(3) = 300 m3 , D = 100 mm, and ∆p = 2 kPa. For air
at standard conditions, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Applying the energy equation to a control volume
where the inflow surface is in the room (where V1 ≈ 0) and the outflow surface is at the
outside-side of the vent gives
√ [ ]
1 V1
2
1 V2
2
1 V2
2 V22 0.1 −1
p1 + 2 ρ = p2 + 2 ρ + hℓ → ∆p = 2 ρ + 0.1 → V2 = ∆p 2 ρ + 1
2g 2g 2g 2g 2g
Substituting the given data yields
√ [ ]−1
0.1
V2 = (2 × 103 ) 1
2 (1.225) + = 56.92 m/s
2(9.81)
The volume flow rate, Q, through the vent and the time, tex , to completely exchange air in
the room are given by
( ) ( )
Q = V2 A = V2 14 πD2 = (56.92) 41 π 0.12 = 0.4470 m3 /s
V 300
tex = = = 671 s = 11.2 min
Q 0.4470

4.104. From the given data: ∆h = 200 kJ/kg. Since the flow is adiabatic, there is no shaft work
done within the nozzle, and gravitational effects are negligible, the energy equation (Equation
4.158) gives

h1 + 12 V12 = h2 + 12 V22 → ∆h = 12 V22 → 200 × 103 = 21 V22 → V2 = 632 m/s

176
4.105. From the given data: ṁ = 1 kg/s, T1 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K, p1 = 101.3 kPa, T2 = 150◦ C =
423.15 K, p2 = 600 kPa, and V2 = 120 m/s. For standard air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, and cp =
1003 J/kg·K. The following preliminary calculations are useful:
p1 101 × 103 p2 600 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.221 kg/m3 , ρ2 = = = 4.939 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(288) RT2 (287.1)(423.15)
Since the mass flux is the same at the inflow and outflow sides, and the inflow and outflow
ducts are of the same size,
ρ2 4.939
A
ṁ = ρ1 V1 A
1 = ρ2 V22 → v1 = V2 = (120) = 485.4 m/s
ρ1 1.221
Applying the energy equation in the form of Equation 4.163 yields
[ ] [ ]
Ẇ s Q̇
gz 2 + cp (T2 − T1 ) +
gz −
1 2 1 2
2 V1 +  1 = 2 V2 + 
ṁ ṁ
[ ]
Ẇs
→ 1
2 (485.4)
2
= 1
2 (120)
2
+ (1003)(423.15 − 288.15) + −0
1

→ Ẇs = −2.478 × 104 W = −24.8 kW

Therefore, the energy input to the turbomachine is 24.8 kW .

4.106. From the given data: V1 ≈ 0, p1 = 101 kPa, T1 = 25◦ C = 298.15 K, D2 = 300 mm, A2 =
πD22 /4 = 7.069 × 10−2 m2 , p2 = 400 kPa, T2 = 50◦ C = 323.15 K, ṁ = 10 kg/s, and P =
500 kW. For standard air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. The following preliminary calculations are
useful:
p2 400 × 103
ρ2 = = = 4.311 kg/m3
RT2 (287.1)(323.15)
ṁ 10
V2 = = = 32.81 m/s
ρ2 A 2 (4.311)(7.069 × 10−2
Using the energy equation in the form of Equation 4.163 gives
[ ] [ ]
1  P Q̇
gz gz2 + cp (T2 − T1 ) + −
2 1 2
2 V1 + 
 1 = 2 V2 + 
ṁ ṁ

→ Q̇ = ṁcp (T2 − T1 ) + 12 ṁV22 + P

→ Q̇ = (10)(1003)(323.15 − 298.15) + 12 (10)(32.81)2 + 500 × 103

→ Q̇ = 7.561 × 105 W = 756 kW

4.107. From the given data: D = 0.8 m, Pmotor = 1 kW = 1000 W, and V = 10 m/s. For air
under standard conditions, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and γ = 12.01 N/m3 . Using these data gives
the following,
π π
A = D2 = (0.8)2 = 0.5027 m2 , Q = V A = 10(0.5027) = 5.027 m3 /s
4 4

177
 Applying the energy equation between the source (= large room) and the fan exit gives the
head added by the fan, hfan , as
V2 102
hfan = = = 5.097 m
2g 2(9.81)
The power added to the air, Pair , by the fan is given by

Pair = γQhfan = (12.01)(5.027)(5.097) = 307.7 W

Therefore, the efficiency, η, of the fan-motor system is given by

Pair 307.7
η= × 100 = × 100 = 30.8%
Pmotor 1000

4.108. From the given data: V = 200 L, T0 = 18◦ C = 291 K, p0 = 600 kPa, and ṁ0 = 0.02 kg/s.
For standard air: R = 287.1 J/kg·K and cv = 716 J/kg·K. Applying the energy equation,
Equation 4.167, with the tank as the control volume gives
∫ ( ) ( ) ( )
∂
Q̇ − Ẇs = 1 2
V + gz +u ρ dV+ ṁ h + gz + α 1 2
V − ṁ h +gz +α 1 2
V
|{z} |{z} ∂t cv |{z} 2 |{z} 2 2 2
|{z} | {z2 2 2
} |{z}1 1 1 1 2 1
= 0 = 0 ≈ 0 = 0 = 0 ≈ 0 = 0

Taking h2 = p/ρ + u, where the quantities without subscripts refer to the values of the
quantities in the tank, the energy equation simplifies to
∫ (p )
d
0= uρ dV + ṁ +u (1)
dt cv ρ
where ṁ is the mass flow rate out of the tank, previously represented by ṁ2 . Representing
the mass of air in the tank as M , and noting that p/ρ = RT and du = cp dT , Equation 1
gives
d dM du
0= (uM ) + ṁ(RT + u) → 0=u +M + ṁ(RT + u)
dt dt dt
dT
→ 0 = uṁ + M cv + ṁ(RT + u)
dt
dT ṁ[RT + u + u] dT ṁ[RT + 2cv T ]
→ =− → =− (2)
dt M cv dt M cv
To calculate the initial rate of change of temperature when the valve is first opened, the
following calculated variables are used:
p0 600 × 103
ρ0 = = = 7.182 kg/m3 , M0 = ρ0 V = (7.182)(0.2) = 1.436 kg
RT0 (287.1)(291)
At the instant that the valve is opened, ṁ = ṁ0 and M = M0 , and substituting these initial
values into Equation 4.169 gives

dT  ṁ0 [RT + 2cv T0 ]
 =−
dt t=0 M0 cv

178
 
dT  (0.02)[(287.1)(291) + 2(716)(291)]
→ =− = −9.73 K/s = −9.73 ◦ C/s
dt t=0 (1.436)(716)

Therefore, it is expected that the temperature of the air in the tank will initially decrease at
the rate of 9.73 ◦ C/s .

179
180
Chapter 5

Differential Analysis

5.1. (a) Using the given data, the following preliminary calculations of the velocity gradients at
Point 2 are useful:

∂u  u3 − u1 5.85 − 3.23
 ≈ = = 8.733 s−1
∂x 2 2∆x 2(0.15)

∂u  u4 − u2 3.51 − 4.18
≈ = = −4.467 s−1
∂y 2 ∆y 0.15
The x component of the acceleration at Point 2, ax2 , is calculated as follows:
 
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u  ∂u 
ax2 =  + u +v ≈ u2 + v2
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x 2 ∂y 2

→ ax2 = (4.18)(8.733) + (0.52)(−4.467) = 34.2 m/s2

Applying the two-dimensional (incompressible) continuity equation at Point 2 gives

 
∂u ∂y ∂v  ∂u 
+ =0 → =− = −8.733 s−1
∂x ∂y ∂y 2 ∂x 2
Hence, the y component of the velocity at Point 4 can be estimated as

∂v 
v4 = v2 + ∆y = 0.52 + (−8.733)(0.15) = −0.79 m/s
∂y 2

5.2. From the given information: u = 10(x2 + y 2 ), and v = 10xy. At (x, y) = (3, 2), the density of
the fluid is 1.7 kg/m3 . The two-dimensional continuity equation as given by Equation 5.28
requires that
[ ] [ ]
∂ ∂ Dρ ∂u ∂v Dρ ∂u ∂v
(ρu) + (ρv) = 0 → +ρ + =0 → = −ρ +
∂x ∂x Dt ∂x ∂y Dt ∂x ∂y
Substituting the derivatives of the given velocity field into this relationship and evaluating it
at (x, y) = (3, 2) gives:
Dρ
= −ρ [20x + 10x] = −30xρ = −30(3)(1.7) = 153 kg/m3 /s
Dt

181
5.3. The components of the velocity vector are
u = 5xy, v = 2yz, w = 3xz 2
and the partial derivatives of the velocity vector are
∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V
= 0, = 5yi + 3z 2 k, = 5xi + 2zj, = 2yj + 6xzk
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
The acceleration field is therefor given by
a = (5xy)(5yi + 3z 2 k) + (2yz)(5xi + 2zj) + (3xz 2 )(2yj + 6xk)
which can be expressed in component form as

a = 5xy(5y + 2z)i + 2yz 2 (2 + 3x)j + 3xz 2 (5y + 6x)k

The velocity and acceleration at (x, y, z) = (1,4,2) are

V = 30i + 6j + 6k , and a = 510i + 48j + 162k

5.4. Since the flow is at steady state, and the velocity near the centerline of the nozzle only has
and x component, then the acceleration, ax , is given by
[ ]
du 8 0 − 8(−1) 64
ax = u = = m/s2
dx 1 − x (1 − x) 2 (1 − x)3
Substituting x = 0.3 m yields
64
ax = = 187 m/s2
(1 − 0.3)3

5.6. For the given velocity field,

∂v ∂u
u = 1.1 + 3.0x + 0.74y, v = 0.9 − 2.5x − 5.3y → = −2.5, = 0.74
∂x ∂y
Flow is in the xy plane so the vorticity, if any, only has a z component, ζz . Equation 5.15
gives ( )
∂v ∂u
ζz = 2ωz = − = (−2.5 − 74) = −3.24 → ζ = −3.24 k
∂x ∂y
Since ζ ̸= 0, the flow is rotational .
5.7. From the given data: u = x2 m/s, and v = −2xy m/s. The rate of rotation around an axis in
the z direction is given by Equation 5.11 as
[ ] [ ]
1 ∂v ∂u 1 ∂ ∂ 2 1
ωz = − = (−2xy) − (x ) = [−2y − 0] = −y rad/s
2 ∂x ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y 2
Therefore, at (0.5 m, 0.5 m), the angular rotation is given by

ωz = −(0.5) rad/s = −0.5 rad/s → |ωz | = 0.5 rad/s

Since the sign of ωz is negative, the rotation is in the clockwise direction.

182
 5.8. For the given velocity field,

∂v ∂u
u = 5 + 2x, v = −2y → = 0, =0
∂x ∂y

Flow is in the xy plane so the rotation, if any, only has a z component, ωz . Equation 5.11
gives
( )
1 ∂v ∂u 1
ωz = − = (0 − 0) = 0
2 ∂x ∂y 2

Hence, the flow within the duct is irrotational .

5.9. For the given velocity field: u = 2(x2 + y 2 ) and v = 3(x2 − y 2 ). The angular deformation in
the xy-plane is given by

∂v ∂u ∂ ∂
Ωxy = + = [3(x2 − y 2 )] + [2(x2 + y 2 )] = 6x − 4y
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Therefore, at (x, y) = (3,2), Ωxy = 6(3) − 4(2) = 10 rad/s . Ωxy = 0 at all points along the
line where 6x = 4y ≡ y = 1.5x .

5.10. ( )
1 ∂v ∂u 1
ωz = − = (2 − (−1)) = 1.5 rad/s
2 ∂x ∂y 2

5.11. From the given data: h = 20 mm = 0.020 m, and V = 3 m/s. Use Cartesian coordinates, take
the x direction as the direction of flow, and the z direction as vertically upward. The velocity
distribution can therefore be expressed as

z ∂u ∂w
u=3 = 150z m/s, w=0 → = 150 rad/s, =0
0.02 ∂z ∂x

(a) Since the flow is in the xz plane, the only nonzero component of the angular rotation is
in the y direction. Equation 5.11 gives the angular rotation in the y direction as
( )
1 ∂u ∂w 1
ωz = − = (150 − 0) = 75 rad/s → ω = 75 j rad/s
2 ∂z ∂x 2

Since the vorticity is equal to twice the rate of rotation,

ζ = 2ω = 2(75 j) → ζ = 150 j rad/s

(b) Since the flow is in the xz plane, the only nonzero component of the angular rotation is
the xz component. Equation 5.18 gives the rate of angular deformation in the xz plane
as
∂w ∂u
Ωxz = + = 0 + 150 = 150 rad/s → Ωxz = 150 rad/s
∂x ∂z

183
5.12. From the given data: u = 4 m/s, v = −3 m/s, x = 1 m, and y = 2 m. The transformations to
polar coordinates are as follows:
√ √
r= x2 + y 2 = 12 + 22 = 2.24 m

θ = tan−1 (y/x) = tan−1 (2/1) = 63.4◦ = 1.11 rad

vr = u cos θ + v sin θ = (4) cos(63.4◦ ) + (−3) sin(63.4◦ ) = −0.894 m/s

vθ = −u sin θ + v cos θ = −(4) sin(63.4◦ ) + (−3) cos(63.4◦ ) = −4.92 m/s

5.13. From the given data: vr = 3 m/s, vθ = −2 m/s, r = 3.5 m, and θ = 50◦ . The transformations
to Cartesian coordinates are as follows:

x = r cos θ = (3.5) cos 50◦ = 2.25 m

y = r sin θ = (3.5) sin 50◦ = 2.68 m

u = vr cos θ − vθ sin θ = (3) cos(50◦ ) − (−2) sin(50◦ ) = 3.46 m/s

v = vr sin θ + vθ cos θ = (3) sin(50◦ ) + (−2) cos(50◦ ) = 1.01 m/s

5.14. The components of the velocity field can be expressed in Cartesian coordinates as:
[ ]
4
u(r) = U0 1 − 2 (y 2 + z 2 ) , v = 0, w=0
D

Using Equations 5.17 and 5.18, the rates of angular deformation are derived as follows:
[ ]
∂v ∂u 8U0 y 8U0 y
Ωxy = + = [0] + − 2 → Ωxy = −
∂x ∂y D D2
[ ]
∂w ∂u 8U0 z 8U0 z
Ωxz = + = [0] + − 2 → Ωxz = −
∂x ∂z D D2
∂w ∂v
Ωyz = + = [0] + [0] → Ωyz = 0
∂y ∂z

5.15. For the given velocity field: u = 2xz, v = −3yz, and w = xy. The dilatation rate is given by

∂u ∂v ∂w ∂ ∂ ∂
dilatation rate = + + = [2xz] + [−3yz] + [xy] = 2z − 3z + 0 = −z
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

Hence, at (x, y, z) = (2,3,1), the dilatation rate is −(1) = −1 s−1 . Since the dilatation rate is
less than zero, the flow is compressible and a fluid element is contracting when located at
(2,3,1).

184
5.16. From the given data: T = 25◦ C = 298 K. For methane (CH4 ), cp = 2250 J/kg·K, cv =
1730 J/kg·K, and R = 518 J/kg·K (from Appendix B.5). From these data, k = cp /cv = 1.30.
Substituting in Equation 5.34 gives
√ √
c = RT k = (518)(298)(1.30) = 448 m/s

In accordance with Equation 5.33, the flow can be assumed incompressible when Ma < 0.3,
which requires that
V < 0.3c = 0.3(448) → V < 134 m/s

5.17. From the given data: u = 0, v = z(z 2 −3y 2 ), and w = y(3z 2 −y 2 ). If the fluid is incompressible,
then the continuity equation as given by Equation 5.42 must be satisfied. Substituting the
given velocity components into Equation 5.42 gives:

∂u ∂v ∂w ∂ ∂ [ 2 ] ∂w [ ]
+ + =0 → [0] + z(z − 3y 2 ) + y(3z 2 − y 2 ) = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
→ 0 − 6yz + 6yz = 0 → 0=0

Since the incompressible continuity equation is satisfies, the fluid is incompressible .

5.18. From the given velocity field the following relationships can be determined:

q 1
vr = V cos θ + , vθ = −V sin θ
2π r
q 1 ∂(rvr ) V
rvr = V r cos θ + , = cos θ
2π r ∂r r
1 ∂vθ V
= − cos θ
r ∂θ r
If the fluid is incompressible, then the above relations satisfy the incompressible continuity
equation (Equation refc311) given by

1 ∂(rvr ) 1 ∂(vθ )
+ =0
r ∂r r ∂θ
Substituting the relationships derived from the given velocity field yields

V V
cos θ − cos θ = 0
r r

Since the flow field satisfies the incompressible continuity equation , the fluid is incompress-
ible.

5.19. (a) Since the fluid is incompressible, the continuity equation must be satisfied, which requires
that
∂u ∂v
+ =0 (1)
∂x ∂y

185
 The following preliminary calculation will turn out to be useful:
[ ( νx ) 1 ] ( ν )1 ( )
dδ d 2 2 1 δ
= 4.91 = 2.455 = (2)
dx dx V Vx 2 x
From the given x-component of the velocity and using Equation 2:
[ ( ) ( ) ] [ ] [ ]
∂u ∂ y y 2 ∂u V V
=V 2 − → = − y+ y2
∂x ∂x δ δ ∂x xδ xδ 2
Combining this result with the continuity equation given by Equation 1 gives
[ ] [ ] [ ]
∂v V V 1 y
= y− y 2
→ v = V y 2
− + f (x)
∂y xδ xδ 2 2xδ 3xδ 2
Since v = 0 at y = 0, then this requires that f (x) = 0 and so the y-component of the
velocity can be expressed in the following normalized form:
v 1 ( y ) ( y ) 1 ( y ) ( y )2
= −
V 2 x δ 3 x δ
(b) Combining the analytic expressions for u and v gives
1 ( y ) ( y ) 1 ( y ) ( y )2
v −
= 2 x (δ ) 3( x)2 δ
u y y
2 −
δ δ
Setting y = δ and simplifying, gives
v  0.8183
 = 1
u y=δ Re 2
Putting v/u = 0.1 and solving for Re yields Re = 67. Therefore, when Re ≤ 67 then v
is less than10% of u.
5.20. From the given information: v = 2x2 . Since the flow is incompressible, the continuity equation
must be satisfied such that:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂ ∂u
+ =0 → + (2x2 ) = 0 → = 0 → u = f (y)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
Applying the boundary condition that u(0, y) = 0 requires that

0 = f (y) → f (y) = 0 → u(x, y) = 0

5.21. From the given data: u = ax2 z, v = bxz 2 , and w = cxz 2 + d. The incompressible continuity
equation (Equation 5.42) requires that
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Substituting the given velocity field yields
2axz + 0 + 2cxz = 0 → a = −c
Therefore, for the given flow field to be incompressible requires that a = −c .

186
5.22. From the given data: u = ayz − bxy 2 and w = 2az + bxz + cx2 . The incompressible continuity
equation (Equation 5.42) requires that
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Substituting the given velocity field yields
[ ]
∂v ∂v
(−by 2 ) + + (2a + bx) = 0 → = by 2 − 2a − bx
∂y ∂y

b
→ v = y 3 − 2ay + bxy + f (x, z)
3
where f (x, z) is any function of x and z.

5.23. For the given velocity field: u = 5xy 2 , v = 2xz, and w = xzf (x, y). Hence,
∂u ∂v ∂w
= 5y 2 , = 0, = xf (x, y)
∂x ∂y ∂z
For the incompressible continuity equation to be satisfied,

∂u ∂v ∂w y2
+ + =0 → 5y 2 + 0 + xf (x, y) = 0 → f (x, y) = −5
∂x ∂y ∂z x

5.24. (a) From the given data: v = 3y. The continuity equation for an incompressible flow as
given by Equation 5.42 requires that
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u
+ =0 → +3=0 → = −3 → u = −3x + f (y)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x
Therefore, the required functional form of the velocity field, v(x, y), is given by

v = [−3x + f (y)]i + 3yj

(b) Any f (y) can be used to mathematically satisfy the continuity requirement. A partic-
ular example could be f (y) = sin 5y, in which case the velocity field is

v = [−3x + sin 5y]i + 3yj

5.25. From the given data: u = 2xy 2 + 3y. Since the flow is two-dimensional, w = 0. Since the
fluid is incompressible, the continuity equation (Equation 5.42) requires that
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂u ∂v
+ +  =0 → + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y
Substituting the given velocity field,
∂ ( ) ∂v ∂v ∂v
2xy 2 + 3y + = 0 → 2y 2 + =0→ = −2y 2 → v = − 23 y 3 + f (x)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y

187
5.26. (a) If the flow field is incompressible, then the continuity equation given by Equation 5.46
must be satisfied such that

1 ∂(rvr ) 1 ∂(vθ ) ∂(vz )

+ + =0
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
Substituting the given velocity field into the continuity equation requires that

1 ∂( 12 r2 sin θ) 1 ∂(3r cos θ) ∂(2z sin θ)

+ + =0
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
→ sin θ − 3 sin θ + 2 sin θ = 0

Since the incompressible continuity equation is satisfied, the flow is incompressible .

(b) The fluid need not be incompressible for the flow field to be incompressible. The fact
that no significant changes in density occurs could be simply be a result of the pressure
variations within the flow field being too small to cause significant density changes.

5.27. From the given data: vθ = −C sin θ/r2 . Since the flow is two-dimensional, w = 0. Since the
fluid is incompressible, the continuity equation (Equation 5.46) requires that

1 ∂(rvr ) 1 ∂(vθ ) ∂(vz ) 1 ∂(rvr ) 1 ∂(vθ )

+ + =0 → + =0
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z r ∂r r ∂θ
Substituting the given velocity field,
[ ] [ ]
1 ∂(rvr ) 1 −C cos θ 1 ∂(rvr ) −C cos θ
+ =0 → + =0
r ∂r r r2 r ∂r r3
∂(rvr ) C cos θ C cos θ
→ = → rvr = − + f (θ)
∂r r2 r
C cos θ 1
→ vr = − + f (θ)
r2 r

5.28. From the given data: vr = r2 sin θ + r cos θ. Since the fluid is incompressible, the continuity
equation (Equation 5.46) requires that

1 ∂(rvr ) 1 ∂(vθ ) ∂(vz ) ∂(rvr ) ∂(vθ )

+ + =0 → + =0
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z ∂r ∂θ
Substituting the given velocity field,

∂ 3 ∂vθ ∂vθ
(r sin θ + r2 cos θ) + =0 → (3r2 sin θ + 2r cos θ) + =0
∂r ∂θ ∂θ
∂vθ
→ = −3r2 sin θ − 2r cos θ → vθ = 3r2 cos θ − 2r sin θ + f (r)
∂θ

188
5.29. The incompressible-flow continuity equation given by Equation 5.46 requires that
1 ∂(rvr ) 1 ∂(vθ ) ∂(rvr ) ∂(vθ ) ∂(rvr ) ∂(vθ )
 +  =0 → + =0 → =−
r ∂r r ∂θ ∂r ∂θ ∂r ∂θ
Substituting the given function vθ (r, θ) and simplifying gives
( )
∂(rvr ) 1 10 sin θ
= 10 1 + 2 sin θ → rvr = 10r sin θ − + f (θ)
∂r r 3 r3
10 sin θ f (θ)
→ vr = 10 sin θ − + (1)
3 r4 r
Applying the boundary condition that vr (1, θ) = 0 gives
10 sin θ f (θ) 10 20
0 = 10 sin θ − + → f (θ) = sin θ − 10 sin θ = − sin θ (2)
3 14 1 3 3
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives

10 sin θ 20
vr = 10 sin θ − − sin θ
3 r4 3

5.30. From the given data: T1 = 15◦ C = 288 K, p1 = 400 kPa, u1 = 90 m/s, ∆x = 300 mm, and
u2 = 94 m/s. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. Calculate the density at A using the ideal-gas law:

p1 400 × 103
ρ1 = = = 4.838 kg/m3 ≈ 4.84 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(288)
The following preliminary calculation is useful to estimate the velocity gradient along the
pipe:
du u2 − u1 94 − 90
≈ = = 13.33 s−1
dx ∆x 0.3
The continuity equation (Equation 5.28) requires that:
d dρ du dρ dρ
(ρu) = 0 → u +ρ = 0 → (90) + (4.838)(13.33) = 0 → = 0.7166 kg/m3 /m
dx dx dx dx dx
Therefore, the density at Section B can be estimated by the relation
dρ
ρ2 ≈ ρ1 + ∆x = (4.838) + (0.7166)(0.3) = 5.05 kg/m3
dx

5.31. From the given data: L = 1 m, V1 = 50 m/s, V2 = 100 m/s, ρ1 = 1.3 kg/m3 , ρ2 = 0.8 kg/m3 ,
and v(x, 0) = 0. Mathching the functional forms of u and ρ to the given data yields

u = 50 + 50x2 , ρ = 1.3 − 0.5x

Under steady-state conditions, the continuity equation, Equation 5.41, requires that
∂(ρu) ∂(ρv)
+ =0 (1)
∂x ∂y

189
 From the density and velocity fields:

ρu = (1.3 − 0.5x)(50 + 50x2 ) = 65 − 25x + 65x2 − 25x3

∂
(ρu) = −25 + 130x − 75x2 (2)
∂x

Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives

∂
(ρv) = 25 − 130x + 75x2 → ρv = 25y − 130xy + 75x2 y + f (x)
∂x
25y − 130xy + 75x2 y + f (x)
→ v=
1.3 − 0.5x

Invoking the requirement that v(x, 0) = requires that f (x) = 0, which gives

25y − 130xy + 75x2 y

v(x, y) =
1.3 − 0.5x

5.32. From the given data: u = 10x/(0.12 + 10t). The applicable continuity equation is Equation
5.28, and the only nonzero terms in the continuity equation are:

∂ρ ∂u
+ρ =0 (1)
∂t ∂x

Substituting the given velocity distribution into Equation 1 gives

( )
∂ρ ∂ 10x ∂ρ 10 dρ 10 dt
+ρ =0→ +ρ =0 → =−
∂t ∂x 0.12 + 10t ∂t 0.12 + 10t ρ 0.12 + 10t

Integrating both sides leads to

C
ρ=
0.12 + 10t
where C is a constant. Applying the initial condition that ρ = 3 kg/m3 when t = 0 s gives

C
3= → C = 0.36
0.12 + 10(0)

Therefore, the density in the air chamber as a function of time is given by

0.36
ρ= kg/m3
0.12 + 10t

The density at the end of the time interval is obtained by taking t = 0.1 s, which gives

0.36
ρ= kg/m3 = 0.321 kg/m3
0.12 + 10(0.1)

190
5.33. For the given velocity field: u = 2x and v = −2y. The location (0,0) is the only stagnation
point; at this point the velocity is equal to zero. Applying the definition of the stream
function,
∂ψ
= u = 2x → ψ = 2xy + f1 (x)
∂y
∂ψ
= −v = 2y → ψ = 2xy + f2 (y)
∂x
which requires that
ψ = 2xy + f1 (x) = 2xy + f2 (y) → f1 (x) = f2 (y) = C
where C is a constant. Hence the stream function is given by
ψ = 2xy + C

5.34. From the given data: : u = 2y(2x + 1), and v = −2y 2 + x2 . The relationship between the
velocity field and the stream function is given by Equation 5.50. Using this relationship gives
∂ψ
= 2y(2x + 1) → ψ = y 2 (2x + 1) + f1 (x) (1)
∂y
∂ψ
− = −2y 2 + x2 → ψ = 2xy 2 − 31 x3 + f2 (y) (2)
∂x
Equating the expressions in Equations 1 and 2 requires that
y 2 (2x + 1) + f1 (x) = 2xy 2 − 13 x3 + f2 (y) → f1 (x) = − 31 x3 + C, f2 (y) = y 2 + C
Hence the stream function is given by

ψ = y 2 (2x + 1) − 31 x3 + C

The streamlines are obtained by plotting the ψ(x, y) function in the xy plane for different
values of C.
5.35. From the given data: ψ = x2 −y 2 m2 /s. The velocity components and their partial derivatives
are derived from the definition of the stream function (Equation 5.50) as follows,
∂ψ ∂ψ
u= = −2y, v=− = −2x
∂y ∂x
∂v ∂u
= −2, = −2
∂x ∂y
The rate of angular rotation, ωz , is obtained from Equation 5.11, which gives
[ ]
1 ∂v ∂u 1
ωz = − = [(−2) − (−2)] = 0 rad/s
2 ∂x ∂y 2

Therefore, the rate of angular rotation is 0 rad/s . The rate of rotation at all locations in
the xy plane is the same . Since the rate of rotation is equal to zero, the flow is irrotational.

191
5.36. From the given data: at y = 0, u = 0, and at y = 2 m, u = 15 m/s. Since the vertical velocity
is zero: w = 0.

(a) Fitting a linear equation to the given points on the velocity profile, the velocity field is:
u = 7.5z, w = 0. Using the stream function as defined by Equation 5.50 gives:
∂ψ
= 7.5z → ψ = 3.75z 2 + f1 (x)
∂z
∂ψ
=0 → ψ = f2 (z)
∂x
which gives

3.75z 2 + f1 (x) = f2 (z) → f1 (x) = C, f2 (z) = 3.75z 2 + C

Therefore, the stream function is ψ = 3.75z 2 + C . Taking C = 0 so that ψ = 0 is the

streamline on the boundary (= plate surface) then the stream function is ψ = 3.75z 2 .
(b) The values of the stream function at y = 0 and y = 2 m are given by

ψ1 = 3.75(0)2 = 0 m2 /s, ψ2 = 3.75(2)2 = 15 m2 /s

Therefore, the volume flow rate, q, between y = 0 and y = 2 m can be calculated using
Equation 5.58 as
q = ψ2 − ψ1 = 15 − 0 = 15 m2 /s

(c) Let y3 be the distance from the boundary to where q = 30 m2 /s, then using Equation
5.58 requires that

q = ψ3 − ψ1 → 30 = 3.75y32 − 0 → y3 = 2.82 m

Therefore, the distance from y = 2 m to where the incremental flow rate is the same as
the incremental flow rate between y = 0 m and y = 2 m is 2.82 m − 2 m = 0.82 m .

5.37. From the given information: u(z) = a(h2 − z 2 ).

(a) The stream function, ψ, is derived as follows:

∂ψ a
u= = a(h2 − z 2 ) → ψ = ah2 z − z 3 + f1 (x)
∂z 3
∂ψ
w=− =0 → ψ = f2 (z)
∂x
Combining these results requires that
a
f1 (x) = C, f2 (z) = ah2 z − z 3 + C
3
Therefore, the stream function is given by
a
ψ = ah2 z − z 3 + C
3

192
 (b) The values of the stream function on the bottom and top plates are given by
a 2 a 2
ψbot = ah2 (−h) − (−h)3 + C = − ah3 + C, ψtop = ah2 (h) − (h)3 + C = ah3 + C
3 3 3 3
Therefore, the volume flow rate, q, between the plates is given by
[ ] [ ]
2 3 2 3 4
q = ψtop − ψbot = ah + C − − ah + C = ah3
3 3 3
(c) By integration:
∫ [
h
a ]h 4
q= a(h2 − z 2 ) dz = ah2 z − z 3 = ah3
−h 3 −h 3

Therefore, the volume flow rate derived in Part (b) is verified .

5.38. From the given data: ψ = 0.1xy m2 /s, (x1 , y1 ) = (1 m, 1 m), and (x2 , y2 ) = (2 m, 3 m). The
values of the stream function at Points 1 and 2 are:
ψ1 = 0.1(1)(1) = 0.1 m2 /s, ψ2 = 0.1(2)(3) = 0.6 m2 /s
Therefore, in accordance with Equation 5.58, the volume flow rate, q, between the two points
is given by
q = ψ2 − ψ1 = 0.6 − 0.1 = 0.5 m2 /s

5.39. From the given data: : vr = 1/r, vθ = 2/r2 . The relationship between the velocity field and
the stream function is given by Equation 5.60. Using this relationship gives
1 ∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
= → =1 → ψ = θ + f1 (r) (1)
r ∂θ r ∂θ
∂ψ 2 2
− = 2 → ψ = + f2 (θ) (2)
∂r r r
Equating the expressions in Equations 1 and 2 requires that
2 2
θ + f1 (r) = + f2 (θ) → f1 (r) = + C, f2 (θ) = θ + C
r r
Hence the stream function is given by
2
ψ= +θ+C
r

5.77. From the given data: ψ(r, θ) = −5r sin θ + 3θ.

(a) The relationship between the stream function and the velocity field is given by Equation
5.60 which requires that:
1 ∂ψ 1 3
vr = = [−5r cos θ + 3] → vr = −5 cos θ +
r ∂θ r r
∂ψ
vθ == − = −5 sin θ → vθ = −5 sin θ
∂r

193
 (b) At r = 1 m and θ = 30◦ :
3
vr = −5 cos 30◦ + = −1.330 m/s , vθ = −5 sin 30◦ = −2.500 m/s
1
The corresponding x and y components of the velocity are calculated as follows:

vx = −|vr | cos 30◦ + |vθ | sin 30◦ = −(1.330) cos 30◦ + (2.500) sin 30◦ = 0.0982 m/s

vy = −|vr | sin 30◦ − |vθ | cos 30◦ = −(1.330) sin 30◦ − (2.500) cos 30◦ = −2.830 m/s

5.41. (a) Using the stream function as defined by Equation 5.60 gives:

1 ∂ψ ∂ψ
=0 → =0 → ψ = f1 (r)
r ∂θ ∂θ
∂ψ 3.5 ∂ψ 3.5
− = → =− → ψ = −3.5 ln r + f2 (θ)
∂r r ∂r r
which gives
f1 (r) = −3.5 ln r + C, f2 (θ) = C
Therefore, the stream function is ψ = −3.5 ln r + C .
(b) The streamlines are circles because ψ = constant corresponds to r = constant , which
is the equation of a circle.
(c) Take C = 0 for convenience. The values of the stream function at r = 1.2 m and
r = 1.4 m are given by

ψ1 = −3.5 ln(1.2) = −0.638 m2 /s, ψ2 = −3.5 ln(1.4) = −1.178 m2 /s

Therefore, the volume flow rate, q, between r = 1.2 m and r = 1.4 m can be calculated
using Equation 5.58 as

q = ψ2 − ψ1 = (−1.178) − (−0.638) = −0.540 m2 /s → |q| = 0.540 m2 /s

Note that the negative value of q occurs because of the flow direction.

5.42. For the given velocity field: u = 8z, v = 0, and w = 2x. Check whether the velocity field
satisfies the incompressible continuity equation (Equation 5.42):

∂u ∂v ∂w ∂ ∂ ∂
+ + =0 → (8z) + (0) + (2x) = 0 → 0=0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
The incompressible continuity equation is satisfied, so ρ = ρ0 = constant. Also, since gravity
acts vertically downward, gx = gy = 0 and gz = −g. Applying the x-component of the
Navier-Stokes (NS) equations gives
[ ] ( 2 )
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ u ∂2u ∂2u
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgx + µ + 2 + 2
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x2 ∂y ∂z

194
 ∂p ∂p
→ ρ [0 + 0 + 0 + 16x] = − + 0 + µ (0 + 0 + 0) → = −16ρx
∂x ∂x
→ p = −8ρx2 + f1 (y, z) (1)

Applying the y-component of the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations gives

[ ] ( 2 )
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂ v ∂2v ∂2v
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgy + µ + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂p ∂p
→ ρ [0 + 0 + 0 + 0] = − + 0 + µ (0 + 0 + 0) → =0
∂y ∂y
→ p = f2 (x, z) (2)

Applying the z-component of the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations gives

[ ] ( 2 )
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p ∂ w ∂2w ∂2w
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgz + µ + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂p ∂p
→ ρ [0 + 16z + 0 + 0] = − − ρg + µ (0 + 0 + 0) → = −ρg − 16ρz
∂z ∂z
→ p = −ρgz − 8ρz 2 + f3 (x, y) (3)

Comparing Equations 1 to 3 it is apparent that p does not depend on y, and

−8ρx2 +f1 (z) = −ρgz −8ρz 2 +f3 (x) → f1 (z) = −ρgz −8ρz 2 +C, f3 (x) = −8ρx2 +C

Hence, the pressure distribution is given by

p = −ρgz − 8ρz 2 − 8ρx2 + C (4)

Enforcing the condition that p = p0 at (x0 , y0 , z0 ) requires that

C = p0 + ρgz0 + 8ρz02 + 8ρx20 (5)

Combining Equations 4 and 5 gives the pressure distribution as

[ ]
p − p0 = ρg(z0 − z) + 8ρ (z02 − z 2 ) + (x20 − x2 )

5.43. For the given velocity field: u = 8z, v = 6x, and w = 2x. Check whether the velocity field
satisfies the incompressible continuity equation (Equation 5.42):
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂ ∂ ∂
+ + =0 → (8z) + (6x) + (2x) = 0 → 0=0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
The incompressible continuity equation is satisfied, so the density, ρ can be taken as a con-
stant. Also, since gravity acts vertically downward, gx = gy = 0 and gz = −g. Applying the
x-component of the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations gives
[ ] ( 2 )
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ u ∂2u ∂2u
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgx + µ + 2 + 2
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x2 ∂y ∂z

195
 ∂p ∂p
→ ρ [0 + 0 + 0 + 16x] = − + 0 + µ (0 + 0 + 0) → = −16ρx
∂x ∂x
→ p = −8ρx2 + f1 (y, z) (1)

Applying the y-component of the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations gives

[ ] ( 2 )
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂ v ∂2v ∂2v
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgy + µ + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂p ∂p
→ ρ [0 + 48xz + 0 + 0] = − + 0 + µ (0 + 0 + 0) → = −48xz
∂y ∂y
→ p = −48xz + f2 (x, z) (2)

Applying the z-component of the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations gives

[ ] ( 2 )
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p ∂ w ∂2w ∂2w
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgz + µ + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂p ∂p
→ ρ [0 + 16z + 0 + 0] = − − ρg + µ (0 + 0 + 0) → = −ρg − 16ρz
∂z ∂z
→ p = −ρgz − 8ρz 2 + f3 (x, y) (3)

Combining Equations 1 to 3 gives

−8ρx2 + f1 (y, z) = −48xz + f2 (x, z) = −ρgz − 8ρz 2 + f3 (x, y)

It is apparent that there is no y dependence of p, so

−8ρx2 + f1 (z) = −48xz + f2 (x, z) = −ρgz − 8ρz 2 + f3 (x)

Taking the first two equations requires that:

f1 (z) = C, f2 (x, z) = 48xz − 8ρx2 (4)

Taking the second two equations requires that:

f2 (x, z) = 48xz − ρgz − 8ρz 2 , f3 (x) = C (5)

Equations 4 and 5 are inconsistent, so the given velocity field does not satisfy the NS equa-
tion. A possible reason could be that the viscosity is not constant in the flow field.

5.44. The Navier-Stokes equations for constant µ and ρ are given by Equations 5.86 to 5.88. The
terms in these equations that are equal to zero are crossed out as follows:
[ ] ( )
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂u ∂p ∂ 2
u ∂2u  ∂2u
ρ  + u  + v

+  w =− + ρgx + µ  +  +
∂t ∂x
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2
 ∂z 2

196
 [ ] ( )
∂v
∂v ∂v
∂v
∂p
∂ 2
v ∂ 2 v ∂ 2
v
w
= −
+ ρ
ρ
+ u  + v

+  g
y +µ  +  + 

∂t ∂x
∂y
∂z
∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 
 ∂z 2

[ ] ( )
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p ∂2w ∂2w ∂2w
ρ  + u  + v
 + 
w  =− + ρgz + µ +  +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

The simplified Navier-Stokes equations are therefore given by:

∂p ∂2u
0=− + ρgx + µ 2
∂x ∂z
∂p
0=− + ρgz
∂z
Since gx = g sin θ and gz = −g cos θ, the Navier-Stokes equations inn terms of the given
variables are:
∂p ∂2u
0=− + ρg sin θ + µ 2
∂x ∂z
∂p
0=− − ρg cos θ
∂z
5.45. Noting that gx = g sin θ, the x-component of the Navier-Stokes equation as given by Equation
5.86 simplifies as follows:
[ ] ( 2 )
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ u ∂2u ∂2u
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgx + µ + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
( )
∂2u
→ ρ [0 + 0 + 0 + 0] = 0 + ρgx + µ 0 + 2 + 0
∂y
( )
d2 u g sin θ
=−
dy 2 µ

Noting that gy = −g cos θ, the y-component of the Navier-Stokes equation as given by Equa-
tion 5.87 simplifies as follows:
[ ] ( 2 )
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p ∂ v ∂2v ∂2v
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgy + µ + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

→ ρ [0 + 0 + 0 + 0] = 0 + ρgy + µ (0 + 0 + 0)

dp
= −g cos θ
dy

Noting that gz = 0, the z-component of the Navier-Stokes equation as given by Equation 5.88
simplifies as follows:
[ ] ( 2 )
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p ∂ w ∂2w ∂2w
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgz + µ + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

197
 → ρ [0 + 0 + 0 + 0] = 0 + 0 + µ (0 + 0 + 0)

0=0

5.46. (a) The x-component of the Navier-Stokes equation as given by Equation 5.86 simplifies as
follows:
[ ] ( 2 )
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ u ∂2u ∂2u
ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgx + µ + 2 + 2
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x2 ∂y ∂z
( )
∂2u
→ ρ [0 + 0 + 0 + 0] = 0 + ρg sin θ + µ 0 + 2 + 0
∂y
( ) ( )
d2 u ρg sin θ ρg sin θ
→ =− → u=− y 2 + ay + b (1)
dy 2 µ 2µ
where a and b are constants. The boundary conditions are u = 0 at y = 0, and du/dy = 0
at y = h. Applying these boundary conditions to Equation 1 gives

ρg sin θ
u= (2h − y)y
2µ

The volume flow rate per unit width of the inclined plane, q, is obtained by integrating
the velocity profile as follows:
∫ h ∫ h
ρg sin θ ρgh3 sin θ
q= u(y) dy = u(y) [(2h − y)y] → q=
0 2µ 0 3µ

(b) From the given data: θ = 15◦ , and h = 20 mm. For SAE 30 oil at 20◦ C: ρ = 918 kg/m3 ,
and µ = 0.440 Pa·s. Substituting these values into the derived expression for the volume
flow rate yields:
ρgh3 sin θ (918)(9.807)(0.020)3 sin 15◦
q= = = 1.41 × 10−2 m2 /s = 14.1 L/s per m
3µ 3(0.440)

5.47. From the given data: 2h = 5 mm, L = 2 m, W = 1 m, p1 = 200 kPa, and p2 = 0 kPa. For
SAE 50 oil at 20◦ C, µ = 0.860 Pa·s, and ρ = 902 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.4). Based on the
given data:
∂p p2 − p1 0 − 200
= = = −100 kPa/m = −105 Pa/m
∂x L 2
(a) The volume flow rate, Q, can be calculated using Equation 5.112 as follows,

2h3 W ∂p 2(2.5 × 10−3 )3 (1)

Q = qW = − =− (−105 ) = 1.211 × 10−3 m3 /s = 1.21 L/s
3µ ∂x 3(0.860)

(b) The average flow velocity, V , between plates is given by

Q 1.211 × 10−3
V = = = 0.242 m/s
2hW (5 × 10−3 )(1)

198
 (c) The Reynolds number is calculated using Equation 5.114, which yields

ρV (2h) (902)(0.242)(5 × 10−3 )

Re = = = 1.27
µ 0.860
Since Re < 1400, the flow is laminar and the the results obtained in Parts (a) and (b)
are validated.

5.48. (a) For the given conditions, the components of the Navier-Stokes equations become

∂p ∂p ∂p ∂2w d2 w ρg
= 0, = 0, − − ρg + µ 2 = 0 → =
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x dx2 µ
For analytical convenience, let a = ρg/µ such that

d2 w a 2
=a → w(x) = x + bx + c
dx2 2
Using the boundary conditions that w(0) = 0 and w(h) = 0 gives
a 2 a 2 ah
0= (0) + b(0) + c → c = 0, 0= (h) + b(h) → b = −
2 2 2
Therefore, the velocity distribution is
a 2 ah
w= x − x
2 2
The volume flow rate, Q, is derived from the velocity distribution as follows:
∫ h ∫ h[ ]
a 2 ah aW h3 ρgW h3
Q=W w dx = W x − x dx = → Q=
0 0 2 2 12 12µ

(b) For SAE 30 oil at 20◦ C, ρ = 918 kg/m3 and µ = 0.440 Pa·s (from Appendix B.4).
From the given data: h = 5 mm, and W = 1.5 m. Substituting these values into the
relationships derived in Part (a) gives

ρg (918)(9.807)
a= = = 2.046 × 104 (m·s)−1
µ 0.440
aW h3 (2.046 × 104 )(1.5)(5 × 10−3 )3
Q= = = 3.197 × 10−4 m3 /s = 0.320 L/s
12 12

5.49. The reference parameters are: p0 = 100 kPa = 100 × 103 Pa, V = 0.05 m/s, L = 10 mm =
0.01 m, and ω = 0. For SAE 10 oil at 20◦ C (from the Appendix), ρ = 918 kg/m3 and µ =
82 × 10−3 Pa·s. The nondimensional groups in the Navier-Stokes equation are
ωL (0)(0.01)
St = = =0
V 0.05
p0 100 × 103
Eu = = = 43573
ρV 2 (918)(0.05)2

199
 p0 + ρgL 100 × 103 + (918)(9.81)(0.01)
Eu′ = = = 43612
ρV 2 (918)(0.05)2
V 0.05
Fr = √ =√ = 0.16
gL (9.81)(0.01)
ρV L (918)(0.05)(0.01)
Re = = = 5.6
µ 82 × 10−3
Since St = 0 transient effects are nonexistent, since Eu ≫ 1 pressure effects are likely to be
significant, since there is no free surface gravity effects can be included with the pressure (and
gravity makes a small contribution since Eu′ ≃ Eu), and since 1/Re ∼ 1 viscous effects should
be taken into account. Based on this order-of-magnitude analysis, the approximate form of
the Navier-Stokes equation is
( ) ( )
∗ ∗ ∗ ′ 1 ∗ ′∗ ∗2 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ′∗ 1
V ·∇ V = −(Eu )∇ p + ∇ V → V · ∇ V = −43612∇ p + ∇∗2 V∗
Re 5.6

where the pressure p′∗ includes the gravitational effect.

5.50. From the given data: h = 10 mm/2 = 5 mm = 0.005 m, ∂p/∂x = −100 Pa/m, W = 80 cm
= 0.80 m, and L = 1 m. At 20◦ C, the properties of SAE 10 oil are: ρ = 918 kg/m3 , and µ
= 82 mPa·s = 0.082 Pa·s (from Appendix B). The flow rate between the plates is given by

2h3 W ∂p 2(0.005)3 (0.80)

Q = qW = − =− (−100) = 8.13 × 10−5 m3 /s = 81.3 mL/s
3µ ∂x 3(0.082)
Verify the validity of this analysis by checking that the flow is laminar:
Q 8.13 × 10−5
V = = = 0.0102 m/s
W (2h) (0.80)(0.01)
ρV (2h) (918)(0.0102)(0.010)
Re = = = 1.14
µ 0.082
Since Re ≪ 1400 the flow is laminar and the assumption of laminar flow is confirmed. The
shear stress on the top plate, τtop , is given by (see the worked example in the book for the
derivation of this equation)
∂p
τtop = h = (0.005)(−100) = −0.5 Pa
∂x
and so the shear force on the top (and bottom) plate, F , is given by

F = |τtop | LW = (0.5)(0.80)(1) = 0.4 N

5.51. From the given data: W = 0.5 m, L = 2 m, b = 30 mm = 0.030 m, U = 3 cm/s = 0.03 m/s,
and ∂p/∂x = 700 Pa/m. At 20◦ C, the properties of SAE 30 oil are: ρ = 918 kg/m3 , and µ =
440 mPa·s = 0.440 Pa·s (from Appendix B). The flow rate, Q, between the plates is given by
[ ( ) 3 ] [ ]
∂p b Ub (0.030)3 (0.03)(0.03)
Q = qW = − + W = −(700) + (0.5)
∂x 12µ 2 12(0.440) 2

200
 = −0.00156 m3 /s = −1.56 L/s

Therefore the flow rate is 1.56 L/s in a direction that is opposite to the direction of motion of
the top plate. The shear stress, τ , as a function of z is derived from the velocity distributions
as follows,
[ ( ) ] ( )
du d z 1 ∂p U 1 ∂p
τ =µ =µ U + (z − bz) = µ +
2
(2z − b)
dz dz b 2µ ∂x b 2 ∂x
Taking z = 0.03 m gives the shear stress on the top plate, τtop , as
0.03 1
τtop = (0.440) + (700)[2(0.03) − (0.03)] = 10.9 Pa
0.03 2
Hence the force, F , required to move the top plate is

F = |τtop | LW = (10.95)(2)(0.5) = 10.9 N

5.52. The velocity distribution is given as

( ) ( 2)( )
w 1 γh2 ( x )2 γh x
= − +1
W 2 µW h µW h
which can be expressed in terms of nondimensional variables as
1
w∗ = ax∗2 − ax ∗ +1 (1)
2
the nondimensional terms in the above equation are defined by
w x γh2
w∗ = , x∗ = , a=
W h µW
When w∗ = 0, Equation 1 yields a quadratic equation in x∗0 , where x∗0 is the location where
w∗ = 0. Using the quadratic formula yields
√ ( ) √
a ± a2 − 4 12 a (1) 2
∗ (1 )
x0 = → x0 = 1 − 1 −
2 2a a

Where the “±” has been changed to “−”, since the only admissible solutions are 0 ≤ x∗0 ≤ 1.
Setting a = γh2 /µW yields
√
x 2µW
x∗0 =
0
=1− 1−
h γh2

5.53. From the given data: h = 5 mm. For SAE 50 oil at 20◦ C, ρ = 902 kg/m3 , and µ = 0.860 Pa·s
(Appendix B.4). The wall is stationary, so W = 0. The volume flow rate of oil down the wall
is given by Equation 5.125 as
γh3 (902)(9.807)(5 × 10−3 )3
q = W h− = 0− = −4.286×10−4 m2 /s → |q| = 0.429 L/s per m
3µ 3(0.860)

201
5.54. Using Newton’s law of viscosity:

dvx
τ =µ , y = R − r, dy = −dr
dy

Therefore, using the above relationships, the shear stress at the wall is given by
 
dvx  dvx 
τwall = µ =µ
dy y=0 dr r=R
[ ( ) ] ( ) ( )
d 1 ∂p 1 ∂p R ∂p
=µ (r − R )
2 2
=− [2r]r=R = −
dr 4 µ ∂x r=R 4 ∂x 2 ∂x

which (with R = D/2) gives

( )
D ∂p
τwall =−
4 ∂x

5.55. From the given data: L = 10 m, D = 250 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 4.909 × 10−2 m2 , and Q =
20 L/min = 3.333 × 10−4 m3 /s. For SAE 30 oil at 20◦ C, ρ = 918 kg/m3 , and µ = 0.440 Pa·s
(from Appendix B.4).

(a) To verify the Hagen-Poiseuille flow assumption, check if the Reynolds number criterion
given by Equation 5.137 is satisfied:

Q 3.333 × 10−4
V = = = 6.790 × 10−3 m/s
A 4.909 × 10−2
ρV D (918)(6.790 × 10−3 )(0.25)
Re = = = 3.54
µ 0.44

Since Re < 2100, Hagen-Poiseuille flow is verified .

(b) The relationship between the volume flow rate and the pressure gradient is given by
Equation 5.135, which requires that
( ) ( )
πD4 ∂p −4 π(0.25)4 ∂p ∂p
Q=− → 3.333×10 = − → = −1.53 Pa/m
128µ ∂x 128(0.440) ∂x ∂x

Using the calculated pressure gradient, the pressure difference, ∆p, between the entrance
and the exit is given by

∂p
∆p = · L = (−1.53)(10) = −15.3 Pa → |∆p| = 15.3 Pa
∂x

5.56. From the given data: L = 20 m, and ∆p = 5 kPa. For gasoline at 20◦ C, ρ = 680 kg/m3 , and
µ = 0.29 mPa·s (from Appendix B.4). The pressure gradient in the flow direction is given by

∂p 5 × 103
=− = 250 Pa/m
∂x 20

202
 (a) At the limit of laminar flow conditions, Equation 5.137 gives

ρV D (680)V D 8.956 × 10−4

= 2100 → = 2100 → V = (1)
µ 0.29 × 10−3 D
The average velocity in a tube under laminar flow conditions is given by Equation 5.136,
which can be combined with Equation 1 as follows
( )
D2 ∂p 8.956 × 10−4 D2
V =− → = (250)
32µ ∂x D 32(0.29 × 10−3 )

→ D = 3.215 × 10−3 m ≈ 3.2 mm

(b) The volume flow rate in the tube under laminar flow conditions is given by Equation
5.135 as
( )
πD4 ∂p π(3.215 × 10−3 )4
Q=− =− (−250) = 2.262 × 10−6 m3 /s = 0.136 L/min
128µ ∂x 128(0.29 × 10−3 )

5.57. From the given data: ∆p = 5 kPa, L = 1.2 m, D = 2 mm, and Qtotal = 1.5 L/min. For
ethylene glycol at 20◦ C, ρ = 1117 kg/m3 , and µ = 0.0214 Pa·s (from Appendix B.4). The
pressure gradient in the flow direction is given by
∂p 5 × 103
=− = −4167 Pa/m
∂x 1.2
First, check whether the flow is laminar in each tube. The average velocity, V , in each tube
under laminar flow conditions is given by Equation 5.136 as
( )
D2 ∂p (0.002)2
V =− =− (−4167) = 2.434 × 10−2 m/s
32µ ∂x 32(0.0214)
Check the Reynolds number,
ρV D (1117)(2.434 × 10−2 )(0.002)
Re = = = 2.54
µ 0.0214
Since Re < 2100, the flow is laminar. Therefore, the volume flow rate in each tube under
laminar flow conditions is given by Equation 5.135 as
( )
πD4 ∂p π(0.002)4
Q=− =− (−4167) = 7.647 × 10−8 m3 /s = 4.588 × 10−3 L/min
128µ ∂x 128(0.0214)
The number of tubes required is calculated as follows:
Qtotal 1.5
number of tubes = = = 327 tubes
Q 4.588 × 10−3

5.58. (a) For the given conditions, the components of the Navier-Stokes equations become
( ) ( )
∂p ∂p ∂p
µ ∂ ∂w 1 d dw ρgz
= 0, = 0, −
+ ρgz + r =0 → r =−
∂r ∂θ
∂z r ∂r ∂r r dr dr µ

203
 For analytical convenience, let a = −ρgz /µ = ρg/µ (note that gz = −g) such that
( )
1 d dw a
r = a → w(r) = r2 + b ln r + c
r dr dr 4
Let R = D/2, and using the boundary conditions that w(0) must be finite, and w(R) = 0,
gives
a a aR2
finite = (0)2 + b ln(0) + c → b = 0, 0 = R2 + c → c = −
4 4 4
Therefore, the velocity distribution is
a( 2 )
w= r − R2
4
The volume flow rate, Q, is derived from the velocity distribution as follows:
∫ ∫ R[
R
πa ] πaR4 πρgD4
Q= w · 2πr dr = r3 − R2 r dr = → Q=
0 2 0 8 128µ

(b) For SAE 30 oil at 20◦ C, ρ = 918 kg/m3 and µ = 0.440 Pa·s (from Appendix B.4). From
the given data: R = 25 mm. Substituting these values into the relationships derived in
Part (a) gives
ρg (918)(9.807)
a= = = 2.046 × 104 (m·s)−1
µ 0.440
πaR4 π(2.046 × 104 )(25 × 10−3 )4
Q= = = 3.14 × 10−3 m3 /s = 3.14 L/s
8 8

5.59. From the given data: Di = 5 mm, Do = 10 mm, ∂p/∂x = −100 Pa/m, ρ = 930 kg/m3 , and
µ = 0.200 Pa·s. The inner and outer radii of the annulus are Ri = Di /2 = 0.0025 m and
Ro = Do /2 = 0.005 m. The theoretical flow rate through the annulus is given by
( )[ ]
π ∂p (Ro2 − Ri2 )2
Q=− Ro − Ri −
4 4
8µ ∂z ln(Ro /Ri )
[ ]
π (0.0052 − 0.00252 )2
=− (−100) 0.005 − 0.0025 −
4 4
8(0.200) ln(0.005/0.0025)
= 6.146 × 10−4 m3 /s = 615 mL/s

Check whether the flow is laminar:

A = π(Ro2 − Ri2 ) = π(0.0052 − 0.00252 ) = 5.89 × 10−5 m2

Dh = 2(Ro − Ri ) = 2(0.005 − 0.0025) = 0.0050 m

Q 6.146 × 10−4
V = = = 10.4 m/s
A 5.89 × 10−5
ρV Dh (930)(10.4)(0.0050)
Re = = = 243
µ 0.200

204
 Since Re = 243 < 2100 the flow is laminar and hence the theoretical equation used in
calculating the flow rate is validated. If glass were replaced by steel as the annular material,
there would be no difference in the flow rate, since the primary difference is the roughness
of the surface material in the annulus, which does not influence the flow rate, as long as the
flow is laminar.

5.60. (a) The x component of the Navier-Stokes equation (Equation 5.86) requires that
( )
1 d dvx 1 ∂p 1 ∂p 2
r = → vx (r) = r + a ln r + b (1)
r dr dr µ ∂x 4µ ∂x

where a and b are integration constants. The boundary conditions to be used in evalu-
ating a and b are: vx (Ro ) = 0 and vx (Ri ) = V . Applying these boundary conditions to
Equation 1 gives

1 ∂p 2
V − (R − Ro2 )
4µ ∂x i 1 ∂p 2
a= , b=− R − b ln Ro
ln(Ri /Ro ) 4µ ∂x o

Substituting the values of a and b into Equation 1 and simplifying yields

[ ( )]
1 ∂p Ri2 − Ro2 r ln(r/Ro )
vx (r) = (r − Ro ) −
2 2
ln +V (2)
4µ ∂x ln(Ri /Ro ) Ro ln(Ri /Ro )

(b) From the given data: Ri = 10 mm, Ro = 20 mm, ∂p/∂x = −80 Pa/m, V = 50 mm/s,
and r = (10 + 20)/2 = 15 mm. For SAE 10 oil at 20◦ C, µ = 0.082 Pa·s (from Appendix
B.4). Substituting these values into Equation 2 gives
[ ( )]
1 0.012 − 0.022 0.015 ln(0.015/0.02)
vx = (−80) (0.015 − 0.02 ) −
2 2
ln + (0.05)
4(0.082) ln(0.01/0.02) 0.02 ln(0.01/0.02)

= 3.307 × 10−2 m/s ≈ 33 mm/s

5.61. The Navier-Stokes equations for constant µ and ρ are given by Equations 5.86 to 5.88. The
terms in these equations that are equal to zero are crossed out as follows:
( )
∂vr ∂v
r vθ ∂vr vθ2 ∂v
r
ρ  + r  +
v  − + z 
v
∂t ∂r r ∂θ r ∂z
[ ( ) ]
∂p 1 ∂ ∂vr vr 1 ∂ 2 vr 2 ∂vθ ∂ 2 vr
=− + ρg
r +µ r  −
2 + 2 − 2  +
∂r r ∂r ∂r
r r ∂θ2 r ∂θ ∂z 2

( )
∂vθ ∂vθ vθ ∂v
θ vr vθ ∂v
θ
ρ  +
v
r +  − + z 
v
∂t ∂r r ∂θ r ∂z
[ ( ) ]
1 ∂p
1 ∂ ∂vθ vθ 1 ∂ 2 vθ 2 ∂v
r ∂ 2 vθ
= −
+ ρ g
θ+µ r − 2+ 2 + 2  +
r
∂θ r ∂r ∂r r r ∂θ2 r ∂θ ∂z 2

205
 ( )
∂v ∂v vθ ∂v ∂v
ρ z +  z
r  +
v z + z 
v
z
∂t ∂r r 
∂θ ∂z
[ ( ) ]
∂p 1 ∂ ∂vz 1 ∂ 2 vz ∂ 2 vz
=− + ρgz + µ r  + 2 +
∂z r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ2 ∂z 2

The simplified Navier-Stokes equations are therefore given by:

vθ2 ∂p
=
r ∂r
[ ( ) ]
1 ∂ ∂vθ vθ
0=µ r − 2
r ∂r ∂r r
∂p
0=− + ρgz
∂z

5.62. The θ component of the Navier-Stokes equation simplifies to

( )
1 d dvθ vθ
r − 2 =0 (1)
r dr dr r

The solution of Equation 1 is

b
vθ = ar + (2)
r
where a and b are constants. The boundary conditions to be satisfied by Equation 2 are

vθ (Ri ) = 0 (3)
vθ (Ro ) = Ro ω (4)

Using Equations 3 and 4 to determine the constants a and b in Equation 2 yields the following
velocity distribution
Ri /r − r/Ri
vθ = Ro ω
Ri /Ro − Ro /Ri

5.63. From the given data: L = 1.0 m, Di = 40 mm, Do = 50 mm, ω = 50 rpm = 314 rad/s, ρ =
900 kg/m3 , and µ = 0.35 Pa·s. Hence: Ri = Di /2 = 20 mm = 0.020 m, Ro = Do /2 = 25 mm
= 0.025 m, and ν = µ/ρ = 0.35/900 = 3.89 × 10−4 m2 /s. The power, P , required to rotate
the shaft at 50 rpm (= 314 rad/s) is given by

4πµRi2 Ro2 Lω 2 4π(0.35)(0.020)2 (0.025)2 (1.0)(314)2

P = = = 482 W
Ro2 − Ri2 0.0252 − 0.0202

Check for stability:

0.020(0.025 − 0.020)3 (314)2
Ta = = 1630
(3.89 × 10−4 )2

Since Ta < 1700 the lubricant flow is stable .

206
5.64. For an incompressible flow,
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
In this case,
∂u ∂v ∂w 10(y 2 − x2 ) + 10(x2 − y 2 )
+ + = =0
∂x ∂y ∂z (x2 + y 2 )2
Therefore the flow is incompressible . The x-component of the Navier-Stokes equation gives
[ ]
∂u ∂u ∂p
ρ u +v =
∂x ∂y ∂x
[ ]
100x ∂p
ρ − 2 =
(x + y 2 )2 ∂x

Similarly, the y-component of the Navier-Stokes equation gives

[ ]
∂v ∂v ∂p
ρ u +v =
∂x ∂y ∂y
[ ]
100y ∂p
ρ − 2 2 2
=
(x + y ) ∂y

Therefore, combining the above results yields

100ρ
∇p = − (xi + yj)
(x2 + y 2 )2

5.65. The given velocity field is: u = 2(x2 − z 2 ) − 6x m/s and w = 4xz − 6z m/s, the the density of
the fluid is ρ = 998 kg/m3 . The following derived relationships at the point x = 2 m, z = 1 m
are relevant to this problem:
∂u ∂u
u = [2(x2 − z 2 ) − 6x][4x − 6] → u = −12 at (2 m, 1 m)
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
w = [4xz − 6z][−4z] → w = −8 at (2 m, 1 m)
∂z ∂z
∂w ∂w
u = [2(x2 − z 2 ) − 6x][4z] → u = −24 at (2 m, 1 m)
∂x ∂x
∂w ∂w
w = [4xz − 6z][4x − 6] → w =4 at (2 m, 1 m)
∂z ∂z
Noting that gx = gy = 0 and gz = −9.807 m/s2 , substituting the above results into the Euler
equations (Equations 5.158 to 5.160) gives
( )
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p
x direction: ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgx
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
∂p ∂p
→ (998) (0 − 12 + 0 − 8) = − +0 → = 2.00 × 104 Pa/m = 20.0 kPa/m
∂x ∂x

207
 ( )
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂p
z direction: ρ +u +v +w =− + ρgz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z
∂p ∂p
→ (998) (0 − 24 + 0 + 4) = − + (998)(−9.807) → = 1.017 × 104 Pa/m = 10.2 kPa/m
∂z ∂z

5.66. The given velocity field is: u = −3x + 9y 2 m/s and v = 3y m/s, the the density of the fluid is
ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 . The following derived relationships at the point x = 2 m, z = 1 m are relevant
to this problem:
∂u ∂u
u = [−3x + 9y 2 ][−3] → u = −9 at (2 m, 1 m)
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂u
v = [3y][18y] → v = 54 at (2 m, 1 m)
∂y ∂y
∂v ∂v
u = [−3x + 9y 2 ][0] → u =0 at (2 m, 1 m)
∂x ∂x
∂v ∂v
v = [3y][3] → v =9 at (2 m, 1 m)
∂y ∂y
Noting that gx = gy = 0, substituting the above results into the Euler equations (Equations
5.158 to 5.160) gives
( )
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂p
x direction: ρ +u +v +w = ρgx −
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
∂p ∂p
→ (1.2) (0 − 9 + 54 + 0) = 0 − → = −54 Pa/m
∂x ∂x
( )
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂p
y direction: ρ +u +v +w = ρgy −
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y
∂p ∂p
→ (1.2) (0 + 0 + 9 + 0) = 0 − → = −10.8 Pa/m
∂y ∂y
Combining the derived results gives

∇p = −54 i − 10.8 j Pa/m

5.67. The given velocity field is: vr = −6/r m/s and vθ = 3/r m/s, the the density of the fluid is
ρ = 1.20 kg/m3 . The following derived relationships at r = 2 m, θ = π/4 rad are relevant to
this problem:
[ ][ ]
∂vr 6 6 ∂vr
vr = − 2
→ vr = −4.5 m/s2 (at r = 2 m, θ = π/4 rad)
∂r r r ∂r
[ ]
vθ2 1 9 vθ2
= → = 1.125 m/s2 (at r = 2 m, θ = π/4 rad)
r r r2 r
[ ][ ]
∂vθ 6 3 ∂vθ
vr = − − 2 → vr = 2.25 m/s2 (at r = 2 m, θ = π/4 rad)
∂r r r ∂r

208
 [ ]
vr vθ 1 18 vr vθ
= − 2 → = −2.25 m/s2 (at r = 2 m, θ = π/4 rad)
r r r r

Noting that gr = gθ = 0 and gz = −9.807 m/s2 , substituting the above results into the Euler
equations (Equations 5.161 to 5.163) gives
( )
∂vr ∂vr vθ ∂vr ∂vr vθ2 ∂p
r direction: ρ + vr + + vz − = ρgr −
∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂z r ∂r
∂p ∂p
→ (1.20) (0 − 4.5 + 0 + 0 − 1.125) = 0 − → = −6.75 Pa/m
∂r ∂r
( )
∂vθ ∂vθ vθ ∂vθ ∂vθ vr vθ 1 ∂p
θ direction: ρ + vr + + vz + = ρgθ −
∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂z r r ∂θ
1 ∂p ∂p
→ (1.20) (0 + 2.25 + 0 + 0 − 2.25) = 0 − → = 0 Pa/m
2 ∂θ ∂θ
( )
∂vz ∂vz vθ ∂vz ∂vz ∂p
z direction: ρ + vr + + vz = ρgz −
∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂z ∂z
∂p ∂p
→ (1.20) (0 + 0 + 0 + 0) = (1.20)(−9.807) − → = −11.8 Pa/m
∂z ∂z

5.68. (a) The terms in the Euler equation that are derived from the given velocity field as follows:
K cos θ K sin θ
vr = − , vθ = −
r2 r2
∂vr 2K 2 cos2 θ vθ ∂vr K 2 sin2 θ
vr =− , =−
∂r r5 r ∂θ r5
vθ2 K 2 sin2 θ ∂vθ 2K 2 sin θ cos θ
= , vr =−
r r5 ∂r r5
vθ ∂vθ K 2 sin θ cos θ vr vθ K 2 sin θ cos θ
= , =
r ∂θ r5 r r5
Substituting the above terms into the Euler equations (Equations 5.161 to 5.163) gives
( )
∂vr ∂vr vθ ∂vr ∂vr vθ2 ∂p
r direction: ρ + vr + + vz − = ρgr −
∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂z r ∂r
[ 2 ]
2 2
2K cos θ K sin θ 2 K sin2 θ
2 ∂p
→ ρ 0− − + 0 − =0−
r5 r5 r5 ∂r
∂p 2ρK 2
→ =
∂r r5
( )
∂vθ ∂vθ vθ ∂vθ ∂vθ vr vθ 1 ∂p
θ direction: ρ + vr + + vz + = ρgθ −
∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂z r r ∂θ
[ 2 2
]
2K sin θ cos θ K sin θ cos θ K 2 sin θ cos θ 1 ∂p
→ ρ 0− 5
+ 5
+0+ 5
=0−
r r r r ∂θ

209
 1 ∂p
→ =0
r ∂θ
( )
∂vz ∂vz vθ ∂vz ∂vz ∂p
z direction: ρ + vr + + vz = ρgz −
∂t ∂r r ∂θ ∂z ∂z
∂p
→ ρ [0 + 0 + 0 + 0] = −ρg −
∂z
∂p
→ = −ρg
∂z
Combining the above results, the pressure gradient, ∇p, is given by

∂p 1 ∂p ∂p 2ρK 2
∇p = er + eθ + ez → ∇p = er − ρg ez
∂r r ∂θ ∂z r5

(b) For K = 3 m3 /s, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 , g = 9.81 m2 /s, r = 2 m, θ = π/4 rad, and z = 5 m:
2(1000)(3)2
∇p = er −(1000)(9.81) ez = 563 er −9810 ez Pa/m = 0.563 er − 9.81 ez kPa/m
25

5.69. From the the given information: u = 5(x+z) m/s and w = 5(x−z) m/s, and ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .
The following relationships are useful:
√
V 2 = u2 + w2 = 25[(x + z)2 + (x − z)2 ], |V | = 5 (x + z)2 + (x − z)2
dx u dz w
= , =
ds |V | ds |V |
∂(V 2 ) ∂(V 2 )
= 50[(x + z) + (x − z)] = 100x, = 50[(x + z) − (x − z)] = 100z
∂x ∂z
d(V 2 ) ∂(V 2 ) dx ∂(V 2 ) dz dx dz
= + = 100x + 100z
ds ∂x ds ∂z ds ds ds
At the specific location where x = 2 m and z = 1 m, u = 5(2 + 1) = 15 m/s, w = 5(2 − 1) =
5 m/s, and the above relationships are evaluated as follows:
√
V 2 = 152 + 52 = 250 m2 /s2 , |V | = 250 = 15.81 m/s
dx 15 dz 5
= = 0.9487, = = 0.3162
ds 15.81 ds 15.81
∂(V 2 ) ∂(V 2 )
= 100(2) = 200 m/s2 , = 100(1) = 100 m/s2
∂x ∂z
d(V 2 )
= 100(2)(0.9487) + 100(1)(0.3162) = 221.4 m/s2
ds
Using the above-derived information, the pressure gradient in the streamline direction, dp/ds
can be derived using Equation 5.172, which yields
dp 1 d(V 2 ) dz dp 1
+ ρ + ρg =0 → + (998.2)(221.4) + (998.2)(9.807)(0.3162) = 0
ds 2 ds ds ds 2

210
 which yields
dp
= −1.136 × 105 Pa/m = −113.6 kPa/m
ds
5.70. The given velocity distribution is: u = 4x − 10 m/s and 6 − 4y m/s. For the fluid, ρ =
1.5 kg/m3 .

(a) From the given velocity field,

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= 4, = −4 → + = 4 + (−4) = 0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u
= 0, =0 → − =0−0=0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

The above two results show that the flow is incompressible and irrotational , respec-
tively.
(b) Since the flow is incompressible and irrotational, and the z coordinate is constant in the
xy plane, Equation 5.178 is applicable and can be expressed as

p V2
+ =C
ρ 2
which requires that

p1 V12 p2 V22 ρ[ 2 ]
+ = + → p2 − p1 = V1 − V22
ρ 2 ρ 2 2

Denoting Point 1 as (1 m, 1 m) and Point 2 as (2 m, 2 m), then from the given velocity
field,

u1 = −6 m/s, v1 = 2 m/s, V12 = u21 + v12 = 40 m2 /s2

u2 = −2 m/s, v2 = −2 m/s, V22 = u22 + v22 = 8 m2 /s2

Substituting into the Bernoulli equation gives

1.5
p2 − p1 = [40 − 8] = 24 Pa
2
5.71. The Bernoulli equation can only be applied across streamlines if the flow is incompressible
and irrotational. Since the flow is in the rθ plane, these requirements are given by Equations
5.46 and 5.16 as follows:
1 ∂(rvr ) 1 ∂(vθ )
incompressible: + =0
r ∂r r ∂θ
[ ]
1 ∂(rvθ ) ∂vr
irrotational: − =0
r ∂r ∂θ

These tests are applied to the given velocity fields below.

211
 (a) The velocity field is: vr = 0, vθ = ar so,
1 ∂(0) 1 ∂(ar)
incompressibility test: + = 0 + 0 = 0 (∴ incompressible)
r ∂r r ∂θ
[ ]
1 ∂(ar2 )
irrotationality test: − 0 = a ̸= 0 (∴ rotational)
r ∂r
Since the flow field is not irrotational, the Bernoulli equation cannot be applied across
streamlines. So the answer would be no for Part (a).
(b) The velocity field is: vr = 0, vθ = a/r so,
1 ∂(0) 1 ∂(a/r)
incompressibility test: + = 0 + 0 = 0 (∴ incompressible)
r ∂r r ∂θ
[ ]
1 ∂(a)
irrotationality test: −0 =0 (∴ irrotational)
r ∂r
Since the flow field is irrotational, the Bernoulli equation can be applied across stream-
lines. So the answer would be yes for Part (b).

5.72. From the given data: pmin = 70 kPa, d = 1.80 m, V = 8 m/s, and T = 10◦ C (γ = 9.81 kN/m3 ).
Since the flow is irrotational, then p/γ + V 2 /2g + z is the same everywhere and hence, taking
patm = 101 kPa, gives
patm 82 70 Vmax2
+ + 1.80 = + +0
γ 2g γ 2g
101 82 70 V2
+ + 1.80 = + max + 0
9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)
which yields
Vmax 12.70
Vmax = 12.70 m/s → = = 1.588
V 8
Using this relation in the Bernoulli equation and taking pmin = 1.23 kPa (= vapor pressure
of water at 10◦ C) gives

patm V 2 2
pmin Vmax
+ + 1.80 = + +0
γ 2g γ 2g
101 V2 1.23 (1.588V )2
+ + 1.80 = + +0
9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)

which yields V = 12.5 m/s

5.73. From the given data: A(x) = 0.1(1 + 0.5x2 ) m2 , L = 3 m, ρ = 1100 kg/m3 , V1 = 2 m/s, and
p1 = 240 kPa. The following preliminary derivations and specifications are useful:

A1 = A(0) = 0.1 m2 , Q = V1 A1 = (2)(0.1) = 0.2 m3 /s

Q 2 4
V (x) = = m/s, V (x)2 = m2 /s2
A(x) 1 + 0.5x2 (1 + 0.5x2 )2

212
 dV (x)2 8x
=− m/s2 , z(x) = 0 m
dx (1 + 0.5x2 )3
dz
=0
dx
(a) Since the flow is steady, incompressible, and inviscid, the Bernoulli equation as given
by Equation 5.174 can be applied. Determine the Bernoulli constant, C, by applying
Equation 5.174 at the entrance of the contraction:
p1 V12 240 × 103 22
C= + + gz1 = + + 0 = 220.2 m2 /s2
ρ 2 1100 2
The pressure, p(x) [kPa], within the contraction is determined by applying the Bernoulli
equation along the centerline streamline as follows:
p(x) V (x)2
+ + gz(x) = 220.2 m2 /s2
ρ 2
p(x) [×103 Pa/kPa] 2
→ + + 0 = 220.2
1100 (1 + 0.5x2 )2

2.2
→ p(x) = 242.2 − kPa
(1 + 0.5x2 )2

(b) Using Equation 5.172 with dp/dx in kPa/m gives

dp 1 d(V 2 ) dz
+ ρ + ρg =0
dx 2 dx dx
dp 1 8x
→ [×103 Pa/kPa] − (1100) +0=0
dx 2 (1 + 0.5x2 )3

dp 4.4x
→ = kPa/m
dx (1 + 0.5x2 )3

5.74. (a) For the given velocity field: ψ = x2 − y 2 . If the flow is flow is irrotational, then the
Laplace equation (Equation 5.194) must be satisfied. In this case:
∂2 2 ∂2
∇2 ψ = 0 → 2
[x − y 2 ] + 2 [x2 − y 2 ] = 0 → 2−2=0 → 0=0
∂x ∂y
Since the Laplace equation is satisfied, the flow is irrotational .
(b) The potential function can be derived from the given stream function as follows:
∂ψ ∂ϕ
u= = −2y → u= = −2y → ϕ = −2xy + f1 (y)
∂y ∂x
∂ψ ∂ϕ
v=− = −2x → v= = −2x → ϕ = −2xy + f2 (x)
∂x ∂y
Based on the above results, f1 (y) = f2 (x) = C, and therefore the potential function is
given by ϕ = −2xy + C .

213
5.75. From the given information: u = x + 2 and v = 3 − y.

(a) To determine if the flow is rotational, calculate the vorticity, ζz , as follows:

∂v ∂u
ζz = − =0−0=0
∂x ∂y

Since the vorticity is equal to zero, the flow is irrotational .

(b) The potential function, ϕ, is calculated from the given velocity field as follows:
∂ϕ
=x+2 → ϕ = 21 x2 + 2x + f1 (y)
∂x
∂ϕ
=3−y → ϕ = 3y − 12 y 2 + f2 (x)
∂y
→ f1 (y) = 3y − 12 y 2 + C, f2 (x) = 12 x2 + 2x + C

→ ϕ = 12 x2 + 2x + 3y − 21 y 2 + C

5.76. (a) From the given stream function:

1 ∂ψ 1
vr = = (2r cos θ − 4)
r ∂θ r
∂ψ
vθ = − = −2 sin θ
∂r
∂ϕ 4
vr = = 2 cos θ − → ϕ = 2r cos θ − 4 ln r + f1 (θ) (1)
∂r r
1 ∂ϕ
vθ = = −2 sin θ → ϕ = 2r cos θ + f2 (r) (2)
r ∂θ
Combining the expressions for ϕ given by Equations 1 and 2 yields

2r cos θ − 4 ln r + f1 (θ) = 2r cos θ + f2 (r) → f1 (θ) = C, f2 (r) = −4 ln r + C

Taking C = 0 gives the following expression for the velocity potential:

ϕ = 2r cos θ − 4 ln r m2 /s

(b) Using the derived expressions for vr and vθ given in Equations 1 and 2 and also noting
that the magnitude of the velocity, V , is given by

V 2 = vr2 + vθ2

yields the following results

(x, y) r θ vr vθ V2
(m,m) (m) (rad) (m/s) (m/s) (m2 /s2 )
√
(1,1) 2 π
4 −1.414 −1.414 4.000
(3,2) 3.606 0.5880 0.5548 −1.109 1.538

214
 Since the flow is irrotational, and ρ = 1000 kg/m3 , the relationship between the pressures
at any two points is given by

p1 V12 p2 V22 p1 4.000 p2 1.538

+ = + → + = +
ρ 2 ρ 2 1000 2 1000 2

which yields p2 − p1 = 1231 Pa .

5.77. (a) The stream function of the combined flow, ψ, is equal to the sum of the stream functions
of the individual flows, hence

ψ = 15x2 y − 5y 3 − 2(x − y) → ψ = 5y(3x2 − y 2 ) − 2(x − y)

(b) If ψ of the combined flow were irrotational, then ψ would satisfy the Laplace equation
which is given by
∂2ψ ∂2ψ
+ =0 (1)
∂x2 ∂y 2
Using ψ of the combined flow, the following derivatives can be obtained:

∂ψ ∂2ψ
= 30xy − 2, = 30y
∂x ∂x2
∂ψ ∂2ψ
= 15x2 − 15y 2 + 2, = −30y
∂y ∂y 2
Hence,
∂2ψ ∂2ψ
+ = 30y + (−30y) = 0
∂x2 ∂y 2
Since the combined flow satisfies the Laplace equation, the combined flow is irrotational.

5.78. (a) The given stream function resembles that of a uniform flow field, where the stream and
potential functions are given by

ϕ = ux + vy, and ψ = ux − vy

Since ψ for this particular flow field is ψ = 4x + 2y, then the given flow field is one of
uniform flow with u = 4 and v = −2.
(b) Based on the results derived in Part (a), the potential function for this (uniform) flow
field is given by
ϕ = ux + vy → ϕ = 4x − 2y

(c) Since the velocity is uniform, the velocity at (x, y) = (1,2) is the same as the velocity
everywhere in the xy plane and is given by V = 4i − 2j .

5.79. For the given velocity potential,

∂ϕ ∂ϕ
u= = −30xy 4 + 60x3 y 2 − 6x5 , v= = 6y 5 − 60x2 y 3 + 30x4 y
∂x ∂y

215
 From the relationship between the velocities and the stream function
∂ψ
u= = −30xy 4 + 60x3 y 2 − 6x5 → ψ = −6xy 5 + 20x3 y 3 − 6x5 y + f1 (x)
∂y
∂ψ
v=− = 6y 5 − 60x2 y 3 + 30x4 y → ψ = −6xy 5 + 20x3 y 3 − 6x5 y + f2 (y)
∂x
Comparing the derived expressions for ψ(x, y) gives f1 (x) = f2 (y) = C, where C is a constant.
Hence the stream function can be expressed as

ψ = −6xy 5 + 20x3 y 3 − 6x5 y + C

5.80. The given stream function is: ϕ = r cos θ + ln r. The derived velocity components are as
follows:
∂ϕ 1
vr = = cos θ +
∂r r
1 ∂ϕ
vθ = − sin θ
r ∂θ
The corresponding values of the stream function are derived as follows,
1 ∂ψ 1
vr = = cos θ + → ψ = r sin θ + θ + f1 (r)
r ∂θ r
∂ψ
vθ = −− sin θ → ψ = r sin θ + f2 (θ)
∂r
Comparing the previous two equations for ψ gives
 
r sin θ + θ + f1 (r) =  
r sin θ + f2 (θ) → f1 (r) = C, f2 (θ) = θ + C
Therefore, the stream function is given by
ψ = r sin θ + θ + C

5.81. From the given data: q = 3 L/s/m = 0.003 m2 /s, and θ0 = 160◦ = 2.793 rad.
(a) At any distance r away from the sink, the arc length, s, within the flow field is given by
s = rθ0 = 2.793 r
where r and s are taken to be in meters. The radial component of the velocity, vr , is
therefore given by
0.001074 1.07
vr · s = q → vr · (2.793 r) = 0.003 → m/s =
vr = mm/s
r r
The tangential component of the velocity, vθ is equal to zero, so the velocity field is
described by the expression
1.07
V=− er mm/s
r
where the negative sign has been introduced to account for the fact that the radial
velocity component is directed inward.

216
 (b) For a sink, the conventional formulae for ψ and ϕ are

q′ q′
ψ= θ, ϕ= ln r
2π 2π
where q ′ is the intake flow rate over the θ-range [0,2π]. In the present case, θ is in the
range of [0,2.793 rad] and so

2π 2π q′
q′ = q → q ′ = (0.003) → = 0.001074 m2 /s = 1074 mm2 /s
2.793 2.793 2π
Therefore the stream function and potential function are given by

q′
ψ = 1074 θ mm2 /s , ϕ= ln r mm2 /s
2π

5.82. The velocity components attributable to the line source are given by Equation 5.217, the x
and y components of the superimposed velocity field in Cartesian coordinates are
qx
u = vr cos θ|source + V |uniform = +V (1)
2π(x2 + y 2 )
qy
v = vr sin θ|source = (2)
2π(x2 + y 2 )

It is apparent that v = 0 where y = 0, and putting y = 0 in Equation 1 gives the x coordinate

of the stagnation point, xstag , as follows:
qxstag q
0= +V → xstag = −
2π(x2stag + 02 ) 2πV

Therefore, the coordinates of the stagnation point are:

( q )
(xstag , ystag ) = − ,0 (3)
2πV

From the given data: Q = 2 m3 /s, ∆z = 3 m, q = Q/∆z = 0.6667 m2 /s, and V = 0.015 m/s.
Substituting these values into Equation 3 gives
( )
0.6667
(xstag , ystag ) = , 0 = (7.07 m, 0)
2π(0.015)

5.83. (a) Noting that the velocity components attributable to the sink are given by Equation 5.217,
the x and y components of the superimposed velocity field in Cartesian coordinates are
qx
u = vr cos θ|sink + V |uniform = +V (1)
2π(x2 + y 2 )
qy
v = vr sin θ|sink = (2)
2π(x2 + y 2 )

217
 It is apparent that v = 0 where y = 0, and putting y = 0 in Equation 1 gives the x
coordinate of the stagnation point, xstag , as follows:
qxstag q
0= +V → xstag = −
2π(x2stag + 02 ) 2πV

Therefore, the coordinates of the stagnation point are:

( q )
(xstag , ystag ) = − ,0 (3)
2πV

(b) Adding the stream functions of the sink and the uniform flow (Equations 5.225 and
5.213) gives the stream function of the combined flow as
q (y)
ψ= tan−1 +Vy
2π x
Using the coordinates of the stagnation point derived in Part (a), the value of the stream
function at the stagnation point, ψstag , is given by
q
ψstag = tan−1 (0) + V (0) = 0
2π
Since the streamline passing through the stagnation point divides the intercepted flow
from the bypassing flow, the equation of the dividing line is given by

q (y) (y) 2πV y

tan−1 +Vy =0 → tan−1 =− (4)
2π x x q

Far upstream of the sink, tan−1 (y/x) → π and Equation 4 gives the limiting value of y,
ylim , as follows
2πV ylim q
π=− → ylim = −
q 2V
Noting that q is generally negative for a sink, the width, W , of the intercepted flow is
given by
( )
|q| |q|
W = 2|ylim | = 2 → W = (5)
2V V

(c) From the given data: Q = 70 L/s = 0.07 m3 /s, ∆z = 5 m, q = −Q/∆z = −0.014 m2 /s,
and V = 1 m/d = 1.157 × 10−5 m/s. Substituting these values into Equation 3 gives
( )
−0.014
(xstag , ystag ) = − , 0 = (193 m, 0)
2π(1.157 × 10−5 )

Therefore, the distance of the stagnation point from the well is 193 m . The intercepted
width is given by Equation 5 as

|q| 0.014
W = = = 1210 m
V 1.157 × 10−5

218
5.84. (a) From the given data: u = −2x and v = 2y. For the flow to be a potential flow, the flow
must be irrotational, which requires that
∂v ∂u ∂ ∂
− =0 → (2y) − (−2x) = 0 → 0=0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Since the flow is irrotational, the flow is a potential flow , and therefore can be described
by a potential function.
(b) First, determine the potential function from the velocity components:
∂ϕ
u= = 2x → ϕ = −x2 + f1 (y)
∂x
∂ϕ
v= = 2y → ϕ = y 2 + f2 (x)
∂y
Combining these results gives:
f1 (y) = y 2 + C, f2 (x) = −x2 + C → ϕ = −x2 + y 2 + C
Determine the values of ϕ at the points [(1,1), (2,1), (2,4), (1,4), (1,1)] on the given
closed path, numbering the points sequentially:
ϕ1 = −(1)2 + (1)2 + C = C, ϕ2 = −(2)2 + (1)2 + C = −3 + C

ϕ3 = −(2)2 + (4)2 + C = 12 + C, ϕ4 = −(1)2 + (4)2 + C = 15 + C

ϕ5 = ϕ1 = C
Calculate the differences between the potentials at each of the segment endpoints:
ϕ12 = ϕ2 − ϕ1 = (−3 + C) − (C) = −3, ϕ23 = ϕ3 − ϕ2 = (12 + C) − (−3 + C) = 15

ϕ34 = ϕ4 − ϕ3 = (15 + C) − (12 + C) = 3, ϕ41 = ϕ2 − ϕ1 = (C) − (15 + C) = −15

According to the definition given by Equation 5.231, the circulation, Γ, is calculated as
follows:
Γ = ϕ12 + ϕ23 + ϕ34 + ϕ41 = (−3) + 15 + 3 + (−15) = 0
Hence, the circulation is equal to zero . This is an expected result since there are no
singularities in the flow field and in such cases the circulation around any closed path in
the potential flow field must be zero.
5.85. (a) The velocity field in a line free vortex is:
Γ
vr = 0, vθ =
2πr
Since the flow field is incompressible and irrotational, the Bernoulli constant is the same
everywhere, and the pressure distribution is given by
( )
1 Γ 2
p + 2 ρV = p∞ →
1 2
p = p∞ − ρ
2 2πr
where it has been taken into account that V∞ = 0.

219
 (b) From the given data: p∞ = 101 kPa, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and Γ = 3000 m2 /s. When the
pressure is 10% less than the undisturbed pressure,
( )2 ( )
1 Γ 1 3000 2
ρ (1.225)
p∞ − p 2 2πr10 2 2πr10
= 0.1 = → 0.1 = → r10 = 3.72 m
p∞ p∞ 101 × 103

5.86. (a) According to the given velocity distribution, the speed increases linearly with r up R,
and then decreases as 1/r beyond R. Hence the maximum speed must necessarily be at
R.
(b) Beyond R the flow is a free vortex and hence irrotational. Therefore, the Bernoulli
equation can be applied within the entire free-vortex flow field such that
2
p0 = pR + 12 ρVmax → pR = p0 − 12 ρVmax
2

(c) For the given Category 4 hurricane: Vmax = 251 km/h = 69.72 m/s, and R = 15 km.
Equating the velocities to Vmax at the match point gives
Γ Vmax
Vmax = Rω, Vmax = → ω= , Γ = 2πRVmax
2πr R
69.72
→ ω= = 4.65 × 10−3 rad/s = 0.0444 rpm
15 × 103

→ Γ = 2π(15 × 103 )(69.72) = 6.57 × 106 m2 /s

5.87. Since the flow is a free vortex, the flow is irrotational and the Bernoulli equation is satisfied
between any two points in the flow field. Hence
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 (1)
γ 2g γ 2g
Take Point 1 as a point on the free surface at r = r0 , and Point 2 as a point on the free surface
at r = r; the pressures at these points are atmospheric and p1 = p2 = 0 (gage pressure). Since
the flow can be approximated as a free vortex, then only the tangential component of the
velocity is nonzero and
Γ 1 V2 Γ2
V = vθ = → = 2 2 (2)
2π r 2g 8π r g
Combining Equations 1 and 2 yields the water-surface profile,
( )
Γ2 Γ2 Γ2 1 1
+ h0 = 2 2 + h → h(r) = h0 + 2 −
8π 2 r02 g 8π r g 8π g r02 r2

5.88. From the given data: (x1 , y1 ) = (1 m, 1 m), (x2 , y2 ) = (2 m, 2 m), (x3 , y3 ) = (3 m, 3 m), q1 =
2 m2 /s, q2 = 3 m2 /s, Γ = 2.5 m2 /s, and (x, y) = (4 m, 4 m). For the line sinks, using the
potential function given by Equation 5.224, the velocity components are:
∂ϕ q x − x0
u= =
∂x 2π (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2

220
 ∂ϕ q y − y0
v= =
∂y 2π (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2
For the first source:
2 4−1
u1 = = 0.0531 m/s
2π (4 − 1)2 + (4 − 1)2
2 4−1
v1 = = 0.0531 m/s
2π (4 − 1)2 + (4 − 1)2
For the second source:
3 4−2
u2 = = 0.1194 m/s
2π (4 − 2)2 + (4 − 2)2
3 4−2
v2 = = 0.1194 m/s
2π (4 − 2)2 + (4 − 2)2
For the line vortex, using the stream function given by Equation 5.238, the velocity compo-
nents are:
∂ψ Γ y − y0
u= =−
∂y 2π (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2
∂ψ Γ x − x0
v=− =
∂x 2π (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2
For the line vortex in this problem:
2.5 4−3
u3 = − = −0.1989 m/s
2π (4 − 3)2 + (4 − 3)2
2.5 4−3
v3 = = 0.1989 m/s
2π (4 − 3)2 + (4 − 3)2
Therefore, the velocity components at (4 m, 4 m) in the combined velocity field are:

u = u1 + u2 + u3 = 0.531 + 0.1194 − 0.1989 = −0.0265 m/s

v = v1 + v2 + v3 = 0.531 + 0.1194 + 0.1989 = 0.371 m/s

5.89. For a spiral free vortex, the velocity components are given by Equation 5.242 as
q Γ
vr = , vθ = (1)
2πr 2πr
Since the flow is incompressible and irrotational, and p → p∞ and V → 0 as r → ∞, the
Bernoulli equation in the rθ plane is given by
p + 12 ρV 2 = p∞ → p∞ − p = 21 ρV 2 (vr2 − vθ2 ) (2)
Combining Equations 1 and 2 and simplifying gives the pressure distribution in the rθ plane
as
[ ρ ] 1
p∞ − p = (q 2
+ Γ 2
) · 2
8π 2 r

221
5.90. From the given data: r = 35 m, θ = 180◦ − 40◦ = 140◦ = 2.44 rad, and V = 110 km/h =
30.6 m/s. The angle, β, that the velocity vector makes with the (radial) position vector of
the measurement location is given by

β = 180◦ − (60◦ + 40◦ ) = 80◦

The r and θ components of the measured velocity vector, vr and vθ , are calculated as follows

vr = −V cos β = −30.6 cos(80◦ ) = −5.31 m/s

vθ = V sin β = 30.6 sin(80◦ ) = 30.1 m/s

These components of the velocity are related directly to the strength of the line sink, q, and
the strength of the line vortex, Γ, that constitute the spiral vortex, hence
q q
vr = → −5.31 = → q = −1170 m2 /s
2πr 2π(35)
Γ Γ
vθ = → 30.1 = → Γ = 6620 m2 /s
2πr 2π(35)
Using these data, the streamline constant, ψ0 , can be determined as follows:
[ ] [ ]
qθ − 2πψ0 (−1170)(2.44) − 2πψ0
r = exp → 35 = exp → ψ0 = −4200 m2 /s
Γ 6620
The equation of the streamline passing through the measurement location is therefore given
by [ ]
(−1170)θ − 2π(−4200)
r = exp → r = exp(3.99 − 0.177 θ)
6620

5.91. From the given data: Γ = 8000 m2 /s, R = 50 m, ∆p = 2 kPa. For standard air, p0 = 101 kPa
and ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .

(a) Since the flow is irrotational, the Bernoulli equation can be applied throughout the flow
field. The Bernoulli equation gives:
√ √
2∆p 2(2 × 103 )
p + 12 ρV 2 = p0 → ∆p = 12 ρV 2 → V = = = 57.14 m/s
ρ 1.225

The radial and tangential components of the velocity, vr and vθ , are given by
Γ 8000
vθ = = = 25.46 m/s
2πR 2π(50)
√ √
vr = V 2 − vθ2 = 57.142 − 25.462 = 51.15 m/s

The sink strength, q, can be obtained from the radial component of the velocity using
Equation 5.242, which gives
q q
= 51.15 → = 51.15 → q = 1.607 × 104 m2 /s
2πR 2π(50)

222
 (b) The angle θ at which the velocity crosses a circle of radius 50 m is given by
( ) ( )
−1 vr −1 51.15
θ = tan = tan = 63.5◦
vθ 25.46

5.92. Consider Doublet 1 located at (−1 m, 0 m). At location (2 m, 2 m), the components of the
velocity, vx1 and vy1 , induced by Doublet 1 are calculated as follows:
√
r1 = (2 + 1)2 + (2 + 0)2 = 2.83 m
( )
−1 2
θ1 = tan = 0.588 rad
3
K cos θ1 5 cos(0.588)
vr1 = − 2 =− = −0.519 m/s
r1 2.832
K sin θ1 5 sin(0.588)
vθ1 = − 2 =− = −0.346 m/s
r1 2.832
vx1 = −vθ1 sin θ1 + vr1 cos θ1 = 0.346 sin(0.588) − 0.519 cos(0.588) = −0.240 m/s
vy1 = vθ1 cos θ1 + vr1 sin θ1 = −0.346 cos(0.588) − 0.519 sin(0.588) = −0.576 m/s

Consider Doublet 2 located at (1 m, 0 m). At location (2 m, 2 m), the components of the

velocity, vx2 and vy2 , induced by Doublet 2 are calculated as follows:
√
r2 = (2 − 1)2 + (2 + 0)2 = 2.24 m
( )
−1 2
θ2 = tan = 1.11 rad
1
K cos θ2 5 cos(1.11)
vr2 = − 2 =− = −0.443 m/s
r2 2.242
K sin θ2 5 sin(1.11)
vθ2 = − 2 =− = −0.893 m/s
r2 2.242
vx2 = −vθ2 sin θ2 + vr2 cos θ2 = 0.893 sin(1.11) − 0.443 cos(1.11) = −0.603 m/s
vy2 = vθ2 cos θ2 + vr2 sin θ2 = −0.893 cos(1.11) − 0.443 sin(1.11) = −0.794 m/s

By the principle of superposition, the velocity induced by the two doublets acting together
is equal to the sum of the velocities induced by the doublets acting separately. Hence the
combined velocities are given by

vx = vx1 + vx2 = −0.240 − 0.603 = −0.843 m/s

vy = vy1 + vy2 = −0.576 − 0.794 = −1.370 m/s

Therefore the combined velocity vector, V, is given by

V = −0.843i − 1.370j

5.93. From the given data: V = 10 m/s, and the coordinates of Point P are given as (4 m, 4 m).

223
 (a) The coordinates of Point C are (b, 0). In this case, b must satisfy the following relation-
ships at Point P:
b(π − θ0 )
r0 = , r0 sin θ0 = 4 m, b + r0 cos θ0 = 4 m
sin θ0
where the subscript “0” is used to reference values at Point P, and Equation 5.256 is
used to describe the shape of the surface. Combining the above relationships yields
[ ][ ]
4 4 π − θ0
= 4− → θ0 = 1.099 rad
sin θ0 tan θ0 sin θ0
which gives
4
r0 = = 4.491 m, b = 4 − (4.491) cos 1.099 = 1.958 m
sin 1.099

Therefore the coordinates of Point C are (b, 0) = (1.96 m,0 m) .

(b) The equation of the surface of the Rankine half body is given by Equation 5.256 as

b(π − θs ) 1.96(π − θs )
rs = → rs =
sin θs sin θs

(c) The source strength, q, is derived from the values of b and V using Equation 5.254,
which yields
q = 2πbV = 2π(1.958)(10) = 120 m2 /s
The equation of the stream function is therefore given by Equation 5.252 as
q 120
ψ = V r sin θ + θ → ψ = (10)r sin θ + θ → ψ = 10r sin θ + 19.1 θ
2π 2π
5.94. From the given data: V = 0.4 m/s, d = 3 m, and the coordinates of Point P are given as
(3 m, 1.5 m). For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 , and γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .

(a) The distance between the toe and the origin of the standard radial coordinates is b, and
b must satisfy the following relationships at Point P:
b(π − θ0 )
r0 = , r0 sin θ0 = 1.5 m, b + r0 cos θ0 = 3 m
sin θ0
where the subscript “0” is used to reference values at Point P, and Equation 5.256 is
used to describe the shape of the surface. Combining the above relationships yields
[ ][ ]
1.5 1.5 π − θ0
= 3− → θ0 = 0.5549 rad
sin θ0 tan θ0 sin θ0
The velocity at Point P, vP , is given by Equation 5.260 as
[ ] 12 [ ] 21
sin 2θs sin2 θs sin 2(0.5549) sin2 0.5549
vP = V 1 + + = (0.4) 1 + +
π − θs (π − θs )2 π − 0.5549 (π − 0.5549)2

224
 → vP = 0.471 m/s

The pressure at Point P, pP , is estimated using Equation 5.257, taking into account
elevation differences, which gives
1 1
p0 + ρV 2 + γz0 = ps + ρvs2 + γzs
2 2
1 1
→ 0 + (998)(0.4)2 [×10−3 ] + (9.789)(4) = ps + (998.2)(0.471)2 [×10−3 ] + (9.789)(1.5)
2 2
→ ps = 14.65 kPa

(b) If the flow were normal to the flow section at P:

Vd (0.4)(3)
vP = = = 0.80 m/s
d − yP 3 − 1.5

pP = γ(d − yP ) = (9.789)(3 − 1.5) = 14.68 kPa

The discrepancy in the velocity is likely due to the fact that the water surface restricts
the deflection of the streamlines, which is not accounted for in the potential flow solution.
Therefore, the velocity calculated in Part (b) is likely closer to reality. The agreement
in pressure simply reflects the dominance of hydrostatic pressure.

5.95. From the given data: V = 60 km/h = 16.7 m/s, H = 100 m, and p0 = 101 kPa. At T =
20◦ C, the density of air is given by ρ = 1.204 kg/m3 . Since the asymptotic half-width is πb,
then
πb = H = 100 m → b = 31.8 m
The source strength, q, is given by
q q
= bV → = (31.8)(16.7) → q = 3340 m2 /s
2π 2π
The maximum velocity and minimum pressure are known to occur at θs = 63◦ = 1.10 rad.
The maximum velocity is given by Equation 5.260 as
√[ ] √[ ]
sin 2θs sin2 θs sin 2(1.10) sin2 (1.10)
vs = V 1+ + = (16.7) 1+ +
π − θs (π − θs )2 π − 1.10 (π − 1.10)2
→ vs = 21.0 m/s = 75.6 km/h

The corresponding minimum pressure can be derived from Equation 5.257 as follows
1 1
p0 + ρV 2 = ps + ρvs2
2 2
1 1
101 × 103 + (1.204)(16.7)2 = ps + (1.204)(21.0)2
2 2
which yields ps = 100.9 × 103 Pa ≈ 101 kPa . Therefore, although the velocity change is
significant, the pressure change is minimal.

225
5.96. From the given data: W = 3 m, and p0 = 130 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 ,
and the stagnation pressure is pvap = 2.337 kPa. Cavitation will first occur at the point
of minimum pressure on the body. Minimum pressure occurs where the maximum velocity
occurs. The maximum velocity adjacent to the body is 1.26V , where V is the approach
velocity. Using the Bernoulli equation as given by Equation 5.257 gives
1 1
p0 + ρV 2 = ps + ρvs2
2 2
1 1
130 + (998.2)V 2 [×10−3 ] = 2.337 + (998.2)(1.26V )2 [×10−3 ] → V = 20.9 m/s
2 2
5.97. From the given data: p1 = 207 kPa, p2 = 205 kPa, and θ = 45◦ = π/4 rad. In accordance with
the conventional nomenclature θs = π −π/4 = 3π/4. Assume that the air velocity is such that
Ma < 0.3, and so the air density can be assumed to be constant. Assume ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .
Point 1 is a stagnation point, so v1 = 0 m/s. The velocity at Point 2 can be calculated using
Equation 5.260, which gives
[ ] 12 [ ] 12
sin 2θs sin2 θs sin(3π/2) sin2 3π/4
v2 = V 1 + + =V 1+ + = 0.7330V
π − θs (π − θs )2 π − 3π/4 (π − 3π/4)2
According to the Bernoulli equation,

p1 = p2 + 21 ρv22 → (207 − 205) × 103 = 12 (1.225)(0.7330V )2 → V = 78.0 m/s

5.98. From the given data: L = 8 m, W = 7 m, and V = 1 m/s. Take b = L/2 = 4 m, and
h = W/2 = 3.5 m.
(a) Combining Equations 5.263 and 5.264 to eliminate πV a/q yields
[( ) ]  [ ]−1 
 ( )2
h 1 h 2
b h
= − 1 tan 2 −1
a 2 a  a a
[( ) ]  [ ]−1 
3.5 1 3.5 2  ( 4 )2 3.5 
→ = − 1 tan 2 −1
a 2 a  a a 

which yields a = 1.689 m. Using this result in Equation 5.263 requires that
√ √
b q 4 q
= +1 → = + 1 → q = 24.45 m2 /s
a πV a 1.689 π(1)(1.689)

Therefore the parameters of the Rankine oval are a = 1.689 m and q = 24.45 m2 /s .
(b) The maximum velocity, Vmax , on the surface of the Rankine oval is given by Equation
5.265, where
[ q ] [ ]
Vmax 1 Vmax 24.45 1
=1+ → =1+
V πV a 1 + h2 /a2 1 π(1)(1.689) 1 + 3.52 /1.6892

which yields Vmax = 1.87 m/s .

226
 5.99. From the given data: 2b = 3 m, 2h = 1.5 m, and p0 = 125 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, ρ =
998.2 kg/m3 , and pvap = 2.337 kPa. Let P be the parameter defined by

πV a
P =
q

Therefore, using the given relation that b/h = 2, Equations 5.263 and 5.264 give
√
h 1
2 = +1 (1)
a P
[( ) ] [ ]
h 1 h 2 h
= − 1 tan 2P (2)
a 2 a a

Solving Equations 1 and 2 simultaneously (numerically) gives

h b
P = 1.148, = 0.6839, = 1.368
a a
Using these results in Equation 5.265 gives
( ) ( )
Vmax 1 1 1 1
=1+ 2 2
=1+ = 1.593 → Vmax = 1.593V
V P 1 + h /a 1.148 1 + (0.6839)2

Cavitation is initiated at the location with the minimum pressure, which is also the location
of the maximum velocity. Applying the Bernoulli equation gives

p0 + 21 ρV 2 = pvap + 12 ρVmax
2

→ 125 × 103 + 12 (998.2)V 2 = 2.337 + 12 (998.2)(1.593V )2 → V = 12.6 m/s

5.100. From the given data: R = 5 m, V = 96 km/h = 26.67 m/s, p0 = 101 kPa, and T = 15◦ C.
Under the given (standard) atmospheric conditions the density of the air is ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .
Combining Equations 5.274 and 5.276, the lift force, FL , on the bunker is given by
∫ π ∫ π
1
FL = − (ps − p0 ) sin θR dθ = − ρV 2 R (1 − 4 sin2 θ) sin θ dθ
2
0
∫ π 0
1 2
= − ρV R (sin θ − 4 sin θ) dθ
3
2 0
1 [ ]π
= − ρV 2 R − cos θ + 34 cos3 θ + 4 cos θ = 35 ρV 2 R
2 0

Substituting the given values of the parameters yields

FL = 53 (1.225)(26.67)2 (5) = 7.26 × 103 N = 7.26 kN

5.101. From the given data: V = 15 m/s, and D = 0.5 m. For air under standard conditions,
p0 = 101 kPa, and ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .

227
 (a) The velocity distribution adjacent to the surface of the flagpole, vθ,s is given by Equa-
tion 5.272 as vθ,s = −2V sin θ. It is apparent from this relation that the minimum speed
occurs at θ = π and the maximum speed occurs at θ = π/2, hence

minimum speed = 2V sin(π) = 2(15)(0) = 0 m/s

maximum speed = 2V sin(π/2) = (2)(15)(1) = 30 m/s

(b) The pressure deviation adjacent to the surface of the flagpole, ps − p0 is given by Equa-
tion 5.274 as
1
ps − p0 = ρV 2 (1 − 4 sin2 θ)
2
It is apparent from this relation that the minimum pressure deviation occurs when
sin2 θ = 0, and the maximum pressure deviation occurs when sin2 θ = 1. Hence,
1 2 1
minimum pressure deviation = ρV = (1.225)(15)2 = 138 Pa
2 2
1 2 1
maximum pressure deviation = ρV (−3) = (1.225)(15)2 (−3) = −413 Pa
2 2
5.102. From the given data: D = 3 m, R = D/2 = 1.5 m, θ′ = π/4, θ = π − θ′ = 3π/4, and
∆p = 12.5 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kPa.
(a) The pressure distribution around the cylinder is given by Equation 5.274, which requires
that
1 1
ps = p0 + ρV 2 [1 − 4 sin2 θ] → ∆p = ρV 2 [4 sin2 θ − 1]
2 2
1
→ 12.5 × 103 = (998.2)V 2 [4 sin2 (3π/4) − 1] → V = 5.00 m/s
2
(b) The doublet strength, K, to simulate the flow field is given by

K = V R2 = (5.00)(1.5)2 = 11.3 m3 /s

5.103. From the given data: V = 5 m/s, D = 3 m, R = D/2 = 1.5 m, θ′ = π/4, and θ = π−θ′ = 3π/4.
At the stagnation point the fluid velocity given by Equation 5.279 is equal to zero, which
requires that
Γ Γ
0 = −2V sin θ + → 0 = −2(5) sin(3π/4) + → Γ = 66.64 m2 /s
2πR 2π(1.5)
Using the definition of the circulation, Γ, given by Equation 5.230 requires that
I ∫ 2π
Γ
Γ= V · ds = Rω Rdθ = 2πR2 ω → ω =
P 0 2πR2
Substituting the given and derived variables yields
66.64
ω= = 4.714 rad/s = 45.0 rpm
2π(1.5)2
Since ω is positive, the rotation is counterclockwise .

228
5.104. From the given data: p0 = 101 kPa, V = 100 km/h = 27.8 m/s, D = 150 mm = 0.15 m, R
= D/2 = 0.075 m, L = 10 m, and F = 1000 N. At T = 20◦ C, ρ = 1.024 kg/m3 .

(a) From the Kutta-Joukowski theorem,

F = −ρV ΓL → 1000 = −(1.024)(27.8)Γ(10) → Γ = −2.99 m2 /s

(b) Stagnation points occur on the surface of the cylinder when |Γ|/(4πV R) < 1, in this
case
|Γ| | − 2.99|
= = 0.114 < 1
4πV R 4π(27.8)(0.075)
Therefore two stagnation points occur on the surface of the rotating cylinder.
(c) In accordance with the Bernoulli equation, the maximum pressure, pmax , occurs at the
stagnation points where
1 1 1
pmax = p0 + ρV 2 = 101 kPa + (1.204)(27.8)2 kPa = 101.5 kPa
2 2 1000

229
230
Chapter 6

Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

6.1. Substitute the units of the variables:

[ ]
F F [L3 /T]2 F F
2 = 3 1+ 2 5 L= 2 + 2
L L [L/T ][L ] L L
The units of each term are the same, so the equation is dimensionally homogeneous .
6.2. Substitute the units of the variables:
( )
ρg y2
u(y) = sin θ hy −
µ 2
( )
−1 [ML−3 ][LT−2 ] [L]2
[LT ] = [−] [L][L] −
[ML−1 T−1 ] 2

[LT−1 ] = [LT−1 ] − [LT−1 ]

The units of each term are the same, so the equation is dimensionally homogeneous .
6.4. Rearranging the given relationship to make h the subject of the formula, and then expressing
each variable in terms of its dimension:
mc dT
h=
(T − Tℓ ) dt

[M][EM−1 Θ−1 ] [Θ] [E]

[h] = = → kJ/◦ C·s
[Θ] T [Θ][T]
6.5. Expressing the terms in the given equation by their dimensions yields
d2 x dx
+a + bx = c
dt2 dt
LT−2 + a · LT−1 + b · L = c
For all terms in the equation to have dimensions of LT−2 , then the following dimensions are
required for a, b, and c:

a = T−1 , b = T−2 , c = LT−2

231
6.5. The SI unit of energy is the joule . Each term in Equation 6.27 has a SI unit of meter . Each
term in Equation 6.27 represents the energy per unit weight . A possible nondimensional
form of Equation 6.27 is
( )
p1 − p2 1 V22 g(z2 − z1 ) ghf
= −1 + + 2
ρV12 2 V12 V12 V1

6.6. (a) The dimensions of Re is calculated from the dimensions of the given variables as follows:

ρV Dh [ML−3 ][LT−1 ][L]

Re = = = [−]
µ [ML−1 T−1 ]

Therefore the Reynolds number is dimensionless . The is no change in the dimensions

of Re based on the system of units that is used.
(b) From the given data: Dh = 150 mm, and V = 30 m/s. For methane at 20◦ C and
standard sea-level pressure, Appendix B.5 gives ν = µ/ρ = 13.4 µPa·s. The Reynolds
number is therefore given by

V Dh (30)(0.15)
Re = = = 3.36 × 105
ν 13.4 × 10−6

6.7. (a) The dimensions of Fr is calculated from the dimensions of the given variables as follows:

V [LT−1 ]
Fr = √ =√ = [−]
gDh [LT−2 ][L]

Therefore the Froude number is in fact dimensionless .

(b) From the given data: V = 0.3 m/s, b = 2 m, y = 1.2 m, and m = 3, where the side
slopes are defined as m : 1. The hydraulic depth, Dh is calculated as follows,

A = by + my 2 = (2)(1.2) + 3(1.2)2 = 6.720 m2

√ √
T = b + 2y 1 + m2 = 2 + 2(1.2) 1 + 32 = 9.589 m
A 6.720
Dh = = = 0.7008 m
T 9.589
hence the Froude number, Fr, is

V 0.3
Fr = √ =√ = 0.114
gDh (9.807)0.7008

6.8. Define the following nondimensional variables, where the asterisk denotes a nondimensional
quantity:
r u
r∗ = , u∗ = , t∗ = ωt
R U

232
 Substituting these variables into the given differential yields the following nondimensional
equation,
( ) ( )( )
ωR ∂u∗ µ 1 ∂u∗ ∂ 2 u∗
= + ∗2
U ∂t∗ ρU R r∗ ∂r∗ ∂r
More-advanced students might recognize that first non-dimensional parameter in brackets is
the Strouhal number, and the second nondimensional parameter in brackets is the inverse of
the Reynolds number.
6.9. (a) Define the normalized variables by dividing by their scales. Using asterisks to denote
non-dimensional quantities:
x y ρ u v
x∗ = , y∗ = , t∗ = ωt, ρ∗ = , u∗ = , v∗ = ,
L L ρ0 V V
Expressing x, y, t, ρ, u, v in the equation in terms of x∗ , y ∗ , t∗ , ρ∗ , u∗ , v ∗ and simplifying
yields ( )
ωL ∂ρ∗ ∂ ∂
∗
+ ∗ (ρ∗ u∗ ) + ∗ (ρ∗ v ∗ ) = 0
V ∂t ∂x ∂y
which can be expressed in terms of the Strouhal number as

∂ρ∗ ∂ ∂
St + ∗ (ρ∗ u∗ ) + ∗ (ρ∗ v ∗ ) = 0
∂t∗ ∂x ∂y

(b) As the Strouhal number becomes negligibly small (i.e., St → 0), the nondimensional
continuity equation becomes

∂ ∂
∗
(ρ∗ u∗ ) + ∗ (ρ∗ v ∗ ) = 0
∂x ∂y

A scenario in which this might occur is where the cause of the flow remains constant
and the flow attains a steady state .
6.10. Define the normalized variables by dividing by their scales. Using asterisks to denote non-
dimensional quantities:
x y z Vt u v w V
x∗ = , y∗ = , z∗ = , t∗ = , u∗ = , v∗ = , w∗ = , V∗ =
L L L L V V V V
p
∇∗ = L ∇, p∗ =
ρV 2
Expressing x, y, z, t, V, ∇, and p in the equation in terms of x∗ , y ∗ , z ∗ , t∗ , V∗ , ∇∗ , and p∗ and
simplifying yields
( )
∂V∗ ∗ ∂V
∗
∗ ∂V
∗
∗ ∂V
∗
∗ ∗ gL
+ u + v + w = −∇ p − k
∂t∗ ∂x∗ ∂y ∗ ∂z ∗ V2
which can be expressed in terms of the Froude number as

∂V∗ ∗ ∂V
∗
∗ ∂V
∗
∗ ∂V
∗ 1
+ u + v + w = −∇∗ p∗ − 2 k
∂t∗ ∂x∗ ∂y ∗ ∂z ∗ Fr

233
 As the Froude number becomes large, gravity effects diminish and asymptotically gravity
can be neglected.
6.11. Define the normalized variables by dividing by their scales. Using asterisks to denote non-
dimensional quantities:
x z u w
x∗ = , z∗ = , u∗ = , w∗ =
L L V V
Expressing x, z, u, and w in the equation in terms of x , z , u , and w∗ and simplifying yields
∗ ∗ ∗

∗
( )( 2 ∗ ) ( )
∗ ∂w µ ∂ w ∂ 2 w∗ Lg
u ∗
= ∗2
+ ∗2
−
∂x ρV L ∂x ∂z V2
which can be expressed in terms of the Reynolds number and the Froude number as
∗
( )
∗ ∂w 1 ∂ 2 w∗ ∂ 2 w∗ 1
u ∗
= ∗2
+ ∗2
− 2
∂x Re ∂x ∂z Fr
As the Reynolds number becomes large the normalized momentum equation becomes
∂w∗ 1
u∗ ∗
=− 2
∂x Fr

6.12. Define the normalized variables by dividing by their scales. Using asterisks to denote non-
dimensional quantities:
x y u v T
x∗ = , y∗ = , u∗ = , v∗ = , T∗ =
L L V V T0
Expressing x, y, u, v, and T in the equation in terms of x∗ , y ∗ , u∗ , v ∗ , and T ∗ and simplifying
yields
( µc ) [ ∂T ∗ ∗
] ( )( 2 ∗
∂2T ∗
)
p ∗ ∗ ∂T µ ∂ T
u +v = +
k ∂x∗ ∂y ∗ ρLV ∂x∗2 ∂y ∗2
which can be expressed in terms of the Prandtl number and the Reynolds number as
[ ∗ ∗
] ( )
∗ ∂T ∗ ∂T 1 ∂2T ∗ ∂2T ∗
Pr u +v = +
∂x∗ ∂y ∗ Re ∂x∗2 ∂y ∗2

6.13. For the given variables

f1 (V, ∆p, µ, L, D, r) = 0
with dimensions

Variable Dimension

V LT−1
∆p ML−1 T−2
µ ML−1 T−1
L L
D L
r L

234
 Hence there are N = 6 variables, m = 3 dimensions, and N − m = 6 − 3 = 3 dimensionless
groups. These dimensionless groups can be taken as

µV D r
Π1 = , Π2 = , Π3 =
∆pL L L

and the Buckingham pi theorem gives

( )
µV D r
f2 , , =0 (1)
∆pL L L

The given relation can be re-arranged as

( ) ( )2 ( r )2
µV 1 D
4 − + =0
∆pL 4 L L

which is the same functional relationship as derived by the Buckingham pi theorem and given
by Equation 1.

6.14. From the given information: ( )

∂p
V = f1 D, ,µ
∂x
where the variable dimensions are:
∂p
V : [LT−1 ], D : [L], : [FL−3 ], µ : [FL−2 T]
∂x
Since there are 4 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there is 1 dimensionless group. Hence
( )
Vµ Vµ D2 ∂p
f2 =0 → = constant → V = constant ×
∂p/∂x · D2 ∂p/∂x · D2 µ ∂x

6.15. For the given variables

f1 (F, p1 , A1 , p2 , A2 , ρ, V1 , V2 ) = 0
with dimensions

Variable Dimension

F MLT−2
p1 ML−1 T−2
A1 L2
p2 ML−1 T−2
A2 L2
ρ ML−3
V1 LT−1
V2 LT−1

235
 Hence there are N = 8 variables, m = 3 dimensions, and N − m = 8 − 3 = 5 dimensionless
groups. These dimensionless groups can be taken as

F p2 A2 V2 ρV12
Π1 = , Π2 = , Π3 = , Π4 = , Π5 =
p1 A1 p1 A1 V1 p1

and the Buckingham pi theorem gives

( )
F p2 A2 V2 ρV12
f2 , , , , =0 (1)
p1 A1 p1 A1 V1 p1

The given relation can be re-arranged as

( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
F p2 A2 ρV12 ρV12 V2
−1+ − + =0
p1 A1 p1 A1 p1 p1 V1

which is the same functional relationship as derived by the Buckingham pi theorem and given
by Equation 1.

6.16. From the given information:

pmax = f1 (ρ, V, Ev )
The variable dimensions are:

pmax : [ML−1 T−2 ], ρ : [ML−3 ], V : [LT−1 ], Ev : [ML−1 T−2 ]

Since there are 4 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there is 1 dimensionless group, such that

pmax
1 = constant
(ρEv ) 2

6.17. From the given information:

F = f1 (D, m, ω)
where the variable dimensions are:

F : [MLT−2 ], D : [L], m : [M], ω : [T−1 ]

Since there are 4 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there is 1 dimensionless group. Hence
( )
F F
f2 =0 → = constant → F = constant × mDω 2
mDω 2 mDω 2

6.18. From the given information

f1 (e, D, Q, ω, ρ, µ) = 0 (1)
with dimensions given by

236
 Variable Dimension
e L2 T−2
D L
Q LT−3
ω T−1
ρ ML−3
µ ML−1 T−1

Hence, there are N = 6 variables, m = 3 dimensions, and therefore Equation 1 can be

expressed in terms of N − m = 6 − 3 = 3 dimensionless groups. Let
e Q ρωD2
Π1 = , Π2 = , Π3 =
ω D2
2 ωD3 µ
in which case Equation 1 can be expressed in the functional form
( )
e Q ρωD2
f2 , , =0
ω 2 D2 ωD3 µ

By expressing the given relationship in terms of dimensionless groups, the experimental effort
required to determine an empirical relationship between the variables is reduced. In addition,
the physical significance associated with some of the groups may justify neglecting some
groups, reducing the number of dimensionless groups even further.

6.19. From the given information:

P = f1 (ω, L, ρ, µ)
where the variable dimensions are:

P : [MT−3 ], ω : [T−1 ], L : [L], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ]

Since there are 5 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 2 dimensionless groups, which
requires that
( )
P ρωL2 P
3 = f2 → = f2 (Re)
3
ρω L µ ρω 3 L3

The Reynolds number (Re) appears in the derived relationship.

6.20. From the given information:

∆p = f1 (d, D, ρ, µ, V )
where the variable dimensions are:

∆p : [ML−1 T−2 ], d : [L], D : [L], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ], V : [LT−1 ]

Since there are 6 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 3 dimensionless groups. Hence
the functional relationship between dimensionless groups is given by
( ) ( )
∆p d ρV D d
1 2
= f2 , → Eu = f2 , Re
2 ρV
D µ D

237
 The named conventional dimensionless groups that occur are the Euler number (Eu) and
the Reynolds number (Re). The corresponding dimensional relationship between ∆p and
the influencing variables is
( )
d ρV D
∆p = 2 ρV · f2
1 2
,
D µ

6.21. From the given information, there are 7 variables in 3 dimensions which leads to 7 − 3 = 4
dimensionless groups. These can be written as
( )
ΩL ρV D H
= f1 , ,N
V µ L

The term on the left is the Strouhal number and the first term on the right is the Reynolds number .
If viscosity is is negligible, the functional relationship becomes
( )
ΩL H
= f1 ,N
V L

Only the Strouhal number appears in this equation.

6.22. From the given information:

T = f1 (D, ρ, µ, ω)
where the variable dimensions are:

T : [MLT−2 ], D : [L], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ], ω : [T−1 ]

Since there are 5 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 2 dimensionless groups, such
that
( )
T ρD2 ω
f2 , =0
D4 ω 2 µ

6.23. Since the given equation is dimensionally homogeneous, the dimensions of D and k must be
D ∼ L2 /T and k ∼ 1/T . The given equation in dimensionless form is

( ) ( )
∂C ∗ D ∂2C ∗ kL ∂C ∗
u∗ ∗ = − C∗ −
∂x LV ∂x∗2 V ∂t∗

where the nondimensional variables are u∗ = u/V , x∗ = x/L, t∗ = V t/L, and C ∗ = C/C0 .
The key pi groups are DL/k and kL/V .

6.24. Let FD be the drag force on the flat plate. Therefore the problem can be represented by the
following functional relationship,

FD = f1 (ρ, µ, V, W, H, T, θ) (1)

with dimensions given by

238
 Variable Dimension
FD MLT−2
ρ ML−3
µ ML−1 T−1
V LT−1
W L
H L
T L
θ –

Hence, there are N = 8 variables, m = 3 dimensions, and therefore Equation 1 can be

expressed in terms of N −m = 8 − 3 = 5 dimensionless groups. Using the method of repeating
variables, where the repeating variables are ρ, W , and V , gives the following dimensionless
groups:
FD ρV W H T
Π1 = 2 2
, Π2 = , Π3 = , Π4 = , Π5 = θ
ρV W µ W W
in which case Equation 1 can be expressed in the functional form
( )
FD ρV W H T
= , , ,θ
ρV 2 W 2 µ W W

6.25. (a) From the given variables: ( )

dp
u = f1 y, h, V, µ,
dx
There are 6 variables in 3 dimensions, so there are 3 dimensionless groups. Use the
following parameters to nondimensionalize:
h µh2
L: h T : M:
V V
The resulting relationship between dimensionless groups is:
( )
u y dp h2
= f2 , ·
V h dx µV

(b) Dividing the given equation by V and rearranging yields

(u) (y) ( ) [( ) ]
1 dp h2 y 2 (y)
= + · −
V h 2 dx µV h h

Which is the given equation in nondimensional form, and this form validates the rela-
tionship derived by dimensional analysis in Part (a).
6.26. The problem can be represented by the following functional relationship,

δ = f1 (ρ, µ, V, D, L, E) (1)

with dimensions given by

239
 Variable Dimension
δ L
ρ ML−3
µ ML−1 T−1
V LT−1
D L
L L
E FL−2 = ML−1 T−2

Hence, there are N = 7 variables, m = 3 dimensions, and therefore Equation 1 can be

expressed in terms of N −m = 7 − 3 = 4 dimensionless groups. Using the method of repeating
variables, where the repeating variables are ρ, D, and V , gives the following dimensionless
groups:
δ ρV D L E
Π1 = , Π2 = , Π3 = , Π4 =
L µ D ρV 2
in which case Equation 1 can be expressed in the functional form
( )
δ ρV W L E
= , ,
L µ D ρV 2

6.27. From the given information:

ω = f1 (D, ρ, µ, V )
where the variable dimensions are:

ω : [T−1 ], D : [L], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ], V : [LT−1 ]

Since there are 5 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 2 dimensionless groups, such
that
( )
ωL ρV D
f2 , =0
V µ

The named conventional dimensionless groups in this relation are the Strouhal number and
the Reynolds number , such that

f2 (St, Re) = 0 or St = f3 (Re)

6.28. From the given data: V = 160 km/h = 44.4 m/s, and D = 300 mm. For standard air,
ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s.

(a) Based on the derivation of the Reynolds number as a force ratio,

viscous force 1 ν 1.461 × 10−5

= = = = 1.10 × 10−6
inertial force Re VD (44.4)(0.3)

240
 (b) Based on the derivation of the Froude number as a force ratio,

gravity force 1 gD (9.807)(0.3)

= 2 = 2 = = 1.49 × 10−3
inertial force Fr V 44.42

(c) Based on the results in Parts (a) and (b) it appears that viscous and gravity forces are
both small relative to the inertial force. However, in reality, the relevant length scale
for calculating the Reynolds number is the (very small) boundary layer thickness, which
would more accurately reflect the greater relative importance of the viscous force .

6.29. From the given information:

FD = f1 (ρ, µ, V, L)

where the variable dimensions are:

FD : [MLT−2 ], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ], V : [LT−1 ], L : [L]

Since there are 5 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 2 dimensionless groups. Hence
the functional relationship between the dimensionless groups is given by
( )
FD ρV D FD
1 2 2
= f2 → 1 2 2
= f2 (Re)
2 ρV L
µ 2 ρV L

As dependence on the viscosity is reduced,

FD FD
1 2 2
= f2 (Re) → 1 2 2
= constant
2 ρV L 2 ρV L

Under asymptotic conditions, the relationship between the drag force and the influencing
variables is given by
FD = constant × ρV 2 L2

6.30. The problem can be represented by the following functional relationship,

V = f1 (µ, ∆γ, D) (1)

where it is noted that the volume, V, of the sphere is a function of the diameter, D, of the
sphere. Dimensions of the variables are given by

Variable Dimension

V LT−1
µ ML−1 T−1
∆γ FL−3
D L

241
 Hence, there are N = 4 variables, m = 3 dimensions, and therefore Equation 1 can be
expressed in terms of N − m = 4 − 3 = 1 dimensionless group. Grouping the variables into
a single nondimensional group gives
Vµ
Π1 =
∆γD2
in which case Equation 1 can be expressed in the functional form
( )
Vµ Vµ ∆γD2
f2 =0 → = constant → V = constant
∆γD2 ∆γD2 µ

6.31. From the given information:

V = f1 (L, ρ, µ)
where the variable dimensions are:

V : [LT−1 ], L : [L], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ]

Since there are 4 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there is 1 dimensionless group. Hence
( )
ρV L ρV L µ
f2 =0 → = constant → V = constant ×
µ µ ρL

6.32. From the given data:

F = f (λ, ρ, D, c)
Since there are 5 variables and 3 dimensions, there are 5 − 3 = 2 dimensionless groups:
( )
F λ
= f1
ρc2 D2 D

6.33. From the given data:

H = f1 (V, F, h, ρw , ρair , g)
This relationship involves 7 variables in 3 dimensions and so the Buckingham pi theorem
states that the relation between variables can be expressed as a relation between 7 − 3 =
4 dimensionless groups. Analysis with the given repeating variables yields the following
relationship:
( )
H V F ρair
= f2 √ , ,
h gh h ρw

6.34. From the given information:

V = f1 (h, g, σ, ρ)
where the variable dimensions are:

V : [LT−1 ], h : [L], g : [LT−2 ], σ : [MT−2 ], ρ : [ML−3 ]

242
 Since there are 5 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 2 dimensionless groups, such
that
( )
V ρV 2 L
f2 √ , =0
gh σ

The named dimensionless groups are the Froude number, Fr, and the Weber number, We,
hence
f2 (Fr, We) = 0

6.35. From the given information:

ω = f1 (ρ, µ, D)
where the variable dimensions are:

ω : [T−1 ], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ], D : [L]

Since there are 4 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there is 1 dimensionless group, which
requires that
ρD2 ω µ
= constant → ω = constant ·
µ ρD2

6.36. From the given data: h = 8 mm, and V = 5 cm/s = 0.05 m/s. For SAE 30 oil, µ = 0.440 Pa·s,
ρ = 918 kg/m3 , and σ = 0.036 N/m.

(a) Based on the derivation of the Reynolds number as a force ratio,

viscous force 1 µ 0.440

= = = = 1.12
inertial force Re ρV h (918)(0.05)(0.008)

(b) Based on the derivation of the Froude number as a force ratio,

gravity force 1 gh (9.807)(0.008)

= 2 = 2 = = 31.4
inertial force Fr V 0.052

(c) Based on the derivation of the Weber number as a force ratio,

surface tension force 1 σ 0.036

= = 2
= = 1.96
inertial force We ρV h (918)(0.05)2 (0.008)

(c) Based on the results in Parts (a), (b), and (c), the viscous, gravity, and surface tension
forces are all of comparable magnitude to the inertial force . Therefore all are impor-
tant in determining the flow velocity down the plane surface.

6.37. From the given information

f1 (h, γ, σ, D) = 0 (1)
with dimensions given by

243
 Variable Dimension
h L
γ ML−2 T−2
σ MT−2
D L

Hence, there are N = 4 variables, m = 3 dimensions, and therefore Equation 1 can be

expressed in terms of N − m = 4 − 3 = 1 dimensionless group. Let
σ
Π1 =
γhD

in which case Equation 1 can be expressed in the functional form

( )
σ
f2 =0
γhD

which simplifies to
σ
= constant (2)
γhD
The given theoretical expression can be put in the form
σ 1
=
γhD 4

which means that the constant in Equation 2 is equal to 1/4.

6.38. From the given information:

D = f1 (Vj , Dj , σ, µ, ρ)
where the variable dimensions are:

D : [L], Vj : [LT−1 ], Dj : [L], σ : [MT−2 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ], ρ : [ML−3 ]

Since there are 6 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 3 dimensionless groups, such
that ( )
2
D ρVj Dj ρVj Dj
= f2 ,
Dj µ σ

Named conventional groups in this relationship are the Reynolds number , Re, and the
Weber number , We, such that
D
= f2 (Re, We)
Dj

6.39. From the given information:

W = f1 (ρ, L, σ, g)

244
 where the variable dimensions are:

W : [MLT−2 ], ρ : [ML−3 ], L : [L], σ : [MT−2 ], g : [LT−2 ]

Since there are 5 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 2 dimensionless groups, such
that ( )
W σ
= f2
ρgL3 ρgL2

6.40. From the given information:

V = f1 (h, ρ, µ, g)
where the variable dimensions are:

V : [LT−1 ], h : [L], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ]

(a) If viscous effects are negligible, then µ is removed as a variable and the required functional
relationship becomes
V = f2 (h, ρ, g)
This leads to a situation in which only ρ has a mass dimension , which means that the
relationship between the other variables cannot include ρ. Therefore, ρ does not influence
the average velocity. The remaining functional relationship is

V = f3 (h, g)

(b) Since there are 3 variables and 2 dimensions (LT), there is 1 dimensionless group. Hence
( )
V V 1
f4 1 =0 → 1 = constant → V = constant × (gh) 2
(gh) 2 (gh) 2

6.41. From the given information:

V = f1 (h, D, ρ, µ, g)
where the variable dimensions are:

V : [LT−1 ], h : [L], D : [L], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ]

Since there are 6 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 3 dimensionless groups, such
that ( )
V h ρV D
f2 1 , , =0
(gh) 2 D µ

6.42. From the given information

f1 (Q, V, σ, ρ, H, µ, Hw , b, g) = 0 (1)

Not all of these variables are independent, since the flow, Q, can be expressed in terms of
other variables by Q = V bH. It is convenient to deal with the flow per unit width, q, which

245
 removes the effect of the width, b, and is defined by V and H, since q = V H. The revised
list of variables is then given by

f2 (V, σ, ρ, H, µ, Hw , g) = 0 (2)

with dimensions given by

Variable Dimension
V LT−1
σ MT−2
ρ ML−3
H L
µ ML−1 T−1
Hw L
g LT−2

Hence, there are N = 7 variables, m = 3 dimensions, and therefore Equation 2 can be

expressed in terms of N − m = 7 − 3 = 4 dimensionless groups. Let

V ρV 2 H ρV H H
Π1 = √ , Π2 = = We, Π3 = = Re, Π4 =
gH σ µ Hw
in which case Equation 2 can be expressed in the functional form
( )
V H
f3 √ , We, Re, =0
gH Hw
which can be put in the form
( )
V H
√ = f4 We, Re, =0
gH Hw

Substituting V = Q/Hb gives

( )
Q H
√ 3/2 = f4 We, Re, =0
gH b Hw
or ( )
H √
Q = f4 We, Re, b gH 3/2 = 0
Hw
which is exactly equal to the given expression.

6.43. From the given information:

h1 = f1 (h2 , V1 , g)
where the variable dimensions are:

h1 : [L], h2 : [L], V1 : [LT−1 ], g : [LT−2 ]

246
 Since there are 4 variables and 2 dimensions (LT), there are 2 dimensionless group, which
requires that
( )
h2 V1 h2
= f2 √ → = f2 (Fr1 )
h1 gh1 h1

The Froude number , represented above as Fr1 , appears in the derived relationship.
6.44. From the given information:
FD = f1 (ρ, µ, L, g, V )
where the variable dimensions are:
FD : [MLT−2 ], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ], L : [L], g : [LT−2 ], V : [LT−1 ]
Since there are 6 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 3 dimensionless groups, such
that ( )
FD V ρV L
f2 1 2 2 , √ , =0
2 ρV L
gL µ

It is important to include gravity since the flow field involves a free surface .
6.47. From the given information:
FD = f1 (ρ, L, V, c)
where the variable dimensions are:
FD : [MLT−2 ], ρ : [ML−3 ], L : [L], V : [LT−1 ], c : [LT−1 ]
Since there are 5 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 2 dimensionless groups, such
that ( )
FD V FD
1 2 2
= f2 → 1 2 2 = f2 (Ma)
2 ρV L
c 2 ρV L

This relationship involves the Mach number (Ma).

6.45. From the given information:
T = f1 (ρ, µ, D, V, g, ω, p)
The variable dimensions are:
T : [MLT−2 ], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ], D : [M], V : [LT−1 ]

g : [LT−2 ], ω : [T−1 ], p : [ML−1 T−2 ]

Since there are 8 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 5 dimensionless groups, such
that
( )
T ρV L p V ωD T
1 2 2
= f2 , 2
, √ , → 1 2 2 = f2 (Re, Eu, Fr, St)
2 ρV D
µ ρV gD V 2 ρV D

The named conventional dimensionless groups involved in the relationship are the Reynolds number ,
the Euler number , the Froude number , and the Strouhal number .

247
6.46. From the given information:
FL = f1 (V, ρ, L, t, α)
where the variable dimensions are:

V : [LT−1 ], ρ : [ML−3 ], L : [L], t : [L], α : [-]

Since there are 6 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 3 dimensionless groups, such
that ( )
FL L
1 2 2
= f2 α,
2 ρV L
t

6.48. From the given information:

Lw = f1 (ρ, µ, L, V )
where Lw is the wake length, ρ and µ are the density an viscosity of the air, respectively,
L is the characteristic size of the aircraft, and V is the speed of the aircraft. The variable
dimensions are:

Lw : [L], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ], L : [M], V : [LT−1 ]

Since there are 5 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 2 dimensionless groups, such
that ( )
Lw ρV L
= f2
L µ

6.49. From the given information:

P = f1 (ρ, µ, D, V, c)
The variable dimensions are:

P : [ML2 T−3 ], ρ : [ML−3 ], µ : [ML−1 T−1 ], D : [M], V : [LT−1 ], c : [LT−1 ]

Since there are 6 variables and 3 dimensions (MLT), there are 3 dimensionless groups, such
that ( )
P ρV L V P
3 2
= f2 , → = f2 (Re, Ma)
ρV D µ c ρV 3 D2

The named conventional dimensionless groups involved in the relationship are the Reynolds number ,
and the Mach number .

6.50. The inertial force, FI , on a fluid element is given by

( )2
3 L 2 L
FI = ma ∼ ρL 2 = ρL ∼ ρL2 V 2
T T

The pressure force, FP , on a fluid element is given by

FP = ∆pA ∼ ∆pL2

248
 The ratio of the inertial force to the pressure force is therefore given by

FI ρL2 V 2 ρV 2 V2
∼ = = (1)
FP ∆pL2 ∆p ∆p/ρ

Since the Euler number, Eu, is defined as

∆p 2 V2
Eu = 1 2
→ = (2)
2 ρV
Eu ∆p/ρ

then, combining Equations 1 and 2 gives

FI 2
∼
FP Eu

Therefore the (inverse of the) Euler number, Eu, is a measure of FI /FP .

6.51. The inertial force, FI , is

( )2
L L
FI = ma ∼ ρL 2 = ρL2
3
∼ ρL2 V 2
T T

The surface tension force, FS , on a fluid element is given by

FS = σL

The ratio of the inertial force to the surface tension force is therefore given by

FI ρL2 V 2 ρLV 2
∼ =
FS σL σ
Since the Weber number, We, is defined as

ρLV 2
We =
σ
then
FI
∼ We
FS
Therefore the Weber number, We, is a measure of FI /FS .

6.52. The inertial force, FI , is

( )2
L L
FI = ma ∼ ρL 2 = ρL2
3
∼ ρL2 V 2
T T

The compressibility force, FC , on a fluid element is given by

FC = Ev L2

249
 The ratio of the inertial force to the compressibility force is therefore given by

FI ρL2 V 2 ρV 2
∼ =
FC E v L2 Ev

Since the Cauchy number, Ca, is defined as

ρV 2
Ca =
Ev

then
FI
∼ Ca
FC

Therefore the Cauchy number, Ca, is a measure of FI /FC .

6.56. From the given data, the functional relationship between variables can be expressed as

d = f1 (D, V, ρ, µ, σ)

There are 6 variables in 3 unknowns, which can be expressed as a relationship between

6 − 3 = 3 dimensionless groups. Using the conventional force ratios, gives
( )
d ρV D ρV 2 D d
= f2 , → = f2 (Re, We)
D µ σ D

6.54. (a) The relevant variables are as follows

∆p = f1 (V1 , D1 , D2 , ρ)

where V1 is the velocity in the upstream section, and ρ is the density. There are 5
variables in 3 dimensions, which leads to 5 − 3 = 2 dimensionless groups. Dimensional
analysis gives
( )
∆p D1
1 2
= f2
2 ρV 1 D2

(b) From the given data: D1 = 150 mm, and Q = 20 L/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 .
The following preliminary calculations are useful:

πD12 Q 0.02
A1 = = 0.01767 m2 , V1 = = = 1.132 m/s
4 A1 0.01767
2
1
2 ρV1 = 21 (998)(1.132)2 = 639.4 Pa

Dividing the measures ∆p by 12 ρV12 (=639.4 Pa) and plotting these values versus D1 /D2
gives the values in Figure 6.1.

250
 0.4
Δp
½ρV2
0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

D1/D2

Figure 6.1: Laboratory results

The equation of the best-fit least-squares line shown in Figure 6.1 is given by

∆p D1
1 2
= −0.653 + 0.662
2 ρV1
D2

6.55. From the given data: D1 = 150 mm, and Q = 42.41 L/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 .
Using these data,

(a) A functional analysis of the relevant variables yields the following:

p1 − p2 = f1 (ρ, D1 , D2 , V2 )

This relation involves 5 variables in 3 dimensions, so there are 5 − 3 = 2 dimensionless

groups. An appropriate functional relationship between these dimensionless groups is as
follows:
( )
p1 − p2 D1
1 2
= f2
2 ρV2
D2

Using this formulation, the laboratory results can be expressed as follows:

D1 (p1 − p2 ) D1 (p1 − p2 )
D2 1 2 D2 1 2
2 ρV2 2 ρV2
1.0 0 2.2 0.567
1.1 0.277 2.5 0.574
1.2 0.448 3.0 0.568
1.4 0.570 4.0 0.546
1.6 0.587 5.0 0.538
1.8 0.575 10.0 0.530
2.0 0.578 − −

These data are plotted in Figure 6.2.

251
 0.6
p1-p2 0.4
½ρV22
0.2

0
2 4 6 8 10
D1/D2

Figure 6.2: Laboratory results I

(b) Applying the energy equation between the upstream and downstream sections gives,
[ ] [ ]
p1 V12 p2 V22 V2
+ − + =K 2 (1)
γ 2g γ 2g 2g

Noting that V1 = Q/(πD12 /4) and V2 = Q/(πD22 /4), Equation 1 can be rearranged to
the form [ ] [ ]
(p1 − p2 ) D2 4
K =1− 1 2
−
2 ρV2
D1
Using this relationship with the nondimensional data tabulated in Part (a) gives

D1 D1
K K
D2 D2
1.0 0 2.2 0.390
1.1 0.040 2.5 0.400
1.2 0.070 3.0 0.420
1.4 0.170 4.0 0.450
1.6 0.260 5.0 0.460
1.8 0.330 10.0 0.470
2.0 0.360 − −

These data are plotted in Figure 6.3.

0.5
0.4
K 0.3 Best-fit line
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
D1/D2

Figure 6.3: Laboratory results II

252
 An exponential equation that is a good fit to the data (as shown in Figure 6.3 is
( )
D1
K = 0.463 − 2.038 exp −1.434
D2

6.56. The relevant variables are: τ , ρ, µ, V , w, h, and ϵ , where τ = boundary shear stress, ρ =
fluid density, µ = fluid dynamic viscosity, V = average velocity of fluid, w = width of duct,
and h = height of duct. The result of dimensional analysis is
( )
τ ρV w w ϵ
= , ,
ρV 2 µ h h

The benefit of dimensional analysis is to reduce the number of variables . A conventional

dimensionless group that occurs in the analysis is the Reynolds number . For dynamic sim-
ilarity:
( ) ( )
ρV w ρV w Vp wm
= → =
µ p µ m Vm wp

This relationship assumes that the same fluid is used in the model and the prototype.

6.57. If Reynolds similarity is used in constructing the model, and the same fluid is used in both
the model and the prototype (i.e., νr = 1 and ρr = 1), then

Vr Lr
=1 → Vr Lr = 1
νr

The force ratio, Fr is then given by

Fr
=1 → Fr = Vr2 L2r = (Vr Lr )2 = 12 = 1 → Fr = 1
ρr Vr2 L2r

6.58. From the given data: Vp = 2 m/s, Dp = 3 m, εp = 2 mm, and τm = 2.25 kPa. For model
similarity, require that
ρm Vm Dm ρp Vp Dp εm εp
= , = (1)
µm µp Dm Dp
which gives ( ) ( )
Dm 1
εm = εp = (2) = 0.1 mm
Dp 20
and since ρm = ρp and µm = µp , then

Vm Dm = Vp Dp (2)

or ( )
Dp
Vm = Vp = (20)(2) = 40 m/s
Dm

253
 Since Equations 1 are required in the model, dimensional analysis requires that
τm τp
2
=
ρm V m ρp Vp2
or ( )2
Vp
τp = τm (3)
Vm
Combining Equations 2 and 3 gives
( )2 ( )2
Dm 1
τp = τm = (2.25) = 0.00563 kPa = 5.63 Pa
Dp 20

6.59. From the given data: Lp = 200 mm, Qp = 300 L/s, and Lr = 3. The subscript “r” indicates
the ratio of the prototype value of a parameter to the model value of the same parameter.
Assume that the same fluid is used in the model and prototype. The appropriate scaling
relation is the Reynolds scaling law which requires that
[ ]
VL
Rer = 1 → =1 → Vr = Lr−1 (1)
ν r

The flow-rate ratio is given by

Qr = Vr L2r (2)
Combining Equations 1 and 2 and substituting the given data yields
Qp Lp 300 3
Qr = L−1 2
r Lr = Lr → = → = → Qm = 100 L/s
Qm Lm Qm 1

6.60. From the given data: Dp = 150 mm, Vp = 3 m/s, Lm = 25 mm, and ∆pm = 10 kPa. The
following fluid properties can be obtained from Appendix B.4:

kerosene at 20◦ C: ρp = 808 kg/m3 , µp = 1.92 mPa·s

water at 20◦ C: ρm = 998 kg/m3 , µm = 1.00 mPa·s

Using these fluid properties and the given data leads to the following results:
100 808 1.92
Lr = = 4, ρr = = 0.810, µr = = 1.92
25 998 1.00
Reynolds-number similarity requires that
ρr Vr Lr µr 1.92
Rer = 1 → =1 → Vr = = = 0.593
µr ρr Lr (0.810)(4)

Combining this calculated velocity ratio with the given prototype velocity gives
Vp 3
= 0.593 → = 0.593 → Vm = 5.06 m/s
Vm Vm

254
 If Reynolds similarity is imposed on the model design, then similarity of the Euler number is
expected such that
∆pr
=1 → ∆pr = ρr Vr2 = (0.810)(0.593)2 = 0.285
ρr Vr2
Combining the calculated pressure-change ratio with the given prototype pressure-change
gives
∆pp ∆pp
= 0.285 → = 0.285 → ∆pp = 2.85 kPa
∆pm 10
6.61. From the given data: Q = 30 L/s = 0.03 m3 /s, D1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m, D2 = 7 cm = 0.07 m,
and p2 = 0 kPa (gage). Take ρ = 998 kg/m3 and γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The following preliminary
calculations are useful:
π 2 π Q 0.03
A1 = D = 0.152 = 0.01767 m2 , V1 = = = 1.698 m/s
4 1 4 A1 0.01767
π 2 π Q Q
A2 = D = 0.072 = 0.003848 m2 , V2 = = = 7.793 m/s
4 2 4 A2 0.003848
ṁ = ρQ = (998)(0.03) = 29.94 kg/s

(a) The force, F , required to hold the nozzle in place is given by

p1 A1 − p2 A2 − F = ρQ(V2 − V1 ) → F = p1 A1 − ṁ(V2 − V1 ) (1)

The pressure, p1 , can be determined by the energy equation (neglecting energy losses
between entrance and exit of the nozzle) such that
p1 V12 p2 V22 p1 1.6982 0 7.7932
+ = + → + = + → p1 = 28.86 kPa
γ 2g γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81) γ 2(9.81)
Substituting this result into Equation 1 gives

F = (28.86 × 103 )(0.01767) − (998)(0.03)(7.793 − 1.698) = 327 N

(b) For Froude number similarity

Vr V √
Frr = 1 → √ =1 → √r =1 → Vr = Lr (2)
gr Lr Lr
and it is noted that
Qr = Vr L2r (3)
In this case, Qm = 0.01 L/s, Qp = 30 L/s, and hence Qr = Qp /Qm = 30/0.01 = 3000.
Combining this result with Equations 2 and 3 yields
√
3000 = Lr L2r → Lr = 24.6

Using this result, the model nozzle dimensions corresponding to 15 cm and 7 cm are
therefore

Dm = 15 cm/24.6 = 0.611 cm = 6.1 mm

255
 Dm = 7 cm/24.6 = 0.285 cm = 2.9 mm

The force ratio gives

Fp 327
Fr = ρr Vr2 L2r = (1)Lr L2r = L3r = (24.6)3 → = (24.6)3 → = (24.6)3
Fm Fm

which yields Fm = 0.0220 N .

6.62. For Re similarity,

Vo Do Vw Dw
=
νo νw
which gives ( )( ) ( )( )
Do νw 10 10−6
Vw = vo =2 = 0.2 m/s
Dw νo 10 10−5
Dynamic similarity means that the relative magnitudes of the forces are the same.

6.63. (a)
( )
ρc2 1
= ( )( ) (1)
Ev Ev D
1+
E e

(b)
c = f1 (Ev , ρ, D, e, E)
This relation has 6 variables, 3 dimensions, and hence can be transformed into a rela-
tionship between 3 dimensionless groups, such as
( )
ρc2 Ev D
= f2 ,
Ev E e

The Mach number , M = c2 /(Ev /ρ) is a recognizable dependent variable.

(c) The result in Part (b) is consistent with the result in Part (a).
(d) For benzene at 20◦ C, Ev = 1030 MN/m2 , and for water at 20◦ C, Ev = 2180 MN/m2 .
Equation 2.72 gives
( 2)
ρc 1
= ( ) ( )
Ev b Ev D
1+
E b e b
( 2)
ρc 1
= ( ) ( )
Ev w Ev D
1+
E w e w

Hence dynamic similarity requires that

( ) ( )
Ev D Ev D
=
E e m E e p

256
 which yields
em Evm Dm 1020 1
= = = 0.0234
ep Evp Dp 2180 20
Therefore,
em = 0.0234(20) = 0.47 mm
So a wall thickness of 0.47 mm should be used in the model.

6.64. From the given data: Dp = 300 mm, Qp = 1000 L/s, ∆pp = 340 kPa, Dm = 60 mm. Since the
same fluid is used in the model and prototype, ρr = 1 and νr = 1. The length ratio, Lr , is
given by
Lp 300
Lr = = =5
Lm 60
(a) A dimensional analysis of this problem will lead to the functional relation
( )
∆p ρV D
1 2
=f → Eu = f (Re)
2 ρV
µ

(b) For Reynolds number similarity,

Vr Lr
=1 → Vr Lr = 1 → Vr = L−1
r
νr

By definition, the flow rate ratio, Qr , is given by

Qr = Vr L2r = L−1 2
r Lr = Lr

which gives
Qp 1000
= Lr → =5 → Qm = 200 L/s
Qm Qm
(c) As per the result in Part (a), similarity in the Reynolds number results in

∆pr
1 2
=1 → ∆pr = Vr2 = (L−1 2 −2
r ) = Lr
2 ρr Vr

which gives

∆pp 340
= L−2
r → = 5−2 → ∆pm = 8.5 × 103 kPa = 8.5 MPa
∆pm ∆pm

6.65. From the given data: ∆pp = 500 kPa, ṁp = 600 kg/s, and Lr = 8.

(a) The nondimensional relationship that is the basis of the model study is given by
( )
∆p ρV L ∆p
=f or = f (Re)
ρV 2 µ ρV 2

257
 (b) Since the same fluid at the same temperature and pressure is used in both the model
and prototype, the scaling relationship can be expressed as
ρr Vr Lr
=1 → Vr Lr = 1 → Vr = L−1
r
µr

The required mass flow rate in the model is calculated as follows:

ṁp 600
ṁr = ρr Vr L2r = (L−1 2
r )Lr = Lr → = Lr → =8 → ṁm = 75 kg/s
ṁm ṁm

(c) Since there is Reynolds number similarity between the model and the prototype,

∆pr
=1 → ∆pr = Vr2 = (L−1 2 −2
r ) = Lr
ρr Vr2
∆pp 500
→ = L−2
r → = (8)−2 → ∆pm = 3.2 × 104 kPa = 32 MW
∆pm ∆pm

6.66. From the given data: Dp = 500 mm, ωp = 900 rpm, Qp = 2 m3 /s, Lr = 5, ωm = 1800 rpm,
and Pm = 100 W. For water at 20◦ C in the prototype and standard air in the model:
ρp = 998.2 kg/s, and ρm = 1.225 kg/s.

(a) The volume flow rate of air in the model is calculated as follows,
( )
2 900
Qr = Vr Lr = (ωr Lr )Lr = ωr Lr →
2 2 3
= (5)3 → Qm = 0.032 m3 /s
Qm 1800

(b) The power requirement of the prototype is calculated as follows:

Pr = ρr Vr2 L2r Vr = ρr Vr3 L2r = ρr L5r ωr3

which requires that

( ) ( )3
Pp 998.2 900
= 5
(5) = 3.18 × 107 W = 31.8 MW
100 1.225 1800

6.67. From the given data: D1 = 250 mm, ω1 = 2400 rpm, Q1 = 0.8 m3 /s, ω2 = 1600 rpm, and
Q2 = 4 m3 /s. The following preliminary calculations are useful:

Q1 0.8 ω1 2400
Qr = = = 0.2, ωr = = = 1.5
Q2 4 ω2 1600

Since the fans are geometrically and dynamically similar,

( )3
250
Qr = Vr L2r = ωr L3r → 0.2 = (1.5) → D2 = 489 mm
D2

6.68. From the given data: Pp = 300 kW, Qp = 2 m3 /s, and Lr = 10.

258
 (a) The nondimensional relationship that is the basis of the model study is given by
( )
P ρV L P
=f or = f (Re)
ρV 3 L2 µ ρV 3 L2

Reynolds number similarity is required between the model and the prototype, hence the
scaling relationship to be used in the model study is given by
[ ] [ ]
ρV L ρV L
=
µ p µ m

(b) Since the same fluid at the same temperature and pressure is used in both the model
and prototype, the scaling relationship can be expressed as
ρr Vr Lr
=1 → Vr Lr = 1 → Vr = L−1
r
µr
The required flow rate in the model is calculated as follows:
Qp 2
Qr = Vr L2r = (L−1 2
r )Lr = Lr → = Lr → = 10 → Qm = 0.2 m3 /s
Qm Qm

(c) Since there is Reynolds number similarity between the model and the prototype,
Pr
=1 → Pr = Vr3 L2r = (L−1 3 2 −1
r ) Lr = Lr
ρr Vr3 L2r
Pp 300
→ = L−1
r → = (10)−1 → Pm = 3000 kW
Pm Pm

6.69. From the given data: Lp = 200 mm, Vp = 20 m/s, ωp = 170 rpm, and Lr = 31 . Assuming
that air properties are the same in the model and the prototype, for Reynolds similarity,
1 1
Rer = 1 → Vr Lr = 1 → Vr = = 1 =3
Lr 3

Therefore the velocity in the model is given by

Vp 20
=3 → =3 → Vm = 6.67 m/s
Vm Vm
Strouhal number similarity (along with Reynolds number similarity) requires that
ωr Lr 1
Str = 1 → =1 → ωr L2r = 1 → ωr =
Vr L2r

Therefore the angular rotation in the model is given by

ωp 1 170
= 1 2 → =9 → ωm = 18.89 rpm
ωm (3) ωm

259
6.70. From the given data: Lr = 20, and σr = 1. Since gravity and surface tension are the important
forces, Froude number and Weber number similarity should be imposed in designing the
laboratory study. Froude number similarity requires that
Vr 1
Frr = 1 → 1 =1 → Vr = Lr2
2
Lr
Weber number similarity further requires that

ρr Vr2 Lr 1 1 1
Wer = 1 → =1 → ρr = = 1 =
σr Vr2 Lr (Lr )2 Lr
2 L2r

Therefore, the required density ratio is given by

1
ρr = = 0.0025
202
Therefore the density of the model will need to be about 400 times the density in the proto-
type.

6.71. From the give data: Lr = 15, Vm = 0.8 m/s, and Qm = 0.1 m3 /s. The applicable scaling law
is the Froude number, which requires that
V 1 Vp 1
√ r =1 → Vr = Lr2 → = (15) 2 → Vp = 3.10 m/s
gr Lr 0.8
The flow rate in the prototype spillway is calculated as follows:
1 5 Qp 5
Qr = Vr L2r = Lr2 L2r = Lr2 → = (15) 2 → Qp = 87.1 m3 /s
0.1

6.72. From the given data: Lp = 30 m, Qp = 150 m3 /s, and Lr = 20.

(a) Since gravity is the driving force in flow over a spillway, the Froude number scaling law
should be used in designing the model study.
(b) Using Froude number similarity results in the following relationships,
V √
√ r =1 → Vr = Lr
gr Lr
√ 5 5
Qr = Vr L2r = Lr L2r = Lr2 = 20 2 = 1789
Qp 150
= 1789 → = 1789 → Qm = 0.0839 m3 /s
Qm Qm

(c) Using the force-similarity relationship, the prototype fore is derived as follows

Fr = ρr Vr2 L2r = (1)(Lr )(L2r ) = L3r = 203 = 8000

Fp Fp
= 8000 → = 8000 → Fp = 8 × 105 N = 800 kN
Fm 100

260
6.73. From the given variables:
Q = f1 (h1 , h2 , s, b, g) (1)
with dimensions given by

Variable Dimension
Q L3 T−1
h1 L
h2 L
s L
b L
g LT−2

Hence, there are N = 6 variables, m = 2 dimensions, and therefore Equation 1 can be

expressed in terms of N − m = 6 − 2 = 4 dimensionless groups. A reasonable set of groups
is given by
( )
Q2 h1 h2 s
= f2 , , (2)
g(bs)2 s b b b

where the group on the left hand side is a Froude number, and the terms on the right hand
side measure the geometry of the gate opening (s/b), and the upstream and downstream
conditions (h1 /b and h2 /b).
From the given operating conditions in the model:

Q2 (0.074)2
= = 0.136
g(bs)2 s (9.81)(1 × 0.16)2 (0.16)
h1 0.57
= = 0.57
b 1
h2 0.50
= = 0.50
b 1
s 0.16
= = 0.16
b 1
For the prototype, b = 7 m, and the corresponding operating conditions in the model are:
s
s = (7) = 0.16(7) = 1.12 m
b
h2
h2 = (7) = 0.50(7) = 3.50 m
b
h1
h1 = (7) = 0.57(7) = 3.99 m
√b √
Q = g(bs)2 s(0.136) = (9.81)(7 × 1.12)2 (1.12)(0.136) = 9.58 m3 /s

In summary, the operating conditions in the prototype are (rounded to two significant digits
to be consistent with the given data):

261
 h1 h2 s Q
(m) (m) (m) (m3 /s)
4.0 3.5 1.1 9.6

Neglecting viscosity in this analysis is justified by assuming that the Reynolds number is
sufficiently high that viscous effects are negligible.

6.74. From the given data: Qp = 30 m3 /s, wp = 14 m, dp = 2 m, and Lr = 20.

(a) For Reynolds similarity, taking νr = 1, gives

Rer = 1
vr Lr
=1
νr
vr Lr = 1
1
vr = (1)
Lr
The flowrate ratio, Qr , is given by

Qr = vr Ar = vr L2r (2)

Combining Equations 3.16 and 2 gives

( )
1
Qr = L2r = Lr = 20
Lr

and hence the model flowrate is given by

Qp 30
Qm = = = 1.5 m3 /s
Qr 20

(b) For Froude similarity,

Frr = 1
vr
√ =1
Lr
√
vr = L r (3)

Combining Equations 3 and 2 gives

√
Qr = vr L2r = Lr L2r = L2.5
r = (20)
2.5
= 1789

and the model flowrate, Qm , is given by

Qp 30
Qm = = = 0.01678 m3 /s
Qr 1789

262
 (c) For both Reynolds number and Froude number similarity,

vr Lr v
=1 and √r = 1
νr Lr
which can be combined to yield √
Lr Lr
=1
νr
or
νr = L1.5
r = (20)
1.5
= 89.44
Therefore, the kinematic viscosity of the fluid in the model must be given by

νp 1.003 × 10−6
νm = = = 1.12 × 10−8 m2 /s
νr 89.44

where the viscosity of water is taken as 1.003 × 10−6 m2 /s. A liquid does not exist that
has a viscosity of 1.12 × 10−8 m2 /s.
(d) A Froude number is preferable when gravity forces dominate .
(e) The force ratio, Fr , is given by
Fr = ρr vr2 L2r (4)
√
For a Froude model, vr = Lr , and taking ρr = 1, Equation 4 gives
√
Fr = ( Lr )2 L2r = L3r = (20)3 = 8000

Therefore, the prototype force, Fp , corresponding to Fm = 1.5 N is given by

Fp = Fm Fr = (1.5)(8000) = 12, 000 N = 12.0 kN

6.75. (a) From the given data, for a given α:

Q = f (g, δ)

This relationship involves 3 variables in 2 dimensions, and hence one dimensionless group.
By observation,
Q2
= constant
gδ 5

(b) Find the value of the constant for the given data (taking g = 9.81 m/s2 ):
δ Q Q2 /gδ 5
(m) (m3 /s) (-)
0.1 0.00222 0.0503
0.2 0.01306 0.0543
0.3 0.035 0.0514
0.4 0.07306 0.0531
Average = 0.0523

263
 Hence,
Q2
= 0.0523
gδ 5
For δ = 3.2 m,
√ √
Q= 0.0523gδ 5 = 0.0523(9.81)(3.2)5 = 13.1 m3 /s

6.76. (a) Using the given variables:

FD = ρVc2 d2
Fg = (ρ − ρs )d3 g
FD ρVc2 d2 ρVc2
= =
Fg (ρ − ρs )d3 g (ρ − ρs )gd

(b) Using the given 5 variables which contain 3 dimensions (M, L, T) there are 5 − 3 = 2
dimensionless groups, hence

f1 [Vc , ρ, µ, d, (ρs − ρ)g] = 0

which yields
( )
ρVc2 ρVc d
= f2
(ρ − ρs )gd µ

(c) In the model and prototype make the Reynolds number ρVc d/µ the same. For model-
ing, since the model is twice the size of the prototype:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
ρVc d ρVc d dp 1
= → Vm = Vp = Vp
µ m µ p dm 2

Hence, for Vm = 25 cm/s gives Vp = 50 cm/s . Since dm = 2 × dp and dm = 3 mm, then

dp = 1.5 mm .

6.77. From the given data: Vp = 150 km/h = 41.67 m/s, Vm = 100 m/s, and νr = 1. For Reynolds
number similarity,
Vr Lr Vm 100
=1 → Vr Lr = 1 → Lr = Vr−1 = = = 2.40
νr Vp 41.67

Therefore the smallest model corresponds to a scale ratio of approximately 1:2.40 .

6.78. From the given data: V1 = 1500 km/h, z1 = 14 km, and z2 = 10 km. Using the U.S. Standard
Atmosphere given in Appendix B.3, the speed of sound, c, at z1 and z2 are as follows: c1
= 295.07 m/s, c2 = 299.53 m/s, and cr = c1 /c2 = 295.07/299.53 = 0.985. Similarity of
compressibility effects requires Mach number similarity, such that
Vr
Mar = 1 → =1 → Vr = cr = 0.985
cr

264
 Using this velocity ratio yields
V1 1500
= 0.985 → = 0.985 → V2 = 1522 m/s
V2 V2

6.79. From the given data: Vp = 400 km/h, and Lr = 15. For air at 4 km in a standard atmosphere:
ρp = 0.8194 kg/m3 and µp = 16.61 µPa·s. For standard air at sea level: ρm = 1.2250 kg/m3
and µm = 17.894 µPa·s. Reynolds number similarity requires that
ρr Vr Lr
=1
µr

Using the given data yields

16.61 0.8194
µr = = 0.928, ρr = = 0.6689
17.894 1.2250
µr (0.928)
Vr = = = 0.09249
ρr Lr (0.6689)(15)

Therefore, the air velocity, Vm , to be used in the model is obtained from the velocity ratio,
Vr , as follows
Vp 400
= 0.09249 → = 0.09249 → Vm = 4329 km/h
Vm Vm

This required velocity is obviously not practical since it is higher than the speed of sound in
standard air (= 1224 km/s), and hence compressibility effects will be important in the model
while they are not important in the prototype.

6.80. From the given data: Vp = 360 km/h, pp = 90 kPa, Lr = 8, Tr = 1, and Vm = 200 km/h.

(a) Since drag is generated by friction, the Reynolds scaling law is the appropriate scaling
law.
(b) From the Reynolds scaling law, and noting that the viscosity of air is approximately the
same in the model and prototype (since the temperatures are approximately the same)
(i.e., νr = 1) gives

ρr Vr Lr 1 1
Rer = 1 → =1 → ρr = = ( 360 ) = 0.1042
νr Vr Lr 300 (8)

The ideal gas law requires that

pr
ρr = = pr → pr = 0.1042
R r Tr

Therefore, the required pressure in the (model) wind tunnel, pm , is derived as follows

pp 80 kPa
= 0.1042 → = 0.1042 → pm = 864 kPa
pm pm

265
 (c) The force ratio, Fr , is as follows
[ ]
1 1 1
Fr = ρr Vr2 L2r = ρr 2
= = = 9.6
ρr ρr 0.1042

Therefore, if a force of 10 N is measured in the model, the corresponding force in the

prototype is
Fp = 9.6Fm = 9.6(10) = 96 N

6.81. From the given data: Vm = 950 km/h = 263.9 m/s, ∆pm = 50 kPa, Tm = 25◦ C = 298.15 K.
For standard air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.401. Check the Mach number in the model to
see if compressibility is important.
Vm 263.9
Mam = √ =√ = 0.762
kRTm (1.401)(2877.1)(298.15)

Since Ma > 0.3, compressibility effects are important and Mach similarity will be enforced.
The pressure difference can be expressed functionally as
∆p
1 2 2
= f (Ma)
2 ρV L

For Mach number similarity,

√
V √ Vp 216.65
√ r =1 → Vr = Tr → = = 810 km/h (= 503 m/h)
kr Rr Tr 950 298.15

Since Mach similarity is enforced, then

∆pr √ ∆pp 216.65
1 2
=1 → ∆pr = Vr2 = ( Tr )2 = Tr → = → ∆pp = 36.3 kPa
2 ρr V r
50 298.15

6.82. From the given data: Lr = 5. For standard air, νa = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. For water at 20◦ C,
νw = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculation is useful:

νa 1.461 × 10−5
νr = = = 14.55
νw 1.004 × 10−6
For Reynolds similarity in the wind tunnel,
Vr Lr
=1 → Vr = L−1
r = (5)
−1
= 0.2
νr
For Reynolds similarity in the water tunnel,
Vr Lr
=1 → Vr = νr L−1
r = 14.55(5)
−1
= 2.91
νr
Therefore, the ratio of the required speed in the wind tunnel to the required speed in the
water tunnel is 2.91/0.2 = 14.6 .

266
6.83. From the given data: Vp = 200 km/h = 55.56 m/s, and Lr = 10. For standard air, νa =
1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s, k = 1.401, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, and T = 288.15 K. For water at 20◦ C,
νw = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculations are useful:
νa 1.461 × 10−5 √ √
νr = = = 14.55, c= RT k = (287.1)(288.15)(1.401) = 340.4 m/s
νw 1.004 × 10−6
Vp 55.56
Map = = = 0.16
c 340.4
(a) For Reynolds similarity in the wind tunnel,
Vr Lr 200
=1 → Vr = L−1
r → = (10)−1 → Vm = 2000 km/h = 556 m/s
νr Vm
Calculate the Mach number in the wind tunnel:
Vm 556
Mam = = = 1.64
c 340.4
Since Ma > 0.3 indicates that compressibility is important, in this case compressibility is
not important in the prototype but would be in the model test. Therefore, the required
speed in the wind tunnel is impractical .
(b) For Reynolds similarity in the water tunnel,
Vr Lr 200
= 1 → Vr = νr L−1
r → = (14.55)(10)−1 → Vm = 137 km/h = 38.2 m/s
νr Vm
The speed in the water tunnel is achievable, however, there is a concern that cavitation
might occur in the model which, of course, would not happen in the prototype.
6.84. From the given data: Vp = 180 km/h = 50 m/s, Tp = Tm = 10◦ C = 283.15 K, pm = 92.5 kPa,
and Lr = 8. For air, k = 1.401, and R = 287.1 J/kg·K. For lift on airfoils, the governing
functional relationship is
FL
1 2
= f (Re, Ma, α)
2 ρV
where FL is the lift force, and α is the angle of attack. The Mach number of the prototype is
given by
Vp 50
Map = √ =√ = 0.15
RTp k (287.1)(283.15)(1.401)
Therefore, compressibility is not important in the prototype. Compressibility is not important
when Ma ≤ 0.3, so the maximum velocity in the model, Vm , to avoid compressibility effects
is calculated as follows
Vm Vm
0.3 = √ → 0.3 = √ → Vm = 101.2 m/s
RTm k (287.1)(283.15)(1.401)
For dynamic similarity, Rer = 1 and for the isothermal ideal gas law ρr = pr , hence
ρr Vr Lr 1 1 92.5 1
=1 → ρr = → pr = → =
µr Vr Lr Vr Lr pm (50/101.2)(8)

→ pm = 366 kPa

267
6.85. From the given data: Vp = 54 km/h = 15 m/s, Lr = 12, Tp = Tm = 15◦ C = 288 K, Vm =
80 m/s, and Fm = 200 N. For standard air, νp = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s, and ρp = 1.225 kg/s. For
air at 15◦ C, µm = 1.796 × 10−5 Pa·s. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. Dynamic similarity requires
that:
( )
Vr Lr 1.461 × 10−5 15
= 1 → νr = Vr Lr → = (12) → νm = 6.493×10−6 m2 /s
νr νm 80

which corresponds to a density, ρm calculated as follows:

µm 1.796 × 10−5
ρm = = = 2.766 kg/s
νm 6.493 × 10−6
Applying the ideal gas law to calculate the pressure that would yield the required density
gives
pm pm
ρm = → 2.766 = → pm = 2.289 × 105 Pa = 229 kPa
RTm (287.1)(288)

The drag force on the prototype blimp, Fp , is given by

( )2 ( )2
Fr Fp 1.225 15
= 1 → Fr = ρ2r Vr2 L2r → = (12)2 → Fp = 199 N
2
ρr Vr2 L2r 200 2.766 80

6.86. (a) There are 5 interrelated variables in 3 dimensions which can be expressed as a relationship
between 5 − 3 = 2 dimensionless groups as follows:
( )
ωD ρV D ωD
f1 (ω, V, D, ρ, µ) → = f2 → = f2 (Re)
V µ V

Therefore the appropriate scaling law is the Reynolds scaling law , which requires that
[ ] [ ]
ρV D ρV D
=
µ p µ m

(b) From the given data: Dp = 300 mm, Vp = 70 km/h = 19.44 m/s, and Dm = 50 mm.
Since the prototype fluid is standard air, ρp = 1.225 kg/m3 , µp = 1.79 × 10−5 Pa·s,
and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. Since the model fluid is water at 20◦ C, ρm = 998 kg/m3 ,
µm = 1.00 × 10−3 Pa·s, and ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. Using Reynolds number scaling in the
model gives
[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
ρV D ρV D νm Dp
Rep = Rem → = → Vm = Vp
µ p µ m νp Dm

Substituting the given data yields

[ ][ ]
1.00 × 10−6 300
Vm = (19.44) = 7.984 m/s ≈ 7.98 m/s
1.461 × 10−5 50

268
 (c) From the given data: ωm = 32 Hz. Since Rep = Rem , dimensional analysis requires that
[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
ωD ωD Dm Vp
= → ωp = ωm
V p V m Dp Vm

Substituting the given data yields

[ ][ ]
50 19.44
ωp = (32) = 12.99 Hz ≈ 13.0 Hz
300 7.984

6.87. From the given data: Lr = 60, Vp = 10 m/s, and Fm = 10 N. For Froude similarity,

Vr2
=1
gr Lr
which gives
√ Vp √ 10 √
Vr = Lr → = 60 → = 60
Vm Vm
which yields Vm = 1.29 m/s . Similarity of forces requires that

Fr = ρ2r Vr2 L2r

Fp
= (1)2 (Lr )(L2r ) = L3r = (60)3
10
which yields Fp = 21.6 MN .

6.88. From the given data: Lr = 50, Vm = 2 m/s, and Fm = 20 N. For Froude number similarity,
V 1
√ r =1 → Vr = Lr2
gr Lr
which gives
Vp 1 Vp 1
= Lr2 → = 50 2 → Vp = 14.1 m/s
Vm 2
The drag-force ratio, Fr , is given by
Fr 1

1 2 2
=1 → Fr = Vr2 L2r = (Lr2 )2 L2r = L3r
2 ρr V r L r

which gives
Fp Fp
= L3r → = 503 → Fp = 2.5 × 106 N = 2.5 MN
Fm 20

6.89. From the given data: Lr = 50. For seawater at 20◦ C, νp = 1.046 × 10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix
B.4). Using Equation 6.24, the viscosity ratio, νr , is given by
3 νp 3 1.046 × 10−6
νm = 2.96 × 10−9 m2 /s
3
νr = Lr2 → = Lr2 → = (50) 2 →
νm νm
There are no practical fluids that have this kinematic viscosity.

269
6.90. (a) From the given data:
H = f (V, L, g, ρ, µ)
which is a relationship between 6 variables in 3 dimensions and leads to
( )
H V ρV L
= f1 √ ,
L gL µ

(b) To use this relationship: (1) make sure that ρV L/µ ≫ 1 so that viscous effects are small
relative to inertial effects; and (2) use Froude similarity in designing model tests.
(c) For Froude similarity, with Lr = 10, Vm = 0.30 m/s, and Hp = 0.05 m:
√ √ Vp √ Vp √
Vr = Lr = 10 → = 10 → = 10 → Vp = 0.95 m/s
Vm 0.30

If Froude number similarity is enforced, then

Hr Hp Hp
=1 → Hr = Lr = 10 → = 10 → = 10 → Hp = 0.50 m
Lr Hm .05

(d) Since Hr /Lr = 1, the ratio of wave height to boat length in the model and prototype are
the same .

6.91. From the given data: Lp = 35 m, Vp = 11 m/s, and Lm = 1 m. For Froude scaling,

Fm = Fp
V Vp
√m = √
Lm Lp
√ √
Lm 1
Vm = Vp = (11) = 1.86 m/s = tow speed
Lp 35
Fp ρVp2 L2p L3p 353
= = = = 42875 = ratio of drag
Fm ρVp2 L2p L3m 13
( ) ( )3.5
Pp Fp Vp Lp 3.5 35
= = = = 253652 = ratio of power
Pm Fm Vm Lm 1

6.92. From the given data: Lr = 15, Vm = 10 m/s, and Fm = 10 N. Since viscous effects are
negligible, the model tests should be designed using Froude similarity. Therefore,

V √ Vp √
√ r =1 → Vr = Lr → = 15 → Vp = 38.7 m/s
gr Lr 10

The resulting force ratio and the force on the prototype is calculated as follows:

Fr √ Fp
2 2
= 1 → Fr = Vr2 L2r = ( Lr )2 L2r = L3r → = 153 = 3.375 × 104 N ≈ 33.8 kN
ρr Vr Lr 10

270
6.93. From the given data: Lr = 15, pp = 150 kPa, and Vp = 100 km/h = 27.78 m/s. For water at
10◦ C (in the prototype): ρp = 999.7 kg/s, and pvp = 1.227 kPa. For water at 50◦ C (in the
model): ρm = 988.0 kg/s, and pvm = 12.34 kPa. For Froude number similarity between the
prototype and the model:
V √ 27.78 √
√ r → Vr = Lr → = 15 → Vm = 7.173 m/s
gr Lr Vm

For equality of the cavitation number in the prototype and the model:

pp − pvp pm − pvm (150 − 1.227) × 103 (pm − 12.34) × 103

1 2
= 1 2
→ 1 2
= 1 2
2 ρp V p 2 ρm Vm 2 (999.7)(27.78) 2 (988.0)(7.173)

→ pm = 22.1 kPa

6.94. From the given data: Vp = 20 km/h, and Lr = 40.

(a) For a submarine cruising on the surface, Froude similarity is required such that

V √ 20 √
√ r =1 → Vr = Lr → = 40 → Vm = 3.16 km/h
gr Lr Vm

The drag force ratio is given by

√
Fr = ρr Vr2 L2r = (1)( Lr )2 L2r = L3r = (40)3 = 6.4 × 104

(b) For a submarine cruising far below the surface, Reynolds similarity is required such that

Vr Lr 20
=1 → Vr = L−1
r → = (40)−1 → Vm = 800 km/h
νr Vm
The drag force ratio is given by

Fr = ρr Vr2 L2r = (1)(L−1 2 2

r ) Lr = 1

6.95. From the given data: Lr = 15, and ωp = 1500 rpm. Similarity in the rotational speed is
represented by the same Strouhal number in the model and prototype such that
ωr Lr Vr
=1 → ωr = (1)
Vr Lr
For Froude number similarity:
V √
√ r =1 → Vr = Lr (2)
gr Lr
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
√
Lr 1 1500 1
ωr = = → =√ → ωm = 5809 rpm
Lr Lr ωm 15

271
 For Reynolds number similarity:
Vr Lr 1
=1 → Vr = (3)
νr Lr
Combining Equations 1 and 3 gives
L−1 1 1500 1
ωr = r
= 2 → = 2 → ωm = 3.357 × 105 rpm
Lr Lr ωm 15

The rotational speed required for Reynolds number similarity is impractically high .

6.96. From the given data: Vp = 50 km/h, and Lr = 8. For standard air: νa = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s,
and for water at 20◦ C, νw = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s. For Reynolds number similarity,
Vr Lr νr 1
=1 → Vr = = νr
νr Lr 8
For tests in a wind tunnel:
50 1 1.004 × 10−6
= · → Vm = 5821 km/h = 1617 m/s
Vm 8 1.461 × 10−5
For tests in a water tunnel:
50 1
= · (1) → Vm = 400 km/h = 111 m/s
Vm 8
The water-tunnel option appears more feasible, although the required speed is quite high.
The possibility of cavitation in the model should be investigated, since its occurrence could
affect the similarity assumption.
6.97. From the given data: Vp = 30 m/s, Lr = 4, Tp = Tm = 20◦ C = 293 K, Vm = 110 m/s, and
Fm = 600 N. For water at 20◦ C, νp = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s, and ρp = 998.2 kg/s. For air at
20◦ C, µm = 1.821 × 10−5 Pa·s. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. Dynamic similarity requires that:
( )
Vr Lr 1.004 × 10−6 30
= 1 → νr = Vr Lr → = (4) → νm = 9.203×10−7 m2 /s
νr νm 100
which corresponds to a density, ρm calculated as follows:
µm 1.821 × 10−5
ρm = = = 19.79 kg/s
νm 9.203 × 10−7
Applying the ideal gas law to calculate the pressure that would yield the required density
gives
pm pm
ρm = → 19.79 = → pm = 1.637 × 106 Pa = 1.64 MPa
RTm (287.1)(288)
The drag force on the prototype torpedo, Fp , is given by
( )2 ( )2
Fr Fp 998.2 30
=1 → Fr = ρ2r Vr2 L2r → = (4)2
ρ2r Vr2 L2r 600 19.79 110

→ Fp = 1.817 × 106 N = 1.82 MN

272
6.98. For Reynolds number similarity:
ρm Vm Lm ρp Vp Lp
=
µm µp
which gives
( )( )( )
µm ρp Lp
Vm = Vp = (60.0 mph)(1)(1)(4) = 240 mph
µp ρm Lm
Since the Reynolds numbers have been matched, the nondimensional drag coefficient is the
same in the model and prototype:
Fm Fm
=
ρm Vm2 L2m ρm Vm2 L2m
which gives
( )( )( )2 ( )2
ρp Vp Lp 60 mph
Fp = Fm = (36.5)(1) (4)2 = 36.5 lbf
ρm Vm Lm 240 mph

6.99. The blockage rule is

model frontal area
≤ 7.5%
test section
From the given data:

area of test section = 20 in. × 20 in. = 400 in2 = 2.778 ft2

max. model frontal area = (0.075)(2.778) = 0.2083 ft2
model dimensions = Wm × Hm
Wm 8.33
for geometric similarity : = = 0.694
Hm 12
Based on these results,
0.694Hm × Hm = 0.2083
which yields

Hm = 0.5479 ft = 6.57 in.

Wm = 0.694Hm = 0.380 ft = 4.56 in.
Hm 12
= = 0.231
Lm 52
Hm 6.57
Lm = = = 28.4 in.
0.375 0.231
Hence the maximum model dimensions are 6.57 in. × 4.56 in. × 28.4 in. . At 80◦ F, νair =
1.697 × 10−4 ft2 /s. In the wind tunnel, Wm = 0.380 ft and Vm = 160 ft/s, so the maximum
Reynolds number is given by
Vm Wm (160)(0.380)
Remax = = = 3.58 × 105
νair 1.697 × 10−4

273
 Reynolds number independence is achieved at Re = 5 × 105 , so Reynolds independence
cannot be achieved . This means that CD cannot be determined accurately from these model
studies.

6.100. From the given data: Vp = 88 km/h, and Lr = 10. For standard air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K,
T = 15◦ C = 288.15 K, and k = 1.401.

(a) Using Reynolds similarity as a basis for model design, and noting the the same fluid
properties apply to both the model and prototype,

Vr Lr Vp 88
=1 → Vr Lr = 1 → Vr = L−1
r → = L−1
r → = 10−1
νr Vm Vm

→ Vm = 880 km/h = 54.69 m/s

(b) For standard air, the sonic velocity, c, is given by

√ √
c = RT k = (287.1)(288.15)(1.401) = 340 m/s

Therefore, the Mach number, Ma, in the wind tunnel for the model tests is calculated
as
Vm 54.69
Ma = = = 0.16
c 340
Since Ma < 0.3, compressibility is not an issue in the in the model tests.

6.101. From the given data: Vp = 88 km/h = 24.44 m/s, Tp = 20◦ C = 293 K, Lr = 8, Tm = 5◦ C =
278 K. For air, k = 1.401, and R = 287.1 J/kg·K. Using the air properties given in Appendix
B.2,

µp 18.21 × 10−6 Pa·s

@20◦ C : νp = = = 1.512 × 10−5 m2 /s
ρp 1.204 kg/s

µm 17.23 × 10−6 Pa·s

@5◦ C : νm = = = 1.358 × 10−5 m2 /s
ρm 1.269 kg/s

which gives
νp 1.512 × 10−5
νr = = = 1.113
νm 1.358 × 10−5
(a) For Reynolds similarity between the model and the prototype,

Vr Lr νr 88 1.113
=1 → Vr = → = → Vm = 632 km/h = 175 m/s
νr Lr Vm 8

(b) Check the Mach numbers in the prototype and the model to determine whether com-
pressibility needs to be taken into account,
Vp 24.44
prototype: Map = √ =√ = 0.07
kRTp (1.4)(287.1)(293)

274
 Vm 175
model: Mam = √ =√ = 0.52
kRTm (1.4)(287.1)(278)

Since Map < 0.3 and Map > 0.3 compressibility is not important in the prototype
but is important in the model. Therefore, yes , compressibility will preclude dynamic
similarity at the wind speed calculated in Part (a).

275
276
Chapter 7

Flow in Closed Conduits

7.1. (a) From the given data: V = 2 m/s. For water at 20◦ C, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. For laminar
flow:
VD (2)D
≤ 2000 → ≤ 2000 → D ≤ 1 mm
ν 1 × 10−6
For turbulent flow:
VD (2)D
≥ 4000 → ≥ 4000 → D ≥ 2 mm
ν 1 × 10−6

(b) From the given data: V = 2 m/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , µ = 0.0180 µPa·s,
ν = µ/ρ = 1.469 × 10−5 m2 /s. For laminar flow:

VD (2)D
≤ 2000 → ≤ 2000 → D ≤ 14.7 mm
ν 1.469 × 10−5
For turbulent flow:
VD (2)D
≥ 4000 → ≥ 4000 → D ≥ 29.4 mm
ν 1.469 × 10−5

(c) For laminar flow of standard air in a pipeline of diameter 1 mm:

VD V (0.001)
≤ 2000 → ≤ 2000 → V ≤ 29.4 m/s
ν 1.469 × 10−5

(d) For turbulent flow of standard air in a pipeline of diameter 1 mm:

VD V (0.001)
≥ 4000 → ≥ 4000 → V ≥ 58.8 m/s
ν 1.469 × 10−5

7.2. From the given data: T = 80◦ C, and ẇ = 0.5 N/s. For air at standard pressure and 80◦ C,
µ = 0.0207 mPa·s (from Appendix B.2). From the definition of the Reynolds number,

ρV D Re · µ 4ẇ
Re = →D= → D=
µ ρ · Q/A Re · µ · π · g

277
 where ẇ = ρgQ and A = πD2 /4. Substituting the given values into the above equation for a
limiting value of Re = 2000, gives
4(0.5)
D= = 1.568 m
(2000)(0.0207 × 10−3 )π(9.807)

Therefore, for pipe diameters > 1.57 m the flow in the pipe will be laminar.

7.3. From the given data: T = 10◦ C = 283 K, p = 600 kPa (absolute), and ẇ = 0.1 N/s. For
methane, M = 16.04 kg/kmol, and hence R = 8314/16.04 = 518.3 J/kg·K.

(a) Applying the ideal gas law,

p 600 × 103
ρ= = = 4.091 kg/m3
RT (518.3)(283)

From an online search, at the given temperature and pressure: µ = 10.75 µPa·s .
(b) From the definition of the Reynolds number,
ρV D Re · µ 4ẇ
Re = →D= → D=
µ ρ · Q/A Re · µ · π · g

where ẇ = ρgQ and A = πD2 /4. Substituting the given values into the above equation
for a limiting value of Re = 4000, gives
4(0.1)
D= = 0.3019 m
(4000)(10.75 × 10−6 )π(9.807)

Therefore, for pipe diameters < 0.302 m the flow in the pipe will be turbulent.

7.4. From the given data: T = 10◦ C = 283 K, p = 300 kPa, D = 50 mm, and A = πD2 /4 =
1.963 × 10−3 . For carbon dioxide, M = 44.01 kg/kmol, and R = 8314/44.01 = 188.9 J/kg·K.

(a) Applying the ideal gas law,

p 300 × 103
ρ= = = 5.612 kg/m3
RT (188.9)(283)

From an online search, at the given temperature and pressure: µ = 14.22 µPa·s .
(b) Taking the limit of laminar flow at Re = 2000, that under the limiting condition of
laminar flow
ρV D 5.612V (0.050)
Re = → 2000 = → V = 0.1014 m/s
µ 14.22 × 10−6
This average velocity corresponds to a volume flow rate, Q, given by

Q = AV = (1.963 × 10−3 )(0.1014) = 1.990 × 10−4 m3 /s = 0.199 L/s

Therefore, for flow rates < 0.199 L/s the flow in the pipe will be laminar.

278
7.5. From the given data: Q = 6 L/min = 1.00 × 10−4 m3 /s, D = 25 mm, ρ = 918 kg/m3 ,
µ = 440 mPa·s, L = 10 m, p1 = 400 kPa, p2 = 340 kPa, and ∆z = 1.70 m. The following
parameters can be derived from the given data,

πD2 π(0.025)2
γ = ρg = (918)(9.807) = 9787 N/m3 , A= = = 4.909 × 10−4
4 4
Q 1.00 × 10−4 ρV D (918)(0.2037)(0.025)
V = = = 0.2037 m/s, Re = = = 11.55
A 4.909 × 10−4 µ 440 × 10−3

(a) The energy equation (Equation 7.9) gives

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
p1 p2 400 × 103 340 × 103
hf = + z1 − + z2 = +0 − + 1.70 = 4.965 m
γ γ 9787 9787

and the wall shear stress, τ0 , is given by Equation 7.11 as

4τ0 L 4τ0 (10)

hf = → 4.965 = → 27.9 Pa
Dγ (0.025)(9787)

(b) The friction factor, f , is derived from the Darcy–Weisbach equation (Equation 7.17)
which gives

fL V 2 f (10) 0.20372
hf = → 4.965 = → f = 5.87
D 2g 0.025 2(9.807)

(c) Since the flow is laminar (Re < 2000), the entrance length, Le , is given by Equation 7.19
as
Le Le
= 0.058 Re → = 0.058 (11.55) → Le = 0.0154 m = 15.5 mm
D 0.025

7.6. From the given data: D = 150 mm, and T = 80◦ C. For air at 80◦ C, ρ = 0.9994 kg/m3 , and
µ = 20.95 × 10−6 Pa·s (from Appendix B.2).

(a) Assuming that turbulent flow occurs at Re = 4000, then

ρV D (0.9994)V (0.15)
= 4000 → = 4000 → V = 0.5590 m/s
µ 20.95 × 10−6

Hence, the limiting volume flow rate, Q, is

πD2 π(0.15)2
Q= V = (0.5590) = 9.878 × 10−3 m3 /s = 9.88 L/s
4 4

(b) Under turbulent flow conditions, the hydrodynamic entrance length is given by Equation
7.20 as
Le 1 Le 1
= 4.4 Re 6 → = 4.4 (4000) 6 → Le = 2.63 m
D 0.15

279
 7.7. From the given data: SG = 0.87, ν = 1.20 × 10−4 m2 /s, D = 125 mm, L = 80 m, θ = 8◦ ,
p2 = 150 kPa, and τ0 = 180 Pa. Quantities derived directly from the given data are: ∆z =
L sin θ = 11.13 m and γ = SG · g = 8.532 kN/m3 . The shear stress, τ0 is related to the friction
factor, f , as follows
τ0 8τ0
f = 1 2 → fV 2 = (1)
8 ρV
ρ
The energy equation applied between the upstream and downstream ends of the pipe is as
follows:
p1 f L V 2 p2
+ = + ∆z (2)
γ D 2g γ
Combining Equations 1 and 2, rearranging to make p1 the subject of the formula, and sub-
stituting given parameter values yields
4τ0 L 4(180)(80)
p1 = p2 + γ∆z + = 150 + (8.532)(11.13) + [ ×10−3 kPa/Pa] = 706 kPa
D 0.125

7.8. From the given data: D = 225 mm, and Q = 150 L/s. For standard air: ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and
µ = 0.0180 mPa·s (from Appendix B.2). The following derived parameters can be calculated
from the given data,
πD2 π(0.225)2 Q 0.15
A= = = 0.03976 m2 , V = = = 3.773 m/s
4 4 A 0.03976
ρV D (1.225)(3.773)(0.225)
Re = = = 5.777 × 104
µ 0.0180 × 10−3
Since Re > 4000 the fully developed flow is turbulent and the entrance length, Le , is given
by Equation 7.20 as
Le 1 Le 1
= 4.4 Re 6 → = 4.4 (5.777 × 104 ) 6 → Le = 6.16 m
D 0.225

7.9. From the given data: D = 0.6 mm, L = 1.1 m, ∆p = 0.8 MPa, and Q = 900 mm3 /s. The flow
is assumed to be laminar, and the slope of the tube can be neglected due the the extremely
high pressure. The volume flow rate must satisfy Equation 7.32. Noting that ∆p = hf γ, gives
πhf γ 4 π(0.8 × 106 )
Q= D → (900×10−9 ) = (0.6×10−3 )4 → µ = 2.57 × 10−3 Pa·s
128µL 128µ(1.1)
Normally, the calculated value of µ would be used to calculated the Reynolds number to
validate the laminar-flow assumption. In this case the density of the fluid is not given and so
laminar flow cannot be validated. So the calculated result is conditional on the assumption
of laminar flow.
7.10. From the given data: V = 0.2 m/s, D = 25 mm, and θ = 15◦ . For SAE 30 oil at 20◦ C,
ρ = 918 kg/m3 and µ = 440 mPa·s. The following parameters can be derived from the given
data,
πD2 π(0.025)2 ρV D (918)(0.2)(0.025)
A= = = 4.909 × 10−4 , Re = = = 10.43
4 4 µ 440 × 10−3

280
 γ = ρg = (918)(9.807) = 9003 N/m3

Since Re < 2000 the flow is laminar and the laminar-flow equations can be used in this
problem.
(a) Since the flow is laminar, the velocity distribution is given by Equation 7.34 which gives
( )
02
Vmax = 2V 1 − 2 = 2V = 2(0.2) = 0.4 m/s
R
The volume flow rate, Q, is derived directly from the average velocity since

Q = AV = (4.909 × 10−4 )(0.2) = 9.818 × 10−5 m3 /s = 5.89 L/min

(b) The energy equation can be manipulated as follows:

( ) ( )
∆p ∆p hf ∆z ∆p hf
− − ∆z = hf → = −γ − → = −γ − sin θ (1)
γ ∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x
Calculate the friction factor, f , using Equation 7.36 and substitute it into the Darcy–
Weisbach equation (Equation 7.17),
64 64 hf f V2 6.135 0.22
f= = = 6.135, = = = 0.5005 (2)
Re 10.43 ∆x D 2g 0.025 2(9.807)
Substituting for hf /∆x into Equation 1 gives
∆p
= −(9003) (0.5005 − sin 10◦ ) = −2943 Pa/m = −2.94 kPa/m
∆x
(c) The boundary shear stress, τ0 , is related to hf /∆x by Equation 7.11 which gives
( )
hf 4τ0 hf γD (9003)(0.025)
= → τ0 = = (0.5005) = 28.2 Pa
∆x Dγ ∆x 4 4

7.11. (a) The head loss, hf , is related to the pressures, p1 and p2 , and the elevations, z1 and z2 ,
at the upstream and downstream sections of the conduit by Equation 7.9 which states
that ( ) ( )
p1 p2
hf = + z1 − + z2
γ γ

(b) From Equation 7.32, the volume flow rate, Q, is related to the conduit diameter, D by
the relation,
πhf γ 4
Q= D → Q = αD4
128µL
where α is a constant. Hence,
dQ dQ 4αD3 dD dQ dD
= 4αD3 → dQ = 4αD3 dD → = → =4
dD Q αD4 Q D

Hence, the percentage error in Q is a factor of 4 higher than the percentage error in
D.

281
7.12. From the given data: ρ = 850 kg/m3 , µ = 0.5 Pa·s, D = 50 mm = 0.05 m, Q = 3 L/min =
5 × 10−5 m3 /s, and L = 15 m. The specific weight of the fluid is γ = ρg = 8336 N/m3 . The
following preliminary calculations are useful:

π 2 π Q 5 × 10−5
A= D = (0.05)2 = 0.001963 m2 , V = = = 0.02547 m/s
4 4 A 0.001963
The validity of assuming laminar flow must first be checked by calculating the Reynolds
number, Re, which yields

ρV D (850)(0.02547)(0.05)
Re = = = 2.16
µ (0.5)

Since Re < 2000 the flow in the pipe is laminar and the assumption of Poiseuille flow is
validated.

(a) The relationship between the head loss, hf , and the flow rate, Q, is given by Equation
7.32 as
πhf γ 4 πhf (8336)
Q= D → 5 × 10−5 = (0.05)4 → hf = 0.2933 m ≈ 0.293 m
128µL 128(0.5)(15)

(b) Using the definition of hf and the requirement that the pressure change be equal to zero,
( ) ( )
p1 p2
hf = + z1 − + z2 → 0.2933 = z1 − z2
γ γ

and the inclination of the pipe, θ, is give by

( ) ( )
z2 − z1 −0.2933
sin θ = = → θ = −1.12◦
L 15

(c) The average shear stress, τ0 , between the two sections is given by Equation 7.11 as

4τ0 L 4τ0 (15)

hf = → 0.2933 = → τ0 = 2.037 Pa ≈ 2.04 Pa
Dγ (0.05)(8336)

7.13. Using the laminar-flow velocity distribution given by Equation 7.34, when the velocity is equal
to the average velocity, V , then
( 2 )
rV 1 1
V = 2V 1 − 2 → rV = √ R = √ D = 0.354D
R 2 2 2

7.14. From the given data: D = 1 cm = 0.01 m, p1 = 30 kPa, z1 = 0 m, p2 = 5 kPa, z2 = 2 m, L

= 20 m, µ = 0.86 kg/m·s, ρ = 902 kg/m3 , and γ = (902)(9.81) = 8850 N/m3 = 8.85 kN/m3 .

(a) For laminar flow in a pipe, the average velocity, V , is given by

hf γ 2
V = D (1)
32µL

282
 where
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
p1 p2 30 5
hf = + z1 − + z2 = +0 − + 2 = 0.825 m
γ γ 8.85 8.85

Substituting into Equation 1 yields

(0.825)(8850)
V = (0.01)2 = 0.00133 m/s = 1.33 mm/s
32(0.86)(20)

(b) The velocity distribution is given by

hf γ (0.825)(8850)
u(r) = (D2 − 4r2 ) = (0.012 − 4r2 )
16µL 16(0.86)(20)

which simplifies to
u(r) = 26.3(10−4 − 4r2 )
where r is in meters.
(c) The Reynolds number, Re, is given by

VD ρV D (902)(0.00133)(0.01)
Re = = = = 0.014
ν µ (0.86)

Typically, laminar flow occurs when Re < 2000, therefore the flow in the pipe is laminar.
(d) The Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, f , is given by

64 64
f= = = 4571
Re 0.014

7.15. From the given data: D = 2 mm, and θ = −5◦ . For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9790 N/m3 and
ν = 1 × 10−6 m2 /s. At the limit of laminar flow, Re = 2000, which requires that

VD V (0.002)
Re = → 2000 = → V = 1.00 m/s
ν 1.00 × 10−6
The following parameters can be derived from the given data,

πD2 π(0.002)2 64 64
A= = = 3.142 × 10−6 , f= = = 0.0320
4 4 Re 2000
The Darcy–Weisbach equation gives the head loss per unit length, hf /L, as

hf f V2 0.0320 1.002
= = = 0.8157
L D 2g 0.002 2(9.807)

(a) The pressure gradient is given by Equation 7.18 as

( )
dp hf
= −γ + sin θ = −(9790) [0.8157 + sin(−5◦ )] = −7133 Pa/m = −7.13 kPa/m
dx L

283
 (b) The volume flow rate, Q, is given by

Q = AV = (3.142 × 10−6 )(1.00) = 3.142 × 10−6 m3 /s = 0.189 L/min

7.16. From the given data: D = 50 mm, θ = 80◦ , and dp/dx = −15 kPa/m. For blood at 37◦ C,
ρ = 1060 kg/m3 , µ = 3.5 mPa·s, ν = µ/ρ = 3.302 × 10−3 m2 /s, and γ = ρg = 10.40 kN/m3
(from Appendix B.4). For the given diameter, A = πD2 /4 = 1.963×10−3 m2 . Using Equation
7.18 gives
( ) ( )
dp hf hf ◦ hf
= −γ + sin θ → −15 = −(10.40) + sin 80 → = 0.4581
dx L L L

Assuming that the flow in the tube is laminar, Equation 7.35 gives

hf 32ν 32(3.302 × 10−6 )

= V → 0.4581 = V → V = 0.1063 m/s
L gD2 (9.807)(0.05)2

Therefore the volume flow rate, Q, in the tube is given by

Q = AV = (1.963 × 10−3 )(0.1063) = 2.087 × 10−4 m3 /s = 0.209 L/s

Calculate Re to verify that the flow is laminar,

VD (0.1063)(0.050)
Re = = = 1.61
ν 3.302 × 10−3
Since Re < 2000 the flow is confirmed laminar and the laminar-flow equations used in deriving
Q are validated.

7.17. From the given data: D = 150 mm, ks ≈ 0, and Re = 5 × 104 . Substituting the given data
into the Colebrook equation (Equation 7.41) gives
[ ] [ ]
1 k /D 2.51 1 2.51
√ = −2 log s + √ → √ = −2 log 0 + √ → f = 0.0209
f 3.7 Re f f 5 × 104 f

Combining Equations 7.38 and 7.39 gives

√ √
5ν · D 8 ν 8 1
δ=√ = ·5·D· = 5D
f f VD f Re
V ·D
8
Substituting the given and derived data into the above equation gives
√
8 1
δ = 5(0.15) = 2.93 × 10−4 m = 0.29 mm
0.0209 5 × 104

Since Re > 4000 the flow is turbulent . Since the flow is not independent of the Reynolds
number the flow is not fully turbulent .

284
7.18. From the given data: SG = 0.87, ν = 1.20 × 10−4 m2 /s, D = 50 mm, A = πD2 /4 =
1.963 × 10−3 m2 , ks ≈ 0, and τ0 = 150 Pa. For the given fluid, ρ = SG · 1000 = 870 kg/m3 .
The shear stress, τ0 is related to the friction factor, f , as follows
τ0 8τ0
f= 1 2
→ fV 2 =
8 ρV
ρ

If the flow is turbulent, the f can be evaluated using the Colebrook equation such that
( )( ) ( )( )
ks VD 8τ0 ks V (0.050) 8(150)
fCE Re, 2
,0 V = → fCE Re, −4
,0 V 2 = → V = 5.38 m/s
D ν ρ D 1.20 × 10 870

This gives a Reynolds number (V D/ν) equal to 2241 and a flow rate (AV ) of 10.6 L/s. Since
2000 < Re < 4000 the flow is in the transition stage and the assumption of turbulent flow is
not validated. Try laminar flow where f = 64/Re, which gives
64 2 8τ0 64 8(150)
V = → V2 = → V = 8.98 m/s
VD ρ V (0.050) 870
ν 1.20 × 10−4
This gives a Reynolds number (V D/ν) equal to 3742 and a flow rate (AV ) of 17.6 L/s. Since
2000 < Re < 4000 the flow is in the transition stage and the assumption of laminar flow is
not validated. These results indicate that the flow is likely in the transitional range. The
flow rate given by the turbulent-flow analysis is 10.6 L/s, and the flow rate given by the
laminar-flow analysis is 17.6 L/s. Therefore the flow rate is expected to vary in the range of
10.6–17.6 L/s .

7.19. From the given data: D = 200 mm, and Q = 50 L/s = 0.05 m3 /s. For water at 20◦ C,
ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculations are useful,

πD2 π(0.2)2 Q 0.05

A= = = 3.142 × 10−2 m2 , V = = = 1.592 m/s
4 4 A 3.142 × 10−2
VD (1.592)(0.2) ks
Re = = = 3.183 × 105 , =0
ν 1.00 × 10−6 D
Substituting the given data into the Colebrook equation (Equation 7.41) gives
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 2.51 1 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log 0 + √ → f = 0.0143
f 3.7 Re f f 3.183 × 105 f
At the limit of smooth conditions
√ √
f 0.0143
u∗ = V = 1.592 = 0.0673 m/s
8 8
5ν 5(1.00 × 10−6 )
ks = = = 7.43 × 10−5 m = 0.07 mm
u∗ 0.0673

Therefore, for values of ks in the range of 0 < ks ≤ 0.07 mm flow in the pipe will be hydro-
dynamically smooth.

285
7.20. From the given data: D = 0.2 m, Q = 0.06 m3 /s, L = 100 m, p1 = 500 kPa, p2 = 400 kPa,
γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . Using these data gives the following:

p1 p2 500 − 400 γDhf (9.79 × 103 )(0.2)(10.2)

hf = − = = 10.2 m, τ0 = = = 49.9 Pa
γ γ 9.79 4L 4(100)
πD2 π(0.2)2 Q 0.06
A= = = 0.0314 m2 , V = = = 1.91 m/s
4 4 A 0.0314
8τ0 8(49.9)
f= 2
= = 0.11
ρV (998)(1.91)2

7.21. From the given data: D = 100 mm, Q = 20 L/s = 0.02 m3 /s, and ks = 0.3 mm. For water at
20◦ C, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculations are useful,

πD2 π(0.12 )2 Q 0.02

A= = = 7.854 × 10−3 m2 , V = = = 2.547 m/s
4 4 A 7.854 × 10−3
VD (2.547)(0.1) ks 0.3
Re = = = 2.547 × 105 , = = 3 × 10−3
ν 1.00 × 10−6 D 100

(a) Substituting the given data into the Colebrook equation (Equation 7.41) gives
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 2.51 1 3 × 10−3 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f f 3.7 2.547 × 105 f

which yields f = 0.0267 .

(b) The thickness, δ, of the laminar layer is given by Equations 7.38 and 7.39 where
√ √
f 0.0267
u∗ = V = (2.547) = 0.1471 m/s
8 8
ν 1.00 × 10−6
δ=5 =5 = 3.399 × 10−5 m = 0.034 mm
u∗ 0.1471

(c) The ratio of the sand roughness, ks , to the viscous layer thickness, δ, is given by

ks 0.3
= ≈9
δ 0.034

Since 1 < ks /δ < 14, the flow is in the transition region.

7.22. From the given data: V = 14 m/s, and D = 5 mm. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , µ =
0.0180 mPa·s, and ν = µ/ρ = 1.469 × 10−5 m2 /s. For copper tubing, a midrange equivalent
sand roughness is ks = 0.0023 mm. The following preliminary calculations are useful,

VD (14)(0.005) ks 0.0023
Re = = = 4764, = = 4.6 × 10−4
ν 1.469 × 10−5 D 5

286
 (a) Since Re > 4000 the flow is turbulent. Since the flow is turbulent, the friction factor
can be calculated using the Colebrook equation, which gives
( ) ( )
1 ks /D 2.51 1 4.6 × 10−4 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f f 3.7 4764 f
which yields f = 0.0384. Using this friction factor in the Darcy–Weisbach equation gives
hf f V2 0.0384 142
= = = 76.8 m/m
L D 2g 0.005 2(9.807)
(b) If the flow is laminar, the friction factor is calculated as follows,
64 64
f= = = 0.0134
Re 4764
Using this friction factor in the Darcy–Weisbach equation gives
hf f V2 0.0134 142
= = = 26.8 m/m
L D 2g 0.005 2(9.807)
The percentage change in hf /L as the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is given
by
76.8 − 26.8
percent change = × 100 = 187%
26.8
7.23. From the given data: T = 20◦ C, V = 2 m/s, D = 0.25 m, horizontal pipe, ductile iron. For
ductile iron pipe, ks = 0.26 mm. The following preliminary calculations are useful:
ks 0.26 ρV D (998.2)(2)(0.25)
= = 0.00104, Re = = = 4.981 × 105
D 250 µ (1.002 × 10−3 )
(a) From the Moody diagram:

f = 0.0202 (flow is not fully turbulent)

Using the Colebrook equation,

( ) ( )
1 ks /D 2.51 1 0.00104 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f f 3.7 4.981 × 105 f
which yields f = 0.0204 .

Using the Swamee-Jain equation,

[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 5.74 0.00104 5.74
√ = −2 log + = −2 log + → f = 0.0205
f 3.7 Re0.9 3.7 (4.981 × 105 )0.9
(b) The head loss, hf , over 100 m of pipeline is given by
L V2 100 (2)2
hf = f = 0.0204 = 1.66 m
D 2g 0.25 2(9.81)
Therefore the pressure drop, ∆p, is given by
∆p = γhf = (9.79)(1.66) = 16.3 kPa

287
 (c) If the pipe is 1 m lower at the downstream end, f would not change, but the pressure
drop, ∆p, would then be given by

∆p = γ(hf − 1.0) = 9.79(1.66 − 1) = 6.46 kPa

7.24. From the given data: D = 25 mm, ks = 0.1 mm, θ = 10◦ , p1 = 550 kPa, and L = 100 m. At
20◦ C, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , and

ks 0.1 π 2 π
= = 0.004, A= D = (0.025)2 = 4.909 × 10−4 m2
D 25 4 4
L Q2 100 Q2
hf = f = f = 8.46 × 108 f Q2
D 2gA2 0.025 2(9.81)(4.909 × 10−4 )2

The energy equation applied over 100 m of pipe is

p1 V 2
p2 V 2
p1 p2
+
+ z1 = +
+ z2 + hf → + z1 = + z2 + hf
γ
2g γ
2g γ γ

which can be simplified as follows,

550 p2
+0= + 100 sin 10◦ + 8.46 × 108 f Q2 → p2 = 380.0 − 8.28 × 109 f Q2
9.79 9.79
(a) For Q = 2 L/min = 3.333 × 10−5 m3 /s,

Q 3.333 × 10−5 VD (0.06790)(0.025)

V = = = 0.06790 m/s, Re = = = 1698
A 4.909 × 10−4 ν 1 × 10−6
Since Re < 2000, the flow is laminar when Q = 2 L/min. Hence,

64 64
f= = = 0.03770
Re 1698
p2 = 380.0 − 8.28 × 109 (0.03770)(3.333 × 10−5 )2 = 380 kPa

Therefore, when the flow is 2 L/min, the pressure at the downstream section is 380 kPa .
For Q = 20 L/min = 3.333 × 10−4 m3 /s,

Q 3.333 × 10−4 VD (0.6790)(0.025)

V = = = 0.6790 m/s, Re = = = 16980
A 4.909 × 10−4 ν 1 × 10−6
Since Re > 5000, the flow is turbulent when Q = 20 L/min. Hence,

0.25 0.25
f=[ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2 = 0.0342
ks /D 5.74 0.004 5.74
log + log +
3.7 Re0.9 3.7 169800.9
p2 = 380.0 − 8.28 × 109 (0.0342)(3.333 × 10−4 )2 = 349 kPa

Therefore, when the flow is 2 L/min, the pressure at the downstream section is 349 kPa .

288
 (b) Using the Colebrook equation with Q = 20 L/min,
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 2.51 0.004 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f 3.7 16980 f

which yields f = 0.0337 . Comparing this with the Swamee-Jain result of f = 0.0342
indicates a difference of 1.5% , which is more than the 1% claimed by Swamee-Jain.

7.25. The Colebrook equation is given by

( )
1 ks /D 2.51
√ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f

Inverting and squaring this equation gives

0.25
f= √
{log[(ks /D)/3.7 + 2.51/(Re f )]}2

This equation is “slightly more convenient” than the √ Colebrook formula since it is quasi-
explicit in f , whereas the Colebrook formula gives 1/ f .

7.26. The Colebrook equation is preferable since it provides greater accuracy than interpolating
from the Moody diagram.

7.27. From the given data: ks /D = 1 × 10−4 and Re = 104 − 108 . This problem can be done using
MATLAB or a similar program.

(a) Using the Haaland equation, the maximum percentage difference with the Colebrook
equation occurs at Re = 1.526×105 where fC = 0.0172, fH = 0.0169, and the percentage
error is −1.37% .
(b) Using the Swamee–Jain equation, the maximum percentage difference with the Cole-
brook equation occurs at Re = 2.20 × 106 where fC = 0.0127, fSJ = 0.0128, and the
percentage error is 0.59% .
(c) Based on these results, the Swamee-Jain equation would be preferable.

7.28. The kinetic energy correction factor, α, is defined by

∫
v3 V3
ρ dA = αρ A
A 2 2
or ∫ 3
A v dA
α= (1)
V 3A
Using the velocity distribution in Problem 7.?? gives
∫ ∫ R [ ( r )2 ]2
3
v dA = V03 1− 2πr dr
A 0 R

289
 ∫ R[ ( r )2 ( r )4 ( r )6 ]
= 2πV03 1−3 +3 − r dr
0 R R R
∫ R[ ]
3r3 3r5 r7
= 2πV03 r − 2 + 4 − 6 dr
0 R R R
[ 2 ]R
3 r 3r4 r6 r8
= 2πV0 − + −
2 4R2 2R4 8R6 0
[ ]
2 3 1 3 1 1
= 2πR V0 − + −
2 4 2 8
πR2 V03
= (2)
4
The average velocity, V , was calculated in Problem 7.?? as
V0
V =
2
hence ( )3
3 V0 πR2 V03
V A= πR2 = (3)
2 8
Combining Equations 1 to 3 gives

πR2 V03 /4
α= = 2
πR2 V03 /8

7.29. The kinetic energy correction factor, α, is defined by

∫ 3
v dA
α= A 3 (1)
V A
Using the given velocity distribution gives
∫ ∫ R ( ∫ R(
r ) 37 r ) 37
3
v dA = V0 1 −
3
2πr dr = 2πV03
1− r dr (2)
A 0 R 0 R
To facilitate integration, let
r
x=1− (3)
R
which gives

r = R(1 − x) (4)
dr = −R dx (5)

Combining Equations 2 to 5 gives

∫ ∫ 1
3
3
v dA = 2πV0 3
x 7 R(1 − x)(−R) dx
A 0
∫ 1 ∫ 1
3 3 10
= 2πR2 V03 x 7 (1 − x) dx = 2πR2 V03 (x 7 − x 7 ) dx
0 0

290
 [ ]1
7 10 7 17
= 2πR 2
V03 x7 − x7
10 17 0
= 0.576πR2 V03 (6)

The average velocity, V , is given by (using the same substitution as above)

∫
1
V = v dA
A A
∫ R ( ∫
1 r ) 17 2V0 0 1
= V0 1 − 2πr dr = 2 x 7 R(1 − x)(−R) dx
πR2 0 R R 1
∫ 1 [ ]
1 8 7 8 7 15 1
= 2V0 (x 7 − x 7 ) dx = 2V0 x 7 − x 7
0 8 15 0
= 0.817V0 (7)

Using this result,

V 3 A = (0.817V0 )3 πR2 = 0.545πR2 V03 (8)
Combining Equations 1, 6, and 8 gives

0.576πR2 V03
α= = 1.06
0.545πR2 V03

The momentum correction factor, β, is defined by

∫ 2
v dA
β= A 2 (9)
AV
In this case,
AV 2 = πR2 (0.817V0 )2 = 0.667πR2 V02 (10)
and
∫ ∫ (
R
r ) 27
2
v dA = V02 1 − 2πr dr
A 0 R
∫ 0 ∫ 1
2 2 9
= 2πV02
x R(1 − x)(−R) dx = 2πR V0
7
2 2
(x 7 − x 7 ) dx
1 0
[ ]1
7 9 7 16
= 2πR2 V02 x 7 − x 7 = 0.681πR2 V02 (11)
9 16 0

Combining Equations 9 to 11 gives

0.681πR2 V02
β= = 1.02
0.667πR2 V02

7.30. The kinetic energy correction factor, α, is defined by

∫ 3
v dA
α= A 3 (1)
V A

291
 Using the velocity distribution given by Equation 7.51 gives
∫ ∫ R ( ∫ R(
r ) n3 r ) n3
3
v dA = V0 1 −
3
2πr dr = 2πV03
1− r dr (2)
A 0 R 0 R
Let
r
x=1− , r = R(1 − x), dr = −R dx (3)
R
Combining Equations 2 to 3 gives
∫ ∫ 1 ∫ 1
3 3
v 3 dA = 2πV03 x n R(1 − x)(−R) dx = 2πR2 V03 x n (1 − x) dx
A 0 0
∫ 1 [ ]1
3 3+n n 3+n n 3+2n
2 3
= 2πR V0 (x n − x n ) dx = 2πR V0
2 3
x n − x n
0 3+n 3 + 2n 0
2n2
= πR2 V03 (4)
(3 + n)(3 + 2n)
The average velocity, V , is given by
∫ ∫ R ( ∫
1 1 r ) n1 2V0 0 1
V = v dA = V0 1 − 2πr dr = 2 x n R(1 − x)(−R) dx
A A πR2 0 R R 1
∫ 1 [ ]1
1 1+n n 1+n n 1+2n
= 2V0 (x n − x n ) dx = 2V0 x n − x n
0 1+n 1 + 2n 0
[ ]
2n2
= V0 (5)
(1 + n)(1 + 2n)
Using this result,
[ ]3
3 2n2 8n6
V A= V03 πR2 = πR2 V03 (6)
(1 + n)(1 + 2n) (1 + n)3 (1 + 2n)3
Combining Equations 1, 4, and 6 gives

2n2
πR2 V03
(3 + n)(3 + 2n) (1 + n)3 (1 + 2n)3
α= 6 =
8n 2 3 4n4 (3 + n)(3 + 2n)
πR V0
(1 + n)3 (1 + 2n)3

Putting n = 7 gives α = 1.06 , the same result obtained in Problem 7.29.

7.31. (a) For the logarithmic velocity distribution,

√
V0 = (1 + 1.326 f )V (1)

For the power-law distribution, the average velocity can be calculated by integration,
∫ R (
1 r ) n1
V = V 0 1 − 2πr dr
πR2 0 R

292
 To facilitate integration let x = 1 − r/R and hence dr = −R dx, which gives
∫ 0 [ ]
1 n n
V = −2V0 x (1 − x) dx = 2V0
n − (2)
1 n + 1 2n + 1

Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives the following requirement for both the average
velocity (V ) and the maximum velocity (V0 ) to be equal
[ ]
n n 1
− = √ (3)
n + 1 2n + 1 2(1 + 1.326 f )

(b) For f = 0.02, Equation 3 gives

[ ]
n n 1
− = √ → n = 8.32
n + 1 2n + 1 2(1 + 1.326 0.02)

(c) Normalizing the logarithmic velocity distribution by V0 and using the calculated value
for f gives
√ [ ] [ ]
u 2.04 f 1 u 1
=1− √ log → = 1 − 0.243 log (4)
V0 1 + 1.326 f 1 − (r/R) V0 1 − (r/R)

The normalized power-law velocity distribution given by Equation 7.49 can be expressed
as
u ( r ) n1 u ( r )0.120
= 1− → = 1− (5)
V0 R V0 R
The logarithmic and power-law velocity distributions are plotted and compared in Figure
7.1.

1.0
Logarithmic law
Power law
0.5
r
R 0

0.5

1.0
0.0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0
u
V0

Figure 7.1: Comparison of turbulent velocity distributions

It is apparent from Figure 7.1 that the logarithmic and power-law velocity distributions
are in very close agreement

293
7.32. From the given data: Q = 15 L/s, L = 150 m, D = 100 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 7.854 × 10−3 m2 ,
and h = 8 m. For water at 20◦ C, ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s, and γ = 9.807 kN/m3 . The following
preliminary calculations are useful:

Q 15 × 10−3 VD (1.910)(0.1)
V = = = 1.910 m/s, Re = = = 1.902 × 105
A 7.854 × 10−3 ν 1.004 × 10−6
( )
ks ks
= 0, f = fCE , Re = 0.01579
D D

Applying the energy equation between the discharge side of the pump and the reservoir gives
[ ( ) ]
p V2 fL Q2
+ − hf = h → p = γ h + −1
γ 2g D 2gA2

Substituting the given and derived data yields

{ [ ] }
(0.01579)(150) 0.0152
p = (9.807) 8 + −1 = 120 kPa
0.1 2(9.807)(7.854 × 10−3 )2

7.33. From the given data: Q = 500 L/s = 0.5 m3 /s, D = 750 mm, ks = 1.5 mm, L = 3 km, and
∆z = 1.5 m. For crude oil at 20◦ C, ρ = 856 kg/m3 , µ = 7.2 mPa·s, ν = µ/ρ = 8.411 ×
10−6 m2 /s, and γ = ρg = 8.395 kN/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are useful:

πD2 π(0.5)2 Q 0.5

A= = = 0.4418 m2 , V = = = 1.132 m/s
4 4 A 0.4418
VD (1.132)(0.750) ks 1.5
Re = = = 1.009 × 105 , = = 2.00 × 10−3
ν 8.411 × 10−6 D 750
Using the Colebrook equation,
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 2.51 1 2.00 × 10−3 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f f 3.7 1.009 × 105 f

which yields f = 0.0251. Substituting into the Darcy–Weisbach equation (Equation 7.17)
gives the head loss due to friction, hf , over the length of the pipe as

fL V 2 (0.0251)(3000) 1.1322
hf = = = 6.555 m
D 2g 0.750 2(9.807)

(a) The pressure change, ∆p, can be determined using the energy equation, which gives
( )
∆p
− + ∆z = hf → ∆p = −γ(hf + ∆z)
γ

Substituting the given and derived data gives

∆p = −(8.395)(6.555 + 1.5) = −67.6 kPa

294
 (b) The rate, P , at which energy is being consumed is given by

P = γQhf = (8.395)(0.50)(6.555) = 27.5 kW

(c) If the roughness height is reduced by 70%, then ks /D = 0.3(2.00 × 10−3 ) = 6 × 10−4 .
Repeating the calculations in Parts (a) and (b) for the new value of ks /D gives

∆p = −58.0 kPa, P = 22.7 kW

Therefore, the pressure change is reduced by 14% , and the rate of energy loss is reduced
by 17% .

7.34. From the given data: D = 1200 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 1.131 m2 , ks = 0.15 mm, S = 5%,
ρ = 860 kg/m3 , µ = 7.2 mPa·s, Q = 3 m3 /s, pmax = 8 MPa, and pmin = 350 kPa. The
following preliminary calculations are useful:
Q 3
γ = ρg = (860)(9.807) = 8434 N/m3 = 8.434 kN/m3 , V = = = 2.653 m/s
A 1.131
ρV D (860)(2.653)(1.2) ks 0.15
Re = = = 3.80 × 105 , = = 1.25 × 10−4
µ 7.2 × 10−3 D 1200
( )
S 5 ks
c= √ =√ = 0.04994, f = fCE Re, = 0.01518
2
100 + S 2 1002 + 52 D

Apply the energy equation between pumps, taking L as the spacing between pumps, gives:

pmax V 2
pmin V 2
pmax f L Q2 pmin

+
+ z 1 − hf = +
+ z2 → − 2
= + cL
γ
2g γ
2g γ D 2gA γ
8000 (0.01518)L 32 350
→ − 2
= + (0.04994)L
8.434 1.2 2(9.807)(1.131) 8.434

→ L = 1.665 × 104 m = 16.7 km

7.35. From the given data: D = 0.5 m, p1 = 600 kPa, Q = 0.50 m3 /s, z1 = 120 m, z2 = 100 m, γ
= 9.79 kN/m3 , L = 1000 m, ks (ductile iron) = 0.26 mm,

π 2 π Q 0.50
A= D = (0.5)2 = 0.1963 m2 , V = = = 2.55 m/s
4 4 A 0.1963
Using the Colebrook equation,
( )
1 ks /D 2.51
√ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f

where ks /D = 0.26/500 = 0.00052, and at 20◦ C

ρV D (998)(2.55)(0.5)
Re = = = 1.27 × 106
µ 1.00 × 10−3

295
 Substituting ks /D and Re into the Colebrook equation gives
( )
1 0.00052 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → f = 0.0172
f 3.7 1.27 × 106 f
Applying the energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z 2 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
Since V1 = V2 , and hf is given by the Darcy-Weisbach equation, then the energy equation
can be written as
p1 p2 L V2
+ z1 = + z2 + f
γ γ D 2g
Substituting known values leads to
600 p2 1000 (2.55)2
+ 120 = + 100 + 0.0172 → p2 = 684 kPa
9.79 9.79 0.5 2(9.81)
If p is the (static) pressure at the top of a 30 m high building, then
p = p2 − 30γ = 684 − 30(9.79) = 390 kPa

This (static) water pressure is adequate for service.

7.36. From the given data: Q = 100 L/s, L = 100 m, D = 200 mm, ∆z = 0.8 m, and ∆p = −90 kPa.
For water at 20◦ C, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s and γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The following preliminary
calculations are useful,
πD2 π(0.2)2 Q 0.1
A= = = 3.142 × 10−2 m2 , V = = = 3.183 m/s
4 4 A 3.142 × 10−2
VD (3.183)(0.200)
Re = = = 6.366 × 105
ν 1.00 × 10−6
(a) According to the energy equation,
( ) ( )
∆p −90
hf = − + ∆z = − + 0.8 = 8.393 m
γ 9.79
The corresponding friction factor can be calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation,
which gives
fL V 2 hf · D · 2g (8.393)(0.200)(2 × 9.807)
hf = → f= = = 0.0325
D 2g L·V2 (100)(3.183)2
(b) Using the Colebrook equation,
[ ] [ ]
1 k /D 2.51 1 ks /200 2.51
√ = −2 log s + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f 0.0325 3.7 6.366 × 105 0.0325
which yields ks = 1.2 mm . According to Table 7.2, ks for ductile iron is typically around
0.1 mm or less, so the interior surface of the pipe is likely to be in poor condition .

296
7.37. From the given data: T = 5◦ C = 278 K, p = 500 kPa, Q = 5 L/s, L = 20 m, D = 50 mm,
θ = 10◦ , ∆z = L sin θ = 3.473 m, ∆p = −300 Pa, and µ = 0.01054 mPa·s. For methane, M =
16.04 kg/kmol, and R = Ru /M = 518.3 J/kg·K. The following preliminary calculations are
useful,

πD2 π(0.05)2 Q 0.005

A= = = 1.963 × 10−3 m2 , V = = = 2.547 m/s
4 4 A 1.963 × 10−3
p 500 × 103
ρ= = = 3.470 kg/m3 , γ = ρg = (3.470)(9.807) = 34.03 N/m3
RT (518.3)(278)
ρV D (3.470)(2.547)(0.050)
Re = = = 4.192 × 104
µ 0.01054 × 10−3

According to the energy equation,

( ) ( )
∆p −300
hf = − + ∆z = − + 3.473 = 5.343 m
γ 34.03

The corresponding friction factor can be calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which
gives

fL V 2 hf · D · 2g (5.343)(0.050)(2 × 9.807)
hf = → f= = = 0.0404
D 2g L·V 2 (20)(2.547)2

Using the Colebrook equation,

[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 2.51 1 ks /50 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ →√ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f 0.0404 3.7 4.192 × 104 0.0404

which yields ks = 0.55 mm .

7.38. From the given data: µ = 0.29 kg/(m·s) (SAE 30 @ 20◦ C), ρ√= 891 kg/m3 , γ = 8.74 kN/m3 ,
D = 3 cm, θ = 37◦ , pA = 500 kPa, pB = 180 kPa, L = 152 + 202 = 25 m. Assuming
laminar flow from A to B,
( )
pA V 2 pB V2 64µ L V 2
+ + zA = + + zB +
γ 2g γ 2g ρDV D 2g
( )
500 180 64(0.29) 25 V2
= + 15 +
8.74 8.74 (891)(0.03)V 0.03 2(9.81)

which gives V = 0.733 m/s. Verify laminar flow:

ρV D (891)(0.733)(0.03)
Re = = = 68
µ 0.29

Since Re < 2000, the laminar assumption is validated, and

π 2 π
Q= D V = (0.03)2 (0.733) = 5.18 × 10−4 m3 /s = 1.87 m3 /h
4 4

297
 Alternative:
∆p 64µLV
= L sin θ +
γ D2 2γ
32µLV
∆p − γL sin θ =
D2
D2
V = (∆p − γL sin θ)
32µL
πD4
Q = (∆p − γL sin θ)
128µL

Substituting given variables directly into the latter equation gives Q = 1.87 m3 /h, as previ-
ously calculated.

7.39. The head loss, hf , in the pipe is estimated by

( ) ( )
pmain poutlet
hf = + zmain − + zoutlet
γ γ

where pmain = 400 kPa, zmain = 0 m, poutlet = 0 kPa, and zoutlet = 2.0 m. Therefore,
( )
400
hf = + 0 − (0 + 2.0) = 38.9 m
9.79

Also, since D = 25 mm, L = 20 m, ks = 0.15 mm (from Table 7.2), ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s

(at 20◦ C), the combined Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook equation (Equation 7.58) yields,
√ ( )
gDh f k s /D 1.774ν
Q = −0.965D2 ln + √
L 3.7 D gDhf /L
√ [ ]
(9.81)(0.025)(38.9) 0.15/25 1.774(1.00 × 10−6 )
= −0.965(0.025)2 ln + √
20 3.7 (0.025) (9.81)(0.025)(38.9)/20
= 0.00265 m3 /s = 2.65 L/s

The faucet can therefore be expected to deliver 2.65 L/s when fully open.

7.40. From the given data: Q = 300 L/s = 0.300 m3 /s, L = 40 m, and hf = 45 m. Assume that
ν = 10−6 m2 /s (at 20◦ C) and take ks = 0.15 mm (from Table 7.2). Substituting these data
into Equation 7.58 gives
√ ( )
gDh f k s /D 1.784ν
Q = −0.965D2 ln + √
L 3.7 D gDhf /L
√ ( )
(9.81)D(45) 0.00015 1.784(10−6 )
0.2 = −0.965D 2
ln + √
(40) 3.7D D (9.81)D(45)/(40)

This is an implicit equation in D that can be solved numerically to yield D = 166 mm .

298
7.41. Since ks = 0.15 mm, L = 40 m, Q = 0.3 m3 /s, hf = 45 m, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s, the
Swamee-Jain approximation (Equation 7.59 gives
[ ( )4.75 ( )5.2 ]0.04
LQ2 L
D = 0.66 ks1.25 + νQ9.4
ghf ghf
{ [ ]4.75 [ ]5.2 }0.04
(40)(0.3)2 −6 40
= 0.66 (0.00015) 1.25
+ (1.00 × 10 )(0.3) 9.4
(9.81)(45) (9.81)(45)
= 0.171 m = 171 mm

The calculated pipe diameter (171 mm) is about 3% higher than calculated by the Colebrook
equation (166 mm).

7.42. From the given data: p = 101.3 kPa, T = 20◦ C = 293 K, Q = 60 L/s = 0.06 m3 /s, L = 20 m,
ks = 0.5 mm = 5 × 10−4 m, and ∆p = 1.5 kPa. For air at standard pressure and T = 20◦ C,
µ = 0.0182 mPa·s (from Appendix B.2). For gaseous air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. From the given
data, the following calculations are useful,

p 101.3 × 103
ρ= = = 1.204 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(293)
[ ] [ ]
ρ(Q/A)D 4ρQ 1 4(1.204)(0.06) 1 5055
Re = = = −5
=
µ πµ D π(1.82 × 10 ) D D

Neglecting gravitational effects, the energy equation gives

∆p f L Q2 ∆p 8f LQ2 1.5 × 103 8f (20)(0.06)2

= → = → =
γ D 2gA2 ρ π2 D5 1.204 π 2 D5

which simplifies to
f = 2.134 × 104 D5
Solving this equation simultaneously with the Colebrook equation gives D = 0.0697 m =
69.7 mm .

7.43. From the given data: ∆p = 350 kPa, L = 100 m, ks = 1.5 mm, and Q = 500 L/s = 0.5 m3 /s.
For standard air, ν = 1.469 × 10−5 m2 /s, and γ = 12.01 N/m3 . The following functions can
be defined in terms of the unknown diameter, D,

πD2 Q 0.5
(1) A(D) = , (2) V (D) = =
4 A(D) A(D)
( )
V (D)D V (D)D ks
(3) Re(D) = = , (4) f (D) = fCE , Re(D)
ν 1.469 × 10−5 D

V (D)2
(5) hv (D) =
2g

299
 where fCE is the friction factor derived from the Colebrook equation. Applying the energy
equation with the defined functions gives
∆p f (D)L
= hv (D)
γ D
350 f (D)(100)
= hv (D) → D = 0.294 m = 294 mm
12.01 D

7.44. From the given data: D = 200 mm, Ẇ = 50 N/s, T = 10◦ C = 283 K, p = 450 kPa, µ =
10.73×10−6 Pa·s, and ks = 1 mm. For methane, R = 518.3 J/kg·K. The following preliminary
calculations are useful,

p 450 × 103 Ẇ 50
ρ= = = 3.068 kg/m3 , V = = = 1.662 m/s
RT (518.3)(283) ρg (3.068)(9.807)
V2 1.6622 ρV D (3.068)(1.662)(0.2)
hv = = = 0.1408 m, Re = = = 9.503 × 104
2g 2(9.807) µ 10.73 × 10−6
ks 1
= = 0.005
D 200
The Colebrook equation gives
( ) ( )
1 ks /D 2.51 1 0.005 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f f 3.7 9.503 × 104 f
which yields f = 0.0314.

(a) Applying the energy and Darcy-Weisbach equations over a 1-km length of pipeline gives
[ ] [ ]
fL (0.0314)(1000)
∆p = −ρg hv = −(3.068)(9.807) (0.1408) = −664 Pa/km
D 0.2

(b) The pressure, p1 , at the end of 15 km of pipeline is given by

p1 = p0 + 15∆p = 450 + 15(−0.664) = 440 kPa

and hence the density, ρ1 , at the end of the pipeline is given by

p1 440 × 103
ρ1 = = = 3.000 kg/m3
RT (518.3)(283)

The actual change in density over the length of the pipeline is approximately 2.2%, so
the assumption of incompressible flow is reasonable.

7.45. The head loss is calculated using Equation 7.24. The hydraulic diameter, Dh , and the mean
velocity, V , are given by
4A 4(2)(1) Q 5
Dh = = = 1.333 m, V = = = 2.5 m/s
P 2(2 + 1) A (2)(1)

300
 At 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 , µ = 1.002 × 10−3 N·s/m2 , and therefore the Reynolds number,
Re, is given by
ρV Dh (998.2)(2.5)(1.333)
Re = = = 3.32 × 106
ν 1.002 × 10−3
A median equivalent sand roughness for concrete can be taken as ks = 1.6 mm (Table 7.2),
and therefore the relative roughness, ks /Dh , is given by

ks 1.6 × 10−3
= = 0.00120
Dh 1.333
Substituting Re and ks /Dh into the Swamee-Jain equation (Equation 7.44) for the friction
factor yields
[ ] [ ]
1 k /D 5.74 0.00120 5.74
√ = −2 log s h + = −2 log + = 6.96
f 3.7 Re0.9 3.7 (3.32 × 106 )0.9
which yields f = 0.0206. The frictional head loss in the culvert, hf , is therefore given by the
Darcy-Weisbach equation as

fL V 2 (0.0206)(100) 2.52
hf = = = 0.493 m
Dh 2g 1.333 2(9.81)

7.46. The frictional head loss is calculated using Equation 7.24. The hydraulic radius, R, is given
by
A (2)(2)
R= = = 0.500 m
P 2(2 + 2)
and the mean velocity, V , is given by
Q 10
V = = = 2.5 m/s
A (2)(2)

At 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 , µ = 1.00 × 10−3 N·s/m2 , and therefore the Reynolds number, Re,
is given by
ρV (4R) (998)(2.5)(4 × 0.500)
Re = = = 4.99 × 106
µ 1.00 × 10−3
A median equivalent sand roughness for concrete can be taken as ks = 1.6 mm (Table 7.2),
and therefore the relative roughness, ks /4R, is given by

ks 1.6 × 10−3
= = 0.0008
4R 4(0.500)
Substituting Re and ks /4R into the Swamee-Jain equation (Equation 7.45) for the friction
factor yields
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /4R 5.74 0.0008 5.74
√ = −2 log + = −2 log + = 7.31
f 3.7 Re0.9 3.7 (4.99 × 106 )0.9
which yields
f = 0.0187

301
 The frictional head loss in the culvert, hf , is therefore given by the Darcy-Weisbach equation
as
fL V 2 (0.0187)(500) 2.52
hf = = = 1.49 m
4R 2g (4 × 0.500) 2(9.81)
Applying the energy equation between the upstream and downstream sections (Sections 1
and 2 respectively),
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z 2 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
which gives
p1 2.52 p2 2.52
+ + (0.002)(500) = + + 0 + 1.49
9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)
Re-arranging this equation gives

p1 − p2 = 4.80 kPa

7.47. From the given data: V = 10 m/s, w = 400 mm, h = 400 mm, ks = 0.003 mm, T = 70◦ C
= 343.15 K, and p = 101.3 kPa. For air at 70◦ C, µ = 0.0203 mPa·s, and for standard air,
R = 287.1 J/kg·K. The following preliminary calculations are useful,

p 101.3 × 103
ρ= = = 1.028 kg/m3 , A = wh = (0.4)(0.4) = 0.16 m2
RT (287.1)(343.15)
4A 4(0.16)
P = 2(w + h) = 2(0.4 + 0.4) = 1.6 m, Dh = = = 0.400 m = 400 mm
P 1.6
ρV Dh 1.028(10)(0.400)
Reh = = = 2.026 × 105 , Q = AV = (0.16)(10) = 1.6 m3 /s
µ 0.0203 × 10−3
ks 0.003
= = 7.5 × 10−6
Dh 400
Since Re > 4000 the flow is turbulent and the Colebrook equation can be used to estimate f .

(a) The Colebrook equation gives

( ) ( )
1 ks /D 2.51 1 7.5 × 10−6 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Reh f f 3.7 (2.026 × 105 ) f

which yields f = 0.01566 Using this value of f in the Darcy–Weisbach equation gives
the head loss per unit length as

hf f V2 0.01566 102
= = = 0.200 m/m
L Dh 2g 0.4 2(9.807)

(b) For a circular duct of diameter D with the same value of hf /L,
[ 2 ( )]
hf f V2 π g hf
= → f= D5 → f = 0.9433 D5 (1)
L D 2g 8Q2 L

302
 ( )
ρV D 4ρ 1 64480
Re = = → Re = (2)
µ µπ D D
Substituting Equations 1 and 2 into the Colebrook equation gives
[ ]
1 3 × 10−6 /D 2.51
√ = −2 log + √
0.9433 D5 3.7 (64480/D) 0.9433 D5

which yields D = 0.446 m. Therefore, a circular duct of diameter 446 mm will yield
the same head loss as the square duct.
7.48. From the given data: Q = 200 L/s = 0.2 m3 /s, w = 200 mm, h = 400 mm, L = 60 m,
and ks = 0.5 mm. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , µ = 1.800 × 10−5 m2 /s, ν = µ/ρ =
1.469 × 10−5 m2 /s, and γ = 12.01 N/m3 . The following calculations lead to estimation of the
friction factor,
A = wh = (0.2)(0.4) = 0.08 m2 , P = 2(w + h) = 2(0.2 + 0.4) = 1.2 m

4A 4(0.08) ks 0.5
Dh = = = 0.2667 m, = = 1.875 × 10−3
P 1.2 Dh 266.7
Q 0.2 V Dh (1.25)(0.2667)
V = = = 1.25 m/s, Re = = = 2.269 × 104
A 0.08 ν 1.469 × 10−5
The Colebrook equation gives
( ) ( )
1 ks /D 2.51 1 1.875 × 10−3 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Reh f f 3.7 2.269 × 104 f
which yields f = 0.0290. The head loss due to friction, hf , and the power, P , required to
overcome friction are given by
fL V 2 (0.0290)(60) 1.252
hf = = = 0.5195 m
Dh 2g 0.2667 2(9.807)

P = γQhf = (12.01)(0.2)(0.5195) = 0.624 W

Yes the calculated power loss (0.624 W) is approximately the same power that must be
input by the fan.
7.49. From the given data: Q = 500 L/s; w = 250 mm, h = 500 mm, ks = 0.1 mm, For standard air,
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , µ = 1.800 × 10−5 m2 /s, and ν = µ/ρ = 1.469 × 10−5 m2 /s. For the existing
duct,
A 0.125
A = wh = (0.25)(0.5) = 0.125 m2 , P = = = 1.50 m
2(w + h) 2(0.25 + 0.5)
4A 4(0.125) ks 0.1
Dh0 = = = 0.3333 m, = = 3.00 × 10−4
P 1.50 Dh0 333.3
Q 0.5 V Dh0 (4)(0.3333)
V = = = 4 m/s, Re = = = 9.074 × 104
A 0.125 ν 1.469 × 10−5
Substituting Re and ks /Dh0 in the Colebrook equation gives f0 = 0.0198.

303
 (a) The head-loss ratio, r, for any given value of the aspect ratio, α, and duct area, A, is
calculated by the following sequence of calculations:
√
A
(1) h∗ = , (2) P∗ = 2(1 + α)h∗
α
4A V Dh∗
(3) Dh∗ = , (4) Re∗ =
P∗ ν
( )
ks f∗ Dh0
(5) f∗ = f Re∗ , , (6) r =
Dh∗ f0 Dh∗

where f∗ in Step 5 is derived from the Colebrook equation. Derived values of the head-
loss ratio, r, are plotted as a function of the aspect ratio, α, in Figure 7.2.

1.8
Head-loss ra!o, r

1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Aspect ra!o, α

Figure 7.2: Head-loss ratio versus aspect ratio

(b) It is apparent from Figure 7.2 and confirmed by numerical minimization that the least
head loss occurs for α = 1 .

7.50. The Hazen-Williams formula is given by

V = 0.849CH R0.63 Sf0.54 (1)

where
hf
Sf = (2)
L
Combining Equations 1 and 2, and taking R = D/4 gives
( )0.63 ( )0.54
D hf
V = 0.849CH
4 L

which simplifies to
( )1.85
L V
hf = 6.82
D1.17 CH

304
7.51. Comparing the Hazen-Williams and Darcy–Weisbach equations for head loss gives
( )1.85
L V L V2
hf = 6.82 1.17 =f
D CH D 2g

which leads to
134 1
f= 1.85 D 0.17 0.15
CH V

For laminar flow, Equation 7.42 gives f ∼ 1/Re ∼ 1/V , and for fully-turbulent flow Equation
7.41 gives f ∼ 1/V 0 . Since the Hazen-Williams formula requires that f ∼ 1/V 0.15 , this
indicates that the flow must be in the transition regime .

7.52. The Manning equation is given by

( )2 ( )1
1 2 1 1 D 3 hf 2
V = R 3 Sf2 =
n n 4 L

which re-arranges to give

n2 LV 2
hf = 6.35 4
D3

7.53. Comparing the Manning and Darcy-Weisbach equations gives

n2 LV 2 L V2
hf = 6.35 4 =f
D3 D 2g

which leads to
n2
f = 125 1
D3
For laminar flow, Equation 7.42 gives f ∼ 1/Re ∼ 1/V , and for fully-turbulent flow Equation
7.41 gives f ∼ 1/V 0 . Since the Manning equation requires that f ∼ 1/V 0 , this indicates that
the flow must be fully turbulent or rough .

7.54. Equating the Hazen-Williams and Manning head loss expressions

( )1.85
L V n2 LV 2
6.82 = 6.35 4
D1.17 CH D3
which re-arranges to give
( )
D0.082 1
n = 1.04 0.075 0.93
V CH

7.55. Choose the Darcy-Weisbach equation since this equation is applicable in all flow regimes.
The Hazen-Williams and Manning equations are limited to particular flow conditions (tran-
sition and fully turbulent respectively).

305
7.56. (a) The Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient, CH , can be taken as 110 (Table 7.3), L = 500
m, D = 0.300 m, V = 2 m/s, and therefore the head loss, hf , is given by Equation 7.62
as ( ) ( )
L V 1.85 500 2 1.85
hf = 6.82 1.17 = 6.82 = 8.41 m
D CH (0.30)1.17 110
(b) The Manning roughness coefficient, n, can be taken as 0.013 (approximation from Table
7.3), and therefore the head loss, hf , is given by Equation 7.65 as

n2 LV 2 (0.013)2 (500)(2)2
hf = 6.35 4 = 6.35 4 = 10.7 m
D 3 (0.30) 3

(c) The equivalent sand roughness, ks , can be taken as 0.26 mm (Table 7.2), and the
Reynolds number, Re, is given by

VD (2)(0.30)
Re = = = 6.00 × 105
ν 1.00 × 10−6

where ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s at 20◦ C. Substituting ks , D, and Re into the Colebrook

equation yields the friction factor, f , where
[ ] [ ]
1 ks 2.51 0.26 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7D Re f 3.7(300) 6.00 × 105 f

Solving by trial and error leads to

f = 0.0195

The head loss, hf , is therefore given by the Darcy-Weisbach equation as

L V2 500 22
hf = f = 0.0195 = 6.63 m
D 2g 0.30 2(9.81)

(d) It is reasonable to assume that the Darcy-Weisbach equation yields the most accurate
estimate of the head loss. In this case, the Hazen-Williams formula gives a head loss
that is 27% too high, and the Manning formula yields a head loss that is 61% too high.
(e) Problem 7.51 has demonstrated that the relationship between the friction factor, f , and
the Hazen-Williams coefficient, CH , is given by

134 1
f= 1.85 D 0.17 V 0.15
CH

which can be re-arranged to give

14.2 14.2
CH = = = 126
f 0.54 D0.092 V 0.081 (0.0195)0.54 (0.30)0.092 (2)0.081

which is 15% higher than the assumed value of CH (110).

306
 (f) Problem 7.53 has demonstrated that the relationship between the friction factor, f , and
the Manning coefficient, n, is given by

n2
f = 125 1
D3
which can be re-arranged to give

n = 0.0894f 0.5 D0.17 = 0.0894(0.0195)0.5 (0.30)0.17 = 0.010

which is 23% lower than the assumed value of n (= 0.013).

NEW From the given data: ∆z = 3 m, L = 100 m, D = 25 mm, ks = 0.2 mm, Q = 70 L/min =
0.001167 m3 /s, and η = 0.82. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 , and ν = 10−6 m/s2 . The
following preliminary calculations are useful:
Q 0.001167
A = 41 πD2 = 14 π(0.025)2 = 4.909 × 10−4 m2 , V = = = 2.378 m/s
A 4.909 × 10−4
VD (2.378)(0.020) ks 0.20
Re = = = 5.942 × 104 , = = 0.0080
ν 10−6 D 25
Using the Swamee-Jain equation to calculate the friction factor,
0.25 0.25
fSJ = [ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2 = 0.03669
ks /D 5.74 0.0080 5.74
log + log +
3.7 Re0.9 3.7 (5.942 × 104 )0.9

(a) If a pump is used, the energy equation gives:

fL V 2 V2 (0.03669)(100) 2.3782 2.3782

0− + hp = + ∆z → 0− + hp = +3
D 2g 2g 0.025 2(9.809) 2(9.809)

which gives hp = 45.55 m. The required pump power, P , is given by

γQhp (9.789)(0.001167)(45.55)
P = = = 0.634 kW
η 0.82

(b) If air pressure is used, the energy equation gives:

p0 f L V 2 V2 p0 (0.03669)(100) 2.3782 2.3782

− = + ∆z → − = +3
γ D 2g 2g 9.789 0.025 2(9.809) 2(9.809)

which gives p0 = 446 kPa .

7.57. Q = 0.06 m3 /s, D = 0.2 m, ks = 0.9 mm (riveted steel), ks /D = 0.9/200 = 0.00450, for 90◦
bend K = 0.3, for the entrance K = 1.0, at 20◦ C ρ = 998 kg/m3 , and µ = 1.00 × 10−3 Pa·s,
therefore
π 2 π Q 0.06
A= D = (0.2)2 = 0.0314 m2 , V = = = 1.91 m/s
4 4 A 0.0314

307
 ρV D (998)(1.91)(0.2)
Re = = = 3.81 × 105
µ 1.00 × 10−3
Substituting ks /D and Re into the Colebrook equation gives
( )
1 0.00450 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → f = 0.0297
f 3.7 3.81 × 105 f
Minor head loss, hm , is given by
∑ V2 (1.91)2
hm = K = (1.0 + 0.3) = 0.242 m
2g 2(9.81)

If friction losses, hf , account for 90% of the total losses, then

L V2 L (1.91)2
hf = f = 9hm → 0.0297 = 9(0.242) → L = 78.9 m
D 2g 0.2 2(9.81)
For pipe lengths shorter than the length calculated in this problem, the word “minor” should
not be used.

7.58. From the given data: L = 200 m, D = 100 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 7.854 × 10−3 m2 , ks = 0.5 mm,
∆z = −1.2 m, K = 8.7, and p1 = 300 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 , and
ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculations are useful, where Q is an
unknown variable:
ks 0.5 Q Q
= = 5 × 10−3 , V (Q) = =
D 100 A 7.854 × 10−3
( )
V (Q)D V (Q)(0.1) ks ( )
Re(Q) = = , f (Q) = fCE Re(Q), = fCE Re(Q), 5 × 10−3
ν 1.004 × 10−6 D
Applying the energy equation between the head and the discharge ends of the pipe gives

p1 V 2
V2 p2 V 2

+
+ z 1 − hf − K =

+
+ z2
γ
2g 2g
γ
2g
[ ]
300 f (Q)(200) Q2
→ − + 8.7 = −1.2
9.789 0.1 2(9.807)(7.854 × 10−3 )2

→ Q = 0.0234 m3 /s = 23.4 L/s

7.59. From the given data: Q = 100 L/s, L = 200 m, ks = 0.1 mm, K = 3.4, ∆z = 1.8 m, p1 =
450 kPa, and p2 = 200 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 , and ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s.
The following preliminary calculations are useful, where D is an unknown variable:

ks 0.1 × 10−3 π 2
(D) = , A(D) = D
D D 4
Q 0.1 V (D)D V (D)D
V (Q) = = , Re(D) = =
A A(D) ν 1.004 × 10−6

308
 ( )
ks
f (D) = fCE Re(D), (D)
D
Applying the energy equation between the head and the discharge ends of the pipe gives

p1 V 2
V2 p2 V 2

+
+ z1 − hf − K = +
+ z2
γ
2g 2g γ
2g
[ ]
450 f (D)(200) Q(D)2 200
→ − + 3.4 2
= + 1.8
9.789 D 2gA(D) 9.789

→ D = 0.166 m = 166 mm

A numerical/iterative solution method is required. MATLAB was used.

7.60. From the given data: L = 1 km, Q = 2 m3 /s, ks = 1.5 mm, ∆z = 23 m, and T = 20◦ C. For
water at 20◦ C, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. From the given data,
[ ] [ ]
(Q/A)D 4Q 1 4(2) 1 2.547 × 106
Re = = = =
ν πν D π(1.00 × 10−6 ) D D
(a) Neglecting local losses, the energy equation gives

f L Q2 8f LQ2 8f (1000)(2)2
∆z = → ∆z = → 23 =
D 2gA2 gπ 2 D5 (9.807)π 2 D5
which simplifies to
f = 0.0696 D5
Solving this equation simultaneously with the Colebrook equation (e.g., using MATLAB)
gives D = 0.802 m = 802 mm .
(b) Taking local losses into account with K = 15.3, the energy equation gives
[ ] [ ] [ ]
fL Q2 fL 8Q2 f (1000) 8(2)2
∆z = +K → ∆z = + K → 23 = + 15.3
D 2gA2 D π2 D4 D π 2 D4
Solving this equation simultaneously with the Colebrook equation (e.g., using MATLAB)
gives D = 0.802 m = 802 mm . Therefore, local losses have no impact on the tunnel
diameter that is required to meet the design objective.

7.61. From the given data: Dp = 20 mm, De = 12 mm, ks = 0.003 mm, and Q = 50 L/min =
8.333 × 10−4 m3 /s. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 and ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. The
following preliminary calculations are useful,
πDp2 π(0.020)2 Q 8.333 × 10−4
Ap = = = 3.142 × 10−4 m2 , Vp = = = 2.653 m/s
4 4 Ap 3.142 × 10−4
V Dp (2.653)(0.020) ks 0.003
Re = = = 5.305 × 104 , = = 1.50 × 10−4
ν 1.00 × 10−6 Dp 20

∆z = 2 m + 3 m = 5 m, L = 3.5 m + 2 m + 5 m + 3 m + 4 m = 17.5 m

309
 ∑ πDe2 π(0.012)2
K = 9 + 4(1.2) + 10 = 23.8, Ae = = = 1.131 × 10−4 m2
4 4
Q 8.333 × 10−4
Ve = = = 7.368 m/s
Ae 1.131 × 10−4

Using Re = 5.305 × 104 and ks /D = 1.50 × 10−4 in the Colebrook equation yields f = 0.0212.
Applying the energy equation between the water main and the faucet exit to obtain the
required pressure, pm , in the main gives
[ ] 2
pm fL ∑ Vp V2
− + K = e + ∆z
γ D 2g 2g
[ ]
pm (0.0212)(17.5) 2.6532 7.3682
− + 23.8 = + 5 → pm = 225 kPa
9.79 0.020 2(9.807) 2(9.807)

7.62. From the given data: D = 200 mm, Q = 100 L/s = 0.100 m3 /s, ks = 1 mm, Kb = 1.0,
and Kv = 5.0. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and µ = 0.0180 mPa·s. The following
preliminary calculations are useful,

πD2 π(0.2)2 Q 0.100

A= = = 3.142 × 10−2 m2 , V = = = 6.366 m/s
4 4 A 3.142 × 10−2
ρV D (1.225)(6.366)(0.2) ks 1
Re = = = 8.665 × 104 , = = 5 × 10−3
µ 0.0180 × 10−3 D 200
Using the Colebrook equation,
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 2.51 1 5 × 10−3 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f f 3.7 8.665 × 104 f
which yields f = 0.0314.

(a) If Le is the equivalent length of duct to a local appurtenance with a head loss coefficient
equal to K, then the Darcy–Weisbach equation requires that
f Le K ·D
=K → Le =
D f
For the bend,
Kb · D (1)(0.2)
Lb = = = 6.36 m
f 0.0314
(b) For the valve,
Kv · D (5)(0.2)
Lv = = = 31.8 m
f 0.0314
(c) The head losses in the system are as follows,

V2 V2
head loss due to bends and valve = [3(1) + 5] =8
2g 2g

310
 [ ] [ ]
fL V 2 (0.0314)(20) V 2 V2
head loss due to friction = = = 3.14
D 2g 0.2 2g 2g

V2 V2
total head loss = (8 + 3.14) = 11.14
2g 2g
8
percentage of total head loss due to local losses = × 100 = 74%
11.14
7.63. From the given data: T = 40◦ C = 313 K, p = 150 kPa, D = 100 mm, Q = 10 L/s = 0.01 m3 /s,
and ∆p = −20 Pa. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. The following preliminary calculations ate
useful,
πD2 π(0.1)2 Q 0.01
A= = = 7.854 × 10−3 , V = = = 1.273 m/s
4 4 A 7.854 × 10−3
p 150 × 103
ρ= = = 1.669 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(313)
Using the energy equation and the definition of the head loss coefficient,
∆p V2 ∆p −20
hℓ = − =K → K =−1 2
=−1 2
= 14.8
γ 2g 2 ρV 2 (1.669(1.273)

7.64. From the given data: Q = 6 L/s = 0.006 m3 /s, D1 = 75 mm, and D2 = 50 mm. For water at
20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 , and γ = 9790 N/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are useful:

πD22 π(0.050)2 πD12 π(0.075)2

A2 = = = 1.963 × 10−3 m2 , A1 = = = 4.418 × 10−3 m2
4 4 4 4
Q 0.006 Q 0.006
V2 = = = 3.056 m/s, V1 = = = 1.358 m/s
A2 1.963 × 10−3 A1 4.418 × 10−3
D2 50
= = 0.667
D1 75
(a) Using the head-loss coefficient given by Equation 7.69, since D2 /D1 < 0.76, the head
loss, hℓ , at the sudden contraction is calculated as follows,
( ) ( )
D22 502
K = 0.42 1 − 2 = 0.42 1 − 2 = 0.2333
D1 75

V22 3.0562
hℓ = K = (0.2333) = 0.1111 m
2g 2(9.807)

Therefore, the head loss at the sudden expansion is approximately equal to 0.11 m .
(b) The pressure change, ∆p, at the expansion is calculated by applying the energy equation
across the expansion, such that
( )
∆p ∆V 2 ( )
− + = hℓ → ∆p = − γhℓ + 21 ρ∆V 2 (1)
γ 2g

311
 Substituting the given and derived data into Equation 1 gives
[ ]
∆p = − (9790)(0.1111) + 12 (998)(3.0562 − 1.3582 ) [×10−3 kPa/Pa] = −4.828 kPa

Therefore, it is expected that the pressure will decrease by 4.83 kPa across the sudden
expansion.
(c) If the local head loss is not taken into account, then hℓ = 0 and Equation 1 gives
[ ]
∆p = − 0 + 12 (998)(3.0562 − 1.3582 ) [×10−3 kPa/Pa] = −3.74 kPa

Therefore, if the local head loss is neglected, the pressure would be predicted to decrease
by approximately 3.74 kPa .

7.65. From the given data: D = 41 mm, p = 350 kPa, De = 30 mm, ze = 1 m, h = 5 m, Kb = 1.2,
Kn = 0.05, ks = 0.1 mm, and L = 15 m + 3 m = 18 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3
and ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. Applying the Bernoulli equation to the fountain gives

Ve2 √ √
=h → Ve = 2gh = 2(9.807)(5) = 9.903 m/s
2g
Applying the continuity equation gives the velocity, V , is the pipe as

Ae D2 302
V = Ve = e2 Ve = 2 (9.903) = 5.302 m/s
A D 41
Using the values of the given and derived parameters, the following preliminary calculations
are useful,
VD (5.302)(0.041) ks 0.1
Re = = = 2.174 × 105 , = = 2.439 × 10−3
ν 1.00 × 10−6 D 41
V2 5.3022 Ve2 9.9032
= = 1.433 m, = = 5.000 m
2g 2(9.807) 2g 2(9.807)
Substituting the given and derived parameters into the Colebrook equation (Equation 7.41)
gives
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 2.51 1 2.439 × 10−3 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f f 3.7 2.174 × 105 f
which yields f = 0.0254. Applying the energy equation between the water main and the
nozzle exit gives ( ) 2
p fL V V2 V2
− + Kv − Kn e = e + ze
γ D 2g 2g 2g
which gives

p V2 V2 350
− Kn e − e − ze − (1.2)(5) − 5 − 1 (0.0254)(18)
γ 2g 2g fL 9.79
Kv = − = − = 9.42
V2 D 1.433 0.041
2g

312
NEW From the given data: L = 40 m, Ke = 1.0, Kb = 0.5, ks = 0.2 mm, D = 30 mm, A =
πD2 /4 = 7.069 × 10−4 m2 , ∆z = 3 m − 1.5 m = 1.5 m, Vnoz = 20 m/s, hp = 1 hp = 0.7457 kW,
and η = 0.85. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . For the pump,

γQhp (9.789)Qhp 0.06475

P = → 0.7457 = → Q= (1)
η 0.85 hp

The Colebrook equation for fully turbulent flow gives:

[ ] [ ]
1 ks 1 0.2
√ = −2 log → √ = −2 log → f = 0.03320 (2)
f 3.7D f 3.7(30)

Equations 1 and 2 can be combined with the energy equation applied between the entrance
and exit of the pipe system, which gives:
[ ]
L Q2 2
Vnoz
0 − Ke + f + Kb + hp = + ∆z
D 2gA2 2g
[ ]
40 (0.06475/hp )2 202
→ 0 − 1.0 + 0.03320 + 0.5 + h p = + 1.5
0.03 2(9.807)(7.069 × 10−4 )2 2(9.807)
19613
→ − + hp = 21.89
h2p
→ hp = 36.56 m

Substituting hp = 36.56 m into Equation 1 to calculate Q, and then calculating the nozzle
diameter required to give the desired velocity gives

0.06475 0.06475
Q= → Q= → Q = 0.001771 m3 /s
hp 36.56
Q Q 0.001771
Vnoz = → Vnoz = 2 /4
→ 20 = 2 /4
→ Dnoz = 0.01062 m
Anoz πDnoz πDnoz

The required nozzle diameter is 0.01062 m ≈ 10.6 mm .

7.66. From the given data: p0 = 400 kPa, L = 50 m, ks = 0.1 mm, K = 30, and Q = 100 L/min =
1.667 × 10−3 m3 /s. For water at 15◦ C, ν = 1.14 × 10−6 m2 /s, and γ = 9.798 kN/m3 . The
following functions can be defined in terms of the unknown diameter, D,

πD2 Q 1.667 × 10−3

(1) A(D) = , (2) V (D) = =
4 A(D) A(D)
( )
V (D)D V (D)D ks
(3) Re(D) = = , (4) f (D) = fCE , Re(D)
ν 1.14 × 10−6 D

V (D)2
(5) hv (D) =
2g

313
 where fCE is the friction factor derived from the Colebrook equation. Applying the energy
equation with the defined functions gives
[ ]
p0 f (D)L
− + K hv (D) = hv (D)
γ D
[ ]
400 f (D)(50)
− + 30 hv (D) = hv (D) → D = 0.0264 m = 26.4 mm
9.798 D
7.67. From the given data: ∆z = 42 m + 1.5 m = 43.5 m, L = 1 km, D = 600 mm, ks = 1 mm, and
Kb = 0.8. For water at 20◦ C, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s, and γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The value of h can
be calculated for any given combination of p and Q. The calculations will be illustrated for
Q = 0.3 m3 /s and pB = 440 kPa. The following preliminary calculations are useful,
πD2 π(0.6)2 Q 0.3
A= = = 0.2827 m2 , V = = = 1.061 m/s
4 4 A 0.2827
ks 1 VD (1.061)(0.6)
= = 1.667 × 10−3 , Re = = = 6.366 × 105
D 600 ν 1.00 × 10−6
Substituting the given and derived parameters into the Colebrook equation (Equation 7.41)
gives
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 2.51 1 1.667 × 10−3 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f f 3.7 6.366 × 105 f
which yields f = 0.0227. Applying the energy equation between Points A and B gives
[ ] 2
fL V pB V 2
h + ∆z − + 5Kb = +
D 2g γ 2g
[ ]
(0.0227)(1000) 1.0612 440
h + 43.5 − + 5(0.8) + 1 = → h = 3.90 m
0.6 2(9.807) 9.79
These calculations can be repeated for the given extreme values of pB and Q leading to the
following results:
Q pB h
(m3 /s) (kPa) (m)
0.3 330 −7.34
0.3 440 3.90
1.0 330 17.23
1.0 450 28.47

Since water will always be maintained in the tank, the range of h is 0 to 28.5 m . At the
minimum flow rate, the minimum pressure (when h = 0 m) is approximately 402 kPa .
7.68. from the given data: L = 25 m, D = 19 mm, p0 = 200 kPa, ∆z = 0.9 m, ks = 0.1 mm,
De = 10 mm, and Ke = 0.05. For water at 15◦ C, ν = 1.140×10−6 m2 /s, and γ = 9.798 kN/m3 .
The following preliminary calculations are useful,
πD2 π(0.019)2 D4
A= = = 2.835 × 10−4 m2 , r= = 13.03
4 4 De4

314
 ks 0.1 πDe2 π(0.010)2
= = 5.263 × 10−3 , Ae = = = 7.853 × 10−5 m2
D 19 4 4
For any given flow rate, Q, the following functions can be defined,

Q Q V (Q)2
(1) V (Q) = = , (2) hv (Q) =
A 2.835 × 10−4 2g
[ ]
V (Q)D V (Q)(0.019) ks
(3) Re(Q) = = , (4) f (Q) = fCE , Re(Q)
ν 1.140 × 10−6 D

where fCE represents the value of f derived using the Colebrook equation.

(a) Applying the energy equation between the spigot and the hose exit (without a nozzle)
gives

p0 f (Q)L 200 f (Q)(25)

+hv − hv = hv → − hv (Q) = 0 → Q = 8.667×10−4 m3 /s
γ D 9.798 0.019

Therefore the flow rate is Q = 8.667 × 10−4 m3 /s = 52 L/min . The corresponding exit
velocity, Ve , is given by

Q 8.667 × 10−4
Ve = = = 3.06 m/s
A 2.835 × 10−4

(b) Applying the energy equation between the spigot and the hose exit (with a nozzle) gives
[ ]
p0 f (Q)L 200 f (Q)(25)
+ hv − hv − Ke rhv = rhv → + 1− − Ke r − r hv (Q) = 0
γ D 9.798 0.019

which gives Q = 7.592 × 10−4 m3 /s = 46 L/min . The corresponding exit velocity, Ve ,

is given by
Q 7.592 × 10−4
Ve = = = 9.67 m/s
Ae 7.853 × 10−5
(c) The main benefit of a nozzle is that it produces a jet that can deliver the liquid to a
further location (from the exit) than is possible without the nozzle.

7.69. From the given data: p = 1 MPa, Dp = 65 mm, L = 300 m, ks = 0.5 mm, ks /Dp = 7.692 ×
10−3 , ∆z = 2.8 m, h = 30 m and kn = 0.04. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN·m3 and
ν = 1.004×10−6 m2 /s. The velocity of the jet, Vj , can be calculated from the energy equation,
as follows
Vj2 √ √
= h → Vj = 2gh = 2(9.807)(30) = 24.26 m/s
2g
Equations that must be satisfied are the energy equation between the beginning and end of
the hose, and also the continuity equation across the nozzle. These equations are given by,
[ ]
p Vp2 f L Vp2 Vj2 Vj2 p f L Vp2 Vj2
+ − − kn = + ∆z → + 1− = (1 + kn ) + ∆z (1)
γ 2g Dp 2g 2g 2g γ Dp 2g 2g

315
 Dj2 Dj2
Vp Ap = Vj Aj → Vp = V =
2 j
(24.26) → Vp = 5742Dj2 (2)
Dp 0.0652

The friction factor, f , calculated using the Colebrook equation is given by

( )( ) ( )( )
ks ks ks Vp (0.065)
f = fCE Re, , Rep → f = fCE Re, 7.692 × 10−3 , (3)
D Dp D 1.004 × 10−6
Substitute Equation 3 and the given values into Equation 1, solve for Vp , and then use this
value of Vp in Equation 2 to obtain Dj . The result is Vp = 2.880 m/s and Dj = 0.0224 m ≈
22 mm .

7.70. From the given data: D = 200 mm, L = 1 km, ∆z = 7 m, p = 140 kPa, and Q = 60 L/s =
0.06 m3 /s. For water at 20◦ C, ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s and γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . The following
preliminary calculations are useful,
πD2 π(0.2)2 0.06
A= = = 3.142 × 10−2 m2 , V = = 1.910 m/s
4 4 3.142 × 10−2
VD (1.910)(0.2) V2 1.9102
Re = = = 3.805 × 105 , hv = = = 0.1860 m
ν 1.004 × 10−6 2g 2(9.807)
In order to find the pipe roughness, apply the energy equation between the pressure source
and the outlet, which gives
p V2 140
2 2 + ∆z − + 7 − 0.1860
p fL V V γ 2g 9.789
+ ∆z − = → f= = = 0.0227
γ D 2g 2g L V2 1000
0.1860
D 2g 0.2

Using the Colebrook equation,

( )( ) ( )( )
ks ks ks 5 ks
fCE Re, Re, = 0.0227 → fCE Re, 3.805 × 10 , = 0.0227 → ks = 0.324 m
D D D 200
With the new connection, Q12 = 80 L/s, Q23 = 60 L/s, and the following preliminary calcu-
lations are useful,
Q12 0.08 Q23 0.06
V12 = = = 2.547 m/s, V23 = = = 1.910 m/s
A 3.142 × 10−2 A 3.142 × 10−2
2
V12 2.5472 2
V23 1.9102
hv12 = = = 0.3306 m, hv23 = = = 0.1860 m
2g 2(9.807) 2g 2(9.807)
V12 D (2.547)(0.2) V23 D (1.910)(0.2)
Re12 = = = 5.073 × 105 , Re23 = = = 3.805 × 105
ν 1.004 × 10−6 ν 1.004 × 10−6
( )( ) ( )( )
ks ks ks ks
f12 = fCE Re, Re12 , = 0.0226, f23 = fCE Re, Re23 , = 0.0227
D D D D
L 1000 L 1000
L12 = = = 500 m, L23 = = = 500 m
2 2 2 2

316
 Applying the energy equation from the beginning to the end of the pipeline gives

p1 2
f12 L12 V12 2
f23 L23 V23 V2
+ ∆z − − = 23
γ D 2g D 2g 2g
which yields
[ 2 2 2
]
f12 L12 V12 f23 L23 V23 V23
p1 = γ −∆z + + +
D 2g D 2g 2g
[ ]
(0.0226)(500) (0.0227)(500)
= (9.789) −7 + (0.3306) + (0.1860) + 0.1860 = 219 kPa
0.2 0.2

7.71. p1 = 30 kPa, p2 = 500 kPa, therefore head, hp , added by pump is given by

p2 − p1 500 − 30
hp = = = 48.0 m
γ 9.79
Power, P , added by pump is given by

P = γQhp = (9.79)(Q)(48.0) = 470 kW per m3 /s

7.72. From the given data: L = 1 km, D = 500 mm, ∆z = 20 m, K = 45, P = 250 kW, and
Q = 500 L/s = 0.5 m3 /s. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , and ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. The
following preliminary calculations are useful,

πD2 π(0.0.5)2 Q 0.5

A= = = 0.1963 m2 , V = = = 2.547 m/s
4 4 A 0.1963
V2 2.5472 VD (2.547)(0.5)
hv = = = 0.3306 m, Re = = = 1.273 × 106
2g 2(9.807) ν 1.00 × 10−6
P 250
hp = = = 51.07 m
γQ (9.79)(0.5)
(a) The friction factor as a function of ks can be expressed as
( ) ( )
ks ks
f (ks ) = fCE , Re = fCE , 1.273 × 10 6
D 500
where fCE represents the value of f derived using the Colebrook equation. Applying the
energy equation between the lower and upper reservoirs gives
[ ]
fL
0− + K hv + hp = ∆z
D
[ ]
f (ks )(1000)
0− + 45 (0.3306) + 51.07 = 20 → ks = 1.2 mm
0.5
The value of the friction factor corresponding to ks = 1.2 mm is f = 0.0245. This friction
factor will remain the same as long as the flow rate remains the same.

317
 (b) If K is reduced by 70%, then K = 0.3(45) = 13.5. Applying the energy equation between
the lower and upper reservoirs gives
[ ]
fL
0− + K hv + hp = ∆z
D
[ ]
(0.0245)(1000)
0− + 13.5 (0.3306) + hp = 20 → hp = 40.66 m
0.5
The corresponding pump power, P , is given by

P = γQhp = (9.79)(0.5)(40.66) = 199 kW

Therefore the required pumping power is reduced by approximately 20%.

7.73. (a) From the given data: D = 0.75 m. The area, A, and the velocity, V , are given by
π 2 π Q 1
A= D = (0.75)2 = 0.442 m2 , V = = = 2.26 m/s
4 4 A 0.442
Energy equation between reservoir and A:

pA VA2
7 + hp − hf = + + zA (1)
γ 2g

where pA = 350 kPa, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , VA = 2.26 m/s, zA = 10 m, and

fL V 2
hf =
D 2g

where f depends on Re and ks /D. At 20◦ C, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s and

VD (2.26)(0.75) ks 0.26
Re = = = 1.70 × 106 , = = 3.47 × 10−4
ν 1.00 × 10−6 D 750
Using the Swamee-Jain equation,
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 5.74 3.47 × 10−4 5.74
√ = −2 log + = −2 log + = 7.93
f 3.7 Re0.9 3.7 (1.70 × 106 )0.9
which gives f = 0.0159. The head loss, hf , between the reservoir and A is therefore
given by
fL V 2 (0.0159)(1000) (2.26)2
hf = = = 5.52 m
D 2g 0.75 2(9.81)
Substituting into Equation 1 yields

350 2.262
7 + hp − 5.52 = + + 10
9.81 2(9.81)
which leads to
hp = 44.5 m

318
 (b) Power, P , supplied by the pump is given by

P = γQhp = (9.79)(1)(44.5) = 436 kW

(c) Energy equation between A and B is given by

pA VA2 pB VB2
+ + zA − hf = + + zB
γ 2g γ 2g
and since VA = VB ,

pB = pA + γ(zA − zB − hf ) = 350 + 9.79(10 − 4 − 5.52) = 355 kPa

7.74. From the given data: Q = 0.7 m3 /s, D = 600 mm, ks = 1 mm, L0A = 1 km, LAB = 1.5 km,
LBC = 1.8 km, , L0C = 4.3 km, zA = −10 m, zB = 12 m, zC = 5 m, and pC = 400 kPa.
For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 and ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following preliminary
calculations are useful,

πD2 π(0.6)2 Q 0.7

A= = = 0.2827 m2 , V = = = 2.476 m/s
4 4 A 0.2827
V2 2.4762 ks 1
hv = = = 0.3125 m, = = 1.667 × 10−3
2g 2(9.807) D 600
VD (2.476)(0.6)
Re = = = 1.485 × 106
ν 1.00 × 10−6
Substituting the given and derived parameters into the Colebrook equation (Equation 7.41)
gives
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 2.51 1 1.667 × 10−3 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f f 3.7 1.485 × 106 f

which yields f = 0.0225. Using the energy equation, the head added by the pump, hp , is
given by

f L0C pC (0.0225)(4300) 400

0 + hp − hv = + z C → hp − (0.3125) = +5 → hp = 96.18 m
D γ 0.6 9.79
The maximum pressure is expected at A. Applying the energy equation between the reservoir
as A gives,

f L0A pA (0.0225)(1000) pA
0+hp − hv = +zA → 96.18− (0.3125) = −10 → pA = 925 kPa
D γ 0.6 9.79
The minimum pressure could occur at B. Applying the energy equation between the reservoir
as B gives,

f L0B pB (0.0225)(2500) pB
0+hp − hv = +zB → 96.18− (0.3125) = +12 → pB = 538 kPa
D γ 0.6 9.79

319
 (a) Based on evaluations of the pressures at key points in the pipeline, the estimated range
of pressures is 400–925 kPa .
(b) Expressing the maximum pressure in the pipeline as a function of the pipe diameter
yields that the maximum pressure in the pipeline (at Point A) is equal to 600 kPa when
D = 0.873 m = 873 mm . This was done using MATLAB. Any similar software will
yield the same result.

7.75. From the given data: L = 230 m, ks = 0.2 mm, ∆z = 18 m, p = 400 kPa, and Q = 50 L/s =
0.05 m3 /s. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 , and ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s. Applying the
energy equation between the discharge side of the pump and the reservoir, and using the
Colebrook equation to calculate f , yields
 ( ) 
( ks
) 4Q ks
f Re, , L
p   8Q2
CE
p fL V 2 V 2 D πDν D
− − = ∆z → − + 1 
 π 2 D4 g = ∆z
γ D 2g 2g γ  D

Substituting the given data:

 ( ) 
( ks
) 4(0.05) 0.0002
f Re, , (230)
400   8(0.05)2
CE D πD(1.004 × 10−6 ) D
− + 1
 π 2 D4 (9.807) = 18 → D = 0.136 m
9.789  D

Therefore, the required pipe diameter is approximately 136 mm.

7.76. From the given data: ∆z = 4 m, At = 10 m2 , D = 75 mm, L = 65 m, ks = 0.5 mm, p =

550 kPa, h1 = 0.5 m, and h2 = 3 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . The following
preliminary calculations are useful,

πD2 π(0.075)2 ks 0.5

A= = = 4.418 × 10−3 m2 , = = 6.667 × 10−3
4 4 D 75
( )( )
ks ks p 550
f = fCE Re, , ∞ = 0.0332, a= −4= − 4 = 52.19 m
D D γ 9.789

and
fL (0.0332)(65)
b = A2t = (10)2 = 7.515 × 106 s2 /m
2
2gA D 2(9.807)(4.418 × 10−3 )2 (0.075)

Applying the energy equation between the pump and the reservoir gives

p f L Q2
− =4+h (1)
γ D 2gA2
and the continuity equation requires that
dh
Q = At (2)
dt

320
 Combining Equations 1 and 1 to eliminate Q gives
v
up √
u −4−h
dh u γ dh a−h
=u t → =
dt f L dt b
A2t
2gA2 D
To integrate, use the substitution:
a−h
x= , dh = −b dx
b
Therefore, the requisite integral in terms of x is
∫ x2 ∫ t2
dx √ √
−b √ = dt → (t2 − t1 ) = −2b [ x2 − x1 ]
x1 x t1

The given initial and final conditions of h1 = 0.5 m and h2 = 3 m translate into x1 = 6.88 ×
10−6 m2 /s2 and x2 = 6.54 × 10−6 m2 /s2 and so
[√ √ ]
(t2 − t1 ) = −2b 6.54 × 10−6 − 6.88 × 10−6 = 965 s = 16.1 min (3)

7.77. From the given data: L = 3 km = 3000 m, Qave = 0.0175 m3 /s, and Qpeak = 0.578 m3 /s. If
the velocity, Vpeak , during peak flow conditions is 2.5 m/s, then
Qpeak 0.578
2.5 = =
πD2 /4 πD2 /4
which gives √
0.578
D= = 0.543 m
π(2.5)/4
Rounding to the nearest 25 mm gives

D = 550 mm

with a cross-sectional area, A, given by

π 2 π
A= D = (0.550)2 = 0.238 m2
4 4
During average demand conditions, the head, have , at the suburban development is given by
2
pave Vave
have = + + z0 (1)
γ 2g

where pave = 340 kPa, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , Vave = Qave /A = 0.0175/0.238 = 0.0735 m/s, and z0
= 8.80 m. Substituting into Equation 1 gives

340 0.07352
have = + + 8.80 = 43.5 m
9.79 2(9.81)

321
For ductile-iron pipe, ks = 0.26 mm, ks /D = 0.26/550 = 4.73 × 10−4 , at 20◦ C ν = 1.00 × 10−6
m2 /s, and therefore
Vave D (0.0735)(0.550)
Re = = = 4.04 × 104
ν 1.00 × 10−6
and the Swamee-Jain equation gives
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 5.74 4.73 × 10−4 5.74
√ = −2 log + = −2 log +
fave 3.7 Re0.9 3.7 (4.04 × 104 )0.9

and yields
fave = 0.0234
The head loss between the water treatment plant and the suburban development is therefore
given by
L V2 3000 0.07352
hf = f = (0.0234) = 0.035 m
D 2g 0.550 2(9.81)
Since the head at the water treatment plant is 10.00 m, the pump head, hp , that must be
added is
hp = (43.5 + 0.035) − 10.00 = 33.5 m
and the power requirement, P , is given by

P = γQhp = (9.79)(0.0175)(33.5) = 5.74 kW

During peak demand conditions, the head, hpeak , at the suburban development is given by
2
ppeak Vpeak
hpeak = + + z0 (2)
γ 2g

where ppeak = 140 kPa, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , Vpeak = Qpeak /A = 0.578/0.238 = 2.43 m/s, and z0
= 8.80 m. Substituting into Equation 2 gives

140 2.432
hpeak = + + 8.80 = 23.4 m
9.79 2(9.81)

For pipe, ks /D = 4.73 × 10−4 , and

Vpeak D (2.43)(0.550)
Re = = = 1.34 × 106
ν 1.00 × 10−6
and the Swamee-Jain equation gives
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 5.74 4.73 × 10−4 5.74
√ = −2 log + = −2 log +
fpeak 3.7 Re0.9 3.7 (1.34 × 106 )0.9

and yields
fpeak = 0.0170

322
 The head loss between the water treatment plant and the suburban development is therefore
given by
L V2 3000 2.432
hf = f = (0.0170) = 27.9 m
D 2g 0.550 2(9.81)
Since the head at the water treatment plant is 10.00 m, the pump head, hp , that must be
added is
hp = (23.4 + 27.9) − 10.00 = 41.3 m
and the power requirement, P , is given by

P = γQhp = (9.79)(0.578)(41.3) = 234 kW

7.78. From the given data: Q = 240 L/min = 4 × 10−3 m3 /s, D = 50 mm, L = 15 m, ks = 0.5 mm,
and patm = 101.3 kPa. For water at 15◦ C, ρ = 999.1 kg/m3 , µ = 1.139 mPa·s, ν = µ/ρ =
1.140 × 10−6 m2 /s, γ = ρg = 9.798 kN/m3 , and pvap = 1.704 kPa. The head-loss coefficient for
the reentrant intake pipe can be conservatively taken as Ke = 1.0. The following preliminary
calculations are useful,

πD2 π(0.05)2 Q 4 × 10−3

A= = = 1.963 × 10−3 m2 , V = = = 2.037 m/s
4 4 A 1.963 × 10−3
V2 2.0372 ks 0.5
hv = = = 0.2116 m, = = 0.01
2g 2(9.807) D 50
VD (2.037)(0.05)
Re = = = 8.935 × 104
ν 1.140 × 10−6
Substituting the given and derived parameters into the Colebrook equation (Equation 7.41)
gives
[ ] [ ]
1 k /D 2.51 1 0.01 2.51
√ = −2 log s + √ → √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f f 3.7 8.935 × 104 f

which yields f = 0.0386.

(a) Applying the energy equation between the water in the well and the suction side of the
pump gives
[ ]
patm fL pvap
− Ke + hv = + hv + h
γ D γ
[ ]
101.3 (0.0386)(15) 1.704
− 1.0 + (0.2116) = + 0.2116 + h → h = 7.72 m
9.798 (0.05) 9.798

(b) Since h increases as Q decreases, the maximum value of h occurs when Q = 0. In this
case, the energy equation degenerates into the hydrostatic equation as follows
patm pvap 101.3 1.704
= + hmax → = + hmax → hmax = 10.2 m
γ γ 9.798 9.798

323
 (c) For any pump pumping water at 15◦ C from any reservoir, the suction side of the pump
should not be more that 10.2 m above the surface of the reservoir. Otherwise, the
pump will not work.

7.79. From the given data: D = 0.05 m, A = πD2 /4 = 0.001963 m2 , Q = 4 L/s = 0.004 m3 /s, V
= Q/A = 2.038 m/s, L = 125 m, ν = 1.00 ×10−6 m2 /s, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , ks = 0.23 mm, Re
= V D/ν = 1.02 × 105 . Using the Swamee-Jain equation,
0.25 0.25
f=[ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2 = 0.0308
ks 5.74 0.23 5.74
log + log +
3.7D Re0.9 3.7(50) (1.02 × 105 )0.9
For a sharp-edged entrance, Ke = 0.5, for an open globe valve, Kv = 10.0. The energy
equation applied between the reservoir and the outlet is given by
[ ] 2 [ ] 2
fL V V2 fL V
40 − Ke + + Kv − ht = → ht = 40 − Ke + + Kv + 1 (1)
D 2g 2g D 2g
Substituting the given and derived data into Equation 1 gives
[ ]
(0.0308)(125) (2.038)2
ht = 40 − 0.5 + + 10.0 + 1 = 21.27 m
0.05 2(9.81)
Therefore, the power extracted by the turbine is given by

P = γQht = (9.79)(0.004)(21.27) = 0.833 kW

A similar problem would be encountered in calculating the power output at a hydroelectric facility .

7.80. From the given data: L = 150 m, D = 350 mm, ks = 1 mm, P = 60 kW, and ∆z = 45 m.
For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 and ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following preliminary
calculations are useful,

πD2 π0.3502 ks 1
A= = = 0.09621 m2 , = = 2.857 × 10−3
4 4 D 350
VD QD
Re = = → Q = 2.749 × 10−7 Re
ν νA
6.129
P = γQht → ht =
Q
Applying the energy equation between the upper and lower reservoir gives,
[ ]
fL Q2
∆z − + Kin + Kout − ht = 0
D 2gA2
[ ]
f (150) Q2 6.129
45 − + 0.8 + 1.0 2
− =0
0.350 2(9.807)(0.09621) Q

Solving this equation simultaneously with the Colebrook equation gives Q = 0.141 m3 /s .

324
7.81. The pressure at the midpoint of the pipe as a function of time is shown in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3: Pressure at midpoint of pipe

7.82. From the given data: L = 100 m, V = 3 m/s, and T = 20◦ C. The critical time, tc , for valve
closure is
2L
tc = (1)
c
At 20◦ C, Ev = 2.15 × 109 Pa, and ρ = 998 kg/m3 (Appendix B, Table B.1), therefore
√ √
Ev 2.15 × 109
c= = = 1470 m/s
ρ 998
Substituting into Equation 1 gives
2(100)
tc = = 0.14 s
1470
The maximum water-hammer pressure that can occur is given by
∆p = ρcV = (998)(1470)(3) = 4.40 × 106 Pa = 4400 kPa
If the water temperature is 10◦ C, Ev = 2.10 × 109 Pa, ρ = 999.7 kg/m3 (Appendix B, Table
B.1), and √
2.10 × 109
c= = 1450 m/s
999.7

325
 and the maximum water-hammer pressure is given by

∆p = ρcV = (999.7)(1450)(3) = 4.35 × 106 Pa = 4350 kPa

7.83. Yes , in cases of rapid valve closure.

7.84. From the given data: T = 20◦ C, L = 150 m, D = 50 mm = 0.050 m, V = 4 m/s, e = 1.5 mm
= 0.0015 m, and Ep = 1.655 × 105 MN/m2 = 1.655 × 1011 N/m2 . Taking ρ0 = 998 kg/m3
and Ev = 2.15 × 109 Pa, the speed of the pressure wave, c, is given by Equation 7.84 as
√ √
Ev /ρ0 (2.15 × 109 )/(998)
c= = = 1226 m/s
1 + (Ev D/eEp ) 1 + (2.15 × 10 × 0.050)/(0.0015 × 1.655 × 1011 )
9

Hence, the pressure increase, ∆p is given by Equation 7.78 as

∆p = ρ0 cV = (998)(1226)(4) = 4.89 × 106 Pa = 4890 kPa

7.85. From the given data: T = 20◦ C, L = 150 m, D = 50 mm = 0.050 m, V = 4 m/s, e = 2.0 mm
= 0.0020 m, and Ep = 1.7 × 104 MN/m2 = 1.7 × 1010 N/m2 . Taking ρ0 = 998 kg/m3 and
Ev = 2.15 × 109 Pa, the speed of the pressure wave, c, is given by Equation 7.84 as
√ √
Ev /ρ0 (2.15 × 109 )/(998)
c= = = 719 m/s
1 + (Ev D/eEp ) 1 + (2.15 × 109 × 0.050)/(0.0020 × 1.7 × 1010 )

Hence, the pressure increase, ∆p is given by Equation 7.78 as

∆p = ρ0 cV = (998)(719)(4) = 2.87 × 106 Pa = 2870 kPa

7.86. From the given data: Q = 0.06 m3 /s, D = 1000 mm = 1 m, L = 3.2 km = 3200 m, z1
= 10.06 m, z2 = 11.52 m, and ∆zp =1.5 m. For DIP, ks = 0.26 mm, and at 20◦ C, ν =
1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s.

(a) The friction factor in the pipe is obtained using the Swamee-Jain equation from the
following sequence of calculations:
π 2 π 2 Q 0.6
A= D = (1) = 0.7854 m2 , V = = = 0.764 m/s
4 4 A 0.7854
VD (0.764)(1)
Re = = = 7.64 × 105
ν 1.00 × 106
0.25 0.25
f=[ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2 = 0.01449
ks 5.74 0.26 5.74
log + log +
3.7D Re0.9 3.7(1000) (7.64 × 105 )0.9
The energy equation gives
( ) 2
L V2 p2 V 2 L V p2
z1 + hp − f = + + z2 → z1 + hp − f + 1 = + z2
D 2g γ 2g D 2g γ

326
 ( )
3200 0.7642 350
→ 10.06 + hp − 0.01449 +1 = + 11.52
1 2(9.81) 9.79

which gives hp = 38.62 m. Hence the required power, P , of the pump is given by

P = γQhp = (9.79)(0.6)(38.62) = 227 kW

(b) At the pump, with subscripts 1 and 2 referring to just before and just after the pump,
respectively:

p2 V 2 p2 0.7642
z1 + hp = + + z2 → 10.06 + 38.62 = + + (10.06 − 1.5)
γ 2g 9.79 2(9.81)

which gives p2 = 392 kPa .

(c) For each of the two pipelines: D = 0.6 m and Q = 0.3 m3 /s and the friction factor in
the pipe can be obtained as follows:

π 2 π Q 0.3
A= D = (0.6)2 = 0.283 m2 , V = = = 1.06 m/s
4 4 A 0.283
VD (1.06)(0.6)
Re = = = 6.36 × 105
ν 1.00 × 106
0.25 0.25
f=[ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2 = 0.0171
ks 5.74 0.26 5.74
log + log +
3.7D Re0.9 3.7(600) (6.36 × 105 )0.9

The energy equation, with subscripts 1 and 2 referring to the source reservoir and the
location 3.2 km downstream of the source, respectively, gives
[ ] 2 [ ]
L V p2 3200 1.062 350
z1 +hp − f + 1 = +z2 → 10.06+hp − 0.0171 +1 = +11.52
D 2g γ 0.6 2(9.81) 9.79

which gives hp = 42.49 m. Hence the required power, P , of the pump is given by

P = γQhp = (9.79)(0.6)(42.49) = 250 kW

7.87. D = 0.85 m, A = πD2 /4 = π(0.85)2 /4 = 0.567 m2 , ks = 0.26 mm (ductile iron), ks /D =

0.26/850 = 0.000306, T = 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kN/m3 , µ = 1.00 × 10−3 N·s/m2 . Assuming fully
turbulent flow, then
( ) ( )
1 ks /D 0.000306
√ = −2 log = −2 log = 8.16 → f = 0.0150
f 3.7 3.7

for each pipe. Writing the energy equations,

LAJ Q2AJ LBJ Q2BJ

100 − f 2
= 80 − f (1)
D 2gA D 2gA2

327
 and
LAJ Q2AJ LCJ Q2CJ
100 − f = 60 + f (2)
D 2gA2 D 2gA2
and the continuity equation is
QAJ + QBJ = QCJ (3)
Equations 1 and 3 assume that the flow is out of reservoir B. Substituting known values into
Equation 1 gives

900 Q2AJ 800 Q2BJ

100 − 0.0150 = 80 − 0.0150
0.85 2(9.81)(0.567)2 0.85 2(9.81)(0.567)2
which leads to
Q2BJ = 1.12Q2AJ − 8.93 (4)
Substituting known values into Equation 2 gives

900 Q2AJ 700 Q2CJ

100 − 0.0150 = 60 + 0.0150
0.85 2(9.81)(0.567)2 0.85 2(9.81)(0.567)2
which leads to
Q2CJ = 20.4 − 1.29Q2AJ (5)
Substituting Equations 4 and 5 into Equation 3 leads to
√ √
QAJ + 1.12Q2AJ − 8.93 − 20.4 − 1.29Q2AJ = 0

Solving for QAJ by trial and error gives

QAJ = 2.84 m3 /s

and Equations 4 and 5 give

QBJ = 0.32 m3 /s, QCJ = 3.16 m3 /s

Recalculating f for each pipe (using Re and ks /D) and repeating the process until the assumed
f is equal to the calculated f leads to

QAJ = 2.81 m3 /s, QBJ = 0.33 m3 /s, QCJ = 3.14 m3 /s

These results do not differ by much from the initial result that assumes complete turbulence.

7.88. From the given data: LAB = 1.5 km, LBC = 1.5 km, LBD = 1.6 km, k1 = 1 mm, k2 = 0.5 mm,
D1 = 150 mm, D2 = 200 mm, and ∆z = 8 m. For water at 20◦ C, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. The
following preliminary calculations are useful,

πD12 π(0.15)2 πD22 π(0.2)2

A1 = = = 1.767 × 10−2 m2 , A2 = = = 3.142 × 10−2 m2
4 4 4 4
k1 1 k2 0.5
= = 6.667 × 10−3 , = = 2.5 × 10−3
D1 150 D2 200

328
 ( ) ( )
k1 k2
f1 = fCE = 0.0332, f2 = fCE = 0.0249
D1 D2
f1 LAB f1 LBC
αAB = = 5.420 × 104 , αBC = = 5.420 × 104
2gA21 D1 2gA21 D1
f2 LBD
αBD = = 1.028 × 104
2gA22 D2

where fCE represents the friction factor given by the Colebrook equation.

(a) Under the existing system, the energy equation applied between reservoirs requires that

f1 LAB Q2AB
∆z − 2 =0 → ∆z − 2αAB Q2AB = 0 → 8 − 2(5.420 × 104 )Q2AB = 0
D1 2gA21

which yields QAB = 8.591 × 10−3 m3 /s = 8.59 L/s . When the new pipeline is added,
the following three equations must be satisfied:

QAB = QBC + QBD (1)

f1 LAB Q2AB f1 LBC Q2BC

∆z − − =0 (2)
D1 2gA21 D1 2gA21

f1 LBC Q2BC f2 LBD Q2BD

= (3)
D1 2gA21 D2 2gA22

Equations 1 to 3 can be more compactly expressed as

QAB = QBC + QBD (4)

∆z − αAB Q2AB − αBC Q2BC = 0 (5)

αBC Q2BC = αBD Q2BD (6)

Combining Equations 4 to 6 gives

√ (√ )−1
∆z − αAB Q2AB αBD
QAB − − QAB = 0 (7)
αBC αBC

which yields QAB = 11.62 × 10−3 m3 /s = 11.62 L/s . Substituting this result back into
Equations 4 to 6 gives QBC = 3.52 L/s and QBD = 8.10 L/s . Therefore, the flow
from the upper to the lower reservoir increases from 8.59 L/s to 11.62 L/s, an increase
of approximately 35% .
(b) Flow in the existing pipe will change from 8.59 L/s to 3.52 L/s, which is a change of
−59% .

329
 (c) The friction factors can be determined using the calculated flows and compared to the
originally assumed friction factors. The results of this analysis are as follows:

Difference
Pipe Assumed f Recalculated f
(%)
AB 0.0332 0.0340 2.4
BC 0.0332 0.0356 7.2
BD 0.0249 0.0275 10.4

Based on these results, the assumption of fully turbulent flow in all pipes is not validated
and the determination of the flows should be repeated using the updated friction factors.
This calculation loop should continue until the calculated and assumed friction factors
are the same.

7.89. From the given data: LAB = 3.0 km, LAC = 2.0 km, LAD = 2.5 km, LBC = 1.8 km, DAB =
300 mm, DAC = 200 mm, DAD = 250 mm, DBC = 150 mm, zA = 3.40 m, zB = 2.80 m,
zC = 3.20 m, zD = 2.60 m, pA = 450 kPa, pB = 330 kPa, pC = 300 kPa, pD = 360 kPa, and
ks = 0.2 mm. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , and ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following
preliminary calculations are useful,
2
πDAB 2
πDAC
AAB = = 0.0707 m2 , AAC = = 0.0314 m2
4 4
2
πDAD 2
πDBC
AAD = = 0.0491 m2 , ABC = = 0.0177 m2
4 4
pA pB
hA = + zA = 49.37 m, hB = + zB = 36.51 m
γ γ
pC pD
hC = + zC = 33.84 m, hD = + zD = 39.37 m
γ γ
LAB LAC
βAB = = 1.020 × 105 , βAC = = 5.166 × 105
2gDAB A2AB 2gDAC A2AC
LAD LBC
βAD = = 2.116 × 105 , βBC = = 1.959 × 106
2gDAD A2AD 2gDBC A2BC
kAB kAC
= 6.667 × 10−4 , = 1.000 × 10−3
DAB DAC
kAD kBC
= 8.000 × 10−4 , = 0.0013
DAD DBC
The following functions of the flow rates can be defined,
QAB DAB QAB (0.3) QAC DAC QAC (0.2)
ReAB (QAB ) = = , ReAC (QAC ) = =
ν 1.00 × 10−6 ν 1.00 × 10−6
QAD DAD QAD (0.25) QBC DBC QAB (0.15)
ReAD (QAD ) = = , ReBC (QBC ) = =
ν 1.00 × 10−6 ν 1.00 × 10−6

330
 [ ] [ ]
kAB kAC
fAB (QAB ) = fCE Re(QAB ), , fAC (QAC ) = fCE Re(QAC ),
DAB DAC
[ ] [ ]
kAD kBC
fAD (QAD ) = fCE Re(QAD ), , fBC (QBC ) = fCE Re(QBC ),
DAD DBC

where fCE is the value of the friction factor given by the Colebrook equation.

(a) For the existing system, applying the energy equation to each of the pipe segments gives

hA − βAB fAB (QAB )Q2AB = hB → QAB = QA = 0.0816 m3 /s = 81.6 L/s

hA − βAC fAC (QAC )Q2AC = hC → QAC = QB = 0.0380 m3 /s = 38.0 L/s

hA − βAD fAD (QAD )Q2AD = hD → QAD = QC = 0.0487 m3 /s = 48.7 L/s

(b) For the new system,

hB − βBC (QBC )fBC Q2BC = hC → QBC = 0.0075 m3 /s = 7.5 L/s

QA = 81.6 L/s − 7.5 L/s = 74.1 L/s

QB = 38.0 L/s + 7.5 L/s = 45.5 L/s

QC = 48.7 L/s

7.90. For ductile-iron pipe, ( )

L Q2 L 1
hf = f = Q2 f = rQ2
D 2gA2 D 2gA2
Assuming fully turbulent flow:

Pipe ks /D f r
AD 0.000650 0.0177 143
BC 0.000867 0.0190 517
BD 0.000743 0.0183 345
AC 0.00104 0.0198 1173

From the given data: hA = 25 m, and hB = 20 m. Since the flow directions in the pipe
network are not known in advance, flow directions can be assumed and validated. Assumed
flow directions are validated when the calculated flows are real and positive.

Assuming that the flow in pipe AC is from C to A and that the flow in pipe BC is from C to
B (i.e. hA < hC > hB ), the Darcy–Weisbach equation gives

hC = 25 + 1173Q2CA (1)

331
and for flow from C to B,
hC = 20 + 517Q2CB (2)
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives

25 + 1173Q2CA = 20 + 517Q2CB → Q2CA − 0.441Q2CB + 0.00426 = 0 (3)

The continuity equation requires that

QCA + QCB = 0.2 → QCA = 0.2 − QCB (4)

Combining Equations 3 and 4 gives

(0.2 − QCB )2 − 0.441Q2CB + 0.00426 = 0 → 0.559Q2CB − 0.4QCB + 0.04426 = 0 (5)

Equation 5 has two real solutions that are given by

QCB = 0.579 m3 /s and QCB = 0.137 m3 /s

and substituting these results into Equation 4 gives

QCA = −0.379 m3 /s and QCA = 0.063 m3 /s

Since only real and positive flows are acceptable, QCB = 0.137 m3 /s, QCA = 0.063 m3 /s, and
the assumed flow directions are validated. [If invalid flow directions were assumed, then there
would be no real and positive simultaneous solutions to the corresponding Darcy–Weisbach
and continuity equations.]

Assuming that the flow in pipe AD is from A to D and that the flow in pipe BD is from B to
D (i.e. hA > hD < hB ), the Darcy–Weisbach equation gives

hD = 25 − 143Q2AD (6)

and for the flow from B to D,

hD = 20 − 345Q2BD (7)
Combining Equations 6 and 7 gives

25 − 143Q2AD = 20 − 345Q2BD → Q2BD − 0.414Q2AD + 0.0145 = 0 (8)

The continuity equation requires that

QAD + QBD = 0.2 → QBD = 0.2 − QAD (9)

Combining Equations 8 and 9 gives

(0.2 − QAD )2 − 0.414Q2AD + 0.0145 = 0 → 0.586Q2AD − 0.4QAD + 0.0545 = 0 (10)

Equation 10 has two real solutions that are given by

QAD = 0.495 m3 /s and QAD = 0.188 m3 /s

332
 and substituting into Equation 9 gives

QBD = −0.295 m3 /s and QBD = 0.012 m3 /s

Since only real and positive flows are consistent with the assumed flow directions, QAD =
0.188 m3 /s, QBD = 0.012 m3 /s, and the assumed flow directions are validated.

Therefore, based on these results,

flow out of reservoir at A = QAD − QCA = 0.188 − 0.063 = 0.125 m3 /s

flow into reservoir at B = QCB − QBD = 0.137 − 0.012 = 0.125 m3 /s

The flows into and out of the reservoirs (0.125 m3 /s) are equal as expected.

7.91. From the given data: zE = zF = zG = 100 m, zA = zB = 0 m, and VAC = VBC = 2.5 m/s.
Since pipes AC and BC are identical, they have the same flow. If Q is the flow through the
pump, then
Q π
= VAC AAC = 2.5 (0.5)2 = 0.4909 m3 /s ⇒ Q = 0.9817 m3 /s
2 4
and so VCD = Q/ACD = 2.222 m/s. If hp is the head added by the pump, applying the energy
equation gives

2.52 0.0055(100) 2.52 0.0050(300) (2.222)2

0+ +0− − + hp −
2(9.81) 0.50 2(9.81) 0.75 2(9.81)
0.0060(500) Q2DE Q2DE
[π ]2 = [ ]2 + 100
0.30 2(9.81) (0.3)2 2(9.81) π (0.3)2
4 4

which simplifies to
hp = 112.2Q2DE + 100.5 (1)
For lines F and G,

Q2DF 0.0060(400) Q2DF

[π ]2 + 100 + [ ]2 =
2(9.81) 4 (0.25)2 0.25 2(9.81) π4 (0.25)2
Q2DG 0.0060(500) Q2DG
[ ]2 + 100 + [ ]2
2(9.81) π4 (0.30)2 0.30 2(9.81) π4 (0.30)2

which simplifies to
QDF = 0.7074QDG (2)
Since E and G are identical pipes, then

QDE = QDG (3)

and by continuity
0.9817 = QDE + QDF + QDG (4)

333
 Combining Equations 2 to 4 gives

0.9817 = QDE + 0.7074QDE + QDE

which yields QDE = 0.3626 m3 /s. Substituting into Equation 1 gives

hp = 112.2(0.3626)2 + 100.5 = 115.5 m

Therefore, the pressure difference across the pump is 9.79(115.6) = 1128 kPa and the power
consumed by the pump is γQhp /η = (9.79)(0.9817)(115.6)/0.76 = 1461 kW .

7.92. Using the Darcy-Weisbach head loss equation,

fL fL fL
r= 2
= 2 2
= 0.0826 5
2gA D 2(9.81)(πD /4) D D
For ductile-iron, ks = 0.26 mm, and for fully turbulent flow the friction factor, f , is estimated
using ( )
1 ks /D
√ = −2 log
f 3.7
Using the given values of D and L in Equations 7 and 7 yields

Pipe f L D r
(m) (mm)
AB 0.0190 1000 300 646
BC 0.0186 750 325 318
CD 0.0210 800 200 4337
DE 0.0198 700 250 1172
EF 0.0190 900 300 581
FA 0.0198 900 250 1507
BE 0.0183 950 350 273

7.93. The final flows using the Hardy Cross method are shown in Figure 7.4. The results of
intermediate calculations will depend on initial flow assumptions. Since the pressure at P
is 500 kPa, and the network is on flat terrain, then the head at other intersections can be
calculated by accounting for the frictional head losses. For each pipe, the pressure, p, is given
by
p = 500 ± γhf kPa (1)
where hf is the frictional head loss, and the ± accounts for whether the flow is towards P (+)
or away from P (−). The frictional head loss, hf , is given by the Darcy-Weisbach equation as
L Q2
hf = f
D 2gA2
Since D = 0.3 m and A = πD2 /4 = π(0.3)2 /4 = 0.0707 m2 , then
L Q2
hf = f = 33.99f LQ2 (2)
0.3 2(9.81)(0.0707)2

334
 Figure 7.4: Final Flows

where L is given for each pipe, Q has been calculated, and f can be calculated using the
Swamee-Jain equation [ ]
1 ks /D 5.74
√ = −2 log + (3)
f 3.7 Re0.9
where ks /D = 0.26/300 = 0.000867, and Re is
ρV D ρQD (998)(Q)(0.3)
Re = = = = 4.23 × 106 Q (4)
µ Aµ (0.0707)(1.00 × 10−3 )
Combining Equations 3 and 4 gives the following expression for f in terms of the flow rate,
Q, [ ]
1 0.000867 5.74
√ = −2 log +
f 3.7 (4.23 × 106 Q)0.9
which simplifies to
0.25
f={ [ ]}2 (5)
−4 6.22×10−6
log 2.34 × 10 + Q0.9
Combining Equations 2 and 5 gives the following expression for the frictional head loss in
each pipe
8.50LQ2
hf = { [ ]}2 (6)
−6
log 2.34 × 10−4 + 6.22×10
Q0.9

The pressure drop, ∆p, in each pipe is equal to γhf , = 9.79hf kPa, and therefore
83.2LQ2
∆p = { [ ]}2
−6
log 2.34 × 10−4 + 6.22×10
Q0.9

Calculating the pressure changes in each pipe, and adding/subtracting from the pressure at
P (= 500 kPa) yields the following results:

335
 Pipe L Q ∆p Node Pressure
(m) (m3 /s) (kPa) (kPa)
PB 100 0.005 0.02 B 500.0
PF 150 0.008 0.08 F 499.9
PH 100 0.043 1.28 H 501.3
PE 150 0.040 1.67 E 501.7
AB 150 0.040 1.67 A 501.6
BC 150 0.045 2.10 C 497.9
FI 100 0.047 1.52 I 502.8
GH 150 0.030 0.96 G 502.2

7.94. This problem can be solved using the Hardy Cross method. From the given data, ks =
0.05 mm and D = 1120 mm. Hence,

0.25 0.25
f=[ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2 = 0.01033
ks /D 4.464×10−5
log 3.7 log 3.7

π 2 π
A= D = (1.12)2 = 0.9852 m2
4 4
and the Hardy Cross parameters corresponding to the Darcy-Weisbach equation are n = 2
and
L 1 L 1
r=f 2
= (0.01033) = 0.0004843L
D 2gA 1.12 2(9.81)(0.9852)2
Using this formulation with the given pipe lengths, the r values for each of the pipes are: CD
= 2.42, DE = 5.81, EF = 4.36, FC = 2.91, FG = 3.39, GH = 3.87, and HC = 4.84. The
intermediate flow values will depend on the initial assumed flow distribution. The final flow
values are shown in Figure 7.5.

48000 m3/d
8000 m3/d 8000 m3/d 8000 m3/d
11600 13700

H C D
14700

5700
3600

8000 m3/d 8000 m3/d 8000 m3/d

G F E
4400 2300

Figure 7.5: Flow distribution.

336
7.95. From the given data: p0∑
= 480 kPa, v0 = 5 m/s, z0 = 2.44 m, D = 19 mm = 0.019 m, L =
40 m, z1 = 7.62 m, and Km = 3.5. For copper tubing it can be assumed that ks = 0.0023
mm. Applying the energy and Darcy-Weisbach equations between the water main and the
faucet gives
p0 p1 v2
+ z0 − hf − hm = + 1 + z1
γ γ 2g
480 f (40) v 2 v2 0 v2
+ 2.44 − − 3.5 = + + 7.62
9.79 0.019 2(9.81) 2(9.81) γ 2(9.81)
which simplifies to
6.622
v=√ (1)
107.3f − 0.2141
−6
The Colebrook equation, with ν = 1 × 10 m2 /s gives
[ ]
1 ks 2.51
√ = −2 log + √
f 3.7D Re f
[ ]
1 0.0025 2.51
√ = −2 log + v(0.019) √
f 3.7(19) f
1×10−6
[ ]
1 −5 1.321 × 10−4
√ = −2 log 3.556 × 10 + √ (2)
f v f
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
[ √ ]
1 −5 1.995 × 10−5 107.3f − 0.2141
√ = −2 log 3.556 × 10 + √
f f
which yields
f = 0.0189
Substituting into Equation 1 yields
6.622
v=√ = 4.92 m/s
107.3(0.0189) − 0.2141
(π )
Q = Av = 0.0192 (4.92) = 0.00139 m3 /s = 1.39 L/s (= 22 gpm)
4
This flow is very high for a faucet. The flow would be reduced if other faucets are open,
this is due to increased pipe flow and frictional resistance between the water main and the
faucet.
7.96. From the given data: D = 50 mm = 0.050 m, L = 30.0 m, and ks = 0. Assume water at
20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 and ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. The local loss coefficients are given in the
following table:

Location Type of Fixture klocal

1 sharp-edged entrance 0.5
2, 3, 5 90◦ elbow 1.2
4 tee 1.9
6 globe valve 4.0

337
 Hence, between the water main and the faucet the total local loss coefficient is k = 0.5 +
3(1.2) + 1.9 + 4 = 10. The energy equation between points 1 and 6 is given by
[ ] 2
p1 L ∑ V V2
+ z1 − f + k = + z6
γ D 2g 2g
which can be conveniently expressed as
[ ] 2
p1 L (∑ ) V
− f + k +1 = (z6 − z1 ) (1)
γ D 2g
The friction factor, f , can be determined from the following sequence of calculations,
π 2 π
A= D = (0.050)2 = 0.001963 m2
4 4
Q Q
V = = = 509.3Q
A 0.001963
VD 509.3Q(0.050)
Re = = = 2.547 × 107 Q
ν 1.00 × 10−6
0.25 0.25 0.3086
f=[ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2 = (2)
ks 5.75 5.75 (6.563 + log Q)2
log + log 0 +
3.7D Re0.9 (2.547 × 107 Q)0.9
Combining Equations 1 and 2 with the given data yields
[ ]
400 0.3086 30.0 (509.3Q)2
+0− + 10 + 1 = 15
9.79 (6.563 + log Q)2 0.050 2(9.81)

which yields Q = 0.00991 m3 /s = 9.91 L/s = 595 L/min.

∑
7.97. From the given data: z1 = −1.5 m, z2 = 40 m, p1 = 450 kPa, k = 10.0, Q = 20 L/s = 0.02
m3 /s, D = 150 mm (PVC), L = 60 m, T = 20◦ C, and p2 = 150 kPa. The combined energy
and Darcy-Weisbach equations give
[ ] 2
p1 V12 p2 V22 fL ∑ V
+ + z1 + hp = + + z2 + + k (1)
γ 2g γ 2g D 2g
where
Q 0.02
V1 = V2 = V = = π(0.15)2
= 1.13 m/s (2)
A
4
At 20◦ C, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s, and
VD (1.13)(0.15)
Re = = = 169500
ν 1.00 × 10−6
Since PVC pipe is smooth (ks = 0), the friction factor, f , is given by
( ) ( )
1 2.51 2.51
√ = −2 log √ = −2 log √
f Re f 169500 f

338
 which yields
f = 0.0162 (3)
Taking γ = 9.79 kN/m3
and combining Equations 1 to 3 yields
[ ]
450 1.132 150 1.132 (0.0162)(60) 1.132
+ + (−1.5) + hp = + + 40 + + 10
9.79 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81) 0.15 2(9.81)
which gives
hp = 11.9 m
Since hp > 0, a booster pump is required . The power, P , to be supplied by the pump is
given by
P = γQhp = (9.79)(0.02)(11.9) = 2.3 kW

7.98. From the given data: Q = 4.67 L/s, L = 110 m, p1 = 380 kPa, and ∆z = 3 m. The pipe
velocity is given by
Q 4.67 × 10−3 0.00595
V = = π 2 =
A 4D D2
Hence, for V < 2.4 m/s,
√
0.00595
D> = 0.0498 m = 49.8 mm
2.4
Take D = 50 mm and see if this is adequate for the pressure. For copper, ks = 0.0023 mm,
and at 20◦ C, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m/s2 ,
4.67 × 10−3
V = π 2
= 2.38 m/s
4 (0.050)

vD (2.38)(0.050)
Re = = = 119 × 105
ν 1 × 10−6
0.25 0.25
f=[ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2 = 0.0175
ks 5.74 0.0023 5.74
log 3.7D + log 3.7(50) + (1.19×105 )0.9
Re0.9
L V2 110 2.382
hf = f = 0.0175 = 11.12 m
D 2g 0.050 2(9.81)
( ) ( )
p1 380
p2 = γ − ∆z − hf = 9.79 − 3 − 11.12 = 241 kPa
γ 9.79
Since p2 > 240 kPa, a 50 mm copper line is (barely) adequate.
7.99. The design calculations for this problem are summarized in Table 7.1.
7.100. From the given data: Qref = 200 L/min = 0.00333 m3 /s, L1 = 20 m, L2 = 5 m, ∆z1 = 2 m,
∆z2 = 3 m, p0 = 380 kPa, and p2 = 240 kPa. For galvanized iron, ks = 0.15 mm = 1.5×10−4 .
From the supply pipe to the first floor:
p0 V02 p1 V12 L1 V12
+ + z0 = + + z1 + f1
γ 2g γ 2g D1 2g

339
 Table 7.1: Head Loss in Standard Fittings in Terms of Equivalent Pipe Lengths
Starting Fitting Total Friction Other Elev Terminal Terminal
Head Flow Length Diam Velocity Length Length Loss Losses Diff Head Pressure
Pipe (m) (L/min) (m) (mm) (m/s) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (kPa)
AB 38.82 409 17.0 64 2.12 5.12 22.12 1.37 15.12 0 22.33 216

340
BB’ 22.33 144 2.7 51 1.17 4.66 7.36 0.21 0 −1.0 23.12 226
B’C’ 23.12 144 2.5 51 1.17 3.05 5.55 0.16 0 2.5 20.46 200
C’F’ 20.46 45 46.0 25 2.62 1.52 47.52 5.15 0 0 15.31 146
C’D’ 20.46 45 4.0 51 0.37 2.13 6.13 0.02 0 4.0 16.44 161
D’E’ 16.44 45 46.0 25 1.52 1.52 47.52 5.15 0 0 11.29 109
where
π 2
A1 = D = 0.7854D2
4
2Qref 2(0.00333) 0.008487
V1 = = 2
=
A1 0.7854D D2
( )
V1 D 0.008487 D 8487
Re1 = = 2 −6
=
ν D 10 D
0.25 0.25
f1 = [ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2
4.054×10 −5
1.5×10−4 5.74 log + 0.001671D 0.9
log 3.7D + 8487 0.9 D
( D )

Combining the above equations and substituting known quantities yields

p1 0.25 7.342 × 10−5

= 36.02 − [ ( )]2 (1)
γ −5 D5
log 4.054×10
D + 0.001671D0.9

From the first to the second floor,

p1 V12 p2 V22 L2 V22

+ + z1 = + + z2 + f2
γ 2g γ 2g D2 2g
where
π 2
A2 = D = 0.7854D2
4
Qref 0.00333 0.004244
V2 = = =
A2 0.7854D2 D2
( )
V2 D 0.004244 D 4244
Re2 = = 2 −6
=
ν D 10 D
0.25 0.25
f1 = [ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2
1.5×10−4 4.054×10−5 0.9
log 5.74
+ 4244 0.9 log D + 0.003118D
3.7D ( D )

Combining the above equations and substituting known quantities yields

p1 0.25 4.590 × 10−6

= 27.51 + [ ( )]2 (2)
γ −5 D5
log 4.054×10
D + 0.003118D0.9

Solving Equations 1 and 2 for D and taking the next larger available diameter yields
D = 0.0508 m = 2 in. as the required pipe diameter. For this diameter, the actual pressure
on the second floor (p2 ) is 262 kPa and the pressure on the first floor (p1 ) is 295 kPa .

341
342
Chapter 8

Turbomachines

8.1. From the given data: D1 = 160 mm, D2 = 400 mm, r2 = D2 /2 = 200 mm, H = 55 mm,
ω = 3600 rpm = 377.0 rad/s, Vr = 20 m/s, V = 35 m/s, and V1θ = 0 m/s. For water at 20◦ C,
ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . Using these given data yields the following derived parameters,

Q = Vr πD2 H = (20)π(0.4)(0.055) = 1.382 m3 /s, ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(1.382) = 1380 kg/s

√ √
Vθ2 = V 2 − Vr2 = 352 − 202 = 28.72 m/s

Using the given and derived parameters in Equation 8.3 gives

Ẇshaft = ṁ ω [r2 V2θ − r1 V1θ ] = (1380)(377.0) [(0.2)(28.72) − 0] = 2.988 × 106 W = 2.98 MW

8.2. From the given data: D2 = 900 mm, r2 = D2 /2 = 450 mm, b2 = 40 mm, ω = 1725 rpm =
180.6 rad/s, Q = 0.20 m3 /s, and θ = 35◦ . The radial component of the velocity, V2r , and the
tangential component of the velocity, V2θ , are derived from the given data as follows:

Q 0.2
V2r = = V2r = = 1.768 m/s, V2θ = V2r tan θ = 1.238 m/s
2πr2 b2 2π(0.45)(0.040)

Noting that V1θ = 0, the energy added per unit mass is given by Equation 8.4 as

wshaft = ω [r2 V2θ − r1 V1θ ] = (180.6) [(0.45)(1.238) − 0] = 201.3 J/kg

8.3. From the given data: D1 = 50 mm, r1 = D1 /2 = 25 mm, D2 = 125 mm, r2 = D2 /2 =

62.5 mm, ω = 3000 rpm = 314.2 rad/s, Q = 10 L/s, and W2 = 3 m/s. For water at 20◦ C,
ρ = 998.2 kg/s. The following preliminary calculations are useful,

V2θ = r2 ω = (0.0625)(314.2) = 19.64 m/s, ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(0.010) = 9.982 kg/s

(a) Since the vanes are in the radial direction, V2r = W2 = 3 m/s. Applying the continuity
equation gives

Q = πD2 HV2r → 10 × 10−3 = π(0.125)H(3) → H = 8.488 × 10−3 = 8.49 mm

343
 (b) The power, P , required to drive the pump is given by

P = ṁω[r2 V2θ − r1 V1θ ] = (9.982)(314.2)[(0.0625)(19.64) − (0.025)0]

→ P = 3.84 × 103 W = 3.84 kW

8.4. From the given data: D2 = 350 mm, r2 = D2 /2 = 175 mm, H = 30 mm, ω = 800 rpm =
83.78 rad/s, V1θ = 0 m/s, V = 38 m/s, and θ = 40◦ . For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .
using these given data, the following derived parameters can be calculated,

Vr = V cos θ = (38) cos 40◦ = 29.11 m/s, Q = πD2 HVr = π(0.35)(0.03)(29.11) = 0.9602 m3 /s

ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(0.9602) = 958.5 kg/s, V2θ = V sin θ = (38) sin 40◦ = 24.43 m/s

Using the given and derived parameters in Equation 8.3 gives

Ẇshaft = ṁ ω [r2 V2θ − r1 V1θ ] = (958.5)(83.78) [(0.175)(24.43) − 0] = 3.432×105 W = 343 kW

8.5. From the given data: D = 325 mm, r2 = D/2 = 162.5 mm, H = 30 mm, β = 42◦ , ω =
800 rpm = 83.78 rad/s, Q = 75 L/s = 0.075 m3 /s, and V1θ = 0 m/s. For water at 20◦ C,
ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . The velocity components at the exit of the blade are shown in Figure
8.37, where U is the peripheral velocity of the impeller, W is the velocity of the exiting
fluid relative to a vane of the impeller, and V is the absolute velocity of the fluid exiting the
impeller. From the given data and velocity relationships,
Q 0.075
ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(0.075) = 74.87 kg/s, Vr = = = 2.449 m/s
πDH π(0.325)(0.03)
Vr 2.449
W = = = 3.659 m/s, U = r2 ω = (0.1625)(83.78) = 13.61 m/s
sin β sin 42◦
These parameters can be combined to give

V2θ = U − W cos β = 13.61 − (3.659) cos 42◦ = 10.89 m/s

Using the given and derived parameters in Equation 8.3 yields

Ẇshaft = ṁ ω [r2 V2θ − r1 V1θ ] = (74.87)(83.78) [(0.1625)(10.89) − 0] = 1.110 × 104 W

Therefore, the theoretical shaft power required to drive the pump under the design condition
is approximately 11.1 kW .

8.6. From the given data: r1 = 200 mm, r2 = 600 mm, b1 = 60 mm, b2 = 40 mm, β1 = 70◦ , β2 =
75◦ , ω = 700 rpm = 73.30 rad/s, and Q = 0.90 m3 /s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .

(a) On the outflow surface, let U = tip velocity, W = exit velocity relative to blade, and V
= absolute velocity at the exit. The following relations must hold
Q Q
V2r = , W2 sin β2 = V2r → W2 =
2πr2 b2 2πr2 b2 sin β2

344
 Using this relation yields
Q
V2θ = r2 ω − W2 cos β2 = r2 ω −
2πr2 b2 tan β2
Similarly, on the inflow surface,
Q
V1θ = r1 ω − W1 cos β1 = r1 ω −
2πr1 b1 tan β1
Therefore the power input, P , to the pump is given by
[ ( )]
Q 1 1
P = ρQω(r2 V2θ − r2 V2θ ) → P = ρQω ω(r22 − r12 ) − −
2π b2 tan β2 b1 tan β1

(b) Using the given data in the derived formulas yields

[ ( )]
0.9 1 1
P = (998.2)(0.9)(73.30) ω(0.6 − 0.2 ) −
2 2
−
2π (0.04) tan 75◦ (0.06) tan 70◦

→ P = 1.54 × 106 W = 1.54 MW

The theoretical head (with 100% efficiency) added to the water is given by

P 1.54 × 106
hp = = → hp = 175 m
ρQg (998.2)(0.9)(9.807)

8.7. From the give data: r1 = 150 mm, r2 = 300 mm, b1 = 45 mm, b2 = 40 mm, β1 = 25◦ ,
β2 = 10◦ , and ω = 600 rpm = 62.83 rad/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .

(a) For a normal entrance velocity, V1θ = 0 requires that

Q Q
r1 ω = → (0.15)(62.83) =
2πr1 b1 tan β1 2π(0.15)(0.045) tan 25◦

→ Q = 0.1864 m3 /s

(b) Since V1θ = 0, the power required to drive the pump is given by
[ ]
Q 1
P = ρQω ωr2 −2
2π b2 tan β2
[ ]
0.1864 1
= (998.2)(0.1864)(62.83) (62.83)(0.3) −
2
2π (0.040) tan 10◦

= 1.69 × 104 W = 16.9 kW

8.8. From the give data: r1 = 100 mm, r2 = 300 mm, b1 = 40 mm, b2 = 35 mm, β1 = 50◦ ,
β2 = 60◦ , and Q = 250 L/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .

345
 (a) For a normal entrance velocity, V1θ = 0 requires that

Q 0.250
r1 ω = → (0.1)ω =
2πr1 b1 tan β1 2π(0.1)(0.04) tan 50◦

→ ω = 83.47 rad/s = = 797 rpm

(b) The power required to drive the pump is given by

[ ]
Q 1
P = ρQω ωr2 − 2
2π b2 tan β2
[ ]
0.250 1
= (998.2)(0.250)(83.47) (83.47)(0.3)2 −
2π (0.035) tan 60◦

= 1.43 × 105 W = 143 kW

8.9. From the give data: r1 = 150 mm, r2 = 400 mm, b1 = 50 mm, b2 = 45 mm, β2 = 70◦ ,
Q = 500 L/s, and ω = 600 rpm = 62.83 rad/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .

(a) For a normal entrance velocity, V1θ = 0 requires that

Q 0.250
r1 ω = → (0.15)(62.83) =
2πr1 b1 tan β1 2π(0.15)(0.05) tan β1

→ β1 = 48.4◦

(b) The power required to drive the pump is given by

[ ]
Q 1
P = ρQω ωr2 − 2
2π b2 tan β2
[ ]
0.500 1
= (998.2)(0.500)(62.83) (62.83)(0.4) −
2
2π (0.045) tan 70◦

= 2.95 × 105 W = 295 kW

8.10. From the given data: r1 = 125 mm, r2 = 250 mm, b1 = 60 mm, b2 = 50 mm, ω = 1725 rpm =
180.6 rad/s, Q = 0.3 m3 /s, hp = 13.8 m, and V1θ = 0. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .

(a) The blade angles, β1 and β2 , can be calculated as follows:

Q 0.3
Eq. 8.17: r1 ω − = 0 → (0.125)(180.6) − =0
2πr1 b1 tan β1 2π(0.125)(0.060) tan β1

→ β1 = 15.7◦

ω[r2 V2θ ] (180.6)[(0.25)V2θ ]

Eq. 8.18: hp = → 13.8 = → V2θ = 2.997 m/s
g 9.807

346
 Q 0.3
Eq. 8.16: V2θ = r2 ω − → 2.997 = (0.25)(180.6) −
2πr2 b2 tan β2 2π(0.25)(0.050) tan β2

→ β2 = 5.18◦

(b) Assuming 100% efficiency, the power requirement, P , is given by

P = γQhp = (9.789)(0.3)(13.8) = 40.5 kW

8.11. From the given data: Q = 100 L/s, ω = 600 rpm = 62.83 rad/s, W2 = 5 m/s, β2 = 90◦ ,
P0 = 8 kW, and η = 0.7. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/s. The mass flow rate, ṁ, is given
by
ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(0.100) = 99.82 kg/s
Equations to be satisfied on the outflow surface are:
ηP0 = ṁω(r2 V2θ ), V1θ = r2 ω − W2 cos β2 → ηP0 = ṁωr2 [r2 ω − W2 cos β2 ]
Substituting the known and derived quantities into the above-derived equation gives
(0.70)(8 × 103 ) = (99.82)(62.83)r2 [r2 (62.83) − (5) cos 90◦ ] → r2 = 0.1192 m = 119 mm
Applying the continuity equation,
Q
Q = 2πr2 b2 V2r = 2πr2 b2 W2 sin β2 → b2 =
2πr2 W2 sin β2
0.1
→ b2 = = 0.0267 m = 26.7 mm
2π(0.1192)(5) sin 90◦

8.12. From the given data: P0 = 8 kW, η = 0.80, and Q = 4 L/s. The power delivered to the fluid
is P = ηP0 = (0.8)(8) = 6.4 kW. Assuming that the velocity and elevation are the same at
the suction and discharge sides of the pump, then Equations 8.8 and 8.9 combine to give
∆p P P 6.4 × 103
= hp = → ∆p = → ∆p = = 1.6 × 106 Pa = 1.6 MPa
γ γQ Q 0.004
Since the density of the fluid did not enter into this calculation, there would be no change
in the pressure increase if a liquid with a larger density than gasoline were used.
8.13. From the given data: ω = 2400 rpm = 251.3 rad/s, ηp = 0.73, ηm = 0.82, T = 8 N·m,
∆z = 2.4 m, Q = 6 L/s, p1 = 90 kPa, V1 = 2 m/s, and V2 = 5 m/s. For water at 20◦ C,
γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . By definition of the motor efficiency given by Equation 8.20,

T ω = ηm P0 → (8)(251.3) = (0.82)P0 → P0 = 2.452 × 103 W ≈ 2.45 kW

Combining the pump and motor efficiencies as given by Equations 8.19 and 8.20 gives
P 0 ηp ηm (2.452)(0.73)(0.82)
hp = = = 24.99 m
γQ (9.789)(0.006)
Applying the energy equation across the pump station yields
[ ] [ ]
p1 V 2 − V22 90 22 − 52
p2 = γ + 1 + (z1 − z2 ) + hp = (9.789) + − 2.4 + 24.99 = 301 kPa
γ 2g 9.789 2(9.807)

347
8.14. From the given data: θ1 = 70◦ , θ2 = 60◦ , r1 = 1.75 m, r2 = 1.05 m, H = 0.5 m, Q = 35 m3 /s,
and ω = 150 rpm = 15.71 rad/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 . The following parameters
can be derived from the given data:

U1 = r1 ω = (1.75)(15.71) = 27.49 m/s, U2 = r2 ω = (1.05)(15.71) = 16.49 m/s

ṁ = ρQ = (998)(35) = 34930 kg/s, A1 = πr12 = π(1.75)2 = 9.621 m2

Q 35
A2 = πr22 = π(1.05)2 = 3.464 m2 , V1r = = = 3.638 m/s
A1 9.621
Q 35
V2r = = = 10.11 m/s
A2 3.464

Using the given and derived parameters, the θ-components of the absolute inflow and outflow
velocities, V1θ and V1θ , respectively are obtained by the following sequence of calculations,

V1r 3.638
W1 = ◦
= = 3.871 m/s, W1θ = W1 cos 70◦ = (3.871) cos 70◦ = 1.324 m/s
sin 70 sin 70◦
V2r 10.11
V1θ = U1 + W1θ = 27.49 + 1.324 = 28.81 m/s, W2 = ◦
= = 11.67 m/s
sin 60 sin 60◦
W2θ = W2 cos 60◦ = (11.67) cos 60◦ = 5.834 m/s

V2θ = U2 − W2θ = 16.49 − 5.834 = 10.66 m/s

Using these results in Equation 8.3 yield the shaft power, Ẇshaft , extracted by the turbine as

Ẇshaft = ṁ ω (r2 V2θ − r1 V1θ ) = (34930)(15.71)[(1.05)(10.66) − (1.75)(28.81)] = −21.5 × 106 W

Therefore, the power extracted by the turbine is approximately 21.5 MW

8.15. From the given data: Q = 400 L/s = 0.4 m3 /s, θ1 = 25◦ , θ2 = 55◦ , θ3 = 50◦ , r1 = 800 mm,
r2 = 400 mm, and ω = 130 rpm = 13.61 rad/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 . The
following preliminary calculations are useful,

ṁ = ρQ = (998)(0.4) = 399.2 kg/s, U1 = r1 ω = (0.8)(13.61) = 10.89 m/s

U2 = r2 ω = (0.4)(13.61) = 5.445 m/s

Using the given and derived parameters, the radial component of the inflow velocity can be
calculated from the inflow velocity triangle as follows,
[ ]−1
V1r V1r 1 1
◦
= U1 + → V1r = U1 −
tan 25 tan 55◦ tan 25 ◦ tan 55◦

which yields
[ ]−1
1 1
V1r = (10.89) ◦
− = 7.541 m/s
tan 25 tan 55◦

348
 The height of the rotor, H, is calculated from V1r as follows
Q Q Q 0.4
V1r = = 2 → H= 2 = = 0.02638 m ≈ 26 mm
A1 πr1 H πr1 V1r π(0.8)2 (7.541)
This result can be used to calculate the following useful variables,
V1r 7.541
V1θ = = = 16.17 m/s, A2 = πr22 H = π(0.4)2 (0.02638) = 0.5027 m2
tan 25◦ tan 25◦
Q 0.4
V2r = = = 0.7958 m/s
A2 0.5027
From the velocity triangle at the outflow surface,
V2r 0.7958
V2θ = U2 − ◦
= 5.445 − = 4.778 m/s
tan 50 tan 50◦
Equation 8.3 gives the shaft power extracted as

Ẇshaft = ṁ ω (r2 V2θ − r1 V1θ ) = (399.2)(13.61) [(0.4)(4.778) − (0.8)(16.17)] = −59.91 × 103 W

Therefore the power generated is approximately 59.9 kW .

8.3. From the given data: r1 = 125 mm, r2 = 225 mm, b1 = 50 mm, b2 = 45 mm, β1 = 35◦ ,
β2 = 15◦ , ω = 1140 rpm = 119.4 rad/s, and ηp = 0.85. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .
(a) For a shockless entry, V1θ = 0 and Equation 8.17 gives the optimal flow rate, Q∗ , as
follows
Q∗ Q∗
r1 ω − =0 → (0.125)(119.4) − =0
2πr1 b1 tan β1 2π(0.125)(0.050) tan 35◦

→ Q∗ = 0.4104 m3 /s

(b) The head added by the pump. hp , is estimated as follows using Equations 8.16 and 8.18,
Q∗ 0.4104
V2θ = r2 ω − = (0.225)(119.4) − = 2.789 m/s
2πr2 b2 tan β2 2π(0.225)(0.045) tan 15◦
ηp P s ηp ρQ∗ ω[r2 V2θ ] ηp ω[r2 V2θ ] (0.85)(119.4)[(0.225)(2.789)]
hp = = = = = 6.494 m
γQ∗ γQ∗ g 9.807
Note that the head added by the pump does not depend on any fluid property.
(c) The power requirement, Ps , is obtained using Equation 8.18, which yields

Ps = ρQ∗ ω[r2 V2θ ] = (998.2)(0.4104)(119.4)[(0.225)(2.789)] = 3.069 × 104 W = 30.7 kW

8.17. From the given data: ω1 = ω2 = 1200 rpm, D1 = 500 mm, D2 = 250 mm, Q1 = 250 L/s, hp1
= 63.7 m, and η1 = 81%. Applying the affinity relationships given by Equation 8.31 requires
that
[ ] [ ]
Q1 Q2
=
(ω1 )(D1 )3 (ω2 )(D2 )3

349
 [ ] [ ]
250 Q2
=
(1200)(500)3 (1200)(250)3

which yields Q2 = 31 L/s. Also,

[ ] [ ]
hp1 hp2
=
(ω1 )2 (D1 )2 (ω2 )2 (D2 )2
[ ] [ ]
63.7 hp2
=
(1200)2 (500)2 (1200)2 (250)2

which yields hp2 = 15.9 m. Therefore, the best-efficiency operating point for a 250-mm pump
in the given homologous series is at Q = 31 L/s and hp = 50.3 m . The efficiency at this
operating point can be estimated using Equation 8.35 which gives
( )1
1 − η2 D1 4
=
1 − η1 D2
( )1
1 − η2 500 4
=
1 − 0.81 250

which yields η2 = 0.77. The efficiency can also be estimated by Equation 8.36 which gives
( )0.32
0.94 − η2 Q1
=
0.94 − η1 Q2
( )0.32
0.94 − η2 250
=
0.94 − 0.81 31

which yields η2 = 0.69. Based on these results, it is estimated that the 250-mm pump will
have an efficiency somewhere in the range of 69–77% .

8.18. From the given data: ω = 3500 rpm = 366.5 rad/s. The points in the following table can be
read from the given dimensional performance curves:

Q Head, hp for given impeller diameter, D

(m3 /h) 178 mm 165 mm 152 mm 140 mm 127 mm
0 68.2 55.4 46.4 37.0 29.0
5 69.0 55.6 46.2 37.5 28.8
10 68.0 54.6 45.0 36.4 27.8
15 66.6 52.4 42.8 33.8 25.5
20 63.7 49.5 39.5 29.1 19.5
25 59.4 44.7 34.0 – –
30 54.1 39.9 – – –

(a) Converting Q from m3 /s to m3 /s and plotting ghp /ω 2 D2 versus Q/ωD3 gives the di-
mensionless performance curves shown in Figure 8.1.

350
 0.16
0.14 178 mm

ghp/ω2D2
165 mm
0.12 152 mm
140 mm
0.10 127 mm

0.08
0 2 4 6 8
Q/ωD3 x 103

Figure 8.1: Nondimensional performance curves.

(b) Since these nondimensional performance curves do not coincide, the given pump sizes
are not from a homologous series .
(c) The maximum efficiency, flow rate, and head at the best-efficiency point (BEP) for each
pump size, along with the derived spacific speed are given in the following table.

D ηmax Q hp ns
(mm) (%) (m3 /h) (m) (–)
178 59.5 23.5 60.6 0.25
165 58.0 21.9 47.9 0.28
152 56.0 18.7 40.4 0.30
140 54.0 16.9 32.0 0.34
127 51.5 16.0 24.6 0.40

1 3
The specific speed is calculated using the relation: ns = ωQ 2 /(ghp ) 4 . The efficiencies
are in the range 51.5–59.5% and the specific speeds are in the range 0.25–0.40 . The
fact that the BEP efficiency and the specific speed is not the same for all pump sizes
further indicates that the pumps are not homologous.

8.19. From the given data: Q = 20 L/s = 0.02 m3 /s, P = 5 kW, and η = 0.80. For water at 15◦ C,
γ = 9798 N/m3 . The head, hp , added by the pump can be determined from the relationship
between power, P , and head as follows
γQhp (9798)(0.02)hp
P = → 5 × 103 = → hp = 20.4 m
η 0.8

8.20. From the given data: D1 = 300 mm, ω1 = 1800 rpm = 188.5 rad/s, Q1 = 300 L/s = 0.3 m3 /s,
hp1 = 65 m, P1 = 240 kW, D2 = 250 mm, and ω2 = 1400 rpm = 146.6 rad/s. For water at
20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .

(a) Using the definitions of CQ , CH , and CP gives

Q1 0.3 ghp1 (9.807)(65)

CQ = 3 = = 0.0589 , CH = 2 2 = = 0.199
ω1 D1 (188.5)(0.3)3 ω1 D1 (188.5)2 (0.3)2

351
 P1 240 × 103
CP = = = 0.0148
ρω13 D15 (998.2)(188.5)3 (0.3)5

(b) Under optimal operating conditions, the 250-mm pump has the same values of CQ , CH ,
and CP as the 300-mm pump, so
Q2 Q2
= CQ → = 0.0589 → Q2 = 0.135 m3 /s = 135 L/s
ω2 D23 (146.6)(0.25)3

ghp2 (9.807)hp2
= CH → = 0.199 → hp2 = 27.3 m
ω22 D22 (146.6)2 (0.25)2

P2 P2
= CP → = 0.0148 → P2 = 45.4 × 103 W = 45.4 kW
ρω23 D25 (998.2)(146.6)3 (0.25)5

8.21. From the given data: ω1 = 1725 rpm = 180.6 rad/s, Q1 = 25 L/s, V2r = 4 m/s, b2 = 15 mm,
β2 = 50◦ , ω2 = 1140 rpm = 119.4 rad/s, and η = 80% = 0.8.

(a) Using Equations 8.16 and 8.18

Q 0.025
V2r = → 4= → r2 = 0.06631 m
2πr2 b2 2πr2 (0.015)
Q 0.025
V2θ = r2 ω1 − = (0.06631)(180.6) − = 8.623 m/s
2πr2 b2 tan β2 2π(0.06631)(0.0015) tan 50◦
P ηω1 r2 V2θ (0.8)(180.6)(0.06331)(8.623)
P = ηρQω1 r2 V2θ , hp = = = = 8.42 m
ρgQ g 9.807

(b) Using the affinity laws:

h1 h2 8.42 h2
2 = 2 → = → h2 = 3.68 m
ω1 ω2 17252 11402
Q1 Q2 25 Q2
= → = → Q2 = 16.5 L/s
ω1 ω2 1725 1140

8.22. From the given data: CQ = 0.035, CH = 0.14, CP = 0.006, D = 600 mm, and ω = 1140 rpm =
119.4 rad/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 , and γ = 9.789 kN/m3 (Appendix B.1).
Using the definitions of the coefficients given in Equation 8.32, the best-efficiency conditions
are calculated as follows:
Q Q
= 0.035 → = 0.035 → Q = 0.903 m3 /s
ωD3 (119.4)(0.6)3
ghp (9.807)hp
= 0.14 → = 0.14 → hp = 73.2 m
ω2 D2 (119.4)2 (0.6)2
BHP BHP
= 0.006 → = 0.006 → BHP = 7.93 × 105 W = 793 kW
ρω 3 D5 (998.2)(119.4)3 (0.6)5

352
 Using these results, the efficiency of the pump, ηp , is given by

γQhp (9.789)(0.903)(73.2)
ηp = = = 0.816 ≈ 82%
BHP 793

8.23. From the given data: CQ = 0.035, CH = 0.14, CP = 0.006, Q = 200 L/s, and ω = 850 rpm =
89.01 rad/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 , and γ = 9.789 kN/m3 (Appendix B.1).
Using the definition of the flow coefficient given in Equation 8.32,

Q 0.2
= 0.035 → = 0.035 → D = 0.400 m = 400 mm
ωD3 (89.01)D3

8.24. From the given data: D1 = 400 mm, Q1 = 200 L/s, h1 = 24 m, P1 = 50 kW, η1 = 85%, and
D2 = 350 mm. It is also implicit in the problem statement that ω1 = ω2 .

(a) Assume that viscous and scale effects are negligible. Since both pumps are geometrically
similar and have the same efficiency, Equations 8.30 and 8.31 require that
[ ] [ ] ( )3 ( ) ( )
Q Q D2 ω2 350 3
= → Q2 = Q1 = (1)(200) = 134 L/s
ωD3 1 ωD3 2 D1 ω1 400
[ ] [ ] ( )2 ( )2 ( )
gh gh D2 ω2 350 2 2
= → h2 = h1 = (1) (24) = 18.4 m
ω 2 D2 1 ω2 D2 2 D1 ω1 400
[ ] [ ] ( )5 ( )3 ( )
P P D2 ω2 350 5 3
= → P2 = P1 = (1) (50) = 25.6 kW
ρω 3 D5 1 ρω 3 D5 2 D1 ω1 400

(b) The efficiency with the 350-mm impeller can be estimated using Equation 8.35 which
gives
( )1 ( )1
1 − η2 D1 4 1 − η2 400 4
= → = → η2 = 0.84
1 − η1 D2 1 − 0.85 350
The efficiency can also be estimated by Equation 8.36 which gives
( )0.32 ( )0.32
0.94 − η2 Q1 0.94 − η2 200
= → = → η2 = 0.84
0.94 − η1 Q2 0.94 − 0.85 134

Based on these results, it is estimated that the pump with the 350-mm diameter impeller
will have an efficiency of approximately 84% . This scale effect in relatively small and
can be characterized as not significant .

8.25. From the given data: ω1 = ω2 = 2400 rpm, D1 = 400 mm, D2 = 300 mm, Q1 = 500 L/s,
hp1 = 89.5 m, and η1 = 85%. Applying the affinity relationships given by Equation 8.31
requires that
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
Q1 Q2 500 Q2
= → = → Q2 = 210 L/s
(ω1 )(D1 )3 (ω2 )(D2 )3 (2400)(400)3 (2400)(300)3

353
 [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
hp1 hp2 89.5 hp2
= → = → hp2 = 50.3 m
(ω1 )2 (D1 )2 (ω2 )2 (D2 )2 (2400)2 (400)2 (2400)2 (300)2
Therefore, the best-efficiency operating point for a 300-mm pump in the given homologous
series is at Q = 210 L/s and hp = 50.3 m . The efficiency at this operating point can be
estimated using Equation 8.35 which gives
( )1 ( )1
1 − η2 D1 4 1 − η2 400 4
= → = → η2 = 0.84
1 − η1 D2 1 − 0.85 300
The efficiency can also be estimated by Equation 8.36 which gives
( )0.32 ( )
0.94 − η2 Q1 0.94 − η2 500 0.32
= → = → η2 = 0.82
0.94 − η1 Q2 0.94 − 0.85 210
Based on these results, it is estimated that the 300-mm pump will have an efficiency some-
where in the range of 82%–84% .

8.26. From the given data: Lr = 4, ω1 = 4500 rpm, ηp = 0.84, Q1 = 0.7 m3 /s, h1 = 4.9 m, and
ω2 = 120 rpm. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . Using the affinity laws given by Equation
8.31 gives
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
h1 h2 4.9 h2
= → = → h2 = 0.0558 m
ω 2 D2 1 ω2 D2 2 (4500)2 (1)2 1 (120)2 (4)2 2
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
Q Q 0.7 Q
= → = → Q2 = 1.20 m3 /s
ωD3 1 ωD3 2 (4500)(1)3 1 (120)(4)3 2

The power requirement of the full-scale pump is given by

γQ2 h2 (9.789)(1.20)(0.0558)
P2 = = = 0.776 kW
ηp 0.84

8.27. This analysis can be done in terms of the flow coefficient, CQ , the head coefficient, CH , and the
efficiency, η. Note that CQ , CH , and η are the same at homologous points. [Recall: CQ and
CH are defined by Equation 8.100.] At any operating condition, the following relationships
hold:
ω 2 D2 T
T ω = ηγQhp = η[ρg][CQ ωD3 ][CH ] = [ηCQ CH ][ρω 3 D5 ] → = [ηCQ CH ]
g ρω 2 D5
Since ηCQ CH is the same between homologous points the affinity law for torque can be
expressed as
[ ] [ ]
T T
=
ρω 2 D5 1 ρω 2 D5 2

8.28. From the given data: Lr = 10, D1 = 200 mm, ω1 = 3450 rpm, h1 = h2 = 40 m, Q1 = 10 L/s,
η1 = 0.84, and η2 = 0.90. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .

354
 (a) The power supplied to the model pump, BHP1 , is calculated as follows,
γQ1 h1 (9.789)(0.01)(40)
BHP1 = = = 4.66 kW
η1 0.84
(b) Using the affinity laws given in Equation 8.31 yields:
[ ] [ ]
ghp ghp 1 1
= → = 2 → ω2 = 345 rpm
ω 2 D2 1 ω2 D2 2 (3450)2 (1)2 ω2 (10)2
[ ] [ ]
Q Q 10 Q2
3
= 3
→ 3
= → Q2 = 1000 L/s
ωD 1 ωD 2 (3450)(1) (345)(10)3
Using the given and derived data yields the power input to the prototype pump, BHP2 ,
as
γQ2 h2 (9.789)(1)(40)
BHP2 = = = 435 kW
η2 0.90
8.29. From the given data: D = 250 mm, ω = 1200 rpm = 125.7 rad/s, hp = 8.2 m, and Q = 20 L/s.
Using the definition of specific speed given by Equation 8.39 yields
1 1
ωQ 2 (125.7)(0.020) 2
ns = 3 = 3 = 0.662
(ghp ) 4 [(9.807)(8.2)] 4
For a specific speed of 0.662, Table 8.1 indicates that the pump is likely to be a centrifugal pump .
8.30. The specific speed in SI units is given by Equation 8.39 as
1
ωQ 2
ns = 3
(ghp ) 4
and the specific speed in English units is given by Equation 8.40 as
1
ωQ 2
Ns = 3
hp4
The unit conversions are as follows:
2π
ω (rad/s) = ω (rpm) = 0.1047ω (rpm)
60
3.785 × 10−3
Q (m3 /s) = Q (gpm) = 6.308 × 10−5 Q (gpm)
60
hp (m) = 0.3048hp (ft)
Taking g = 9.81 m/s2 gives ns in English units as
1 1
(0.1047ω)(6.308 × 10−5 Q) 2 ωQ 2
ns = 3 3 = 0.000366 3 = 0.000366Ns
(9.81) 4 (0.3048hp ) 4 hp4
which can also be written as
Ns = 2730ns
Therefore, the constant used to convert the specific speed in SI units to the specific speed in
English units is 2730 .

355
8.31. The specific speed ns , flow coefficient, CQ , and head coefficient, CH , are defined by
1
ωQ 2 Q ghp
ns = 3 , CQ = , CH =
(ghp ) 4 ωD3 ω 2 D2

The relationship between ns , CQ , and CH , can be derived directly from Equation 8.38 which
gives
1
CQ2
ns = 3
CH4

8.32. From the given data: Q = 500 L/s = 0.5 m3 /s, hp = 80 m, and ω = 1800 rpm = 188.5 rad/s.
Application of Equation 8.39 gives the specific speed, ns , as
1 1
ωQ 2 (188.5)(0.5) 2
ns = 3 = 3 = 0.90
[ghp ] 4 [(9.807)(80)] 4

According to Table 8.1, since 0.15 ≤ ns ≤ 1.5 a centrifugal pump is required.

8.33. From the given data: ns = 4.2, Q = 300 L/s = 0.3 m3 /s, and hp = 10 m. The required
rotational speed can be derived from the the specific-speed equation (Equation 8.39) as follows
1 3 3
ωQ 2 [ghp ] 4 [(9.807)(10)] 4
ns = 3 → ω = ns 1 = (4.2) 1 = 239 rad/s = 2300 rad/s
[ghp ] 4 Q2 (0.3) 2

According to Table 8.1, since 3.7 ≤ ns ≤ 5.5 the pump is an axial-flow pump .
8.34. The synchronous speed is given by Equation 8.41 as
3600
synchronous speed =
No. of pairs of poles
The maximum speed occurs when there is 1 pair of poles, which gives a speed of 3600 rpm .

8.35. From the given data: Q = 100 L/s, and hp = 50 m. The available specific speeds are: 0.95,
0.81, 0.61, 0.36, and 0.25. For the angular speed ωrpm , the specific speed, ns , is given by
( )
ωrpm 2π 1
1 (0.1) 2
ωQ 2 60
ns = 3 = 3 = 3.178 × 10−4 ωrpm
(ghp ) 4 [(9.807)(50)] 4
Using this relationship yields the following results,

ωrpm ns
(rpm) (–)
3450 1.096
1725 0.548
1140 0.362
850 0.270

356
 The closest match with the available specific speeds is 0.362, which matches the available
specific speed of 0.36 . A motor speed of 1140 rpm should be specified with this pump.

8.36. From the given data: D = 450 mm, R = D/2 = 225 mm, Q = 650 L/s, hp = 9.5 m, ns = 1.5,
and P = 80 kW. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .

(a) Based on the definition od the specific speed given by Equation 8.39,
1 1
ωQ 2 ω(0.65) 2
ns = 3 → 1.5 = 3 → ω = 55.79 rad/s
[ghp ] 4 [(9.807)(9.5)] 4

The theoretical shutoff head, h0 , can be derived from the theoretical expression given
by Equation 8.14, which gives

U22 [Rω]2 [(0.225)(55.79)]2

h0 = = = = 16.07 m
g g 9.807

(b) The efficiency of the pump is calculated using the definition of pump efficiency given by
Equation 8.19, which requires that

γQhp (9.789)(0.65)(9.5)
ηp = = = 0.756 = 75.6%
P 80

8.37. From the given data: D = 250 mm, ω1 = 1200 rpm, hso = 8.2 m, hbep = 6.5 m, and Qbep =
20 L/s.

(a) Apply the parabolic equation at the shutoff and best-efficiency points:

shutoff: 8.2 = a − b(0)2 → a = 8.2 m

bep: 6.5 = a − b(20)2 → 6.5 = 8.2 − b(20)2 → b = 0.0045

Combining the above results gives the following performance curve:

h = 8.2 − 0.00425Q2 (1)

(b) Applying the homologous relations given by Equation 8.31 with ω1 /ω2 = 1200/1800 =
0.6667 yields
( )2
ω1 ω1
Q1 = Q2 = 0.6667Q2 , h1 = h2 = 0.4444h2
ω2 ω1

Substituting these relations into Equation 1 yields

(0.444h2 ) = 8.2 − 0.00425(0.6667Q2 )2 → h2 = 18.45 − 0.00425Q22

→ h = 18.45 − 0.00425Q2

357
8.38. From the given data: ns = 1.2, Qp = 5 L/s, hp = 10 m, νr = 5–10, and Dr = 51 . From the
gives specific speed,
1 1
ωQ 2 ω(0.05) 2
ns = 3 → 1.2 = 3 → ω = 167.2 rad/s = 1597 rpm
[ghp ] 4 [(9.807)(10)] 4
In accordance with Equation 8.25 the following similarity requirements are applicable if vis-
cous effects are to be reproduced in the model,
Qr ωr Dr2 hr
= 1, = 1, =1
ωr Dr3 νr ωr Dr2
2

For Reynolds number similarity, and noting that Dr = 15 and νr = 5–10, gives,
νr
ωr = 2 = 52 νr → ωr = 125 to 250 → ωm = 125(1597) to 250(1597) rpm
Dr

→ ωm = 1.99 × 105 to 3.99 × 105 rpm

For flow rate similarity, and using the requirement for Reynolds similarity,
( )
νr νr
3
Qr = ωr Dr = 2
Dr3 = νr Dr = → Qr = 1 to 2 → Qm = 1(5) to 2(5) L/s
Dr 5

→ Qm = 5 to 10 L/s
For head similarity, and using the requirement for Reynolds similarity,
( )
νr 2 2 νr2
2 2
hr = ωr Dr = D r = = 52 νr2 → hr = 125 or 250 → hm = 125(10) to 250(10) m
Dr2 Dr2

→ hm = 1250 to 2500 m
These model requirements are clearly unrealistic. In reality, Reynolds similarity is usually not
required as long as fully turbulent flow is maintained in both the model and the prototype.
8.39. From the given data: Q = 10 L/s = 0.01 m3 /s, p1 = −20 kPa, p2 = 100 kPa, ∆z = 0.83 m,
D1 = 150 mm, and D2 = 75 mm. For water at 10◦ C, ρ = 999.7 kg/m3 and γ = 9.784 kN/m3 .
The following preliminary calculations are useful,
πD12 π(0.15)2 Q 0.02
A1 = = = 1.767 × 10−2 m2 , V1 = = = 0.5659 m/s
2g 2(9.807) A1 1.767 × 10−2
πD22 π(0.075)2 Q 0.02
A2 = = = 4.418 × 10−3 m2 , V1 = = = 2.264 m/s
2g 2(9.807) A1 4.418 × 10−3
Using the given and derived data, the head, hp , added by the pump is given by the energy
equation as
[ ] [ ]
p2 V22 p1 V12
hp = − + ∆z − −
γ 2g γ 2g
[ ] [ ]
100 2.2642 −20 0.56592
= − + 0.83 − − = 13.3 m
9.784 2(9.807) 9.784 2(9.807)

358
8.40. From the given data: Q = 50 L/s = 0.05 m3 /s, ∆z = 25 m, L = 48 m, Dp = 125 mm,
ks = 0.5 mm, k = 4, ns = 0.8, η = 0.80, θ = 55◦ , H/D2 = 0.125, and p = 0.07. For water at
20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculations
are useful,
πDp2 π(0.125)2 Q 0.05
Ap = = = 1.227 × 10−2 m2 , V = = = 4.074 m/s
4 4 Ap 1.227 × 10−2
V Dp (4.074)(0.125) ks 0.5
Re = = = 5.072 × 105 , = = 0.004
ν 1.004 × 10−6 Dp 125
( )( )
ks ks
f = fCE Re, Re, = 0.0286, ṁ = ρQ = 49.91 kg/s
D Dp
The head added by the pump, hp , is given by the energy equation as
[ ] 2 [ ]
fL V (0.0286)(48) 4.0742
hp = ∆z + +k = 25 + +4 = 37.69 m
D 2g 0.125 2(9.807)
Assuming that the pump is selected to operate at its most efficient point, the angular speed,
ω, can be derived from the specific speed as follows,
1 3 3
ωQ 2 ns [ghp ] 4 (0.8)[(9.807)(37.69)] 4
ns = 3 → ω= 1 = 1 = 301.6 rad/s
(ghp ) 4 Q2 0.05 2
Application of the continuity equation at the outflow surface of the impeller requires that

W2 sin 55◦ πD2 H(1 − p) = Q

Q 0.05 0.04178
→ W2 = = → W2 =
sin 55◦ πD2 H(1 − p) sin 55◦ π2r2 (0.125 × 2r2 )(1 − 0.07) r22
The tangential component of the outflow velocity, V2θ , is given by
0.04178 0.02397
V2θ = U2 − W2 cos 55◦ = r2 ω − W2 cos 55◦ = r2 (301.6) − 2 cos 55◦ = 301.6r2 −
r2 r22

The shaft work, Ẇshaft , done by the pumps is given by

( )
0.02397
Ẇshaft = ṁω(r2 V2θ ) = (49.91)(301.6)r2 301.6r2 −
r22
( )
0.02397
→ Ẇshaft = 1.505 × 10 r2 301.6r2 −
4
r22
Since the efficiency is 80%,
( )
ṁghp 0.02397 (49.91)(9.807)(37.69)
Ẇshaft = → 1.505 × 10 r2 301.6r2 −
4
2 =
η r2 0.8
The solution of this equation is r2 = 0.0781 m, which corresponds to a diameter of D2 = 2r2
= 0.156 m ≈ 156 mm .

359
8.41. From the given data: ∆z = 0.38 m. Corresponding values of Q, ∆p = p2 − p1 , and P are
given in tabulated form. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 .

(a) Using the given data, hp and η are derived using the following relationships (derived
from the energy equation and definition of efficiency, respectively):
∆p γQhp
hp = + ∆z, η=
γ P
Using these equations yields the following tabulated data:

Q (L/s) 1.26 2.52 3.79 5.05 6.31 7.57 8.83

hp (m) 68.9 68.2 67.1 64.6 61.0 57.3 51.2
η (%) 24 40 50 57 60 59 57

Plotting these data gives the following performance graph:

75 70

Efficiency, η (%)
70 60
Head, hp (m)

65 50
60 40
55 30
50 20
1 3 5 7 9
Flow rate, Q (L/s)

Figure 8.2: Performance curves.

(b) From the transformed data (tabulated above) the maximum efficiency is 60% and the
corresponding flow rate is 7.57 L/s .

8.42. Since the pump lifts the water over a height of 1.5 + 2 = 3.5 m, and the friction loss is given
by the Darcy-Weisbach equation, then the energy equation is

L V2
hp − f = 3.5
D 2g
which can be written in the conventional form
L Q2
hp = 3.5 + f (1)
D 2gA2
The friction factor, f , can be approximated by the Swamee-Jain equation (smooth pipe,
ks ≈ 0) ( )
1 5.74
√ = −2 log10 (2)
f Re0.9

360
where
VD QD
Re = =
ν νA
In this case, D = 300 mm = 0.3 m, ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s (at 20◦ C), and A = π(0.3)2 /4 =
0.0707 m2 . Therefore,

Q(0.3)
Re = = 4.24 × 106 Q (3)
(1.00 × 10−6 )(0.0707)

Combining Equations 2 and 3 gives

[ ] [ ]
1 5.74 6.23 × 10−6
√ = −2 log10 = −2 log10
f (4.24 × 106 Q)0.9 Q0.9

or
[ ( )]−2
Q0.9
f = 2 log10 (4)
6.23 × 10−6
The system curve (Equation 1) can be written as

300 Q2
hp = 3.5 + f
0.3 2(9.81)(0.0707)2
or
hp = 3.5 + 1.02 × 104 f Q2 (5)

where Q is in m3 /s. For Q in L/s, Equation 5 becomes

hp = 3.5 + 1.02 × 10−2 f Q2 (6)

The pump curve is given as

hp = 6 − 6.67 × 10−5 Q2 (7)

and solving Equations 6 and 7 simultaneously gives

6 − 6.67 × 10−5 Q2 = 3.5 + 1.02 × 10−2 f Q2

which can be re-arranged and put in the form

√
2.5
Q= (8)
6.67 × 10−5 + 1.02 × 10−2 f

The flow is given by the simultaneous solution of Equations 4 and 8 which yields f = 0.0049
and
Q = 146 L/s

Since this flow is within 10% of the desired flow of 150 L/s, the pump is adequate .

361
8.43. From the given data: D = 100 mm = 0.1 m. At 20◦ C, ν = 1 × 106 m2 /s. Using these data:
π 2 π
A= D = (0.1)2 = 0.00785 m2
4 4
Q Q
V = = = 127Q
A 0.00785
VD (127Q)(0.1)
Re = = = 1.27 × 107 Q
ν 1 × 106
5.74 5.74
= = 2.32 × 10−6 Q−0.9
Re0.9 (1.27 × 107 Q)0.9
0.25 0.25
f= [ ( )]2 = (1)
5.74 [log (2.32 × 10−6 Q−0.9 )]2
log
Re0.9
The energy equation to be satisfied is given by:

L Q2 100 Q2
hp = (z2 − z1 ) + f = 9 + f
D 2gA2 0.1 2(9.81)(0.00785)2

which simplifies to
hp = 9 + 8.27 × 105 f Q2 (2)
Combining Equations 1 and 2 yields the following system equation

2.07 × 105 Q2
hp = 9 +
[log (2.32 × 10−6 Q−0.9 )]2

This curve can be plotted on the pump performance curve using the following points:

Q hp
(L/min) (m3 /s) (m)
200 0.00333 9.20
400 0.00667 9.68
600 0.01 10.41
800 0.0133 11.36

The system curve intersects the pump performance curve at Q = 600 L/min and the corre-
sponding efficiency is approximately 55% . Since the maximum pump efficiency is approxi-
mately 59%, the pump will be not be operating at its maximum efficiency and so this pump
is not optimal .

8.44. From the given data: ∆z = 10 m, D = 200 mm = 0.200 m, A = πD2 /4 = 0.0314 m2 , L =

2 km = 2000 m, and Km = 6.2. For DIP, ks = 0.26 mm. Assuming fully-turbulent flow, f is
given by the Colebrook equation as
( )
1 ks /D
√ = −2 log
f 3.7

362
 ( )
1 0.26/200
√ = −2 log
f 3.7

which yields f = 0.021.

(a) The energy equation gives

( )
fL Q2
0− + Km + hp = ∆z
D 2gA2
( )
(0.021)(2000) Q2
0− + 6.2 + hp = 10
0.200 2(9.81)(0.0314)2

which simplifies to
hp = 10 + 11176Q2
where Q is in m3 /s. If Q is in L/s, then the energy equation becomes
( )2
Q
hp = 10 + 11176 (1)
103

Solving iteratively with the pump characteristics is shown in the following table,

Q (L/s) hp (m) hp (m)

(Equation 1) (Table ??)
10 11.1 23.2
20 14.5 20.8
30 20.1 17.0
26.7 18.0 18.2
26.9 18.1 18.2
27.0 18.1 18.1

Therefore, the flow rate delivered by the pump is 27.0 L/s .

(b) For the given pump data, the efficiency, η, of the pump is 69.2%, hp = 18.1 m, Q =
27.0 L/s = 0.027 m3 /s, hence the power required from the pump motor is given by

γQhp (9.79)(0.027)(18.1)
P = = = 6.91 kW
η 0.692

8.45. The system curve is given by

L V2 L V2
0−f + hp = 61 → hp = 61 + f (1)
D 2g D 2g

For DIP it can be assumed that ks = 0.12 mm, and for the system:
π 2
A= D = 1.169 m2
4
Q
V = = 1.711 m/s
A

363
 ν = 1 × 10−6 m2 /s
VD (1.169)(1.220)
Re = = = 2.087 × 106
ν 1 × 10−6
0.25
f=[ ( )]2 = 0.0128
ks
log 3.7D + 5.74
Re0.9
Substituting the above results into Equation 1 gives
3200 (1.711)2
hp = 61 + 0.0128 = 61 + 5.01 = 66.01 m
1.22 2(9.81)
power delivered to water = γQhp = (9.79)(2)(66.01) = 1292 kW
1292
power consumed by pump = = 1520 kW
0.85
energy consumed in 8 h = 1520 × 8 = 12160 kWh
cost of electricity = 12160 × 0.06 = $730 per day

When the system is operating in power-generation (turbine) mode,

ht = 61 − 5.01 = 55.99 m
power extracted from water = γQht = (9.79)(2)(55.99) = 1096 kW
power delivered as electricity = 0.90(1096) = 986 kW
energy delivered in 8 h = 986 × 8 = 7888 kWh
revenue from sale of electricity = 7888 × 0.12 = $947perday

Based on these results, the profit is $947 − $730 = $217/day = $79,200/year

When the elevation difference is 65 m and hp = 80−3.5Q2 , then the combination of the pump
curve and system curve gives
L Q2
0−f + 80 − 3.5Q2 = 65 m
D 2gA2
and for fully turbulent flow,
0.25 0.25
f=[ (
ks
)]2 = [ ( )]2 = 0.0119
log 3.7D 0.12
log 3.7(1220)

Substituting into the pump/system curve equation gives

3200 Q2
−(0.0119) + 80 − 3.5Q2 = 65
1.22 2(9.81)(1.169)2
which yields

Q = 3.20 m3 /s

364
 hp = 80 − 3.5Q2 = 80 − 3.5(3.20)2 = 44.16 m
hf = 11.92 m
ht = 65 − 11.92 = 53.08 m
γQhp
cost of electricity = 8 × × 0.06 = $781 per day
0.85
revenue = γQht × 0.9 × 8 × 0.12 = $1437 per day

Based on these results, the profit is $1437 − $781 = $656/day = $239,440/year .

8.46. From the given data: L = 300 m, ks = 0.26 mm, D = 800 mm, A = πD2 /4 = π(0.8)2 /4 =
0.503 m2 , ks /D = 0.26/800 = 0.000325, T = 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 , γ = 9.789 kN/m3 , µ =
1.002 × 10−3 N·s/m2 , z1 = −5 m, zp = 0.5 m, z2 = 4 m, and pump performance curve given
by
hp = 12 − 0.1Q2 (1)
Energy equation between well and reservoir
L Q2
hp = 9 + hf = 9 + f
D 2gA2
For fully turbulent flow, and ks /D = 0.000325, then f = 0.015 and the head loss equation
becomes
300 Q2
hp = 9 + 0.015 = 9 + 1.13Q2
0.8 2(9.81)(0.503)2
Combining the energy equation with the pump equation gives

9 + 1.13Q2 = 12 − 0.1Q2 → Q = 1.56 m3 /s

Check the assumption of f = 0.015,

ρ(Q/A)D (998.2)(1.56/0.503)(0.8)
Re = = = 2.47 × 106
µ 1.002 × 10−3

The Swamee-Jain equation confirms that f = 0.015 and therefore Q = 1.56 m3 /s . The
specific speed, Ns , is given by
1
ωQ 2
Ns = 3 (2)
hp4
where

Q = 1.56 m3 /s = 24, 727 gpm, hp = 12−0.1(1.56)2 = 11.8 m = 38.6 ft, ω = 1200 rpm

Substituting into Equation 2 gives

1
(1200)(24727) 2
Ns = 3 = 12,185
(38.6) 4

Therefore the type of pump required is an axial flow pump .

365
8.47. From the given data: Q = 1500 L/s, hℓ = 2.3 m, and NPSHR = 2.9 m. Under standard
sea-level atmospheric conditions, p0 = 101.3 kPa. For water at 25◦ C, pv = 3.167 kPa and
γ = 9.778 kN/m3 (from Appendix B.1). Substituting these data into Equation 8.49 gives

p0 − pv 101.3 − 3.167
zmax = − hℓ − NPSHR = − 2.3 − 2.9 = 4.84 m
γ 9.778

8.48. From the given data: Q = 500 L/s, hp = 75 m, D = 550 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 0.2376 m2 ,
patm = 96 kPa, and σ = 0.12. For water at 80◦ C, pv = 47.367 kPa and γ = 9.530 kN/m3
(from Appendix B.1). The following preliminary calculations are useful:

Q 0.5
NPSHR = σhp = 0.12(75) = 9.0 m, Vs = = = 2.105 m/s
A 0.2376
Taking NPSHA = NPSHR and using the definition of NPSHA given by Equation 8.46 gives

ps − pv Vs2 ps − 47.367 2.1052

NPSHR = + → 9.0 = + → ps = 131.0 kPa
γ 2g 9.530 2(9.807)

Therefore the absolute pressure on the suction side is 131.0 kPa, which corresponds to a gage
pressure of 131.0 kPa − 96 kPa = 35.0 kPa

8.49. From the given data: Q = 20 L/s = 0.02 m3 /s, D = 150 mm, ks = 0.3 mm, K = 12,
and NPSHR = 5.5 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s, and
pv = 2.337 kPa. Under standard atmospheric conditions, patm = 101.3 kPa. The following
preliminary calculations are useful:

πD2 π(0.15)2 Q 0.02

A= = = 1.767 × 10−2 m2 , V = = = 1.132 m/s
4 4 A 1.767 × 10−2
V2 1.1322 ks 0.3
hv = = = 0.06531 m, = = 0.002
2g 2(9.807) D 150
( )
VD (1.132)(0.15) ks
Re = = = 1.698 × 105 , f = fCE Re, = 0.0245
ν 1.00 × 10−6 D

where fCE denotes the friction factor given by the Colebrook equation.

(a) When the available net positive suction head is equal to the required net positive suction
head, Equation 8.47 gives
[ ]
p0 pv patm f ∆z pv
NPSHR = − ∆z − hℓ − → NPSHR = − ∆z − + K hv −
γ γ γ D γ

Substituting the given and derived parameters yields

[ ]
101.3 (0.0245)∆z 2.337
5.5 = − ∆z − + 12 (0.06531) − → ∆z = 3.78 m
9.79 0.15 9.79

366
 (b) If K=1.2, then
[ ]
101.3 (0.0245)∆z 2.337
5.5 = − ∆z − + 1.2 (0.06531) − → ∆z = 4.48 m
9.79 0.15 9.79

Therefore, by reducing the local head loss coefficient to 1.2 the pump can be places
4.48 − 3.78 = 0.70 m higher.

8.50. From the given data: Q = 60 L/s, hp = 40 m, hs = 3.90 m, pa1 = 101.3 kPa, and pa2 =
90.0 kPa. For water at 20◦ C, pv = 2.337 kPa and γ = 9.789 kPa. For water at 5◦ C, pv =
0.872 kPa and γ = 9.807 kPa.

(a) From Equations 8.46 and 8.48,

ps Vs2 pv 2.337
NPSHR = + − = 3.90 − = 3.66 m
γ 2g γ 9.789
NPSHR 3.66
σ= = = 0.092
hp 40

(b) From Equation 8.49 with p0 = patm ,

patm − p0 patm − patm
zmax = −hℓ −NPSHR = −hℓ −NPSHR → zmax = −hℓ −NPSHR
γ γ

Since hℓ and NPSHR are independent of atmospheric conditions, there is no change in

the maximum elevation of the pump above the sump.

8.73. From the given data: D1 = 225 mm, ω1 = 1725 rpm, Q = 50 L/s, ps = 80 kPa, Vs = 5 m/s,
ω2 = 1140 rpm, and D2 = 675 mm. For water at 80◦ C, γ = 9.530 kN/m3 , and pv = 47.367 kPa
(from Appendix B.1).

(a) Using the definition of NPSH given by Equation 8.46 gives

ps − pv Vs2 80 − 47.367 52
NPSH = + = + = 4.70 m
γ 2g 9.530 2(9.807)

(b) Using the NPSH scaling relationship given by Equation 8.50 gives
[ ] [ ]
(NPSH) (NPSH) 4.70 NPSH2
2 2
= 2 2
→ 2 2
= → NPSH2 = 18.5 m
ω D 1 ω D 2 (1725) (225) (1140)2 (675)2

8.52. From the given data: ∆z = 3 m + 19.3 m = 22.3 m, L = 100 m, D = 50 mm = 0.05 m,

A = π/4D2 = 0.00196 m2 , and Q = 370 L/min = 0.00617 m3 /s. For galvanized iron, ks =
0.15 mm. Taking Q = 370 L/min as the operating point gives V = Q/A = 3.15 m/s, Re =
V D/ν = 1.58 × 105 (where ν = 10−6 m2 /s at 20◦ C) and
[ ] [ ]
1 ks 2.51 0.15 2.51
√ = −2 log + √ = −2 log + √
f 3.7D Re f 3.7(50) 1.58 × 105 f

367
 which gives f = 0.0270. The energy equation for the system is given by
[ ]
fL Q2 Q2
0− + 1.8 + h p = ∆z +
D 2gA2 2gA2
[ ]
(0.0270)(100) Q2 Q2
0− + 1.8 + h p = 22.3 +
0.05 2(9.81)(0.001962 ) 2(9.81)(0.001962 )

which simplifies to
hp = 22.3 + 7.54 × 105 Q2
This equation is appropriate for hp in meters and Q in m3 /s. For hp in ft and Q in gpm, the
system equation becomes
( )
hp
= 22.3 + 7.54 × 105 (Q × 6.309 × 10−5 )2 → hp = 73.2 + 0.00985Q2
3.281

Plotting the system curve on the pump performance curve indicates that 7-inch pump will
be required, with a maximum flow rate of around 112 gpm = 424 L/min. The next smaller
pump size of 6.5-inch will yield a maximum flow of around 95 gpm = 360 L/min, which is
slightly less than the minimum requirement of 370 L/min.
Under the pump operating conditions, NPSHR = 15 ft = 4.57 m, pv = 2.34 kPa (at 20◦ C),
p0 = 101 kPa, γ = 9.79 kPa, Q = 424 L/min = 0.00707 m3 /s, V = Q/A = 3.61 m/s, and the
NPSH requirement is that

p0 f ∆zs V 2 pv
NPSHR = − ∆zs − −
γ D 2g γ
101 0.0270∆zs 3.612 2.34
4.57 = − ∆zs − −
9.79 0.05 2(9.81) 9.79

which gives ∆zs = 4.05 m. Since the water is 3 m below ground and the pump must be
placed 4.05 m above the water, the pump must be placed a maximum of 4.05 m − 3 m =
1.05 m above ground .

8.53. The following points are derived from the performance curve of the 6.5-in. (165-mm) pump
in Figure 8.46:
Q (gpm) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
hp (ft) 182 184 184 182 180 178 176 172 168 160 156 148 140 126
η (%) – – 25 35 42 47.5 52 55 57 57.5 58 57.5 56 53

The above points correspond to a rotational speed of 3500 rpm.

(a) Using the affinity laws, the following conversions are applied to adjust for the change in
rotational speed to 2500 rpm:
( )2 ( )
ω2 ω2
hp2 = hp1 , Q2 = Q1
ω1 ω1

368
 Taking ω2 /ω1 = 2500/3500 = 0.7143 and applying the unit conversions (1 gpm =
0.06309 L/s, 1 ft = 0.3048 m) gives the following points on the performance curve
of the modified pump:
Q (L/s) 0 0.451 0.901 1.35 1.80 2.25 2.70 3.15 3.61 4.06 4.51 4.96 5.41 5.86
hp (m) 28.3 28.6 28.6 28.3 28.0 27.7 27.4 26.7 26.1 24.9 24.3 23.0 21.8 19.6
η (%) – – 25 35 42 47.5 52 55 57 57.5 58 57.5 56 53

This performance curve is plotted in Figure 8.3.

30 60

Efficiency, η (%)
25 50
Head, hp (m)

20 40

15 30

10 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Flow rate, Q (L/s)

Figure 8.3: Performance curve of modified pump.

(b) It is apparent from the points on the performance curve derived in Part (a) that at the
best efficiency point (BEP) the efficiency is 58% , the flow rate is 4.51 L/s , and the
head added is 24.3 m .
(c) At the BEP of the existing pump: ω = 3500 rpm = 366.5 rad/s, Q = 100 gpm =
6.31 × 10−3 m3 /s, and hp = 156 ft = 47.5 m. Using these values the specific speed, ns , is
given by Equation 8.39 as
1 1
ωQ 2 (366.5)(6.31 × 10−3 ) 2
ns = 3 = 3 = 0.29
[ghp ] 4 [(9.807)(47.5)] 4

At the BEP of the modified pump: ω = 2500 rpm = 261.8 rad/s, Q = 4.51 × 10−3 m3 /s,
and hp = 24.3 m. The specific speed is given by
1 1
ωQ 2 (261.8)(4.51 × 10−3 ) 2
ns = 3 = 3 = 0.29
[ghp ] 4 [(9.807)(24.3)] 4

As expected, both the existing and modified pumps have the same specific speed, since
they are from the same homologous series. According to Table 8.1, since 0.15 ≤ ns ≤ 1.5,
the pump is most likely a centrifugal pump .

8.54. From the given data: ∆z = 2 m, L = 3 m, D = 150 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 1.767 × 10−2 m2 , ks =
0.25 mm, K = 50, NPSHR = 4 m, and patm = 101.3 kPa. For water at 25◦ C, γ = 9.778 kN/m3 ,

369
 ν = 8.927 × 10−7 m2 /s, and pv = 3.167 kPa (from Appendix B.1). The following preliminary
calculations are useful,
ks 0.25 Q Q
= = 1.667 × 10−3 , V (Q) = =
D 150 A 1.767 × 10−2
V (Q)D V (Q)(0.150)
Re(Q) = = , f (Q) = fCE (Re(Q), 1.667 × 10−3 )
ν 8.927 × 10−7
The the energy equation and the NPSH requirement are stated as follows,
[ ]
f L Q2 ps Vs2
∆z − K + = + (1)
D 2gA2 γ 2g

ps Vs2 pv
NPSHA = + − (2)
γ 2g γ
Combining Equations 1 and 2 with the requirement that NPSHR = NPSHA yields the fol-
lowing equation for the maximum allowable flow rate, Q∗ ,
[ ]
f L Q∗2 pv
NPSHR = ∆z − K + 2
−
D 2gA γ
[ ]
f (Q∗ )(3) Q∗2 3.167 − 101.3
→ 4 = 2 − 50 + −
0.15 2(9.807)(1.767 × 10−2 )2 9.778

→ Q∗ = 0.0312 m3 /s = 31.2 L/s

8.55. The system curve is derived from the energy equation:

V2 V2
0− − hf + hp − = 10 (1)
2g 2g
where the V 2 /2g terms account for the entrance and exit losses. The head loss, hf , is given
by the Darcy-Weisbach equation as
L V2 L Q2
hf = f =f
D 2g D 2gA2
The energy equation can therefore be written as
[ ]
L Q2
hp = 10 + 2 + f
D 2gA2
For ductile iron, ks = 0.26 mm, therefore ks /D = 0.26/100 = 0.0026. Assuming the pipe is
hydraulically rough,
[ ] [ ]
1 ks /D 0.0026
√ = −2 log = −2 log = 6.306
f 3.7 3.7
which leads to
f = 0.0251

370
 For the pipeline, L = 104 m, D = 0.100 m, A = πD2 /4 = 0.00785 m2 , and therefore the
system curve given by Equation 1 becomes
[ ] [ ]
L Q2 104 Q2
hp = 10 + 2 + f = 10 + 2 + (0.0251)
D 2gA2 0.1 2(9.81)(0.00785)2
= 10 + 23250Q2

This equation is for Q in m3 /s. For Q in L/s, this equation becomes

hp = 10 + 0.0233Q2

Solving the system curve and the pump curve yields

10 + 0.0233Q2 = 15 − 0.1Q2

which leads to
Q = 6.37 L/s

and
hp = 10.9 m
Under this operating condition, the (given) required net positive suction head, NPSHR , is 1.5
m. Putting NPSHR = NPSHA requires that
p0 pv
1.5 = − ∆zs − hL − (2)
γ γ

In this case, p0 = 101 kPa, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , pv = 2.34 kPa (at 20◦ C), and
[ ]
L Q2
hL = 1 + f
D 2gA2

where L = ∆zs + 1, f = 0.0251, D = 0.1 m, Q = 0.00637 m3 /s, A = 0.00785 m2 , which gives

[ ]
(∆zs + 1) 0.006372
hL = 1 + 0.0251
0.1 2(9.81)(0.00785)2
= 0.0420 + 0.00843∆zs (3)

Combining Equations 2 to 3 gives

101 2.34
1.5 = − ∆zs − 0.0420 − 0.00843∆zs −
9.79 9.79
which leads to
∆zs = 8.40 m

8.56. From the given data: L = 30 m, D = 0.15 m, A = πD2 /4 = π(.15)2 /4 = 0.01767 m2 , and
specific speed = 3000.

371
(a) Energy equation:
( )
L Q2
zA + hp = zF + f + KA + KB + KC + KD + KE + KF
D 2gA2
For PVC pipe, ks ≈ 0, and the friction factor is a function of the (unknown) Reynolds
number according to the relation
( )
1 2.51
√ = −2 log √ (1)
f Re f
Substituting known values into the energy equation gives
( )
30 Q2
0 + hp = 10 + f + 1 + 0.9 + 0.2 + 0.9 + 0.9 + 1
0.15 2(9.81)(0.01767)2
which simplifies to
hp = 10 + 163.2Q2 (4.9 + 200f )

(b) The pump performance curve is given by

hp = 20 − 4713Q2
Simultaneous solution of the energy equation and the pump performance curve gives
10 + 163.2Q2 (4.9 + 200f ) = 20 − 4713Q2
which leads to √
10
Q= (2)
5513 + 32640f
This equation must be solved simultaneously with the friction factor equation (Equation
1), where Re is given by
ρQD (998.2)(Q)(0.15)
Re = = = 8.46 × 106 Q
Aµ (0.01767)(1.002 × 10−3 )
which combined with Equation 2 gives

Re = 2.68 × 107 (5513 + 32640f )− 2

1
(3)
Substituting Equation 3 into Equation 1 gives the following implicit equation for f ,
[ √ ]
1 −8 5513 + 32640f
√ = −2 log 9.37 × 10
f f

which yields
f = 0.014
from which Equation 2 gives
Q = 0.0409 m3 /s
and
Q 0.0409
V = = = 2.31 m/s
A 0.01767

372
 (c) The available net positive suction head, NPSHA , is given by

p0 pv 101 2.34
NPSHA = − ∆zs − hL − = −3−0− = 7.08 m
γ γ 9.79 9.79

Since the required net positive suction head, NPSHR at the pump operating point is
given (by the pump manufacturer) as 3.0 m, and NPSHA (= 7.08 m) > NPSHR (= 3.0
m), cavitation is not expected to occur in the pump.
(d) According to the affinity laws,

ω1 800
Q1 = Q2 = Q2 = 0.5Q2
ω2 1600
and
ω12 8002
hp1 = hp2 = hp2 = 0.25hp2
ω22 16002
Using the affinity relations in the pump performance curve gives

0.25hp2 = 20 − 4713(0.5Q2 )2

which leads to
hp2 = 80 − 4713Q22

8.57. (a) From the given data: D = 6 cm = 0.06 m, L = 107 m, ks = 0.01 mm, z1 = 10.00 m,
z2 = 15.00 m, and ∆z = z2 − z1 = 15.00 m − 10.00 m = 5.00 m. The system curve is
given by
f L Q2
hp = ∆z + (1)
D 2gA2
where
π 2 π
A= D = (0.06)2 = 0.002827 m2 (2)
4 4
and the Swamee-Jain formula gives
0.25
f=[ ( )]2 (3)
ks 5.74
log +
3.7D Re0.9

where
VD QD
Re = = (4)
ν Aν
Taking ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s (at 20◦ C) and combining Equations 2 to 4 yields

0.25
f=  2
  0.01 
  5.74 
log  +( )0.9 
  3.7(60) Q × 0.06 
0.002827 × 1.00 × 10−6

373
which simplifies to
0.25
f= (5)
[log (4.505 × 10−5 + 1.461 × 10−6 Q−0.9 )]2
Combining Equations 1 and 5, and substituting other known data yields

0.25 107 Q2
hp = 5 +
[log (4.505 × 10−5 + 1.461 × 10−6 Q−0.9 )]2 0.06 2(9.81)(0.002827)2
which simplifies to

2.84 × 106 Q2
hp = 5 + (6)
[log (4.505 × 10−5 + 1.461 × 10−6 Q−0.9 )]2
These system curve is plotted on the pump curve in Figure 8.4 using the following
tabulated values derived from Equation 6:

Q Q hp hp
(gpm) (m3 /s) (m) (ft)
0 0 5.00 16.4
20 0.001262 5.44 17.9
40 0.002524 6.53 21.4
60 0.003785 8.18 26.9
80 0.005047 10.38 34.1
100 0.006309 13.11 43.0
120 0.007571 16.35 53.7

Figure 8.4: System curve on pump curve

374
 The intersection of the system curve with the pump curve indicates that size A pump
should be used. This yields an operating point of Q = 390 L/min (= 103 gpm) which is
slightly greater than the desired flow rate of 380 L/min. The maximum flow rate can be
throttled down with a valve. The head added by the pump, hp , at the operating point
is 13.6 m (= 44.5 ft).
(b) The efficiency, η, of the pump at the operating point is approximately 64%, and hence
the power, P , of the required motor is given by

γQhp (9.79)(390 × 10−3 /60)(13.6)

P = = = 1.35 kW (= 1.8 hp)
η 0.64

(c) The available net positive suction head, NPSHA , can be estimated by (neglecting pipe-
entrance losses)
( )
p0 pv p0 f V2 pv
NPSHA = − ∆zs − hL − = − 1+ ∆zs − (7)
γ γ γ D 2g γ

From the pump curve at the operating point, NPSHA = 6.5 ft = 1.98 m, p0 = 101 kPa,
γ = 9.79 kN/m3 , pv = 2.34 kPa (at 20◦ C), Q = 390 L/min = 0.00650 m3 /s, D = 0.06 m,
A = 0.002827 m2 , V = Q/A = 2.30 m/s, and Equation 5 gives f = 0.0178. Substituting
these data into Equation 7 gives
[ ]
101 0.0178 2.302 2.34
1.98 = − 1+ ∆zs −
9.79 0.06 2(9.81) 9.79

which yields ∆zs = 7.50 m. Therefore, the pump can be placed up to 7.50 m above
the pond.

8.58. If Hp is the head added by the pump system, and Q is the flow through the system, then for
n pumps in series
Hp
= 30 − 0.05Q2
n
or
Hp = 30n − 0.05nQ2
For n pumps in parallel,
( )2
Q
Hp = 30 − 0.05
n
or
0.05 2
Hp = 30 − Q
n2

8.59. The flow rate is given by the simultaneous solution of the system curve and the pump curve,
hence
15 + 0.03Q2 = 20 − 0.08Q2
which gives
Q = 6.74 L/s

375
 The pump curve for two identical pumps in series is given by
Hp
= 20 − 0.08Q2
2
or
Hp = 40 − 0.16Q2 (1)
Solving Equation 1 with the system curve gives

15 + 0.03Q2 = 40 − 0.16Q2

which leads to
Q = 11.5 L/s
The pump curve for two identical pumps in parallel is given by
( )2
Q
Hp = 20 − 0.08
2
or
Hp = 20 − 0.02Q2 (2)
Solving Equation 2 with the system curve gives

15 + 0.03Q2 = 40 − 0.02Q2

which leads to
Q = 10 L/s

8.60. From the given data: Q = 1000 L/s, hp = 9 m, P0 = 35 kW, η = 0.62, and ns = 1.5. Assume
γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .

(a) From the definition of overall pump efficiency, the flow rate through each pump can be
estimated using the relation

ηP0 (0.62)(35)
hp = → 9= → Qp = 0.246 m3 /s = 246 L/s
γQp (9.789)Qp

Therefore, the number of pump units required is given by

Q 1000
number of pumps = = = 4.06 ≈ 5 units
Qp 246

(b) Since the specific speed, ns , of the pump is 1.5, the motor speed can be estimated as
follows:
1 1
ωQ 2 ω(0.246) 2
ns = 3 → 1.5 = 3 → ω = 87.09 rad/s = 832 rpm
[ghp ] 4 [(9.807)(9)] 4

This could be rounded to the nearest rated speed of available motors.

376
8.61. From the given data: N = 9, P0 = 40 kW, hp = 35 m, and η = 0.60. For water at 20◦ C,
γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . Using these data gives the flow from each pump unit,
γQhp (9.789)Q(35)
η= → 0.60 = → Q = 7.005 × 10−2 m3 /s
P 40
For all 9 units,
Qtotal = N Q = (9)(7.005 × 10−2 ) = 0.630 m3 /s

8.62. From the given data: D = 250 mm, ks = 0.1 mm, L = 5000 m, and ∆z = 70 m. Find the
system curve with Q in L/s:
0.25 0.25
f=[ ( ks )] = [ ( )] = 0.01589
log10 3.7D 0.1
log10 3.7(250)
π π
A = D2 = (0.250)2 = 0.04909 m2
4 4
L Q2 5000 (Q × 10−3 )2
hp = ∆z + f = 70 + (0.01589) = 70 + 0.006722Q2
D 2gA2 0.250 2(9.81)(0.04909)2
The points on the system curve are as follows:

Q (L/s) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
hp (m) 70.7 72.7 76.0 80.8 86.8 94.2 102.9

(a) Plotting the system curve on the given pump performance curves shows that the 225 mm pump
will have an operating point with a flow that is closest to (but greater than) the desired
pumping rate. The desired flow rate can then be obtained by installing a (partially
closed) valve in the pipeline system.
(b) Reading directly from the performance curve of the 225-mm pump, the efficiency at an
operating flow of 35 L/s with the 225 mm pump is 73% .
(c) For a flow of 35 L/s through the 225-mm pump, the given performance characteristics
indicate that (approximately) NPSHR = 5.0 m. Neglecting friction and entrance losses
in the suction pipe and taking p0 = 101 kPa, pv = 2.34 kPa, and γ = 9.79 kN/m3 gives
p0 pv
NPSHR = − ∆zs −
γ γ
( ) ( )
p0 − pv 101 − 2.34
∆zs = − NPSHR = − 5.0 = 5.1 m
γ 9.79

Therefore, the pump should be no more than 5.1 m above the water surface in the
river.
(d) For 2-225 mm pumps (approximately):

Q (L/s) 60 88
Intersection with system curve = 65 L/s
hp (m) 100 80

377
 For 3-225 mm pumps (approximately):

Q (L/s) 60 90 132
Intersection with system curve = 77 L/s
hp (m) 105 100 80

Based on the above results 3 pumps will be needed to provide a flow rate of (at least)
70 L/s.

8.63. From the given data: L = 20 km = 20000 m, D = 1120 mm = 1.120 m, ks = 0.05 mm, zA
= zB = 5 m, hA = 2 m, zC = 15 m, Q = 48000 m3 /d = 0.556 m3 /s, and pC = 448 kPa. At
T = 20◦ C, ν = 1 × 10−6 m2 /s and γ = 9.79 kN/m3 .

(a) Using the given data,

π 2 π
A= D = (1.120)2 = 0.9852 m2
4 4
Q 0.556
V = = = 0.564 m/s
A 0.9852
VD (0.564)(1.120)
Re = = = 6.317 × 105
ν 1.0 × 10−6
ks 0.05
= = 4.464 × 10−5
D 1120
0.25 0.25
f=[ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2 = 0.01333
ks /D 5.74 4.464×10−5 5.74
log 3.7 + log + (6.317×105 )0.9
Re0.9 3.7

L V2 20000 0.5642
hf = f = (0.01333) = 3.858 m
D 2g 1.120 2(9.81)

The system curve derived from the energy equation as follows:

pA pC
+ zA + hp − hf = + zC
γ γ
448
2 + 5 + hp − 3.858 = + 15
9.79

which yields hp = 57.62 m. For N pumps in parallel the pump-system performance is

given by
( )2
−8 Q
hp = 65 − 7.6 × 10
N
which gives
√ √
7.6 × 10−8 7.6 × 10−8
N= Q= (48000) = 4.87 ≈ 5
65 − hp 65 − 57.62

Hence 5 pumps are needed to deliver the required flow at the required pressure.

378
 (b) To determine the actual operating point, the system curve must be expressed in terms
of the flow Q. Assuming fully turbulent flow,
0.25 0.25
f=[ ( )]2 = [ ( )]2 = 0.01033
ks /D 4.464×10−5
log 3.7 log 3.7

L Q2 20000 Q2
hf = f = (0.01033) = 9.686Q2
D 2gA2 1.12 2(9.81)(0.9852)2
The system curve is derived from the energy equation as follows:
pA pC
+ zA + hp − hf = + zC
γ γ
448
2 + 5 + hp − 9.686Q2 = + 15
9.79
which simplifies to
hp = 53.76 + 9.686Q2
This equation is for Q in m3 /s. For Q in m3 /d,
( )2
Q
hp = 53.76 + 9.686 = 53.76 + 1.298 × 10−9 Q2 (1)
86400
For 5 pumps, the performance curve of the pump system is given by
( )2
−8 Q
hp = 65 − 7.6 × 10 = 65 − 3.04 × 10−9 Q2 (2)
5
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives

65 − 3.04 × 10−9 Q2 = 53.76 + 1.298 × 10−9 Q2

which yields 50,900 m3 /d .

8.64. (a) The energy equation between the supply reservoir and any delivery location, X, is given
by
2 2 V2
fAB LAB VAB fBX LBX VBX pX
3− + hp − = + X + zX
DAB 2g DBX 2g γ 2g
which can be conveniently written as
[ 2 ] [ 2 ]
fAB LAB VAB fBX LBX VBX pX VX2
hp = −3 + + + + zX (1)
DAB 2g DBX 2g γ 2g
where the first term in brackets on the right-hand side is the same for both pipe desti-
nations.

For pipe AB:

QAB = 27 L/s = 0.027 m3 /s

379
 LAB = 1050 m
DAB = 0.200 m
π 2 π
AAB = DAB = (0.200)2 = 0.03142 m2
4 4
QAB 0.027
VAB = = = 0.859 m/s
AAB 0.03142
VAB DAB (0.859)(0.200)
ReAB = = = 171800
ν 10−6
0.25 0.25
fAB = [ ( )]2 [ ( )]2 = 0.02248
0.26 5.74
ks
log 3.7DAB + 5.74 log 3.7(200) + (171800)0.9
Re0.9
AB

which gives
[ 2 ] [ ]
fAB LAB VAB (0.02248)(1050) 0.8592
−3 = − 3 = 1.439 m (2)
DAB 2g (0.200) 2(9.81)
For pipe BC:

QBC = 12 L/s = 0.012 m3 /s

LBC = 2800 m
DBC = 0.150 m
π 2 π
ABC = DBC = (0.150)2 = 0.01767 m2
4 4
QBC 0.012
VBC = = = 0.679 m/s
ABC 0.01767
VBC DBC (0.679)(0.150)
ReBC = = = 101850
ν 10−6
0.25
fBC = [ ( )]2 = 0.0246
0.26 5.74
log 3.7(150) + (101850)0.9
zC = 2 m
which gives
[ 2
] [ ]
fBC LBC VBC pC V2 (0.0246)(2800) 0.6792 350 0.6792
+ + C + zC = + + +2
DBC 2g γ 2g (0.150) 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)
= 48.567 m (3)

For pipe BD:

QBD = 15 L/s = 0.015 m3 /s

LBD = 2500 m
DBD = 0.150 m
π 2 π
ABD = DBD = (0.150)2 = 0.01767 m2
4 4
QBD 0.015
VBD = = = 0.849 m/s
ABD 0.01767

380
 VBD DBD (0.849)(0.150)
ReBD = = = 127350
ν 10−6
0.25
fBD =[ ( )]2 = 0.0242
0.26 5.74
log 3.7(150) + (127350) 0.9

zD = 5 m

which gives
[ 2
] [ ]
fBD LBD VBD pD V2 (0.0242)(2500) 0.8492 350 0.8492
+ + D + zD = + + +5
DBD 2g γ 2g (0.150) 2(9.81) 9.79 2(9.81)
= 55.605 m (4)

Assessing the results in Equations 1 to 4, it is apparent that the required conditions at

location D will yield the maximum value of hp such that

hp = [1.439] + [55.605] = 57.04 m

and the required pump power, P , delivered to the water is given by

P = γQAB hp = (9.79)(0.027)(57.04) = 15.1 kW

(b) If n pumps are used in series and the pump size, D, can be adjusted to meet the desired
operating conditions, then
hp
= 0.455D + 4000Q2AB
n
57.04
= 0.455D + 4000(0.027)2
n
which can be put in the form
125.4
D= − 6.4
n
Assuming different values for n yields the following results

n D (cm)
1 119
2 69
3 48
4 38

Since the pump manufacturer requires that 40 cm < D < 50 cm, use 3 pumps with
D = 48 cm .

8.65. At ω = 600 rpm, the operating point is determined by simultaneous solution of the pump
and system curves,
6 − 0.05Q2 = 3 + 0.042Q2
which yields Q = 5.7 m3 /min .

381
 From the given data: ω1 = 600 rpm, ω2 = 1200 rpm, and the affinity laws (Equation 8.64)
give that
ω1 600
Q1 = Q2 = Q2 = 0.5Q2
ω2 1200

ω12 6002
h1 = h 2 = h2 = 0.25h2
ω22 12002
Since the performance curve of the pump at speed ω1 is given by

h1 = 6 − 0.05Q21

then the performance curve at speed ω2 is given by

0.25h2 = 6 − 0.05(0.5Q2 )2

which leads to
h2 = 24 − 0.05Q22
The new operating point is determined by simultaneous solution of the pump and system
curves,
24 − 0.05Q2 = 3 + 0.042Q2
which yields Q = 15.1 m3 /min .

8.66. From the given data: Q1 = 7 m3 /s, ω1 = 1140 rpm, ω2 = 1725 rpm, and ∆p1 = ∆p2 . For the
homologous same-efficiency points, the affinity laws given by Equation 8.70 yield
[ ] [ ] ( ) ( )3
Q Q ω2 D2
= → Q 2 = Q1 (1)
ωD3 1 ωD3 2 ω1 D1
[ ] [ ] ( ) ( )
∆p ∆p ω2 D1
= → = (2)
ω 2 D2 1 ω2 D2 2 ω1 D2
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
( )2 ( )
ω1 1140 2
Q2 = Q1 = (7) = 3.06 m3 /s
ω2 1725

8.67. From the given data: Ẇshaft = −15×106 W, h = 1600 m, D = 4 m, R = D/2 = 2 m, β = 170◦ ,
ω = 600 rpm = 62.83 rad/s, and kj = 0.03. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/s. Applying the
energy equation across the nozzle gives
√ √
Vj2 Vj2 2gh 2(9.807)(1600)
h − kj = → Vj = = = 174.6 m/s
2g 2g 1 + kj 1 + 0.03

The following three equations must be satisfied:

U = Rω = (2)(62.83) = 125.7 m/s (1)

382
 [ π]
ṁ = ρQ = ρVj Dj2 (2)
4
Ẇshaft = ṁ U (Vj − U )(cos β − 1) (3)

Combining Equations 1 to 3 gives

v ( )
u[ ]−1
u π Ẇ
Dj = t ρVj
shaft
4 U (Vj − U )(cos β − 1)

Substituting the values of the given and derived variables yields

√ ( )
[ π ]−1 −15 × 106
Dj = (998)(174.6) = 0.0948 m ≈ 95 mm
4 125.7(174.6 − 125.7)(cos 170◦ − 1)

8.68. From the given data: D = 3 m, R = D/2 = 1.5 m, ω = 150 rpm = 15.71 rad/s, β = 170◦ , and
Ẇshaft = 850 kW. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 . From the given data, under the most
efficient operating condition,

U = Rω = (1.5)(15.71) = 23.56 m/s, Vj = 12 U = 12 (23.56) = 11.78 m/s

Using the relationship for shaft power given by Equation 8.76 gives
[ ]
πDj2
Ẇshaft = ṁ U (Vj − U )(cos β − 1) = ρ Vj U (Vj − U )(cos β − 1)
4

which simplifies to v[
u ][ ]
u Ẇshaft 4
Dj = t
U (Vj − U )(cos β − 1) πρVj

Substituting the given and derived data yields

√[ ][ ]
850 × 103 4
Dj = = 0.409 m = 409 mm
(23.56)(11.78 − 23.56)(cos 170◦ − 1) π(998)(11.78)

8.69. From the given data: D = 2.7 m, R = D/2 = 1.35 m, β = 167◦ , Dj = 150 mm, and Vj =
12 m/s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 . Under maximum-efficiency conditions,
U 6
U = 12 Vj = 21 (12) = 6 m/s, ω= = = 4.44 rad/s = 42 rpm
R 1.35
The mass flux, ṁ, and maximum power, Ẇshaft , are given by
πDj2 π(0.15)2
ṁ = ρ Vj = (998) (12) = 211.6 kg/s
4 4
Ẇshaft = ṁU (Vj − U )(cos β − 1) = (211.6)(6)(12 − 6)(cos 167◦ − 1) = −15.0 × 103 W

Therefore, the maximum power generated is 15 kW .

383
8.70. From the given data: D = 3 m, R̄ = D/2 = 1.5 m, Dj = 200 mm, Aj = πDj2 /4 = 3.142 ×
10−2 m2 , p1 = 3 MPa, V1 = 5 m/s, kj = 0.03; and β = 160◦ . For water at 20◦ C, ρ =
998.2 kg/m3 . Applying the energy equation across the nozzle,
√ ( )
p1 V12 Vj2 Vj2 2 p1 V12
+ − kj = → Vj = +
γ 2g 2g 2g 1 + kj ρ 2

Substituting the given values of the variables yields

√ ( )
2 3 × 106 52
Vj = + = 76.55 m/s
1 + 0.03 998.2 2

The following preliminary calculations are useful:

Q = Vj Aj = (76.55)(3.142 × 10−2 ) = 2.405 m3 /s, ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(2.405) = 2401 kg/s

(a) The theoretical maximum power is obtained when U = 21 Vj , which combined with Equa-
tion 8.76 gives

U = 12 Vj = 21 (76.55) = 38.28 m/s

Ẇshaft = ṁ U (Vj − U )(cos β − 1)

→ = (2401)(38.28)(76.55 − 38.28)(cos 160◦ − 1) = −6.822 × 106 W = −6.822 MW

Therefore, the maximum power that can be generated is approximately 6.82 MW

(b) The rotational speed, ω1 , at the maximum-power state is given by
U 38.28
ω1 = = = 25.52 rad/s = 244 rpm
R̄ 1.5
(c) The runaway rotational speed is given by
Vj 76.55
ω1 = = = 51.03 rad/s = 487 rpm
R̄ 1.5
(d) The torque at the maximum-power state is given by

T = ṁR̄(Vj − U )(cos β − 1) = (2401)(1.5)(76.55 − 38.28)(cos 160◦ − 1)

→ = −2.673 × 105 N·m = −267.3 kN·m

Therefore, the magnitude of the torque is approximately 267 kN·m .

(e) The torque when the wheel is held stationary (i.e., U = 0) is given by

T = ṁR̄(Vj − U )(cos β − 1) = (2401)(1.5)(76.55 − 0)(cos 160◦ − 1)

→ = −5.347 × 105 N·m = −534.7 kN·m

Therefore, the magnitude of the torque is approximately 535 kN·m .

384
8.71. From the given data: ηw = 0.85. The wheel efficiency is defined by Equation 8.80, and under
the maximum-efficiency condition U = 12 Vj gives
2U (Vj − U )(1 − cos β) 2 12 Vj (Vj − 12 Vj )(1 − cos β) 1 − cos β
ηw = = → ηw =
Vj2 Vj2 2
From the given data,
1 − cos β
0.85 = → β = 134◦
2
8.72. From the given data: R = 1.95 m, β = 160◦ , ηw = 0.85, Dj = 150 mm, and Vj = 95 m/s. For
water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are useful:
π π
Q = Dj2 Vj = (0.15)2 (95) = 1.679 m3 /s, ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(1.679) = 1676 kg/s
4 4
(a) The optimum bucket speed, U , and rotation rate, ω, are given by
U 47.5
U = 12 Vj = 21 (95) = 47.5 m/s, ω= = = 24.36 rad/s ≈ 233 rpm
R 1.95
(b) Using the definition of wheel efficiency given by Equation 8.79 gives the shaft power
output, |Ẇshaft |, as
|Ẇshaft | = ηt 12 ṁVj2 = (0.85) 12 (1676)(95)2 = 6.428 × 106 W ≈ 6.43 MW
8.73. The theoretical turbine efficiency, ηt , is given by Equation 8.81 as
|Ẇshaft | ρQU (Vj − U )(1 − cos β)
ηt = = = 2U ∗ (Vj∗ − U ∗ )(1 − cos β) (1)
γQhe γQhe
where
U Vj
U∗ = √ , Vj∗ = √ = Cv
2ghe 2ghe
Differentiating Equation 1 with respect to U ∗ and setting the result equal to zero yield the
value of U ∗ that maximizes ηt as follows
dηt
= U ∗ (Cv − U ∗ )[2(1 − cos β)] = 0 → U ∗ = 12 Cv
dU ∗
Based on the definition of U ∗ , the above result corresponds to
U √
√ = 12 Cv → U = 12 Cv 2ghe
2ghe
8.74. The theoretical turbine efficiency, ηt , is given by Equation 8.81 as
|Ẇshaft | ρQU (Vj − U )(1 − cos β)
ηt = = = 2ϕ(Cv − ϕ)(1 − cos β) (1)
γQhe γQhe
where
U Vj
ϕ= √ , Cv = √
2ghe 2ghe
Substituting the maximum-efficiency condition of ϕ = 12 Cv into Equation 1 gives

ηt = 2( 12 Cv )(Cv − 21 Cv )(1 − cos β) → ηt = 12 Cv2 (1 − cos β)

385
8.75. Applying the energy equation across the nozzle gives
√
Vj2 Vj2 1 √
he − kj = → Vj = 2ghe (1)
2g 2g 1 + kj
The definition of the velocity coefficient is given by
√
Vj = Cv 2ghe (2)
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
√
1
Cv =
1 + kj

8.76. From the given data: D = 4.2 m, R = D/2 = 2.1 m, he = 524 m, Dj = 125 mm, Aj =
πD2 /4 = 1.227 × 10−2 m2 , Cv = 0.94, and β = 165◦ . For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .
The required variables are calculated as follows:
U U
√ = 12 Cv → √ = 12 (0.94) → U = 47.65 m/s
2ghe 2(9.807)(524)

U = 21 Vj → 47.65 = 12 Vj → Vj = 95.30 m/s

These results give
U 47.65
ω= = = 22.69 rad/s = 217 rpm
R 2.1

Q = Vj Aj = (95.30)(1.227 × 10−2 ) = 1.169 m3 /s



η = 21 Cv2 (1 − cos β) = 21 (0.94)2 (1 − cos 165◦ ) = 0.8685
max


Pmax = η  γQhe = (0.8685)(9.789)(1.169)(524) = 5.209 × 103 kW = 5.21 MW
max

8.77. From the given data: he = 150 m, Q = 5 m3 /s, ω = 440 rpm = 46.08 rad/s, β = 165◦ , and
Cv = 0.92. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .
(a) Under the most efficient operating condition,
√ √
ϕ = 21 Cv = 21 (0.92) = 0.46, U = ϕ 2ghe = (0.46) 2(9.807)(150) = 24.95 m/s
U 24.95
R= = = 0.541 m, D = 2R = 2(0.541) = 1.08 m
ω 46.08
(b) The maximum efficiency is given by Equation 8.85 as


ηt  = 12 Cv2 (1 − cos β) = 21 (0.92)2 (1 − cos 165◦ ) = 0.832
max
The corresponding maximum power, P , is given by


P = ηt  γQhe = (0.832)(9.789)(5)(150) = 6.11 × 103 kW = 6.11 MW
max

386
 (c) Determine the most efficient type of turbine using the specific speed, Equations 8.103
and 8.105 give
1 1
′ ωQ 2 (46.08)(5) 2
ns = η t 3 = (0.832) 3 = 0.36
[ght ] 4 [(9.807)(150)] 4
Since 0.2 ≤ n′s < 2, a Francis turbine is likely to be more efficient.
8.78. From the given data: Dj = 30 mm, Vj = 40 m/s, β = 160◦ , D = 1 m, and R = D/2 = 0.5 m.
For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 . Using the given data,
πDj2 π(0.03)2
ṁ = ρQ = ρ Vj = (998) (40) = 28.22 kg/s
4 4
(a) If the Pelton wheel is not rotating, then the relevant velocities are as follows,

U =0

V1θ = Vj = 40 m/s

V2θ = (Vj − U ) cos β + U = (40 − 0) cos 160◦ + 0 = −37.59 m/s

The torque on the shaft of the Pelton wheel is therefore given by Equation 8.72 as

Tshaft = 2ṁR(V2θ − V1θ ) = 2(28.22)(0.5)(−27.59 − 40) = −2.189 × 103 = −2.19 kN·m

(b) When the Pelton wheel is freewheeling its peripheral velocity is equal to the velocity of
the jet, in which case the rotational speed, ω is given by
Vj 40
ω= = = 80 rad/s = 764 rpm
R 0.5
(c) When the Pelton wheel rotates at ω = 120 rpm = 12.57 rad/s, then the peripheral speed,
U , and the shaft power, Ẇshaft , are given by

U = Rω = (0.5)(12.57) = 6.283 m/s

Ẇshaft = ṁ U (Vj − U )(cos β − 1) = (28.22)(6.283)(40 − 6.283)(cos 160◦ − 1) = −23.2 × 103 W

Therefore the power generated is approximately 23.2 kW .

8.79. From the given data: Dp = 300 mm, ∆z = 80 m, L = 600 m, ks = 0.5 mm, kj = 0.05, and
β = 160◦ . For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 and ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following
preliminary calculations are useful,
πDp2 π(0.3)2 ks 0.5
Ap = = = 0.07069 m2 , = = 1.667 × 10−3
4 4 Dp 300
L 8(1 + kj )
α1 = = 6.122 × 103 s2 ·m−5 , α2 = = 0.08678 s2 ·m−1
2gA2p Dp π2g
Dp Vp Dp QDp
α3 = = 4.227 × 106 s·m−3 , Rep (Q) = = = α3 Q
Ap ν ν Ap ν

387
(a) Applying the energy equation between the reservoir and the exit from the nozzle gives
L Q2 Q2 Q2
∆z − f − kj 2 =
2
Dp 2gAp 2gAj 2gA2j

Using the given data and the parameters α1 and α2 gives

( )( )
ks ks α2
80 − α1 fCE Re, , Rep (Q) Q2 = 4 (1)
D Dp Dj
( )
where fCE Re, kDs is the friction factor given by the Colebrook equation. Equation 1
gives Q as a function of Dj , and this function can be represented as Q(Dj ). Using this
as the canonical function, it is convenient to define the following functions of Dj ,

πDj2 Q(Dj ) 4Q(Dj )

ṁ(Dj ) = ρQ(Dj ), Aj (Dj ) = , Vj (Dj ) = =
4 Aj (Dj ) πDj2
1
Using the defined functions and noting that for maximum power U = 2 Vj , the shaft
power, Ẇshaft , as given by Equation 8.76 can be expressed as

Ẇshaft = ṁ U (Vj − U )(cos β − 1) → Ẇshaft = 41 ṁ Vj2 (cos β − 1)

which can be expressed in functional form as

Ẇshaft = 41 ṁ(Dj ) Vj (Dj )2 (cos 160◦ − 1)

This function is plotted in Figure 8.5, which shows that the value of Dj that minimized
Ẇshaft is between 0.22 m and 0.24 m. Evaluating the function numerically (e.g., with

-40
Wsha! (kW)

-50

-60
0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28
Jet diameter, Dj (m)

Figure 8.5: Ẇshaft versus Dj .

MATLAB or Excel) gives the minimum value of Ẇshaft at Dj = 0.228 m = 228 mm .

(b) Assuming that the flow is fully turbulent, the Colebrook equation gives f = 0.0223 and
Ẇshaft can be expressed analytically in terms of Dj by the following expression
[( ) ]3
2
4ρ 1 α2 1
Ẇshaft = 2 4 80 − 4 (cos 160◦ − 1)
π Dj Dj α1 f

388
 Finding the value of Dj that satisfies the relation dẆshaft /dDj = 0 yields Dj = 0.228 m
= 228 mm . Therefore the assumption of fully turbulent flow yields the same result as
assuming that the flow is not fully turbulent. So the assumption of fully turbulent flow
is appropriate .

8.80. From the given data: H = 85 m, D = 0.60 m, L = 300 m, ks = 8 mm, Dj = 50 mm, kj =

0.8, k = 0.5, v2 = 2 m/s, and V2 = 6 m/s. The flow rate, Q, is determined by application of
the energy equation between the upstream reservoir and the exit of the nozzle, which requires
that
f L Q2 Q2 Q2
H− − k j =
D 2gA2 2gA2j 2gA2j
Using the Swamee-Jain equation yields Q = 0.0597 m3 /s. The corresponding velocities in the
delivery pipeline and nozzle jet are V = 0.21 m/s and Vj = 30.4 m/s, and the friction factor
is f = 0.0425. Using these derived data yields the following results:

fL V 2 (0.0425)(300) 0.212
he = H − hL = Y − = 85 − = 84.95 m
D 2g (0.60) 2(9.81)
Vj2 v2 V2 30.42 22 62
hT = he − kj − k 2 − 2 = 84.95 − 0.8 − 0.5 − = 45.3 m
2g 2g 2g 2(9.81) 2(9.81) 2(9.81)
PT = γQhT = (9.79)(0.0597)(45.3) = 26.5 kW
hT 45.3
ηT = = = 0.53
he 84.95

For the given configuration, the expected power from the system is 26.5 kW with a hydraulic
efficiency of 53% .

8.81. From the given data: ω = 900 rpm = 94.25 rad/s, H = 180 m, η = 82%, ηh = 90%, θ1 = 30◦ ,
θ2 = 60◦ , and Hr = 0.2D1 = 0.4r1 (where r1 is the outer radius of the runner). From the
given efficiencies,

180 Ẇshaft Ẇshaft 0.90

= 0.82, = 0.90 → = (180) = 197.6 m (1)
ha ṁgha ṁg 0.82
From the inflow velocity triangle,

U + W cos 60◦ = V cos 30◦ , W sin 60◦ = V sin 30◦

which can be solved simultaneously to yield

V = 1.732W, U = 0.9922W

Using these results with the given data yields the following parameters in terms of the radius,
r1 of the runner,

U = r1 ω = r1 (94.25) = 94.25r1 m/s

U 94.25r1
W = = = 94.99r1 m/s
0.9922 0.9922

389
 V = 1.732W = 1.732(94.99r1 ) = 164.5r1 m/s,

V1θ = V cos 30◦ = (164.5r1 ) cos 30◦ = 142.5r1 m/s (2)

The shaft power is given by Equation 8.94, and noting that V2θ = 0, this equation gives
Ẇshaft ω
Ẇshaft = Tshaft ω = ṁ ω (r2 V2θ − r1 V1θ ) → = − r1 V1θ (3)
ṁg g
Combining Equations 1 to 3 and noting that the shaft work is negative yields
94.25
−197.6 = − r1 (142.5r1 ) → r1 = 0.144 m → D1 = 2r1 = 0.289 m = 289 mm
9.807
8.82. From the given data: η = 0.92, ηh = 0.95, D1 = 2.5 m, r1 = D1 /2 = 1.25 m, H1 = 0.35 m,
ω1 = 300 rpm = 31.42 rad/s, ∆z = 4 m, Q = 20 m3 /s, V = 10 m/s, p = 2447 kPa, and
V2θ = 0. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/s, and γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . The following preliminary
calculations are useful,
A1 = πD1 H1 = π(2.5)(0.35) = 2.749 m2

ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(20) = 1.996 × 104 kg/s

p V2 2447 102
ha = + + ∆z = + + 4 = 259.1 m
γ 2g 9.789 2(9.807)
(a) The power output, P , from the turbine unit is given by
P = η ṁgha = (0.92)(1.996 × 104 )(9.807)(259.1) = 4.667 × 107 W = 46.7 MW

(b) The shaft power, Ẇshaft , and specific speed, n′s , are given by
Ẇshaft = ηh ṁgha = (0.95)(1.996 × 104 )(9.807)(259.1) = 4.819 × 107 W
√
′ (31.42) 4.819 × 107 /998.2
ns = 5 = 0.383
[(9.807)(259.1)] 4
(c) Denoting the guide vane and runner blade angles by θv and θb , respectively, these angles
can be determined from the following sequence of calculations, noting that V2θ = 0, V
is the magnitude of the inflow velocity, and U is the tip speed of the runner,
U = r1 ω = (1.25)(31.42) = 39.27 m/s

ηh gha (0.95)(9.807)(259.1)
V1θ = = = 61.46 m/s
U 39.27
( ) [ ]
−1 Q −1 20
θv = tan = tan = 6.75◦
A1 V1θ (2.749)(61.46)
V1θ 61.46
V = = = 61.69 m/s
cos θv cos 6.75◦
( ) [ ]
−1 V sin θv −1 61.69 cos 6.75◦
θb = tan = tan = 18.2◦
V cos θv − U 61.66 cos 6.75◦ − 39.27

390
8.83. From the given data: D1 = 500 mm, r1 = D1 /2 = 250 mm, H1 = 60 mm, D2 = 350 mm, r2 =
D2 /2 = 175 mm, H2 = 80 mm, p = 6%, and ha = 65 m. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .
The continuity equation requires that
◦ ◦

1 sin 24 
ρV
2 sin 30 
πD1 H1 = ρW πD2 H2

V1 sin 24◦ (0.5)(0.06) = W2 sin 30◦ (0.35)(0.08) → W2 = 0.8716V1 (1)

The shaft power, Ẇshaft , delivered to the turbine is given by

Ẇshaft = −ṁg[ha − hf ] = −ṁg[65 − 0.1(65)] = −58.5 ṁg

The relationship between Ẇshaft and the tangential velocity components is given by the an-
gular momentum equation as

Ẇshaft = ṁω [r2 (r2 ω − W2 cos 30◦ ) − r1 (V1 cos 24◦ )]

−58.5

ṁ(9.807)  [(0.175)(0.175ω − (0.8716V1 ) cos 30◦ ) − 0.25(V1 cos 24◦ )]
=
ṁω

which gives
−573.7 = ω[0.03063ω − 0.3605V1 ] (2)
The inflow velocity triangle requires that

V1 sin 24◦ = W1 sin 80◦ → W1 = 0.4130V1

V1 cos 24◦ = r1 ω + W1 cos 80◦ → V1 cos 24◦ = 0.25ω + (0.4130V1 ) cos 80◦

which simplifies to
V1 = 0.2970ω (3)

(a) Combining Equations 2 and 3 gives

ω = 86.63 rad/s = 827 rpm , V1 = 25.73 m/s

(b) The mass flux, ṁ, through the turbine is given by

ṁ = ρV1 sin 24◦ πD1 H1 (1 − p) = (998.2)(25.73) sin 24◦ π(0.5)(0.06)(1 − 0.06) = 925.5 kg/s

The power output, P , from the turbine system is given by

P = ṁghout = (925.5)(9.807)[65 − 0.1(65) − 0.05(65)] = 5.015 × 105 W ≈ 502 kW

8.84. From the given data: θ = 20◦ , D1 = 1600 mm, r1 = D1 /2 = 800 mm, b1 = 80 mm, D2 =
900 mm, r2 = D2 /2 = 450 mm, ω = 120 rpm = 12.57 rad/s, Q = 2.9 m3 /s, and V2θ = 0. For
water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/s (from Appendix B.1). The following preliminary calculations
are useful:
Q 2.9
A1 = 2πr1 b1 = 2π(0.8)(0.08) = 0.4021 m2 , V1r = = = 7.212 m/s
A1 0.4021

391
 V1r 7.212
V1θ = = = 19.81 m/s, ṁ = ρQ = (998.2)(2.9) = 2895 kg/s
tan θ tan 20◦
Substitute the given and derived data into Equation 8.94, respecting the convention of the
counterclockwise direction being positive, gives

Ẇshaft = ṁ ω [r2 V2θ − r1 V1θ ] = (2895)(−12.57) [0 + (0.8)(19.81)] = −5.767×105 W = −577 kW

Therefore, the power produced by the turbine is estimated as |Ẇshaft | = 577 kW .

8.85. From the given data: N = 8, ha = 250 m, Q = 12 m3 /s, ηt = 0.95, and ηg = 0.91. For water
at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . The power, P , generated by each unit is given by

P = ηt ηg γQha = (0.95)(0.91)(9.789)(12)(250) = 2.539 × 104 kW = 25.39 MW

So, the power, Ptotal , generated by 8 turbine units is

Ptotal = N P = (8)(25.39) = 203 MW

8.86. From the given data: H = 100 m, D = 2.0 m, L = 500 m, ks = 15 mm, Q = 20 m3 /s,
∆htd = 5 m, and V = 0.8 m/s. The velocity (= Q/A) in the penstock can be calculated as
Vp = 6.37 m/s. Using the given values of Q, D, and ks , and assuming that the kinematic
viscosity of water, ν, is 10−6 m2 /s, (at 20◦ C), the friction factor, f , of the penstock can be
calculated using the Swamee-Jain equation which yields f = 0.0345. The head, ha , available
to the turbine is given by Equation 8.97 as

f L Vp2 V2 (0.0345)(500) 6.372 0.82

ha = H − − ∆htd − = 100 − − 5.0 − = 77.16 m
D 2g 2g 2.0 2(9.81) 2(9.81)
which gives a maximum available power of

Pmax = γQha = (9.79)(20)(77.16) = 15100 kW = 15.1 MW

Therefore the system will extract a maximum power of 15.1 MW from the water flowing
through the turbine.

8.87. From the given data: Ẇshaft = 50 MW, ha = 70 m, ηh = 0.90, and ω = 120 rpm = 12.57 rad/s.
For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 , and γ = 9.789 kN/m3 .

(a) The specific speed is given by Equation 8.104 as

√
√
ω Ẇ shaft /ρ (12.57) 20 × 106 /998.2
n′s = 5 = 5 = 0.801
[gha ] 4 [(9.807)(70)] 4

Since 0.2 ≤ n′s < 2, the Francis turbine is the most efficient type of unit. So, the use of
a Francis turbine is verified .
(b) The optimal flow rate is determined from the following relation

Ẇshaft = ηh γQha → 50 × 103 = (0.90)(9.789)Q(70) → Q = 81.1 m3 /s

392
8.88. From the given data: D1 = 600 mm, η1 = 0.85, and D2 = 2500 mm. Applying Equation 8.101
to scale up the efficiency gives
( )1 ( )1
1 − η2 D1 5 1 − η2 600 5
= → = → η2 = 0.89 = 89%
1 − η1 D2 1 − 0.85 2500

8.89. From the given data: Q = 44 m3 /s, ha = 40 m, ω = 150 rpm = 15.71 rad/s, and Ẇshaft =
12 MW. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 and ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 .

(a) The hydraulic efficiency, ηh , of the turbine is given by

Ẇshaft 12 × 103
ηh = = = 0.697 ≈ 70%
γQha (9.789)(44)(40)

(b) The specific speed of the turbine, n′s , is given by Equation 8.104 as
√
√
′
ω Ẇshaft /ρ (15.71) 12 × 106 /998.2
ns = 5 = 5 = 0.987
[gha ] 4 [(9.807)(40)] 4

Since 0.2 ≤ n′s < 2, the turbine must be a Francis turbine .

(c) At a reduced head on 18 m, for maximum efficiency the (homologous) turbine must also
have a specific speed of 0.987. Hence,
√ √
ω Ẇshaft /ρ (15.71) Ẇshaft /998.2
5 = 0.987 → 5 = 0.987 → Ẇshaft = 3.62×106 W
[gha ] 4 [(9.807)(18)] 4

Hence the power generated under best-efficiency conditions at a head of 18 m is 3.62 MW .

8.90. From the given data: ha = 786 m, Q = 3.2 m3 /s, ω = 520 rpm = 54.45 rad/s, and ηh = 0.90.
The specific speed given by Equation 8.103 is calculated as follows,
1 1
ωQ 2 (54.45)(3.2) 2
ns = 3 = 3 = 0.118
[gha ] 4 [(9.807)(786)] 4

Also, the specific speed, n′s , given by Equation 8.104 can be calculated using the relation in
Equation 8.105, which yields

n′s = ηh ns = (0.90)(0.118) = 0.112

Since n′s < 0.2, an impulse turbine would be most efficient for this site.

8.91. From the given data: Q = 9 m3 /s, ha = 30 m, ω = 130 rpm = 13.61 rad/s, and ηh = 0.90.
Using Equations 8.103 and 8.105 the specific speed, n′s , is calculated as follows,
1 1
ωQ 2 (13.61)(9) 2
n′s = ηh 3 = (0.90) 3 = 0.52
[gha ] 4 [(9.807)(30)] 4

393
 Since 0.2 ≤ n′s < 2 the unit is likely a Francis turbine . For a Francis-type turbine, the
peripheral velocity factor, ϕ∗ , is in the range of 0.7–0.8, and therefore the corresponding size
range of the runner can be estimated using Equation 8.110 as follows:
√
∗ 2(0.7) 2(9.807)(30)
ϕ = 0.7 → D = = 2.50 m
13.61
√
∗ 2(0.8) 2(9.807)(30)
ϕ = 0.8 → D = = 2.85 m
13.61
Therefore, the required runner size is expected to be in the range of 2.50-2.85 m .

8.92. From the given data: Ẇshaft = 500 kW, D = 850 mm, ω = 210 rpm = 21.99 rad/s, ha = 10 m,
and Q = 7 m3 /s. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . Calculate the specific speed using
Equation 8.104, which gives
√
√
′
ω Ẇshaft /ρ (21.99) 500 × 103 /998.2
ns = 5 = 5 = 1.59
[gha ] 4 [(9.807)(10)] 4

Since 0.2 ≤ n′s < 2, each unit is likely a Francis turbine .

8.93. For the given data: P1 = 25 MW, ω1 = 100 rpm, h1 = 20 m, h2 = 5 m, P2 = 40 kW, and
ηh = 0.90. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . Use the affinity laws given in Equation 8.31
as follows:
h1 h2 20 5 ω2 D1
= → = → = 0.5 (1)
ω1 D12
2 ω2 D22
2 ω12 D12 ω22 D22 ω1 D2
( )5
P1 P2 25 × 103 40 ω2 D1 3

3 5 = 3 5 → 3 5 = 3 5 → = 0.1170 (2)
ω1 D1 ω2 D2 ω1 D1 ω2 D2 ω1 D2
Solving Equations 1 and 2 gives the length scale ratio and model rotational speed as follows
(recall ω1 = 100 rpm):
D1 ω2
= 8.83 , = (8.83)(0.5) → ω2 = 442 rpm
D2 100
The flow rate in the model is calculated using the power relationship as follows:

P2 = ηh γQ2 h2 → 40 = (0.90)(9.789)Q(5) → Q = 0.908 m3 /s

8.94. From the given data: D1 = 2.00 m, ω1 = ω2 = 115 rpm, P1 = 170 MW, h1 = 68 m, Q1 =
300 m3 /s, and h2 = 95 m. For water at 20◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 . Using the turbine affinity
laws in Equation 8.100 yields the following results:
gh

1 = gh

2 68 95
→ = 2 → D2 = 2.36 m
ωD12 
 ωD22 2.002 D2
Q1 Q2 300 Q2
= → = → Q2 = 495 m3 /s
ω

3
1 D1 ω

3
2 D2 2.003 2.363

394
 P1 P2 170 P2
= → 5
= → P2 = 392 MW
ρ

3 5
1 ω1 D1 ρ

3 5
2 ω2 D2 2.00 2.365
The hydraulic efficiency of both turbines are the same, and can be calculated for the new
facility as
P2 392 × 103
ηh = = = 0.851 = 85.1%
γQ2 h2 (9.789)(495)(2.36)
8.95. From the given data: Dr = 5, hp = 35 m, Qp = 64.1 m3 /s, ωp = 600 rpm = 62.83 rad/s, and
hm = 12 m. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/s.
(a) Similarity requires that the following affinity laws be satisfied:
Qr gr hr
= 1, =1
ωr Dr3 ωr2 Dr2
From the given data,
hp 35
Dr = 5, hr = = = 2.917
hm 12
Therefore, similarity requires that
√ √
hr 2.917 ωp 600
ωr = 2
= = 0.3416 → ωm = = = 1757 rpm
Dr 52 0.3416 0.3416

Qp 64.1
Qr = ωr Dr3 = (0.3416)(5)3 = 42.7 → Qm = = = 1.50 m3 /s
42.7 42.7
(b) Introducing the efficiency into the similarity relation for shaft power gives the following
affinity relationship,
Wr
=1 → Wr = ηr ρr ωr3 Dr5 = (1.05)(1)(0.3416)3 (5)5 = 130.8
ηr ρr ωr3 Dr5
Therefore the prototype is expected to extract (130.8)(110 kW) = 14.4 MW
(c) The specific speed of the turbine, n′s , is given by Equation 8.104 as
√
√
′
ω Ẇshaft /ρ (62.83) 14.4 × 106 /998.2
ns = 5 = 5 = 5.12
[gha ] 4 [(9.807)(35)] 4
For this specific speed, an axial-flow turbine is expected in order to maximize efficiency.
8.96. From the given data: ha = 30 m, ω = 120 rpm = 12.57 rad/s, ηh = 0.9, and Ẇshaft = 20 MW.
For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 and γ = 9789 N/m3 .
(a) Taking the desired operating conditions as optimal, the specific speed, n′s , of the required
turbine is given by
√
√
′
ω Ẇshaft /ρ (12.57) 20 × 106 /998.2
ns = 5 = 5 = 1.46
[gha ] 4 [(9.807)(30)] 4
Since 0.2 ≤ n′s < 2, the turbine must be a Francis turbine .

395
 (b) The flow rate, Q, under the desired operating conditions is derived from the relationship
between flow and power as follows,

Ẇshaft 20 × 106
Ẇshaft = ηh γQha → Q= = = 75.7 m3 /s
ηh γha (0.9)(9789)(30)

8.97. From the given data: ∆z = 3 m, σc = 0.2, and hℓ = 0. At an elevation of 2000 m, patm =
79.501 kPa (from Appendix B.3). At T = 15◦ C, γ = 9.789 kN/m3 , and pv = 1.704 kPa (from
Appendix B.1. Combining Equations 8.115 and 8.113 (with hℓ = 0) gives
patm − pv 79.501 − 1.704
∆z = − σc ha → 3= − (0.2)ha → ha = 24.7 m
γ 9.789

8.98. From the given data: ha = 8 m, Ẇshaft = 32 MW, ω = 140 rpm = 14.66 rad/s, n′s = 4.9, and
ηh = 0.85. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 and γ = 9789 N/m3 .

(a) Assuming that each unit operates at its most efficient state, then the power, Ẇshaft ′ ,
delivered by each unit is given by the specific speed as follows,
√ [ ]2 [ ]2
′
ω Ẇshaft /ρ ′ (gh ) 43 3
n 4.9(9.807 × 8) 4
n′s = ′ a
5 → Ẇshaft =ρ s = (998) = 6.08 MW
[gha ] 4 ω 14.66

Therefore, the number of units required is given by

Ẇshaft 32
number of units = ′
= = 5.26 units
Ẇshaft 6.08

A total of 6 units will be required. Five of these units should be identical and have a
specific speed of 4.9, while the sixth unit should be smaller in order to generate a total
power of 32 MW in an optimal manner.
(b) The flow, Q′ , through each of the five identical units is given by
′
Ẇshaft 6.08 × 106
Q′ = = = 91.3 m3 /s
ηh γha (0.85)(9890)(8)

Assuming that this flow goes through each of the 5 identical units and that the flow
through the sixth unit is directly proportional to the power generated by that unit, then
the total required flow, Q, is given by

Q = 5.26 Q′ = 5.26 (91.3) = 481 m3 /s

8.99. (a) The typical efficiency associated with a hydropower installation is around 90% .
(b) From the given data: ha = 300 m, and Q = 0.8 m3 /s. Assume the η = 0.9. For water at
20◦ C, γ = 9.79 kN/m3 . The expected power output of a hydropower facility is

P = η γQha = (0.9)(9.79)(0.8)(300) = 2.11 × 103 kW ≈ 2.1 MW

396
8.100. Assuming that the capacity of the turbines will be sufficient to pass a flow, Q of 1630 m3 /s at
an available head of 15 m, and taking the turbine efficiency, η, as 0.85, and γ = 9.79 kN/m3 ,
yields
P = γQha η = (9.79)(1630)(15)(0.85) = 2.03 × 105 kW = 203 MW
Therefore, to fully utilize the available head and anticipated flow rates, an installed capacity
of 203 MW is required.

397
398
Chapter 9

Flow in Open Channels

9.1.

V = 1 m/s
A = (b + my)y = (5 + 2 × 2)2 = 18 m2

Therefore
Q = V A = (1)(18) = 18 m3 /s

9.2. Q = 8 m3 /s, w1 = 4 m, V1 = 1 m/s, and

Q = w1 y 1 V 1

which leads to
Q 8
y1 = = = 2m
w1 V 1 (4)(1)
w2 = 5 m, y2 = y1 − 0.5 m = 1.5 m, and

Q = w2 y 2 V 2

which leads to
Q 8
V2 = = = 1.07 m/s
w2 y 2 (5)(1.5)

9.3. The hydraulic radius, R, is defined by

A
R=
P
where, for circular pipes,
πD2
A= and P = πD
4
Hence
πD2 /4 D
R= =
πD 4
or
D = 4R

399
9.4. The shear stress, τ0 , on the perimeter of the channel is given by

τ0 = γRS0 (1)

From the given data b = 5 m, y = 1.8 m, m = 1.5, and the geometric properties of the channel
are

A = by + my 2 = 5(1.8) + 1.5(1.8)2 = 13.86 m2

√ √
P = b + 2 1 + m2 y = 5 + 2 1 + 1.52 (1.8) = 11.49 m
A 13.86
R= = = 1.21 m
P 11.49

From the given data, τ0 = 3.5 N/m2 , and since γ = 9790 N/m2 , Equation 1 gives the maximum
allowable slope, S0 , as
τ0 3.5
S0 = = = 0.00030
γR (9790)(1.21)
For the excavated channel, ks = 3 mm = 0.003 m, and ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s at 20◦ C.
Substituting these data into Equation 9.43 gives the flow rate, Q, as
( )
√ ks 0.625ν
Q = −2A 8gRS0 log10 + √
12R R 32 8gS0
[ ]
√ 0.003 0.625(1.00 × 10−6 )
Q = −2(13.86) 8(9.81)(1.21)(0.00030) log10 + √
12(1.21) (1.21) 32 8(9.81)(0.00030)
= 17.2 m3 /s

Therefore, for the given flow depth restrictions in the channel, the flow capacity of the channel
is 17.2 m3 /s .

9.5. From the given data: b = 8 m, S0 = 0.0001, ks = 2 mm = 0.002 m, and Q = 15 m3 /s. At

20◦ C, µ = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s, and, for a rectangular channel,

by
A = by and R=
2y + b

Substituting into Equation 9.43 gives

( )
√ ks 0.625ν
Q = −2A 8gRS0 log10 + 3√
12R R 2 8gS0
√ [ ]
8y 0.002 0.625(1.00 × 10−6 )
15 = −2(8y) 8(9.81)( )(0.0001) log10 8y + 8y 3 √
2y + 8 12( 2y+8 ) ( 2y+8 ) 2 8(9.81)(0.0001)

which yields
y = 2.25 m

Therefore, the uniform-flow depth in the channel is 2.25 m .

400
9.6. Hydraulically rough flow conditions occur in open channels when
u ∗ ks
≥ 70 (1)
ν
where √
u∗ = gRSf (2)
Equation 9.51 can be rearranged and put in the form
( n )6
ks = = 2.84 × 108 n6 (3)
0.039
Substituting Equations 2 and 3 into Equation 1 and noting that ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s at
20◦ C and g = 9.81 m/s2 yields
√ √
9.81 RSf × 2.84 × 108 n6
≥ 70
1.00 × 10−6
which simplifies to
√
n6 RSf ≥ 7.9 × 10−14 (4)

From the given data: b = 5 m, S0 = 0.05% = 0.0005, and by definition:

A by 5y
R= = = (5)
P 2y + b 2y + 5
Equation 4, can be combined with Equation 5 to give the following condition for fully turbulent
flow, √( )
5y
(0.013)6
(0.0005) ≥ 7.9 × 10−14
2y + 5

This condition is satisfied when y ≥ 0.683 m .

9.7. The Darcy-Weisbach uniform-flow equation is given by Equation 9.43 as

( )
√ ks 0.625ν
Q = −2A 8gRS0 log10
12R R 32 √8gS0
+ (1)

where the following variables are known:

y = 2.20 m
S0 = 0.0006
ks = 2 mm = 0.002 m
ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s
g = 9.81 m/s2
A = 3.6y + 2y 2 = 3.6(2.20) + 2(2.20)2 = 17.6 m2
3.6y + 2y 2 3.6(2.20) + 2(2.20)2
R= √ = √ = 1.31 m
3.6 + 2 5y 3.6 + 2 5(2.20)

401
 Substituting these variables into Equation 1 yields Q = 34.0 m3 /s . Since y = 2.20 m
corresponds to A = 17.6 m2 , then V = 34.0/17.6 = 1.93 m/s .
The Manning’s equation gives the average velocity, V , as
1 2 12
V = R 3 S0
n
Table 9.2 indicates that a mid-range roughness coefficient for concrete is n = 0.015. The
average velocity given by the Manning equation is
1 2 1
V = (1.31) 3 (0.0006) 2 = 1.96 m/s
0.015
and the corresponding flow rate, Q, is

Q = AV = (17.6)(1.96) = 34.5 m3 /s

Hence, in this case, the Darcy-Weisbach and Manning equations give the similar results .
9.8. The Darcy-Weisbach uniform-flow equation is given by Equation 9.43 as
( )
√ ks 0.625ν
Q = −2A 8gRS0 log10
12R R 32 √8gS0
+ (1)

where the following variables are either known or can be expressed in terms of the uniform-flow
depth, y:
S0 = 0.0001
ks = 1 mm = 0.001 m
Q = 18 m3 /s
ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s
g = 9.81 m/s2
A = 5y + 2y 2
5y + 2y 2
R= √
5 + 2 5y
Substituting these variables into Equation 1 and solving for y yields y = 2.19 m .

Check u∗ ks /ν and R/ks to determine the state of the flow and the validity of the Manning
equation. Taking y = 2.19 m gives R = 1.39 m and
√ √
u∗ ks gRS0 ks (9.81)(1.39)(0.0001)(0.001)
= = = 37
ν ν 1.00 × 10−6
R 1.39
= = 1390
ks 0.001
Therefore, since 5 ≤ u∗ ks /ν ≤ 70 (i.e., 5 ≤ 37 ≤ 70) then according to Equation ?? the flow
is in transition . Since u∗ ks /ν < 70 (i.e., 37 < 70) and R/ks > 500 (i.e., 1390 > 500), then
the Manning equation is not valid .

402
 9.9. Comparing the Manning and Darcy-Weisbach equations
√ 1
8g R6
=
f n
which gives
√ 1 1 1 1 1
fR6 f 2 R6 f 2 R6
n= √ =√ =
8g 8(9.81) 8.86
If the friction factor, f , is taken as a constant, the above relation indicates that n will be a
function of the depth (since R is a function of the depth). If f ∼ R− 3 , n would be a constant
1

in the above equation. So the answer to the question is no .

9.10. Given: Q = 20 m3 /s, n = 0.015, S0 = 0.01

(a) Manning equation is given by

5
1 2 1 1 An3 12
Q = An Rn3 S02 = S
n n P 23 0
n

where

An = [b + myn ]yn = [2.8 + 2yn ]yn

√ √
Pn = b + 2 1 + m2 yn = 2.8 + 2 5yn = 2.8 + 4.472yn

Substituting into the Manning equation yields

5
1 [(2.8 + 2yn )yn ] 3 1
20 = (0.01) 2
0.015 (2.8 + 4.472yn ) 23
or 5
[(2.8 + 2yn )yn ] 3
2 = 3.0
(2.8 + 4.472yn ) 3
Solving by trial and error yields
yn = 0.91 m

(b) Comparing the Manning and Darcy-Weisbach equations gives

√ 1
8g R6
=
f n
which leads to
8gn2
f= 1
R3
In this case

A = (2.8 + 2y)y = (2.8 + 2 × 0.91)(0.91) = 4.2 m2

403
 P = 2.8 + 4.472(0.91) = 6.87 m
A 4.20
R= = = 0.611 m
P 6.87
therefore
8(9.81)(0.015)2
f= 1 = 0.0208
(0.611) 3
For fully turbulent flow, where the Manning equation applies,
[ ]
1 ks
√ = −2 log
f 12R
[ ]
1 ks
√ = −2 log
0.0208 12(0.611)
6.93 = −2 log[0.136ks ]

which leads to
ks = 0.00249 m = 2.5 mm

9.11. From the given information,

1
n = 0.039d 6
where d is in m. In this case, d = 30 mm = 0.030 m, and a 70% error in d is 0.7(0.030) =
0.021 m. Hence, d = 0.030 m ± 0.021 m. Hence, the “best estimate” of n, denoted by n̄, is
given by
1
n̄ = 0.039(0.030) 6 = 0.022
The lower estimate of n, nL , is given by
1
nL = 0.039(0.030 − 0.021) 6 = 0.018

and the upper estimate of n, nU , is given by

1
nU = 0.039(0.030 + 0.021) 6 = 0.024

The maximum percentage error in estimating n is therefore given by

0.022 − 0.018
error = × 100 = 18%
0.022

9.12. According to Equation 9.50,

( )1
6
√1 R
n 8g ks
1 = ( ) (1)
6
ks 2.0 log 12 kRs

Let
n
y= 1
ks6

404
 R
x=
ks

and taking g = 9.81 m/s2 , Equation 1 can be written

1
√ 1
x6 1
8(9.81) 0.1129x 6
y= = (2)
2.0 log(12x) 2.0(log 12 + log x)
1 1
0.1129x 6 0.1129x 6
= = (3)
2.0(log 12 + 0.4343 ln x) 2.158 + 0.8686 ln x
1
The minimum value of n/ks2 (= y) occurs when dy/dx = 0, where

(2.158 + 0.8686 ln x)( 16 × 0.1129x− 6 ) − (0.1129x 6 )(0.8686x−1 )

5 1
dy
= =0
dx (2.158 + 0.8686 ln x)2
which yields
x = 33.63
and substituting into Equation 3 yields

y = 0.0389
1
Therefore, under fully-rough flow conditions, the minimum value of n/ks6 (= y) is 0.0389, or
approximately 0.039 .

1
When n/ks6 differs by 5% from 0.039,
( )1
6
√1 R
n 8g ks
1 = 1.05(0.039) = ( )
ks6 2.0 log 12 kRs

or 1
0.1129x 6
0.04095 =
2.158 + 0.8686 ln x
which yields
x=6 or 281
1
6
Therefore, n/ks is within 5% of 0.039 when

R
6≤ ≤ 281
ks

It is noteworthy that this range is narrower than suggested by Yen (1991) and Hager (1999).
The reason for this is that the constant value they assumed is a bit higher than 0.039.

9.13. From the given data: b =5 m, m = 3, L = 100 m, z1 = 24.01 m, z2 = 23.99 m, Z1 = 25.01

m, Z2 = 24.95 m, Q0 = 15 m3 /s, ∆Q = 2 m3 /s.

405
(a) From the given data:

y1 = Z1 − z1 = 25.01 m − 24.01 m = 1.00 m

y2 = Z2 − z2 = 24.95 m − 23.99 m = 0.96 m
√ √
P1 = b + 2 1 + m2 y1 = 5 + 2 1 + 32 (1.00) = 11.32 m
√ √
P2 = b + 2 1 + m2 y2 = 5 + 2 1 + 32 (0.96) = 11.07 m
A1 = by1 + my12 = (5)(1.00) + (3)(1.00)2 = 8.000 m2
A2 = by2 + my22 = (5)(0.96) + (3)(0.96)2 = 7.565 m2
( 2)
∆y + ∆z + ∆ V2g
Sf = −
L
Q2 ( 1 )
(0.96 − 1.00) + (23.99 − 24.01) + 2(9.81) 7.5652
− 1
82
=− = 0.006 − 9.422 × 10−6 Q2
100
A1 8.000
R1 = = = 0.7067 m
P1 11.32
A2 7.565
R2 = = = 0.6834 m
P2 11.07
R1 + R2 0.7067 + 0.6834
R̄ = = = 0.6951 m
2 2
A1 + A2 8.000 + 7.565
Ā = = = 7.783 m2
2 2
According to the Manning equation,

ĀR̄ 3 √ (7.783)(0.6951) 3 √
2 2

n= Sf = 0.006 − 9.422 × 10−6 Q2

Q Q
which gives
6.107 √
n= 0.006 − 9.422 × 10−6 Q2 (1)
Q

(b) Since Q = 15±2 m3 /s, Equation 1 gives

( )6
Q n ks = n
0.039 × 1000
(m3 /s) (mm)
13 0.0319 299
15 0.0254 76
17 0.0206 22

Based on these results, Manning’s n is in the range 0.021–0.032 and the roughness
height is in the range of 22–300 mm .
(c) From the derived data,

∆Q/Q 2/15
= = 0.52
∆n/n (0.0319 − 0.0254)/0.0254

406
 ∆Q/Q 2/15
= = 0.71
∆n/n (0.0254 − 0.0206)/0.0254
∆Q/Q 2/15
= = 0.045
∆k/k (299 − 76)/76
∆Q/Q 2/15
= = 0.187
∆k/k (76 − 22)/76

Based on these results, the flows are much more sensitive to to specification of Manning’s
n than specification of the roughness height. The relative sensitivity to Manning’s n
is in the range of 0.52–0.71 , while the relative sensitivity to the roughness height is
0.05–0.19 .

9.14. For fully-turbulent flow conditions,

u ∗ ks
> 70 (1)
ν
where u∗ is given by Equation 9.36 as
√
τ0 √
u∗ = = gRS0 (2)
ρ

Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives

√
gRS0 ks
> 70
ν
or √ 70ν
ks RS0 > √
g
Taking ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s (at 20◦ C), and g = 9.81 m/s2 yields the turbulence condition
√ 70(1.00 × 10−6 )
ks RS0 > √
9.81
which simplifies to
√
ks RS0 > 2.2 × 10−5

For the given trapezoidal channel, ks = 3 mm = 0.003 m, S0 = 0.1% = 0.001, b = 3 m, m =

2, and for a flow depth y,

A by + my 2 3y + 2y 2 3y + 2y 2
R= = √ = √ =
P b + 2y 1 + m2 3 + 2y 1 + 22 3 + 4.472y

For turbulent flow,

√
ks RS0 > 2.2 × 10−5
√( )
3y + 2y 2
0.003 (0.001) > 2.2 × 10−5
3 + 4.472y

407
 which requires that
y > 0.056 m
Therefore, flow conditions are fully turbulent when the depth of flow exceeds 0.056 m =
5.6 cm .

At this minimum flow depth,

3(0.056) + 2(0.056)2
R= = 0.0536 m
3 + 4.472(0.056)
R 0.0536 m
= = 17.9
ks 0.003 m
1
Since R/ks is within the range for n/ks6 to be assumed constant, using the Manning equation
is appropriate .

9.15. From the given data: y = 4.00 m, b = 4 m, m = 3, and S0 = 0.0001. The Manning equation
is valid under the following conditions,
R
3.6 < < 360 (1)
ks
and √
ks RS0 > 2.2 × 10−5 (2)
1
Assuming n = 0.013 and n/ks6 = 0.040,
( n )6 ( 0.013 )6
ks = = = 0.00118 m
0.040 0.040
and since
by + my 2 4(4) + 3(4)2
R= √ = √ = 2.18 m
b + 2 1 + m2 y 4 + 2 1 + 32 (4)
then
R 2.18 m
= = 1847
k 0.00118 m
√ s √
ks RS0 = (0.00118) (2.18)(0.0001) = 1.74 × 10−5
√
Since R/ks > 360 and ks RS0 < 2.2 × 10−5 , the flow is not fully turbulent and Manning’s
equation is not applicable .

9.16. From the given data: d = 15 cm = 0.15 m, Sx = 2% = 0.02, S0 = 1% = 0.01, and ks = 1 mm

= 0.001 m. Assume ν = 10−6 m2 /s. The transverse slope corresponds to m = 50.

(a) The following geometric characteristics of the channel can be derived from the given
data:

T = dm = (0.15)(50) = 7.5 m

408
 1 1
A = dT = (0.15)(7.5) = 0.5625 m2
2 √ 2 √
P = d + (d2 + T 2 ) = 0.15 + (0.152 + 7.52 ) = 7.651 m
A 0.5625
R= = = 0.07352 m
P 7.651
Using these data, the Darcy-Weisbach equation gives
[ ]
√ ks 0.625ν
Q = −2A 8gRS0 log10
12R R 32 √8gS0
+
[ ]
√ 0.001 0.625(10−6 )
= −2(0.5625) 8(9.81)(0.07352)(0.01) log10 + √
12(0.07352) (0.07352) 32 8(9.81)(0.01)

= 0.792 m3 /s

(b) Using the Manning equation:

1 1
n = 0.039ks6 = 0.039(0.001) 6 = 0.0123
1 2 1 1 2 1
Q = AR 3 S02 = (0.5625)(0.07352) 3 (0.01) 2 = 0.803 m3 /s
n 0.0123
(c) The following parameters are used to check the validity of the Manning equation:
R 0.07352
= = 74
k 0.001
√ s √
ks RS0 = (0.001) (0.07352)(0.01) = 2.7 × 10−5
√
Since 4 < R/ks < 500 and ks RS0 > 2.2 × 10−5 , Manning’s equation is valid .
(d) The discrepancy in Q calculated by the Darcy-Weisbach and Manning equations is
1
0.803 m3 /s − 0.792 m3 /s = 0.011 m3 /s. This is due to the approximation that n = 0.039ks6 .

9.17. From the given data: Q = 1.8 m3 /s, m = 2, n = 0.025, and S0 = 0.1% = 0.001.

(a) Size the channel to accommodate the design flow under normal conditions. Assuming
that the flow in the channel can be described by the Manning equation (i.e. fully
turbulent)
1 2 1
Q = AR 3 S02 (1)
n
Since the lengths of the channel sides are equal to the bottom width, b, then the flow
depth, y, is related to the bottom width by the relation
b b
y=√ =√ = 0.447b (2)
1+m 2 1 + 22
The geometric properties of the channel are

A = by + my 2 = b(0.447b) + (2)(0.447b)2 = 0.847b2

409
 P = 3b
A 0.847b2
R= = = 0.282b
P 3b
Substituting into the Manning equation, Equation 1, gives
1 2 1
1.8 = (0.847b2 )(0.282b) 3 (0.001) 2
0.025
which yields
b = 1.67 m
According to Equation 2 the depth of flow is given by

y = 0.447(1.67) = 0.746 m

The required channel is to have a bottom width of 1.67 m, side slopes of 2:1 (H:V), and
a depth of at least 0.746 m.

(b) Let y be the depth of flow when the average shear stress, τ , on the channel lining is
equal to the critical shear stress, τc = 4.0 Pa. The channel lining then becomes unstable
and the geometric properties of the channel are
A = by + my 2 = 1.67y + 2y 2
√ √
P = b + 2 1 + m2 y = 1.67 + 2 1 + 22 y1.67 + 4.47y
A 1.67y + 2y 2
R= =
P 1.67 + 4.47y
The average shear stress, τ , on the perimeter of the channel is given by
τ = γRS0 (3)
where γ = 9790 N/m3 . The channel lining is unstable when τ = τc = 4.0 Pa, and
Equation 3 gives
1.67y + 2y 2
4.0 = (9790) (0.001)
1.67 + 4.47y
which yields
y = 0.625 m
Therefore, whenever the flow depth exceeds 0.625 m, the channel lining becomes unsta-
ble. In terms of flow, the Manning equation gives
1 2 1
Q= AR 3 S02
n
[ ]2
1 2 1.67(0.625) + 2(0.625)2 3 1
= [1.67(0.625) + 2(0.625) ] (0.001) 2 = 1.27 m3 /s
0.025 1.67 + 4.47(0.625)

Therefore, whenever the flow rate exceeds 1.27 m3 /s , the channel lining becomes unsta-
ble. An alternative lining should be used if the channel is to accommodate the design
flow of 1.8 m3 /s.

410
9.18. From the given data, b = 3 m, m = 2, S0 = 0.001, and n = 0.015.
(a) For 4 < R/ks < 500, Manning’s n and the roughness height (= equivalent sand rough-
ness), ks , are related by
n
1 = 0.039
6
ks
0.015
1 = 0.039
ks6
which yields ks = 0.00324 m = 3.24 mm.
(b) Manning’s n can be assumed to be approximately constant for
4 < R/ks < 500
4ks < R < 500ks
4(0.00324) < R < 500(0.00324)
0.0130 m < R < 1.620 m (1)
Fully turbulent flow (an essential requirement for the validity of the Manning equation)
requires that
√
ks RS0 > 2.2 × 10−5
√
(0.00324) R(0.001) > 2.2 × 10−5
R > 0.0461 m (2)
Equations 1 and 2 collectively indicate that n can be taken as a constant and the Manning
equation is valid for
0.0461 m < R < 1.620 m
For R = 0.0461 m, the (lower) flow depth, yL , satisfies the relation
byL + myL2
√ = 0.0461
b + 2 1 + m 2 yL
3yL + 2yL2
√ = 0.0461
3 + 2 1 + 2 2 yL
which yields yL = 0.0479 m. Similarly, for R = 1.62 m, the corresponding flow depth,
yU , is given by yU = 2.95 m. Therefore, the Manning equation can be applied with
a constant value of n in the range 0.0479 m < y < 2.95 m . For R = 0.0461 m, A =
0.1483 m2 , and
1 2 1 1 2 1
Q= AR 3 S02 = (0.1483)(0.0461) 3 (0.001) 2 = 0.0402 m3 /s
n 0.015
Similarly, for R = 1.62 m, A = 26.26 m2 , and
1 2 1 1 2 1
Q= AR 3 S02 = (26.26)(1.62) 3 (0.001) 2 = 76.36 m3 /s
n 0.015
hence the range of flow for which the Manning equation can be applied with a (approx-
imately) constant value of n is 0.0402 m3 /s < Q < 76.36 m3 /s .

411
 (c) The general equation for n under fully turbulent conditions is
1 ( )1 1 ( ) 16
ks6
√ R 6 √
(0.00324) 6 R
0.00324
8g ks 8(9.81) 0.05644 1
n= ( )= ( 12R
) = =
2 log 12R 2 log 0.00324
3.569 + log R 63.24 + 17.72 log R
ks

Hence, taking Q = 100 m3 /s, the Manning equation can be put in the form

1 2 1
Q= AR 3 S02
n
5
A3 1
Q = [63.24 + 17.72 log R] 2 S02
P 3
[ ( )] 5
3y + 2y 2 (3y + 2y 2 ) 3 1
100 = 63.24 + 17.72 log √ √ 2 (0.001)
2
3 + 2 5y (3 + 2 5y) 3

which yields y = 3.303 m and n = 0.0148. If n is assumed to be constant and equal to

0.015, then the Manning equation requires that
5
1 (3y + 2y 2 ) 3 1
100 = √ 2 (0.001)
2
0.015 (3 + 2 5y) 3

which yields y = 3.326 m. Therefore, the error in the calculated flow depth incurred by
assuming a constant n (= 0.015) for Q = 100 m3 /s is 0.7% , which is a relatively small
error.

9.19. From the given data: Q = 150 m3 /s, b = 10 m, m = 2.5, S0 = 0.1% = 0.001, y = 5 m, and

A = by + my 2 = (10)(5) + (2.5)(5)2 = 112.5 m2

√ √
P = b + 2y 1 + m2 = 10 + 2(5) 1 + 2.52 = 36.93 m
A 112.5
R= = = 3.046 m
P 36.93
(a) Using the Manning equation:

1 2 1
Q=AR 3 S02
n
1 2 1
150 = (112.5)(3.046) 3 (0.001) 2
n

which yields n = 0.0498 . Assuming that 4 < R/ks < 500,

n
1 = 0.039
ks6
0.0498
1 = 0.039
ks6

412
 which yields ks = 4.354 m and R/ks = 3.046/4.354 = 0.7. Since R/ks < 4, n/ks cannot
be taken as a constant (= 0.039) that is independent of R/ks . Assuming that the flow
is fully turbulent,
( )1
6
√1 R
n 8g ks
1 = ( )
ks6 2.0 log 12 kRs
( )1
√ 1 3.046 6
ks
0.0498 8(9.81)
1 = ( )
ks6 2.0 log 12 3.046
ks

which yields ks = 1.577 m . This result is based on the assumption of fully turbulent
flow, which requires that
√
ks RSf > 2.2 × 10−5
√
(1.577) (3.046)(0.001) > 2.2 × 10−5
0.0870 > 2.2 × 10−5

Hence the fully-turbulent flow assumption is validated.

(b) Under the flow conditions described here, the Manning equation is not valid since n is
not a constant but depends on the flow depth. If n is expressed as a function of the flow
depth, then the Manning equation can be used.
(c) If the depth of flow increases by 50%, then

y = 1.5(5.0) = 7.5 m
A = by + my 2 = 10(7.5) + 2.5(7.5)2 = 215.6 m2
√ √
P = b + 2y 1 + m2 = 10 + 2(7.5) 1 + 2.52 = 50.39 m
A 215.6
R= = = 4.279 m
P 50.39
Taking ks = 1.577 m and R = 4.279 m, Manning’s n is given by
( )1
6
√1 R
n 8g ks
1 = ( )
ks6 2.0 log 12 kRs
( 4.279 ) 1
√ 1 6
n 8(9.81) 1.577
1 =
( )
1.577 6 2.0 log 12 4.279
1.577

which yields n = 0.0475 .

9.20. According to Equation 9.56,

1√ ( y)
v(y) = V + gdS0 1 + 2.3 log
κ d

413
 The value of y where v(y) = V occurs when
1√ ( y)
V =V + gdS0 1 + 2.3 log
κ d
which can be simplified as follows:
1√ ( y)
0= gdS0 1 + 2.3 log
(κ y)
d
0 = 1 + 2.3 log
d
y 1
log = −
d 2.3
y
= 10−1/2.3
d
y = 0.368d

9.21. According to Equation 9.56,

1√ ( y)
v(y) = V + gdS0 1 + 2.3 log
κ d
At y/d = 0.2,
1 √ 1 √
v(0.2d) = V + gdS0 (1 + 2.3 log 0.2) = V + gdS0 (−0.61) (1)
0.4 0.4
At y/d = 0.8,
1 √ 1 √
v(0.8d) = V + gdS0 (1 + 2.3 log 0.8) = V + gdS0 (0.78) (2)
0.4 0.4
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
[ 1 √ ]
v(0.2d) + v(0.8d) 2V + 0.4 gdS0 (0.78 − 0.61) √
= = V + 0.21 gdS0
2 2
√
Therefore, assuming that the term 0.21 gdS0 is small, then the average velocity, V , can be
estimated by [v(0.2d) + v(0.8d)]/2.
9.22. The velocity distribution is given by Equation 9.57 as
(y )1
7
v(y) = Vmax
d
Hence the average velocity, V , is given by
∫ [ ]d
1 d (y )1 1 Vmax
8
y7 7
7
V = Vmax dy = = Vmax
d 0 d d d 17 (8/7) 8
0

Putting the v(y) = V in Equation 9.57 gives

7 (y )1
7
Vmax = Vmax
8 d
and solving this equation gives y/d = 0.393 or y = 0.393d

414
9.23. Q = 8.4 m3 /s, S0 = 0.001, L = 100 m. At Section 1: b1 = 2 m, m1 = 2, y1 = 1 m; and at
Section 2: b2 = 2.5 m, m2 = 2, y2 = 1 m. The head loss is given by the energy equation,

V12 V2
y1 + − y2 − 2 = L(Sf − S0 )
2g 2g
where

A1 = (b1 + m1 y1 )y1 = (2 + 2 × 1)(1) = 4 m2

A2 = (b2 + m2 y2 )y2 = (2.5 + 2 × 1)(1) = 4.5 m2
Q 8.4
V1 = = = 2.10 m/s
A1 4
Q 8.4
V2 = = = 1.87 m/s
A2 4.5
Substituting into the energy equation gives

2.102 1.872
1+ −1− = (100)(Sf − 0.001)
2(9.81) 2(9.81)
which simplifies to
Sf = 0.00147
and the head loss, hL , is given by

hL = LSf = (100)(0.00147) = 0.147 m

The power, P , dissipated is

P = γw QhL = (9.79)(8.4)(0.147) = 12.1 kW

where γw = 9.79 kN/m3 at 20◦ C.

9.24. The Darcy-Weisbach equation can be written as

f¯L V̄ 2
hf =
D 2g
Defining
hf D
S= and R̄ =
L 4
and substituting into the Darcy-Weisbach equation gives

f¯ V̄ 2
S=
4R 2g

9.25. Q = 30 m3 /s, w = 5 m, and for a rectangular channel

( ) 31
q2
yc =
g

415
 where
Q 30
q= = = 6 m2 /s
w 5
Hence
( ) 13
62
yc = = 1.54 m
9.81
Therefore, when the depth of flow is 3 m, yc < 3 m and the flow is subcritical .

9.26. From the given data: Q = 50 m3 /s, b = 4 m, and m = 1.5. Under critical flow conditions

Q2 A3
=
g T

which gives
502 (4yc + 1.5yc2 )3
=
9.81 4 + 2(1.5)yc
Solving by trial and error yields
yc = 1.96 m
When y = 3 m, the Froude number, Fr, is given by the relation

Q2 T (50)2 (4 + 2 × 1.5 × 3)
Fr2 = = = 0.19
gA3 (9.81)(4 × 3 + 1.5 × 32 )3

hence
Fr = 0.45

and the flow is subcritical .

9.27. From the given data: w1 = 2 m, Q = 3 m3 /s, y1 = 1.2 m, and w2 = w1 − 0.4 m = 1.6 m.
Conservation of energy requires that

V12 V2
y1 + = y2 + 2
2g 2g

where
Q Q 3
V1 = = = = 1.25 m/s
A1 w1 y 1 (2)(1.2)
Q Q 3 1.875
V2 = = = = m/s
A2 w2 y 2 1.6y2 y2

Substituting into the energy equation gives

1.252 (1.875/y2 )2
1.2 + = y2 +
2(9.81) 2(9.81)
0.179
1.28 = y2 +
y22

416
 Solving for y2 gives
y2 = 0.47 m, 1.14 m
These depths correspond to supercritical and subcritical flow conditions respectively. Since
the upstream flow is subcritical, the flow in the constriction must also be subcritical, hence

y2 = 1.14 m

When choking occurs at the constriction,

V
y = yc and Fr = 1 = √
gD
and the energy equation gives

V12 V2
y1 + = yc + c
2g 2g
( 2 ) 13 [ ]2
q 1 q
1.28 = +
9.81 2(9.81) (q 2 /9.81) 31

which yields
q = 2.47 m2 /s
and
Q 3
w2 = = = 1.21 m
q 2.47

9.28. From the given data: Q = 1 m3 /s, b = 1 m, and y1 = 1 m. The flow is choked when there is
critical flow in the constriction. The upstream specific energy, E1 , is given by

V12 Q2 12
E 1 = y1 + = y1 + = 1.0 + = 1.05 m
2g 2g(by1 )2 2(9.81)(1 × 1)2

At the constriction, Fr2c = 1 which leads to

Q2 A3
= c
g Tc
Substituting given data
12 (byc )3
=
9.81 b
which leads to
0.102
(byc )2 = (1)
yc
The energy equation requires that

Q2
yc + = 1.05
2gA2c
(1)2
yc + = 1.05
2(9.81)(byc )2

417
 0.0510
yc + = 1.05 (2)
(byc )2

Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives

0.0510
yc + = 1.05
0.102/yc
or
yc = 0.70 m
which leads to
b = 0.55 m

9.29. From the given data: Q = 16 m3 /s, y1 = 2 m, b1 = 10 m, and m = 3. The following

preliminary calculations will be useful,

A1 = b1 y1 + my12 = (10)(2) + (3)(2)2 = 32 m2 , T1 = b1 + 2my1 = (10) + 2(3)(2) = 32 m

A1 32 Q 16
D1 = = = 1 m, V1 = = = 0.5 m/s
T1 32 A1 32
V1 0.5
Fr1 = √ =√ = 0.160
gD1 (9.81)(1)

(a) Denote the depth of flow and the bottom width of the contracted section as b and y,
respectively. For critical flow in the contracted section:

Q2 A3 162 (by + 3y 2 )3 (by + 3y 2 )3

= → = → = 26.10 (1)
g T 9.81 b + 2(3)y b + 67

For conservation of energy,

Q2 Q2 162 162
y1 + 2 =y+ → 2+ =y+
2gA1 2gA2 2(9.81)(32)2 2(9.81)(by + 3y 2 )2

which simplifies to
13.05
y+ = 2.013 (2)
(by + 3y 2 )2

Both Equations 1 and 2 must be satisfied for choking to occur at the downstream section.
(b) When b = 0, Equation 2 gives

13.05
y+ = 2.013 → y = 1.90 m or 1.10 m
(3y 2 )2

Hence the depth in the contracted section will be 1.90 m and the flow will not be choked .

9.30. From the given data: b1 = 10.0 m, y1 = 1.00 m, Q = 8 m3 /s, b2 = 6 m, and L = 7 m.

418
(a) According to the energy equation

V12
E1 = E2 + (1)
2g
where
Q 8
V1 = = = 0.800 m/s
b1 y1 (10.0)(1.00)
V12 (0.800)2
= = 0.0326 m
2g 2(9.81)
V2
E1 = y1 + 1 = 1.00 + 0.0326 = 1.0326 m
2g
Q2 82 0.0906
E2 = y2 + = y 2 + = y2 +
2g(b2 y2 )2 2(9.81)(6y2 )2 y22
Substituting into the energy equation, Equation 1, gives
0.0906
1.0326 = y2 + + 0.0326
y22
which simplifies to
0.0906
1.00 = y2 +
y22
which yields the following positive solutions

y2 = 0.383 m, 0.884 m

Since
V12 0.8002
Fr21 = = = 0.065
gy1 (9.81)(1.00)
the upstream flow is subcritical, and therefore the flow in the constriction must also be
subcritical, and hence
y2 = 0.884 m

(b) To assess the effect of the energy loss, the depth of flow in the constriction must be
calculated without including the energy loss. According to the energy equation

E1 = E2 (2)

where

E1 = 1.0326 m
0.0906
E2 = y2 +
y22
Substituting into the energy equation, Equation 2, gives
0.0906
1.0326 = y2 +
y22

419
 which yields the following positive solutions

y2 = 0.371 m, 0.924 m

Since the upstream flow is subcritical, the flow in the constriction must also be subcrit-
ical, and hence
y2 = 0.924 m
Therefore, if energy losses are neglected the calculated flow depth is in error by (0.924 −
0.884)/0.884 × 100 = 4.5%. This effect is not very significant.
(c) According to the energy equation
V12
E1 = E2 + (3)
2g
where V1 = 0.800 m/s, and

E1 = 1.0326 m
Q2 82 0.1612
E2 = y2 + = y 2 + = y2 +
2g(b2 y2 )2 2(9.81)(4.5y2 )2 y22
Substituting into the energy equation, Equation 3, gives
0.1612 0.8002
1.0326 = y2 + +
y22 2(9.81)
which does not have any positive solutions. Therefore, the flow is choked and critical
flow exists within the constriction. Under critical flow conditions,
Q2 A3
=
g T
82 (4.5y2 )3
=
9.81 4.5
which yields
y2 = 0.686 m
(d) Since the flow is choked, the constriction influences the upstream flow depth. Under
critical flow conditions,
3 3
E2 = y2 = (0.686) = 1.028 m
2 2
According to the energy equation
V12
E1 = E2 + (4)
2g
or
V12 V2
y1 + = 1.028 + 1
2g 2g
which yields
y1 = 1.028 m

420
9.31. From given data: b = 3 m, Q = 4 m3 /s, y1 = 1.5 m, and

Q 4
V1 = = = 0.889 m/s
by1 3(1.5)

Applying the energy equation,

V12 V22
y1 + = y2 + + ∆z
2g 2g
0.8892 (4/3y2 )2
1.5 + = y2 + + 0.15
2(9.81) 2(9.81)
0.0906
1.54 = y2 + + 0.15
y22

Solving this equation for y2 gives

y2 = 1.34 m, 0.29 m

Since the upstream flow is subcritical, select the subcritical flow depth, where

y2 = 1.34 m

When choking just occurs,

( ) 13
q2
y2 = yc =
g
where
Q 4
q= = = 1.33 m2 /s
b 3
and therefore
( ) 31
1.332
yc = = 0.565 m
9.81
and the energy equation can be written as

V12 (q/yc )2
y1 + = yc + + ∆zm
2g 2g
(1.33/0.565)2
1.54 = 0.565 + + ∆zm
2(9.81)

which gives
∆zm = 0.69 m

9.32. Flow in a rectangular open channel is choked when

E1 = E2 + ∆zc
V12 3
y1 + = yc + ∆zc
2g 2

421
 ( ) 31
V2 3 q2
y1 + 1 = + ∆zc
2g 2 g
( ) 31
V2 3 Q2
y1 + 1 = + ∆zc
2g 2 gb2
[ ]1
V12 3 (V1 by1 )2 3
y1 + = + ∆zc
2g 2 gb2
2 2
V2 3 (V13 y13 )
y1 + 1 = + ∆zc
2g 2 g 31

Dividing by y1 yields
( ) 13
V2 3 V12 ∆zc
1+ 1 = + (1)
2gy1 2 gy1 y1
and defining
V1
Fr1 = √
gy1
then Equation 1 can be written as

∆zc Fr2 3 2
= 1 + 1 − Fr13
y1 2 2

From Problem 9.31: b = 3 m, Q = 4 m3 /s, y1 = 1.5 m, and ∆zc = 0.15 m. Therefore

Q 4
V1 = = = 0.889 m/s
by1 (3)(1.5)
V1 0.889
Fr1 = √ =√ = 0.232
gy1 (9.81)(1.5)
which yields
∆zc Fr2 3 2
= 1 + 1 − Fr13
y1 2 2
∆zc (0.232)2 3 2
=1+ − (0.232) 3
1.5 2 2
and solving for ∆zc gives
∆zc = 0.69 m

9.33. From the given data: Q = 4.3 m3 /s, b1 = 3 m, y1 = 1 m, and therefore the upstream specific
energy, E1 , is given by
V12 Q2 4.32
E1 = y1 + = y1 + = 1 + = 1.10 m
2g 2g(b1 y1 )2 2(9.81)(3 × 1)2
At the constriction,
Q2
y2 + + 0.25 = 1.10
2g(b2 y2 )2

422
 Since b2 = 3 − 0.75 = 2.25 m, then

4.32
y2 + = 0.85
2(9.81)(2.25 × y2 )2

which simplifies to
0.186
y2 + = 0.85
y22
There is no solution to this equation, so the flow is choked and the flow conditions in the
constriction are critical. Under this condition,
√ √ √
q 2 2 2
3 3 (Q/b) 3 (4.3/2.25)
y2 = yc = = = = 0.72 m
g g 9.81

9.34. From the given data: Q = 18 m3 /s, b = 5 m, m = 2, y1 = 2 m, and there is a 0.50-m wide
bridge pier placed in the channel.

A1 = (b + my1 )y1 = (5 + 2 × 2)(2) = 18 m2

A2 = [(5 − 0.5) + 2y2 ]y2 = 4.5y2 + 2y22
Q 18
V1 = = = 1 m/s
A1 18
and the energy equation gives

V12 V2
y1 + = y2 + 2
2g 2g
[ ]2
12 1 18
2+ = y2 +
2(9.81) 2(9.81) (4.5y2 + 2y22 )
[ ]2
1
2.05 = y2 + 16.5
(4.5y2 + 2y22 )

with the solutions

y2 = 0.59 m, 1.99 m
which correspond to supercritical and subcritical flow conditions respectively. Since the up-
stream flow is subcritical, choose the subcritical downstream flow

y2 = 1.99 m

The maximum pier width produces critical flow at the constriction such that y2 = yc or

Q2 A3
= c (1)
g Tw
where

Ac = (5 − wp )yc + 2yc2

423
 Tw = (5 − wp ) + 4yc

Substituting into Equation 1 gives

182 [(5 − wp )yc + 2yc2 ]3

= (2)
9.81 (5 − wp ) + 4yc

The energy equation requires that

V12 V2
y1 + = yc + c
2g 2g
Q2
2.05 = yc +
2gA2c
182
2.05 = yc +
2(9.81)[(5 − wp )yc + 2yc2 ]2

which simplifies to
[ ]1
1 16.51 2
wp = 5 + 2yc − (3)
yc 2.05 − yc
Simultaneous solution of Equations 2 and 3 yields

yc = 1.61 m and wp = 4.42 m

Therefore, the maximum width of the pier that will not cause a rise in the upstream water
surface is 4.42 m .

9.35. From given data: Q = 15 m3 /s, b = 4.5 m, y1 = 1.9 m, ∆z = 0.15 m, m = 1.5. Let b′ be the
bottom width at the step, then

b′ = b + 2m∆z = 4.5 + 2(1.5)(0.15) = 4.95 m

A1 = (b + my1 )y1 = (4.5 + 1.5 × 1.9)(1.9) = 13.97 m2
Q 15
V1 = = = 1.07 m/s
A1 13.97
Q 15 15
V2 = = ′ 2 =
A2 b y2 + my2 4.95y2 + 1.5y22
The energy equation gives

V12 V2
y1 + = y2 + 2 + ∆z
2g 2g
[ ]2
1.072 1 15
1.9 + = y2 + + 0.15
2(9.81) 2(9.81) 4.95y2 + 1.5y22
11.47
1.96 = y2 + + 0.15
(4.95y2 + 1.5y22 )2

Solving for y2 gives

y2 = 1.73 m, 0.52 m

424
 These depths correspond to subcritical and supercritical flow conditions respectively. Since
the upstream flow is subcritical, the flow at the step is also subcritical and

y2 = 1.73 m

At the maximum step height, y2 = yc and the energy equation gives

( )2
V12 1 Q
y1 + = yc + + ∆zm
2g 2g Ac
11.47
1.96 = yc + + ∆zm
A2c

which can be written as

11.47
∆zm = 1.96 − yc − (1)
[(4.5 + 3∆zm )yc + 1.5yc2 ]2

Under critical flow conditions,

Q2 A3
= c
g Tc
which, in this case, can be written as

152 [(4.5 + 3∆zm )yc + 1.5yc2 ]3

= 22.94 = (2)
9.81 4.5 + 3(yc + ∆zm )

Solving Equations 1 and 2 gives

yc = 0.719 m and ∆zm = 0.921 m

9.36. From the given data: Q = 20 m3 /s, y = 3 m, b1 = 3 m, m1 = 1, and the downstream section
is rectangular with b2 = 3 m. Conservation of energy requires that

Q2 Q2
y1 + = y 2 +
2gA21 2gA22
202 202
3+ = y 2 +
2(9.81)(3 × 3 + 1 × 32 )2 2(9.81)(3y2 )2
2.265
3.06 = y2 +
y22

which yields y2 = 2.76 m or y2 = 1.07 m. These depths correspond to subcritical and

supercritical flow conditions respectively. The upstream conditions are subcritical (F1 =
0.25), so the flow depth in the constriction is subcritical and equal to 2.76 m .
At the minimum allowable width to prevent choking, critical conditions occur, in which case,
[ ]1
3 q2 3
E1 =
2 g

425
 Since E1 = 3.06 m, the above relation gives
[ ]1
3 (20/b)2 3
3.06 =
2 9.81

which yields b = 2.19 m. Therefore, the minimum allowable width of the constriction to
prevent choking in 2.19 m .

9.37. From the given data: S0 = 0.05% = 0.0005, m = 2, b = 5 m, and Q = 7 m3 /s. For a
float-finished concrete channel, Table 9.2 gives n = 0.015.

(a) The depth of flow, y, is given by the Manning equation as

5
1 A 3 12
Q= S
n P 23 0
5
1 [5y + 2y 2 ] 3 1
7= √ (0.0005) 2
0.015 [5 + 2 1 + 22 y] 23

which yields
y = 0.897 m
For the Manning equation to be valid, the flow must be fully turbulent, which requires
that √
n6 RS0 ≥ 9.6 × 10−14 (1)
where
A 5(0.897) + 2(0.897)2
R= = √ = 0.676 m
P 5 + 2 1 + 22 (0.897)
Substituting into Equation 1 yields
√ √
n6 RS0 = (0.015)6 (0.676)(0.0005) = 2.09 × 10−13 ≥ 9.6 × 10−14

Hence, the flow is fully turbulent. For the Manning’s n to be independent of the flow
depth,
R
4< < 500 (2)
ks
where ks ≈ (n/0.039)6 . In this case,

R 0.676
= = 209
ks (0.015/0.039)6

which is within the range given by Equation 2. Based on the criteria given by Equations
1 and 2, the Manning equation is valid .
(b) The head loss, hL , in the contraction can be estimated using the relation
 
 V22 V 2
hL = C α2 − α1 1  (3)
2g 2g 

426
Since the contraction is abrupt, C = 0.6, and V1 and V2 are given by
Q 7
V1 = = = 1.15 m/s
A1 5(0.897) + 2(0.897)2
Q 7
V2 = =
A2 4y2 + 2y22
and α1 and α2 can be taken as unity. The energy equation requires that
V12 V2
y1 + = y2 + 2 + h L (4)
2g 2g
Combining Equations 3 and 4 gives
V12 V2
y1 + (1 + C) = y2 + (1 + C) 2 (5)
2g 2g
Substituting known quantities gives
( )2
1.152 7 1
0.897 + (1 + 0.6) = y2 + (1 + 0.6)
2(9.81) 4y2 + 2y22 2(9.81)
which simplifies to
3.996
1.005 = y2 +
(4y2 + 2y22 )2
which yields

y2 = 0.815 m (subcritical) or 0.609 m (supercritical)

At the upstream section, the Froude number is given by

V1 1.15
Fr1 = √ =√ = 0.44 (subcritical)
gD (9.81)(0.709)

Therefore, the flow in the contracted section is subcritical and equal to 0.815 m .
If the head loss is ignored,
V12 V2
y1 + = y2 + 2
2g 2g
2
( )2
1.15 7 1
0.897 + = y2 + 2
2(9.81) 4y2 + 2y2 2(9.81)
which simplifies to
2.497
0.964 = y2 +
(4y2 + 2y22 )2
which yields
y2 = 0.861 m (subcritical)
Taking the head loss into account has a significant effect on the calculated flow depth
in the contracted section (0.815 m vs. 0.861 m), with a depth difference of 5% when
head loss is taken into account.

427
9.38. Let Section 1 be the upstream section, Section 2 be the “throat” section, and Section 3 be
the downstream section. From the given data: Q = 100 m3 /s, n = 0.025, S0 = 0.5%, y1 =
3.000 m, b1 = b3 = 30 m, b2 = 20 m, L12 = L23 = 40 m.

Neglecting Energy Losses: The energy equation applied between sections 1 and 2 is given
by [ ] [ ]
V22 V12
y2 + = y1 + + (z1 − z2 ) (1)
2g 2g
From the given data:

y1 = 3.000 m
A1 = b1 y1 = (30)(3.000) = 90 m2
Q 100
V1 = = = 1.111 m/s
A1 90
z1 − z2 = L12 S0 = (40)(0.005) = 0.20 m
P1 = b1 + 2y1 = 30 + 2(3.000) = 36.00 m
A1 90
R1 = = = 2.500 m
P1 36
A2 = b2 y2 = 20y2
Q 100 5
V2 = = =
A2 20y2 y2
Substituting the calculated parameters into Equation 1 gives
[ ] [ ]
(5/y2 )2 (1.111)2
y2 + = 3.000 + + 0.20
2(9.81) 2(9.81)

which yields y2 = 3.133 m . Between sections 2 and 3, the energy equation is

[ ] [ ]
V32 V22
y3 + = y2 + + (z2 − z3 ) (2)
2g 2g
where

y2 = 3.133 m
A2 = b2 y2 = (20)(3.133) = 62.66 m2
Q 100
V2 = = = 1.596 m/s
A2 62.66
z2 − z3 = L23 S0 = (40)(0.005) = 0.20 m
P2 = b2 + 2y2 = 20 + 2(3.133) = 26.27 m
A2 62.66
R2 = = = 2.385 m
P2 26.27
A3 = b3 y3 = 30y3
Q 100 3.333
V3 = = =
A3 30y3 y3

428
 Substituting the calculated parameters into Equation 2 gives
[ ] [ ]
(3.333/y3 )2 1.5962
y3 + = 3.133 + + 0.20
2(9.81) 2(9.81)

which yields y3 = 3.414 m .

Accounting for Energy Losses: The energy equation applied between sections 1 and 2 is
given by [ ] [ ]
V22 V12
y2 + = y1 + + (z1 − z2 ) − he − hf (3)
2g 2g
where he and hf are the energy losses due to expansion/contraction and friction and are
given by
 2 
 V2 V12 
he = C  − (4)
2g 2g 
hf = Sf L (5)

where C = 0.1 for contractions . Assuming that the friction slope, Sf , is approximately
the same at all sections then Sf can be calculated at section 1 as
[ ]2 [ ]2
nQ (0.025)(100)
Sf = 2 = 2 = 0.000227
AR 3 (90)(2.500) 3
Between sections 1 and 2, Equations 4 and 5 give
[ ] ( )
(5/y2 )2 1.1112 25
he = (0.1) − = 0.00510 − 1.234
2(9.81) 2(9.81) y22
hf = Sf L = (0.000227)(40) = 0.00908 m

Substituting the calculated parameters into the energy equation (Equation 3) gives
[ ] [ ] ( )
(5/y2 )2 (1.111)2 25
y2 + = 3.000 + + 0.2 − 0.00510 − 1.234 − 0.00908
2(9.81) 2(9.81) y22

which yields y2 = 3.116 m . Hence,

A2 = (20)(3.116) = 62.32 m2
Q 100
V2 = = = 1.605 m
A2 62.32
A3 = 30y3
Q 100 3.333
V3 = = =
A3 30y3 y3
The energy equation applied between sections 2 and 3 is given by
[ ] [ ]
V32 V22
y3 + = y2 + + (z2 − z3 ) − he − hf (6)
2g 2g

429
 where he and hf are the energy losses due to expansion/contraction and friction and are
given by
 2 
 V3 V22 
he = C  − (7)
2g 2g 
hf = Sf L (8)

where C = 0.3 for expansions. Between sections 2 and 3, Equations 7 and 8 give
[ ] ( )
(3.333/y2 )2 1.6052 11.11
he = (0.3) − = 0.01529 2.576 −
2(9.81) 2(9.81) y32
hf = Sf L = (0.000227)(40) = 0.00908 m

Substituting the calculated parameters into the energy equation (Equation 6) gives
[ ] [ ] ( )
(3.333/y3 )2 (1.605)2 1.11
y3 + = 3.116 + + 0.2 − 0.01529 2.576 − 2 − 0.00908
2(9.81) 2(9.81) y3

which yields y3 = 3.350 m .

Without considering energy losses, the stage difference between the upstream and downstream
sections is (3.000 m + 0.4 m) − 3.414 m = −0.014 m . Taking energy losses into account,
the stage difference between the upstream and downstream sections is (3.000 m + 0.4 m) −
3.350 m = −0.050 m . Therefore an error of approximately (14-50)/50 = 72% is introduced
by neglecting energy losses.

9.39. Taking Section 1 upstream of the bridge constriction, Section 2 at the bridge constriction,
and Section 3 downstream of the bridge constriction (after expansion) then, from the given
data, b1 = 10 m, b2 = 7 m, b3 = 10 m, Q = 20 m3 /s, and y1 = 2 m.

(a) The specific energy, E1 , at section 1 is given by

V12 Q2 202
E1 = y1 + = y1 + 2 2 =2+ = 2.051 m
2g 2gb1 y1 2(9.81)(10)2 (2)2

where it is noted that V1 = 20/(10 × 2) = 1 m/s. Applying the energy equation between
sections 1 and 2 gives ( 2 )
V2 V12
E 2 = E 1 − Cc − (1)
2g 2g
where Cc = 0.6 for an abrupt contraction, and it is assumed that V2 > V1 . Substituting
the given and derived data into Equation 1 gives
( )
Q2 Q2 V12
y2 + = 2.051 − 0.6 −
2gb22 y22 2gb22 y22 2g
2
( 2
)
20 20 12
y2 + = 2.051 − 0.6 −
2(9.81)(7)2 y22 2(9.81)(7)2 y22 2(9.81)
0.6657
y2 + = 2.082
y22

430
 which yields y2 =1.897 m , E2 = 2.013 m, and V2 = 1.506 m/s (confirming V2 > V1 ).
Applying the energy equation between sections 2 and 3 gives
( 2 )
V2 V32
E 3 = E 2 − Ce − (2)
2g 2g

where Ce = 0.8 for an abrupt expansion, and it is assumed that V2 > V3 . Substituting
the given and derived data into Equation 2 gives
( 2 )
Q2 V2 Q2
y3 + = 2.013 − 0.8 −
2gb23 y32 2g 2gb23 y32
( )
202 1.5062 202
y3 + = 2.013 − 0.8 −
2(9.81)(10)2 y32 2(9.81) 2(9.81)(10)2 y32
0.3670
y3 + = 1.968
y32

which yields y3 =1.862 m , E3 = 1.921 m, and V3 = 1.074 m/s (confirming V2 > V3 ).

(b) If energy losses are neglected, the energy equation is given by

E1 = E2
Q2
y2 + = 2.051
2gb22 y22
202
y2 + = 2.051
2(9.81)(7)2 y22

which yields y2 = 1.941 m. When energy losses are taken into account, it was found
that y2 = 1.897 m, and hence the error in the flow depth at section 2 associated with
neglecting energy losses in the contraction is 2.3% . If energy losses are neglected in
both the contraction and the expansion, then y3 = y1 = 2 m. When energy losses are
taken into account, it was found that y3 = 1.862 m, and hence the error in the flow depth
at section 3 associated with neglecting energy losses in the contraction and subsequent
expansion is 7.4% . It is apparent that neglecting energy losses has a significant effect
in this case.

9.23. (a) Applying the Manning equation to the main channel:

5 5
1 A 3 12 1 (4) 3 1
Q= √ 2 = 5.46 m3 /s
2 S0 = 2 (0.0005)
nP3 0.013 (2 22 + 22 ) 3

(b) Using the Horton equation to estimate the effective Manning’s n:

√
P1 = 2( 2 + 2) = 6.828 m
n1 = 0.026
√
P2 = 2(2 2) = 5.657 m
n2 = 0.013

431
 P = P1 + P2 = 6.828 m + 5.657 m = 12.49 m
[ 3 3
]2
(6.828)(0.026) 2 + (5.657)(0.013) 2 3
ne = = 0.0206
12.49
[ ]
1
A=2 + (4)(1) + (1)(2) = 13.00 m2
2
5 5
1 A 3 21 1 (13) 3 1
Q= 2 S0 = (0.0005) 2 = 14.49 m3 /s
ne P 3 0.0206 (12.49) 23

(c) Assume Manning equation valid, then

1
n = 0.039ks6
( n )6 ( 0.013 )6
ks = = = 0.00137 m = 1.37 mm
0.039 0.039

For Manning’s n to be constant, 4 ≤ R/ks ≤ 500. Since ks = 0.00137, this range can be
expressed as 0.00548 m ≤ R ≤ 0.685 m. For fully turbulent flow,
√ √
ks RS0 ≥ 2.2 × 10−5 → (0.00137) R(0.0005) ≥ 2.2 × 10−5 → R ≥ 0.5157 m

Hence, to meet both the condition for constant n and the condition for fully turbulent
flow, the range of R values is: 0.516 m ≤ R ≤ 0.685 m. For the (triangular) center
channel,
√ A 2 8
A = y 2 , P = 2 2y, R = = 0.3536y, AR 3 = 0.5000y 3
P
Using these geometric relationships and the Manning equation given by
1 2 1 1 8 1 8
Q= AR 3 S02 = (0.5000y 3 )(0.0005) 2 = 0.8600y 3
n 0.013
yields the following results

R y Q
(m) (m) (m3 /s)
0.516 1.459 2.36
0.685 1.937 5.02

Therefore, the Manning equation is valid for flows in the range of 2.36–5.02 m3 /s .
(d) Find normal depth:
1 2 1
Q= AR 3 S02
n
1 8 1
3= (0.5000yn3 )(0.0005) 2
0.013

432
 which yields yn = 1.597 m. Next, calculate the critical depth:
Q2 A3
=
g T
32 (y 2 )3
= c
9.81 2yc
which yields yc = 1.129 m. Since yc < 1.5 m < yn the water surface follows a M2 profile .
This scenario could be caused by a waterfall at the end of the channel.
9.41. From the given data: Q = 36 m3 /s, b = 10 m, n = 0.030, S0 = 0.001, and y = 3 m. Determine
the normal depth, using the Manning equation
1 A3 √
5

Q= S0
n P 23
(10yn ) 3 √
5
1
36 = 0.001
0.030 (10 + 2yn ) 32
which gives
yn = 2.45 m
Determine the critical depth,
( ) 13 ( ) 13
q2 3.62
yc = = = 1.09 m
g 9.81
Since y > yn > yc , the water surface follows a M1 profile .
Determine Sf using the Manning equation,
[ ] [ 2
]2 [ 2
]2 [ 2
]2
nQ 2 nQP 3 nQ(10 + 2y) 3 (0.030)(36)(10 + 2 × 3) 3
Sf = 2 = 5 = 5 = 5 = 0.00056
AR 3 A3 (10y) 3 (10 × 3) 3
The slope of the water surface is given by
dy S0 − Sf 0.001 − 0.00056
= = ( )2 = 0.00046
dx 1 − Fr2
1 − 9.81(3)
1.2

where the velocity is taken as V = Q/A = 36/(10×3) = 1.2 m/s.

If y = 2 m, then yn > y > yc and the water surface follows a M2 profile . Therefore the
shape of the water surface would be different than when y = 3 m.
9.42. From the given data: Q = 30 m3 /s, b = 8 m, and n = 0.035.
[ 2 ] 13 [ ]1
q (30/8)2 3
yc = = = 1.13 m
g 9.81
[ 2
]2 [ 2
]2 [ 2
]2
nQP 3 nQ(8 + 2yc ) 3 (0.035)(30)(8 + 2 × 1.13) 3
Sc = 5 = 5 = 5 = 0.016
A3 (8yc ) 3 (8 × 1.13) 3
Hence for Mild Slope: 0 < S0 < 0.016 and for Steep Slope: S0 > 0.016 .

433
9.43. From given data: b = 6 m, m = 2, n = 0.045, S0 = 0.015, Q = 80 m3 /s, and y = 5 m.
Calculate normal depth using Manning equation,

1 A3 √
5

Q= S0
n P 32
1 (byn + 2yn2 ) 3 √ 1 (6yn + 2yn2 ) 3 √
5 5

80 = √ 2 S0 = √ 0.015
0.045 (b + 2 5yn ) 3 0.045 (6 + 2 5yn ) 23

which gives
yn = 2.21 m
Calculate the critical depth,
Q2 A3
= c
g Tc
80 2 (byc + 2yc2 )3
=
9.81 (b + 4yc )
(6yc + 2yc2 )3
652.4 =
(6 + 4yc )
which gives
yc = 2.07 m
Since y > yn > yc , the water surface has a M1 profile and the depth increases in the
downstream direction.
The slope, Sf , of the energy grade line is given by the Manning equation as
[ 2
]2 [ √ 2
]2 [ √ 2
]2
nQP 3 nQ(b + 2 5y) 3 (0.045)(80)(6 + 2 5 × 5) 3
Sf = 5 = 5 = 5 = 0.000508
A3 (by + 2y 2 ) 3 (6 × 5 + 2 × 52 ) 3
Other hydraulic parameters are

A = by + 2y 2 = (6)(5) + 2(5)2 = 80 m2
Q 80
V = = = 1 m/s
A 80
T = b + 2my = (6) + 2(2)(5) = 26 m
A 80
D= = = 3.08 m
T 26
V2 12
Fr2 = = = 0.0331
gD 9.81(3.08)
The slope of the water surface is therefore given by
dy S0 − Sf 0.015 − 0.000508
= = = 0.0150
dx 1 − Fr2 1 − 0.0331
The depth, yu , 100 m upstream is given by

yu = 5 − 100(0.0150) = 3.50 m

434
 and the depth, yd , 100 m downstream is given by

yd = 5 + 100(0.0150) = 6.50 m

9.44. From the given data: H = 2.00 m, b = 3.00 m, m = 3, S0 = 0.005, and n = 0.025. Assuming
α = 1 and that the slope is hydraulically steep (i.e., yn < yc ), Equations 9.124 and 9.125
require that
Ac
H = yc +
2Tc
Substituting the geometric properties for a trapezoidal channel gives

byc + myc2
H = yc +
2(b + 2myc )
3yc + 3yc2
2.00 = yc +
2(3 + 2(3)yc )

which yields yc = 1.52 m. The corresponding value of Q is then given by

√ √
gA3c (9.81)(3yc + 3yc2 )3
Q= = = 35.3 m3 /s
Tc 3 + 2(3)yc

Determine the normal depth of flow, yn , corresponding to Q = 35.3 m3 /s by applying the

Manning equation which requires that
5 5
1 An3 12 1 (byn + myn2 ) 3 1
Q= 2 S0 = √ 2
2 S0
nP3 n (b + 2yn 1 + m2 ) 3
n
5
1 (3yn + 3yn2 ) 3 1
35.3 = √ 2 (0.005)
2
0.025 (3 + 2yn 1 + 3 ) 32

which yields yn = 1.62 m. Since yn > yc , the slope is mild and so the initial assumption of
a steep slope that was used in determining Q is not validated. Restart the problem with the
assumption that the slope is mild. Equations 9.126 and 9.127 require that

Q2 1 2 1
H = yn + and Q = An Rn3 S02
2gA2n n

Eliminating Q from these equations yields the more convenient combined form as
( )2 4 4
1 2 1 1 Rn3 S0 An3 S0
H = yn + An Rn3 S02 = y n + = y n + 4
n 2gA2n 2gn2 2gn2 Pn3
Substituting the geometric properties for a trapezoidal channel gives
4
(byn + myn2 ) 3 S0
H = yn + √ 4
2gn2 (b + 2yn 1 + m2 ) 3

435
 4
(3yn + 3yn2 ) 3 (0.005)
2.00 = yn + √ 4
2(9.81)(0.025)2 (3 + 2yn 1 + 32 ) 3

which yields yn = 1.61 m. The corresponding value of Q is given by Manning’s equation,

5 5
1 An3 12 1 (3yn + 3yn2 ) 3 1
Q= S = √ 2 = 34.8 m3 /s
2 0 2 (0.005)
nP3 0.025 (3 + 2yn 1 + 32 ) 3
n

Determine the critical depth of flow, yc , using the critical-flow requirement

Q2 A3c
=
g Tc
34.82 (3yc + 3yc2 )3
=
9.81 3 + 2(3)yc

which yields yc = 1.52 m. Since yn > yc (i.e., 1.61 m > 1.52 m), the slope is mild and so
the revised assumption of a mild slope that was used in determining Q is validated. The
discharge from the reservoir is 34.8 m3 /s .

9.45. According to the momentum equation

∑
Fx = ρQ(V2 − V1 )

In this case,
( )
Q Q
γA1 ȳ1 − γA2 ȳ2 + γV sin θ = ρQ −
A2 A1
( )
Q Q
A1 ȳ1 − A2 ȳ2 + V sin θ = Q −
gA2 gA1

For a rectangular channel of width b,

A1 = by1
A2 = by2
y1
ȳ1 =
2
y2
ȳ2 =
2
y1 + y2
V= 5y2 b
2
sin θ = S0
Q = qb

and substituting into the momentum equation gives

y12 y 2 y1 + y2 q 2 b2 q 2 b2
b −b 2 + 5y2 bS0 = −
2 2 2 gby2 gby1

436
 y12 y22 y1 + y2 q2 q2
− + 5y2 S0 = −
2 2 2 gy2 gy1
or
y12 q2 y2 q2 y1 + y2
+ = 2 + − 5y2 S0
2 gy1 2 gy2 2

9.46. From given data: Q = 100 m3 /s, b = 8 m, y1 = 0.9 m, and

Q 100
q= = = 12.5 m2 /s
b 8
and
( √ )
y1
y2 = −1 + 1 + 8Fr21
2
( √ ) ( √ )
y1 q2 0.9 12.52
= −1 + 1 + 8 3 = −1 + 1 + 8 = 5.52 m
2 gy1 2 (9.81)(0.9)3

The energy loss, hL , is given by

(y2 − y1 )3 (5.52 − 0.9)3

hL = = = 4.96 m
4y1 y2 4(5.52)(0.9)

and the initial energy, E1 , is given by

V12 (12.5/0.9)2
E1 = y1 + = 0.9 + = 10.73 m
2g 2(9.81)

Therefore, the fraction of initial energy lost is

hL 4.96
= = 0.462
E1 10.73

9.47. The head loss, hL , is defined by

V12 V2
y1 + = y2 + 2 + h L
2g 2g
Dividing by y1 gives
V12 y2 V2 hL
1+ = + 2 +
2gy1 y1 2gy1 y1
which can be put in the form

hL y2 V2 V2
=1− + 1 − 2 (1)
y1 y1 2gy1 2gy1
Define
V12
Fr21 = (2)
gy1

437
 Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
[ ]
hL y2 Fr21 V22
=1− + 1−
y1 y1 2 gy1 Fr21
 
2 2
y2 Fr1  V2
=1− + 1− ( 2 )
y1 2 V1
gy 1 gy1
[ ]
y2 Fr21 V22
=1− + 1−
y1 2 V12

Since V1 = q/y1 and V2 = q/y2 , then

[ ]
hL y2 Fr21 (q/y2 )2
=1− + 1−
y1 y1 2 (q/y1 )2
which simplifies to
[ ( )2 ]
hL y2 Fr21 y1
=1− + 1−
y1 y1 2 y2

9.48. (a) From the given data: Q = 20 m3 /s, y1 = 1 m, b1 = 1 m, and m = 2, which gives

A1 = b1 y1 + my12 = (1)(1) + (2)(1)2 = 3 m2

T1 = b1 + 2my1 = (1) + 2(2)(1) = 5 m
A1 3
D1 = = = 0.6 m
T1 5
Q 20
V1 = = = 6.67 m/s
A1 3
V2 6.672
Fr21 = 1 = = 7.56
gD1 (9.81)(0.6)

Since Fr1 > 1 a hydraulic jump will occur in the channel.

(b) The upstream and downstream depths in a hydraulic jump are related by

Q2 Q2
+ A1 ȳ1 = + A2 ȳ2
gA1 gA2
where
1 y1 y1 1 y1
A1 ȳ1 = my12 · + by12 · + my12 ·
2 3 2 2 3
my13 by13 2(1)3 1(1)3
= + = + = 1.167 m3
3 2 3 2
Substituting the given and derived data:

202 202 (y )
2
+ 1.167 = + (5y2 )
(9.81)(3) (9.81)(5y2 ) 2

438
 8.15
14.76 = + 2.5y22
y2
which yields y2 = 2.08 m, 0.586 m, and −2.67 m. Hence the only feasible (subcritical)
depth in the rectangular channel is 2.08 m .
The head loss in the hydraulic jump is equal to the change in specific energy, E1 − E2 ,
where
V12 6.672
E1 = y1 + =1+ = 3.268 m
2g 2(9.81)
Q 20
V2 = = = 1.92 m/s
A2 2.08 × 5
V2 1.922
E2 = y2 + 2 = 2.08 + = 2.27 m
2g 2(9.81)
Therefore, the energy loss is 3.628 m − 2.27 m = 1.358 m, and the power loss is given
by
Power loss = γQhL = (9.79)(20)(1.358) = 266 kW

9.49. The general hydraulic jump equation is given by

Q2
+ Aȳ = constant (1)
gA
For a trapezoidal channel, ( ) ( )
by 2 my 3
2 + 3
ȳ = 2
(2)
by + my
Combining Equations 1 and 2 yields
( ) ( )
by 2 my 3
Q2 2 + 3
+ (by + my 2 ) = constant
g(by + my 2 ) by + my 2

which simplifies to ( ) ( )
Q2 by 2 my 3
+ + = constant
gy(b + my) 2 3
which demonstrates that
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Q2 by12 my13 Q2 by22 my23
+ + = + +
gy1 (b + my1 ) 2 3 gy2 (b + my2 ) 2 3

9.50. From the given data: Q = 21 m3 /s, b = 2 m, m = 1, and y1 = 1 m. The momentum equations
requires that
Q2 Q2
+ A1 ȳ1 = + A2 ȳ2 (1)
gA1 gA2
where
Q 21
A1 = by1 + y12 = 2(1) + 12 = 3 m2 , V1 = = = 7 m/s
A1 3

439
 Q 21
A2 = by2 + y22 = 2y2 + y22 , V2 = =
A2 2y2 + y22

and

∑ (1)1 1 (1)1 1
Aȳ 1(2)(0.5) + +
ȳ1 = ∑ = 2 3 2 3 = 0.44 m
A 3
(y ) [ ]
2 1 2 y2
2y2 + 2 y2
2 2 3 y2 + y22 /3
ȳ2 = =
2y2 + y22 2 + y2

Substituting into Equation 1 gives

212 212 y3
+ 3(0.44) = 2 + y22 + 2 → y2 = 2.59 m
9.81(3) 9.81(2y2 + y2 ) 3

The energy equation gives the energy loss, ∆E, as

( )2
21
V12 V2 72 2 × 2.59 + 2.592
∆E = y1 + − y2 − 2 = 1 + − 2.59 − = 0.748 m
2g 2g 2(9.81) 2(9.81)

9.51. From the given data: m = 2, Q = 0.30 m3 /s, y = 15 cm, and

A = my 2 = 2(0.15)2 = 0.045 m2 , T = 2my = 2(2)(0.15) = 0.6 m

A 0.045 Q 0.30
D= = = 0.075 m, V = = = 6.67 m/s
T 0.6 A 0.045
V 6.67
Fr = √ =√ = 7.78
gD (9.81)(0.075)

Since Fr = 7.78 > 1, the flow is supercritical.

The hydraulic jump equation is the same as for a trapezoidal channel with b = 0, hence

my13 Q2 my23 Q2
+ = +
3 gmy12 3 gmy22
2(0.15)3 (0.30)2 2y23 (0.30)2
+ = +
3 (9.81)(2)(0.15)2 3 (9.81)(2)y22
0.00459
0.2061 = 0.667y23 +
y22

which yields
y2 = 0.665 m or 0.150 m
Since the downstream flow is subcritical, y2 = 0.665 m .

440
9.52. From given data: Q = 10 m3 /s, b = 5.5 m, S0 = 0.0015, n = 0.038, y2 = 2.2 m.

(a) Using the direct-integration method,

( 2
)2
nQP̄ 3
S0 − 5
Ā 3
y1 = y2 − 2
(x2 − x1 )
1 − V̄gȳ
( 2
)2
nQ(b+2ȳ) 3
S0 − 5
(bȳ) 3
= y2 − 2 (x2 − x1 )
1 − gbQ2 ȳ3
( 2
)2
(0.038)(10)(5.5+2ȳ) 3
0.0015 − 5
(5.5ȳ) 3
= 2.2 − 2 (100 − 0) (1)
1 − (9.81)(5.5)
10
2 ȳ 3

where
y1 + y2 y1 + 2.2
ȳ = = (2)
2 2
Solving Equations 1 and 2 gives
y1 = 2.12 m

(b) Using the standard-step equation

[ ]1
V2
y+ 2g 2
∆L = (3)
S̄f − S0
This equation is solved iteratively until ∆L = 100 m, and the iterations are summarized
in the following table:

y2 A2 P2 R2 V2 S2 y1 A1 P1 R1 V1 S1 S̄f ∆L
2.2 12.1 9.4 1.29 0.826 0.00070 2.20 12.1 9.4 1.29 0.826 0.00070 0.00070 0
2.2 12.1 9.4 1.29 0.826 0.00070 2.10 11.6 9.2 1.26 0.866 0.00080 0.00075 129
2.2 12.1 9.4 1.29 0.826 0.00070 2.11 11.6 9.22 1.26 0.862 0.00079 0.00075 115
2.2 12.1 9.4 1.29 0.826 0.00070 2.12 11.7 9.24 1.26 0.857 0.00078 0.00074 100

Therefore y1 = 2.12 m .
Find the uniform flow depth, yn , using the Manning equation

1 A3 √
5

Q= S0
n P 23
which can be written as
1 (5.5yn ) 3 √
5

10 = S0
n (5.5 + 2yn ) 23
(5.5yn ) 3 √
5
1
10 = 0.0015
0.038 (5.5 + 2yn ) 23

441
 which gives
yn = 1.719 m
Plugging this value of y into the direct-step equation, Equation 3 gives

y2 A2 P2 R2 V2 S2 y1 A1 P1 R1 V1 S1 S̄f ∆L
2.2 12.1 9.4 1.29 0.826 0.000704 1.719 9.455 8.94 1.00 1.06 0.00149 0.001 1230

Therefore ∆L = 1230 m .

9.53. From the given data: Q = 5 m3 /s, b = 4 m, S0 = 0.04, n = 0.05, and y2 = 1.5 m. Let the
given section be Section 2, then

A2 = by2 = (4)(1.5) = 6 m2
P2 = b + 2y2 = 4 + 2(1.5) = 7 m
A2 6
R2 = = = 0.857 m
P2 7
Q 5
V2 = = = 0.833 m/s
A2 6
 2 [ ]2
nQ (0.05)(5)
S2 =  2
 = 2 = 0.00213
A2 R23 (6)(0.857) 3

Taking y1 = 1 m, then

A1 = 4 m2 , P1 = 6 m, R1 = 0.667 m, V1 = 1.25 m/s, S1 = 0.00670

and
S1 + S2 0.00213 + 0.00670
S̄f = = = 0.00442
2 2
and
[y1 + V12 /2g] − [y2 + V22 /2g]
∆L =
S̄f − S0
[1 + 1.252 /2(9.81)] − [1.5 + 0.8332 /2(9.81)]
= = 12.9 m
0.00442 − 0.04

Therefore the depth is equal to 1 m at a location 12.9 m upstream .

9.54. Use the direct-step method where

[ ]1
y + V 2 /2g 2
∆L =
S̄f − S0

At Section 1, y1 = 1.6 m,

A1 = [b + my]y = [2.8 + 2(1.6)](1.6) = 9.6 m2

√ √
P1 = b + 2 1 + m2 y = 2.8 + 2 5(1.6) = 9.96 m

442
 A1 9.6
R1 = = = 0.964 m
P1 9.96
Q 20
V1 = = = 2.08 m2
A1 9.6
 2 [ ]2
Qn 20 × 0.015
Sf 1 =  2
 = 2 = 0.00103
3
A1 R1 (9.6)(0.964) 3

At Section 2, y2 = 1.4 m,

A2 = [b + my]y = [2.8 + 2(1.4)](1.4) = 7.84 m2

√ √
P2 = b + 2 1 + m2 y = 2.8 + 2 5(1.4) = 9.06 m
A2 7.84
R2 = = = 0.865 m
P2 9.06
Q 20
V2 = = = 2.55 m2
A2 7.84
 2 [ ]2
Qn 20 × 0.015
Sf 2 =  2
 = 2 = 0.00178
A2 R 3 (7.84)(0.865) 3
2

Therefore
Sf 1 + Sf 2 0.00103 + 0.00178
S̄f = = = 0.00141
2 2
Substituting data into direct-step equation gives
[ ] [ ]
2.082 2.552
1.6 + 2×9.81 − 1.4 + 2×9.81
∆L = = −10.5 m
0.00141 − 0.01
Therefore
∆L = 10.5 m downstream

9.55. From the given data: S0 = 0.01, m = 3, b = 3.00 m, n = 0.015, Q = 20 m3 /s, and y = 1.00 m.

(a) The normal depth of flow is calculated using the Manning equation:
5 5
1 2 1 1 A 3 12 1 [3yn + 3yn2 ] 3 1
Q = AR 3 S02 = S → 20 = √ (0.01) 2 → yn = 0.82 m
n n P 23 0 0.015 [3 + 2 1 + 32 yn ] 23

For the Manning equation to be valid,

√
n6 RS0 ≥ 9.6 × 10−14

In this case,
A 3(0.82) + 3(0.82)2
R= = √ = 0.55 m
P 3 + 2 1 + 32 (0.82)

443
 which gives
√ √
n6 RS0 = (0.015)6 (0.55)(0.01) = 8.45 × 10−13 ≥ 9.6 × 10−14

Hence, the Manning equation is valid, and yn = 0.82 m .

(b) When flow conditions are critical,

Q2 A3 202 [3yc + 3yc2 ]3

= → = → yc = 1.15 m
g T 9.81 3 + 2(3)yc

(c) Since yc > yn the slope is a steep slope . Since yn < y < yc , the water surface has a
S2 profile .

(d) In a S2 water surface profile, the depth decreases in the downstream section, so the depth
of 1.1 m must occur upstream of the section where the depth is 1 m. At the location
where the depth is 1.1 m:
y1 = 1.1 m, A1 = [3 + 3y1 ]y1 = [3 + 3(1.1)](1.1) = 6.93 m2
√ √ A1 6.93
P1 = 3 + 2 10y1 = 3 + 2 10(1.1) = 9.96 m, R1 = = = 0.696 m
P1 9.96
[ ]2 [ ]2
Q 20 nQ (0.015)(20)
V1 = = = 2.89 m/s, Sf 1 = 2 = 2 = 0.00304
A1 6.93 A R3 (6.93)(0.696) 3
1 1

and where the depth is 1.00 m:

y2 = 1.00 m, A2 = [3 + 3y2 ]y2 = [3 + 3(1.00)](1.00) = 6.00 m2
√ √ A2 6.00
P2 = 3 + 2 10y2 = 3 + 2 10(1.00) = 9.32 m, R2 = = = 0.644 m
P2 9.32
[ ]2 [ ]2
Q 20 nQ (0.015)(20)
V2 = = = 3.33 m/s, Sf 2 = 2 = 2 = 0.00450
A2 6.00 A2 R23 (6.00)(0.644) 3

Substituting the hydraulic parameters at sections 1 and 2 into the direct-step equation
and taking α = 1 gives
[ ]1 ( ) ( )
V2 2.892 3.332
y+α 1.1 + − 1.00 +
2g 2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
∆L = 2
= ( ) = 6.26 m
S̄f − S0 0.00304 + 0.00450
− 0.01
2

Hence, the depth in the channel increases to 1.1 m at a location that is approximately
6.26 m upstream of the section where the depth is 1.0 m.
(e) The specific energy, E1 , at the gaging station is given by

V12 3.332
E1 = y1 + = 1.0 + = 1.565 m
2g 2(9.81)

444
 Just downstream of the gaging station (at the hump), the specific energy, E2 , is given
by
E2 = E1 − 0.2 = 1.565 − 0.2 = 1.365 m
Therefore,
Q2 202 20.4
y2 + = 1.365 → y2 + = 1.365 → y2 + = 1.365
2gA2 2(9.81)(3y2 + 3y22 )2 (3y2 + 3y22 )2
There is no solution to this equation. Therefore, critical depth will occur over the hump,
the flow will be choked, and
y2 = yc = 1.15 m
9.56. Use the direct-step method where
[ ]1
y + V 2 /2g 2
∆L =
S̄f − S0
At Section 1, y1 = 0.9 m,
A1 = by = (6)(0.9) = 5.4 m2 , P1 = b + 2y = 6 + 2(0.9) = 7.8 m
A1 5.4 Q 0.8
R1 = = = 0.692 m, V1 = = = 0.148 m/s
P1 7.8 A1 5.4
5 5 5
1 A13 12 A12 1
2
5.4 3 1
Q= S , n1 = S0 = 0.005 2 = 0.374
n1 P 32 0 QP1
2
3 (0.8)(7.8)
2
3
1

At Section 2, y2 = 0.7 m,
A2 = by = (6)(0.7) = 4.2 m2 , P2 = b + 2y = 6 + 2(0.7) = 7.4 m
A2 4.2 Q 0.8
R2 = = = 0.568 m, V2 = = = 0.190 m/s
P2 7.4 A2 4.2
5 5
A23 1
2
4.2 3 1
n2 = 2 S0 = 2 0.005 2 = 0.254
QP2 3 (0.8)(7.4) 3

Based on the information given in this problem, S̄f can be estimated using the following
relations,
n1 + n2 0.374 + 0.254 A1 + A2 5.4 + 4.2
n̄ = = = 0.314, Ā = = = 4.8 m2
2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
R1 + R2 0.692 + 0.568 n̄Q 2 0.314 × 0.8 2
R̄ = = = 0.630 m, S̄f = 2 = 2 = 0.00507
2 2 ĀR̄ 3 4.8 × 0.630 3
Substituting data into direct-step equation gives
[ ] [ ]
0.1482 0.1902
0.9 + − 0.7 +
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
∆L = = 2850 m
0.00507 − 0.005
Therefore
∆L = 2850 m

445
9.57. From the given data: ∆L = 100 m, b = 5 m, y1 = 1 m, y2 = 0.9 m, Q = 2.5 m3 /s, and S0 =
0.5%. The energy equation requires that:
[ ]1
V2
y+
2g 2
∆L = (1)
S − S0
The following parameters can be calculated from the given data:

A1 = by1 = (5)(1) = 5 m2 , P1 = b + 2y1 = 5 + 2(1) = 7 m

A1 5 Q 2.5
R1 = = = 0.7143 m, V1 = = = 0.5 m/s
P1 7 A1 5
A2 = by2 = (5)(0.9) = 4.5 m2 , P2 = b + 2y2 = 5 + 2(0.9) = 6.8 m
A2 4.5 Q 2.5
R2 = = = 0.6618 m, V2 = = = 0.5556 m/s
P2 6.8 A2 4.5
S0 = 0.005

Substituting the calculated parameters into Equation 1 yields

[ ]1
1 V2
S = S0 + y+
∆L 2g 2
[( ) ( )]
1 0.52 0.55562
S = 0.005 + 1+ − 0.9 + = 0.005970 (2)
100 2(9.81) 2(9.81)
 2 [ ]2
nQ 2.5
Sf1 =  2
 =n 2
2 = 0.3915n2
A1 R13 (5)(0.7143) 3
 2 [ ]2
nQ 2.5
Sf2 =  2
 = n2 2 = 0.5352n2
A2 R23 (4.5)(0.6618) 3

1 1
S = (Sf1 + Sf2 ) = (0.3915 + 0.5352)n2 = 0.4634n2 (3)
2 2
Combining Equations 2 and 3 gives

0.005970 = 0.4634n2

which yields n = 0.114 .

9.58. From the given data: Q = 11 m3 /s, b = 5 m, S0 = 0.001, n = 0.035, and y1 = 2 m. Calculate
the uniform depth, yn , using the Manning equation

1 A3 √
5

Q= S0
n P 23
which gives
(5yn ) 3 √
5
1
11 = 0.001
0.035 (5 + 2yn ) 23

446
 and leads to
yn = 2.19 m
and therefore 95% of the normal depth is equal to 0.95 × 2.19 = 2.08 m. Using the standard-
step method yields the following results:

x y2 A2 P2 R2 V2 S2 y1 A1 P1 R1 V1 S1 S̄
(m) (m) (m2 ) (m) (m) (m/s) (m) (m2 ) (m) (m) (m/s)
20 2.00 10.0 9.00 1.11 1.10 0.0013 2.01 10.0 9.01 1.11 1.10 0.0013 0.0013
40 2.01 10.0 9.01 1.11 1.10 0.0013 2.01 10.1 9.02 1.11 1.09 0.0013 0.0013
60 2.01 10.1 9.02 1.11 1.09 0.0013 2.02 10.1 9.04 1.12 1.09 0.0013 0.0013
80 2.02 10.1 9.04 1.12 1.09 0.0013 2.02 10.1 9.05 1.12 1.09 0.0012 0.0013
100 2.02 10.1 9.05 1.12 1.09 0.0012 2.03 10.1 9.06 1.12 1.08 0.0012 0.0012
120 2.03 10.1 9.06 1.12 1.08 0.0012 2.03 10.2 9.07 1.12 1.08 0.0012 0.0012
140 2.03 10.2 9.07 1.12 1.08 0.0012 2.04 10.2 9.08 1.12 1.08 0.0012 0.0012
160 2.04 10.2 9.08 1.12 1.08 0.0012 2.04 10.2 9.09 1.12 1.08 0.0012 0.0012
180 2.04 10.2 9.09 1.12 1.08 0.0012 2.05 10.2 9.10 1.13 1.07 0.0012 0.0012
200 2.05 10.2 9.10 1.13 1.07 0.0012 2.05 10.3 9.10 1.13 1.07 0.0012 0.0012
220 2.05 10.3 9.10 1.13 1.07 0.0012 2.06 10.3 9.11 1.13 1.07 0.0012 0.0012
240 2.06 10.3 9.11 1.13 1.07 0.0012 2.06 10.3 9.12 1.13 1.07 0.0012 0.0012
260 2.06 10.3 9.12 1.13 1.07 0.0012 2.06 10.3 9.13 1.13 1.07 0.0012 0.0012
280 2.06 10.3 9.13 1.13 1.07 0.0012 2.07 10.3 9.14 1.13 1.06 0.0012 0.0012
300 2.07 10.3 9.14 1.13 1.06 0.0012 2.07 10.4 9.14 1.13 1.06 0.0012 0.0012
320 2.07 10.4 9.14 1.13 1.06 0.0012 2.08 10.4 9.15 1.13 1.06 0.0012 0.0012
340 2.08 10.4 9.15 1.13 1.06 0.0012 2.08 10.4 9.16 1.14 1.06 0.0012 0.0012
360 2.08 10.4 9.16 1.14 1.06 0.0012 2.08 10.4 9.16 1.14 1.06 0.0012 0.0012

The upstream water surface profile is described by x and y2 .

9.59. From the given data: S0 = 0.0005, n = 0.040, Q = 250 m3 /s, y2 = 8 m, b2 = 12 m, m2 = 2,
b1 = 16 m, and m1 = 3. Using these data

A2 = b2 y2 + m2 y22 = 12(8) + 2(8)2 = 224 m2

√ √
P2 = b2 + 2y2 1 + m22 = 12 + 2(8) 1 + 22 = 47.8 m
A2 224
R2 = = = 4.69 m
P2 47.8
Q 250
V2 = = = 1.12 m/s
A2 224
 2 [ ]2
nQ (0.040)(250)
Sf 2 =  2
 = 2 = 0.000254
3
A2 R2 (224)(4.69) 3

Use the standard-step equation

[ ]1
V2 V12 V22
2g − y2 −
y+ 2g 2 y1 + 2g
∆L = =
S̄f − S0 Sf 1 +Sf 2
− S0
2
V12 1.122
y1 + 2(9.81) − 8 − 2(9.81)
100 = Sf 1 +0.000254
2 − 0.0005
y1 + 0.05097V12 − 8.064
100 = (1)
0.5Sf 1 − 0.000373

447
 where
Q Q 250
V1 = = 2 = (2)
A1 b1 y1 + m1 y1 16y1 + 3y12
 2  2
nQ  nQ 
Sf 1 = 2 = 5 2
A1 R13 A13 /P13
[ ]2
(0.040)(250)
= 5 √ 2 (3)
(16y1 + 3y12 ) 3 /(16 + 2y1 10) 3

Substituting Equations 2 and 3 into Equation 1 and solving for y1 gives

y1 = 8.00 m

Therefore the depth 100 m upstream is 8.00 m .

9.26. From the given data: Q = 24 m3 /s, L = 100 m, y2 = 3 m, W = 8 m, A2 = 3 m × 8 m = 24 m2 ,

and S0 = 0.002. For a sudden expansion, the eddy-loss coefficient is C = 0.8. Neglecting
friction losses, the energy equation between the contracted section and the control structure
is given by [ ] [ ]
Q2 Q2
y1 + − y2 +
2gA2 2gA22
L= [ 21 ] (1)
C Q Q2
− − S0
L 2gA21 2gA22
For critical conditions at the contraction when the width is b (at the contraction),
( )2  31 ( ) 1
Q 24 2 3
   
 b   b  3.887
y1 =   =  =
 g   9.81  b3
2

1
A1 = by1 = 3.887b 3

Substituting into Equation 2.23 yields

[ ] [ ]
3.887 242 242
2 + 1 − 3+
b3 2(9.81)(3.887b 3 )2 2(9.81)(24)2
100 = [ ]
0.8 242 242
− − 0.002
100 2(9.81)(3.887b 13 )2 2(9.81)(24)2

which simplifies to
4.275
2 = 2.810 → b = 1.88 m
b3
Therefore, the minimum width of the contraction is 1.88 m . For any lesser width, the flow
will be choked and the flow will back up behind the contraction, possibly reducing the flow

448
 in the channel.

Assess energy losses. For the critical condition in the contraction,

3.887 3.887
y1 = 2 = 2 = 2.552 m
b3 (1.88) 3
A1 = by1 = (1.88)(2.552) = 4.80 m2
Q 24
V1 = = = 5.00 m/s
A1 4.80
Q 24
V2 = = = 1 m/s
A2 24
( 2 )
V1 V2 0.8 ( )
he = C − 2 = 5.002 − 12 = 0.979 m
2g 2g 2(9.81)
P1 = 2y1 + b = 2(2.552) + 1.88 = 6.98 m
A1 4.80
R1 = = = 0.688 m
P1 6.98
 2 [ ]2
nQ (0.013)(24)
Sf1 =  2
 = 2 = 0.00696
A1 R1 3 (4.80)(0.688) 3

P2 = 2y2 + b = 2(3) + 8 = 14 m
A2 24
R2 = = = 1.714 m
P2 14
 2 [ ]2
nQ (0.013)(24)
Sf2 =  2
 = 2 = 0.0000824
A2 R23 (24)(1.714) 3
( ) ( )
Sf1 + Sf2 0.00696 + 0.0000824
hf = L = (100) = 0.352 m
2 2
Since the estimated friction loss (0.352 m) is about 26% of the total loss (0.352 m + 0.979 m)
it might not be reasonable to neglect friction losses to obtain a preliminary estimate of the
choking condition. The friction loss percentage is likely much less than the estimated value
since the friction slope estimated at the contraction is unlikely to persist for 21 of the 100-m
distance as assumed in the analysis.
9.61. Let d be the depth of flow in the floodplain, and using the Horton equation,
[ 3 3
]2 [ ]2
2(d + 45)(0.1) 2 + (16)(0.05) 2 3 3.023 + 0.0632d 3
ne = =
2d + 90 + 6 + 10 106 + 2d
A = 30 + 100d
P = 106 + 2d
Substituting into the Manning equation gives
5
1 A 3 12
Q= S
n P 32 0

449
 [ ]2 5
106 + 2d 3 (30 + 100d) 3 1
110 = 2 (0.0075) 2
3.023 + 0.0632d (106 + 2d) 3

which gives d = 0.842 m. Verify that the flow is non constrained in the main channel:
5
1 (10d) 3 1
100 = 2 (0.0075)
2
0.05 (10 + 2d) 3

which gives d = 3.80 m. Therefore the flow is in the floodplain as calculated previously (d =
0.842 m).

(a) If 15 m of the floodway is filled in,

[ 3 3 3
]2 [ ]2
3
(d + 30)(0.1) 2 + (16)(0.05) 2 + (d + 45)(0.1) 2 2.551 + 0.0632d 3
ne = =
2d + 75 + 6 + 10 91 + 2d
A = 30 + 85d
P = 91 + 2d

Substituting into the Manning equation gives

[ ]2 5
91 + 2d 3 (30 + 85d) 3 1
110 = 2 (0.0075) 2
2.551 + 0.0632d (91 + 2d) 3

which gives d = 0.904 m. Therefore, filling in 15 m of the floodplain causes the water-level
to rise 0.904 m − 0.842 m = 0.062 m = 6.2 cm .
(b) At the upstream section (Section 1),

y1 = 3 + 0.904 = 3.904 m
[ ]2
3.023 + 0.0632(0.904) 3
n1 = = 0.0935
106 + 2(0.904)
A1 = 30 + 100(0.904) = 120.4 m2
V1 = Q/A1 = 0.914 m/s
V12
= 0.0425 m
2g
P1 = 106 + 2(0.904) = 107.8 m
[ 2
]2
(110)(0.0935)(107.8) 3
S1 = 5 = 0.006297
(120.4) 3

At the downstream section (Section 2),

y2 = 54.50 − [50 − (0.0075)(150)] = 5.625 m

[ ]2
3.023 + 0.0632(2.625) 3
n2 = = 0.0937
106 + 2(2.625)

450
 A2 = 30 + 100(2.625) = 292.5 m2
V2 = Q/A1 = 0.376 m/s
V22
= 0.00721 m
2g
P2 = 106 + 2(2.625) = 111.3 m
[ 2
]2
(110)(0.0937)(111.3) 3
S2 = 5 = 0.0003424
(292.5) 3
Combining the results,
S1 + S2 0.006297 + 0.0003424
S̄ = = = 0.003320
2 2
[ ]
2 1
y + V2g [3.904 + 0.0425] − [5.625 + .00721]
2
∆L = =
S̄ − S0 0.003320 − 0.0075
which yields ∆L = 403 m .
9.62. From the given data: z1 = 102.05 m, Z1 = 105.27 m, m = 3, b1 = 20 m, S0 = 2%, n = 0.07,
L = 100 m, b2 = 10 m, Q = 12 m3 /s, and y1 = 1.60 m.
(a) From the given data:
A1 = b1 y1 + my12 = 20(1.60) + 3(1.60)2 = 39.68 m2
√ √
P1 = b1 + 2y1 1 + m2 = 20 + 2(1.60) 1 + 32 = 30.1 m
 2  2
2 ( )2
2
3
nQ nQP (0.07)(12)(30.1) 3
Sf 1 =  2
 = 5
1  = 5 = 0.0003100
A1 R13 A13 39.68 3
 2
2 4 4
3 3 3
nQP P P
Sf 2 =  5
2 
= (0.07 × 12) 210 = 0.07056 210
2

A23 A23 A23

4
1 P3
S̄f = (Sf 1 + Sf 2 ) = 0.0001550 + 0.3528 210
2 A3 2

The energy equation is

( ) ( ( )2 )
0.30242
1.6 + 2(9.81) − y2 + 1
2×9.81
12
A2
100 =
S̄f − 0.02
Solving gives y2 = 3.586 m . Checking the Froude numbers of the upstream and down-
stream flows verifies that both are subcritical.
(b) From the given data, the elevation of the floodplain at the bridge section is 105.27 −
(0.02)(100) = 103.27 m. The elevation of the water surface at the bridge section is 102.05
− (0.02)(100) + 3.586 = 103.64 m. Therefore, since the water surface elevation is higher
than the elevation of the floodplain, the floodplain will be flooded .

451
9.63. The usual energy equation that is used in the standard-step method is
[ ]
2 B
y + α V2g
A
∆L =
S̄f − S0

which can be written as

VB2 V2
S̄f ∆L − S0 ∆L = yB + αB − yA + αA A (1)
2g 2g

where
zB − zA
S0 = (2)
∆L
and zA and zB are the elevations of the bottom of the channel at stations A and B respectively.
Denoting the water-surface elevations at A and B by ZA and ZB respectively, then

Z A = z A + yA (3)
Z B = z B + yB (4)

Combining Equations 1 to 4 gives

VB2 V2
S̄f ∆L = (zB + yB ) + αB − (zA + yA ) − αA A
2g 2g
V 2 V 2
= ZB + αB B − ZA − αA A
2g 2g
( 2 ) ( )
VB VA2
= Z B + αB − Z A + αA
2g 2g

which can be written as

[ ]B
V2
Z +α = S̄f ∆L (5)
2g A

From the given data: ∆L = 140 m, Q = 280 m3 /s, n = 0.040, and ZA = 517.4 m. From the
given cross-section information,

AA = 144.98 m2 , PA = 48.09 m
AA 144.98 Q 280
RA = = = 3.01 m, VA = = = 1.93 m/s
PA 48.09 AA 144.98
 2 [ ]2
SA =  nQ 2
 = (0.040)(280)
2 = 0.001373
3
AA RA (144.98)(3.01) 3

Taking
SA + SB
S̄f =
∆L

452
and αA = αB = 1, the energy equation between sections A and B, Equation 5, can be written
as
[ ]
VA2 SA V 2 SB
ZB = ZA + + ∆L − B + ∆L
2g 2 2g 2
[ ]
1.932 0.001373 VB2 SB
= 517.4 + + (140) − + 140
2(9.81) 2 2(9.81) 2
which simplifies to
ZB = 517.69 − 0.05097VB2 + 70SB (6)
where  2  2
nQ (0.040)(280)  = 125.44
SB =  2
 = 2 (7)
AB RB3 AB RB3 A2B RB3
Combining Equations 6 and 7 gives the following form of the energy equation that is most
useful for backwater computations,
8778
ZB = 517.69 − 0.05097VB2 + 4 (8)
A2B RB3
Iterative calculations to determine ZB are indicated in the following table, where the initial
estimate of ZB is 517.60 m.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

ZB AB PB RB VB ZB
(m) (m2 ) (m) (m) (m/s) (m)
517.60 86.96 32.77 2.65 3.22 517.48
517.48 84.33 32.45 2.60 3.32 517.47
517.47 84.11 32.42 2.59 3.33 517.47

The calculations begin with an assumption of ZB in Column 1, and the corresponding area,
AB , in Column 2 and wetted perimeter, PB , in Column 3 are obtained from the given (tab-
ular) data. The hydraulic radius, RB in Column 4 is obtained using RB = AB /PB , and the
average velocity, VB , in Column 6 is obtained using VB = Q/AB . The values of AB , RB ,
and VB corresponding to the assumed value of ZB are substituted into the energy equation,
Equation 8, to yield the calculated value of ZB shown in Column 6. If the calculated value of
ZB in Column 6 is not equal to the assumed value of ZB in Column 1, then the calculations
are repeated with assumed value of ZB equal to the calculated value of ZB . Based on the
above calculations, the water-surface elevation at station B is 517.47 m .

At Station B, the channel invert elevation is 515.10 m and hence the depth of flow, yB is given
by
yB = 517.47 − 515.10 = 2.37 m
Since AB = 84.11 m2 , and the channel is approximately rectangular, the the width of the
channel at section B is 84.11/2.37 = 35.49 m. Also, since the piers present an obstruction

453
 2.50 m wide, the width of the channel adjacent to the piers is 35.49 m − 2.50 m = 32.99 m.
The specific energy at section B, EB , is given by

VB2 3.332
EB = yB + = 2.37 + = 2.94 m
2g 2(9.81)

Let yP be the depth of flow adjacent to the bridge pier, then neglecting energy losses requires
that
V2 Q2 2802
EB = yP + P → 2.94 = yP + → 2.94 = y P +
2g 2gA2P 2g(32.99yP )2
which simplifies to
3.672
2.94 = yP + (9)
yP2
which yields
yP = 2.13 m or 1.78 m
Since the flow at station B is subcritical (Fr < 1), the flow adjacent to the pier is probably
subcritical also, and therefore the depth of flow at the pier is 2.13 m. The water surface
elevation is 2.13 m + 515.10 m = 517.23 m .

9.64. From the given data: Q = 220 m3 /s, Z1 = 13.5 m, y1 = 1.00 m, Z2 = 21.5 m, b = 10 m, and
n = 0.01. Based on these data, the downstream depth in the stilling basin is given by

y2 = Z2 − (Z1 − y1 ) = 21.5 − (13.5 − 1.0) = 9 m

Let L be the length of the stilling basin, so the hydraulic jump occurs at L/2. For y2 = 9 m,
the conjugate depth equation gives
( √ )
y2 1 Q2
= −1 + 1 + 8 2 3
y1 2 gb y1
( √ ) ( √ )
9 1 2202 1 394.7
= −1 + 1 + 8 = −1 + 1 + 8 3
y1 2 (9.81)(10)2 y13 2 y1

which gives y1 = 1.087 m. The next step is to find the distance, ∆L, over which the depth
increases from 1.0 m to 1.087 m. This distance is given by
[ ]1
V2
y+
2g 2
∆L = (1)
S̄f − S0
and the variables to be substituted into this equation are:

y1 = 1 m, V1 = 22 m/s
A1 = 1 × 10 = 10 m2 , P1 = 2 × 1 + 10 = 12 m
[ ]2 [ ]2
A1 10 nQ (0.01)(220)
R1 = = = 0.8333 m, Sf1 = 2 = 2 = 0.06172
P1 12 AR 3 (10)(0.8333) 3

454
 y2 = 1.087 m, A2 = 1.087 × 10 = 10.87 m2
220
V2 = m/s = 20.24 m/s, P2 = 2 × 1.087 + 10 = 12.17 m
10.87
[ ]2 [ ]2
A2 10.87 nQ (0.01)(220)
R2 = = = 0.8606 m, Sf2 = 2 = 2 = 0.05004
P2 12.17 AR 3 (10.87)(0.8606) 3
Sf1 + Sf2 0.06172 + 0.05004
S̄f = = = 0.05588, S0 = 0
2 2
Substituting into Equation 1 gives
[ ] [ ]
222 20.242
1+ − 1.087 +
2(9.81) 2(9.81)
∆L = = 66.3 m
0.05588 − 0
Therefore, the length of the stilling basin should be 2 × 66.3 m = 133 m .
9.65. From the given data: b = 5 m, m = 2, n = 0.018, S0 = 0.001, T W = 1.00 m, and Q = 20
m3 /s. Use the standard-step method, where
Q 2 Q 2
[y1 + α1 2gA2 ] − [y2 + α2 2gA2 ]
1 2
∆L =
S̄f − S0
where ∆L = 100 m, α1 = α2 = 1, and the objective is to find the depth y2 at the gate, given
the depth y1 at a location 100 m upstream of the gate. In this case,
y1 = 2.20 m − S0 ∆L = 2.20 − (0.001)(100) = 2.10 m
A1 = by1 + = my12 = 5(2.10) + 2(2.10)2 = 19.32 m2
√ √
P1 = b + 2 1 + m2 y1 = 5 + 2 1 + 22 (2.10) = 14.39 m
A2 = by2 + = my22 = 5y2 + 2y22
√ √
P2 = b + 2 1 + m2 y2 = 5 + 2 1 + 22 y2 = 5 + 4.472y2
 2  2
2
3
nQ  nQP1 
Sf1 =  2 = 5
A1 R13 A13
[ 2
]2
(0.018)(20)(14.39) 3
= 5 = 0.000234
(19.32) 3
 2
2 [ ]2
2 4
3
 nQP 2  (0.018)(20)(5 + 4.472y 2 ) 3 (5 + 4.472y2 ) 3
Sf2 = 5 = 5 = 0.1296 10
A23 (5y2 + 2y22 ) 3 (5y2 + 2y22 ) 3
4
(5 + 4.472y2 ) 3
S̄f = 0.5(Sf1 + Sf2 ) = 0.0001172 + 0.0648 10
(5y2 + 2y22 ) 3
Substituting into the standard-step equation yields
202 202
[2.10 + 2(9.81)(19.32)2
] − [y2 + 2(9.81)(5y2 +2y22 )2
]
100 = 4
0.0001172 + 0.0648 (5+4.472y2 210
) 3
− 0.001
(5y2 +2y2 ) 3

455
which rearranges to
4
20.39 (5 + 4.472y2 ) 3
y2 + 2 + 6.48 10 − 2.243 = 0
(5y2 + 2y2 )2 (5y2 + 2y 2 ) 3
2

Viable solutions to this equation are y2 = 2.18 m and y2 = 0.73 m, which correspond to
subcritical and supercritical flow conditions respectively (F2 = 0.26 and F2 = 1.75). Since
the upstream flow is subcritical (y1 = 2.10 m, F1 = 0.28), the flow at the gate must also be
subcritical, in which case y2 = 2.18 m. Under these conditions, Q = 20 m3 /s, HW = 2.18
m, T W = 1.00 m, and the gate discharge relationship requires that
√
Q = 13.3h HW − T W
√
20 = 13.3h 2.18 − 1.00

which yields h = 1.38 m. Therefore, the gate must be opened at least 1.38 m to prevent the
water elevation 100 m upstream of the gate from exceeding an elevation of 2.20 m.

456
Chapter 10

Drag and Lift

10.1. From the given data: V = 88 km/h = 24.44 m/s, A = 2.80 m2 , and FD = 300 N. For standard
air at 10◦ C, ρ = 1.246 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.2). Using the definition of the drag coefficient,

FD 300
CD = 1 2
= 1 2
= 0.29
2 ρV A 2 (1.246)(24.44) (2.80)

On a properly scaled model, one would expect the same drag coefficient.

10.2. From the given data: V = 40 km/h = 11.11 m/s, H = 10 m, L = W = 2.5 m, θ1 = 47◦ ,
F = 13.6 N, and θ2 = 25◦ . For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The following preliminary
calculations are useful:

FD = F cos(θ1 − θ2 ) = 13.6 cos(47◦ − 25◦ ) = 12.61 N

FL = F sin(θ1 − θ2 ) = 13.6 sin(47◦ − 25◦ ) = 0.5095 N

An = H[L sin θ1 + L cos θ1 ] = (10)[2.5 sin 47◦ + 2.5 cos 47◦ ] = 35.33 m2

where An is the area of the column normal to the wind direction.

(a) The drag coefficient, CD , satisfies the following relationship,

FD = CD 21 ρV 2 An → 12.61 = CD 21 (1.225)(11.11)2 (35.33) → CD = 0.47

(b) The horizontal-lift coefficient, CL , satisfies the following relationship,

FL = CL 21 ρV 2 An → 0.5095 = CL 12 (1.225)(11.11)2 (35.33) → CL = 0.019

(c) The drag and lift forces are proportional to the wind velocity squared, so the total force
will also be proportional to the velocity squared. Therefore, doubling the wind velocity
gives a total aerodynamic force of 4 × 13.6 N = 54.4 N .

10.3. From the given data: D = 10 m, H = 30 m, CDL =1.2, CDT = 0.3, Recrit = 2 × 105 , T =
20◦ C, and Lr = 10. At 20◦ C, ρair = 1.205 kg/m3 , and νair = 1.511 × 10−5 m2 /s.

457
 (a) When the flow at the laminar/turbulent transition in the full-scale building,

VD V (10)
Rep = Recrit = = 2 × 105 → = 2 × 105 → V = 0.302 m/s
ν 1.511 × 10−5
Therefore for air velocities in the range of 0–0.302 m/s the flow is laminar, and for
velocities greater than 0.302 m/s the flow is turbulent. From dimensional analysis,
FD
1 2
= f (Re)
2 ρV Af

When the flow is laminar, scaling according to the Reynolds number is used such that
Vm Lm Vp Lp
=
νm νp

If air at the same temperature is used in the model and prototype, then νm = νp and
the Reynolds scaling relationship becomes
Vm Lp
= = Lr = 10
Vp Lm

Hence Vm = 10Vp . Since laminar flow occur in the prototype for Vp < 0.302 m/s,
then laminar flow will occur in the model for Vm < 3.02 m/s and turbulent flow when
Vm > 3.02 m/s .
(b) The drag coefficient measured in the model is the same as the drag coefficient in the
prototype under the same conditions (laminar or turbulent) in the prototype.
(c) The drag force, FD is given by
1 1
FD = CD ρair V 2 Af = CD (1.205)V 2 (10 × 30) = 180.8 CD V 2
2 2
Using this relationship, the drag forces on the building are as follows:

V CD FD
(m/s) (–) (N)
0.2 1.2 8.7
2 0.3 217
20 0.3 21696

10.4. From the given data: M = 2000 kg, CDc = 0.3, CDp = 1.2, Ac = 1 m2 , Dp = 2 m, and
V0 = 100 m/s. After the parachute deploys, and taking ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 , gives

FD = −M a
1 dV
−[CDc Ac + CDp Ap ] ρV 2 = M
2 dt
[ ( π )] 1 dV
− (0.3)(1) + (1.2) 22 2
(1.2)V = (2000)
4 2 dt

458
 which gives

dV
= −0.001221V 2
dt
∫ V60 ∫ 60
dV
2
=− 0.001221dt
100 V
[ ] 0
1 1
− − = −0.001221(60 − 0)
V60 100

which yields
V60 = 12 m/s

10.5. From the given data: D = 12 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 1.131 × 10−4 m2 , m = 16 g, V1 = 280 m/s,
V2 = 200 m/s, and ∆x = 160 m. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Applying the momentum
equation to the bullet gives

dV dV
−CD 21 ρV 2 A = m = mV
dt dx
which simplifies to [ ]
dV CD 21 ρA
=− dx
V m
| {z }
=α

which can be integrated to yield

( ) [ ] ( )
V2 CD 12 ρA
 1 V2 1 V2
ln V  = −α(x2 − x1 ) → α=− ln → =− ln
V1 ∆x V1 m ∆x V1

Substituting the given data yields

[ ] ( )
CD 12 (1.225)(1.131 × 10−4 ) 1 200
=− ln → CD = 0.49
0.016 160 280

10.6. From the given data: m = 80 kg, and CD A = 0.8 m2 . At an elevation of 3 km, ρ =
0.90925 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.3). Let V∞ be the terminal velocity, then
2
mg = CD A 21 ρV∞ → 2
(80)(9.807) = (0.8) 12 (0.90925)V∞ → V∞ = 46.45 m/s

The speed at 90% of the terminal speed is V90 = 0.9(46.45) = 41.80 m/s. To determine the
time to attain V90 use the following momentum equation,

dV dV
mg − CD A 12 ρV 2 = m → (80)(9.807) − (0.8) 12 (0.90925)V 2 = 80
dt dt
∫ 41.80 ∫ t90
dV dV
→ = 0.0125 dt → = 0.0125 dt
784.6 − 0.3637V 2 0 784.6 − 0.3637V 2 0

459
 Performing the integration and evaluating the definite integrals gives t90 = 6.97 seconds . To
determine the distance to attain V90 use the following momentum equation,
dV dV
mg − CD A 12 ρV 2 = mV → (80)(9.807) − (0.8) 21 (0.90925)V 2 = 80V
dx dx
∫ 41.80 ∫ x90
V dV V dV
→ = 0.0125 dx → = 0.0125 dx
784.6 − 0.3637V 2 0 784.6 − 0.3637V 2 0

Performing the integration and evaluating the definite integrals gives x90 = 66.4 m .

Note: The following integral formulae were useful in evaluating the integrals in this problem:
∫   ∫
dV 1  a + bx  V dV 1
= 
ln   , = ln |a2 − V 2 |
a −b V
2 2 2 2ab a − bx  a −V
2 2 2

10.7. The momentum equation for a falling body is given by

dV
mg ′ − C 12 ρA V 2 = m
|{z} | D{z } dt
=a =b
∫ t2 ∫ V2
dV m dV dV
→ a − bV 2 = m → dt = → dt = m
dt a − bV 2 t1 V1 a − bV 2
[ √ ]V2
 a + √bV 
m  
→ ∆t = √ ln  √ √ 
2 ab  a − bV 
V1

where ∆t = t2 − t1 . To apply this formula to calculate the time for a dropped body to attain
a specified velocity, V2 : Specify V1 = 0 and calculate ∆t, which is the desired time.

Note: The following integral formula was useful in evaluating the integral in this problem:
∫  
dV 1  a + bx 
= ln  
a2 − b2 V 2 2ab  a − bx 

10.8. The momentum equation for a falling body is given by

dV
mg ′ − CD 12 ρA V 2 = mV
|{z} | {z } dz
=a =b
∫ z2 ∫ V2
dV mV dV V dV
→ a − bV = mV
2
→ dz = → dz = m
dz a − bV 2 z1 V1 a − bV 2

m [   ]V1
→ ∆z = ln (a/b) − V 2 
2b V2

460
 where ∆z = z2 − z1 . To apply this formula to calculate the distance for a dropped body to
attain a specified velocity, V2 : Specify V1 = 0 and calculate ∆z, which is the desired distance.

Note: The following integral formula was useful in evaluating the integral in this problem:
∫
V dV 1
= ln |a2 − V 2 |
a2−V 2 2

10.9. From the given data: W 1.5 m, L = 2 m, T = 15◦ C, and V = 30 km/h = 8.33 m/s. At 15◦ C,
ν = 1.139 × 10−6 m2 /s. Using these data,

VL (8.33)(2)
ReL = = = 1.463 × 107
ν 1.139 × 10−6
0.455 1742 0.455 1742
CDf = − = − = 0.00271
[log ReL ]2.58 ReL [log(1.463 × 10 )]
7 2.58 1.463 × 107
1 1
FD = CDf ρV 2 A = (0.00271) (999.1)(8.33)2 (1.5 × 2) = 282 N
2 2
Power = FD V = (282)(8.33) = 2349 W = 2.35 kW

The required power of the motor is equal to the power required to overcome the drag force.

10.10. From the given data: L = 355 m, W = 68 m, D = 26 m, and V = 15 kt = 7.716 m/s. For
seawater at 10◦ C, ν = 1.356 × 10−6 m2 /s, and ρ = 1025 kg/m3 . The Reynolds based on the
length of the ship, ReL , is given by

VL (7.716)(355)
ReL = = = 2.020 × 109
ν 1.356 × 10−6

The flow past the ship can be approximated as the flow past two flat plates (sides) plus the
width, such that the contact area, A, can be approximated by

A = [2L + W ]D = [2(355) + 68](26) = 2.0228 × 104 m2

Since ReL ≈ 109 , the friction drag coefficient, CDf , can be estimated by Equation 10.22 as

0.455 1742 0.455 1742

CDf = − = − = 1.440 × 10−3
[log ReL ]2.58 ReL [log 2.020 × 10 ]
9 2.58 (2.020 × 109 )

Using the definition of the drag coefficient, the force required to overcome friction, FD , and
the power required to drive the ship, P , are given by

FD = 12 ρU 2 ACDf = 12 (1025)(7.716)2 (2.0228 × 104 )(1.440 × 10−3 ) = 8.889 × 105 N

P = FD V = (8.889 × 105 )(7.716) = 6.859 × 106 W ≈ 6.86 MW

461
10.11. From the given data: L = 150 mm, b = 100 mm, and V = 0.3 m/s. For seawater at 20◦ C,
ρ = 1023 kg/m3 and ν = 1.046×10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.4). Calculate ReL to determine
the type of boundary layer,

VL (0.3)(0.15)
ReL = = = 4.30 × 104
ν 1.046 × 10−6

Since ReL ≤ 5 × 105 , a laminar boundary layer exists. Recognizing that the fish has two sides,
the drag coefficient, CDf , drag force, FD , and power, P , expended by the fish are given by

1.328 1.328
CDf = 1 = 1 = 0.006402
ReL2 (4.30 × 104 ) 2

FD = 2 CDf 12 ρV 2 Lb = 2(0.006402) 21 (1023)(0.3)2 (0.15)(0.1) = 8.84 × 10−3 N

P = FD V = (8.84 × 10−3 )(0.3) = 2.65 × 10−3 W

10.12. From the given data: L = 100 m, b = 5 m, ϵ = 0.1 mm, and V = 20 knots = 10.29 m/s. For
sea water at 20◦ C, ρ = 1023 kg/m3 , µ = 1.07 mPa·s, and ν = µ/ρ = 1.05 × 10−6 m2 /s. The
following preliminary calculations are useful:

VL (10.29)(100) L 100
ReL = = = 9.39 × 108 , = = 1 × 106
ν 1.05 × 10−6 ϵ 1 × 10−4
A = 2bL = 2(5)(100) = 103 m2

(a) Using ReL = 9.39 × 108 and L/ϵ = 1 × 106 in Figure 10.7 indicates that the surface is in
the transitional category and CDf can be approximated as CDf = 0.0022.
(b) Taking CDf = 0.0022, under design conditions the drag force, FD , is given by

FD = CDf 12 ρV 2 A = (0.0022) 21 (1023)(10.29)2 (103 ) = 1.19 × 105 N = 119 kN

(c) For a smooth surface, the drag coefficient can be estimated using Equation 10.22 hence

0.455 1742 0.455 1742

CDf = − = − = 0.00157
(log ReL )2.58 ReL [log(9.39 × 10 )]
8 2.58 9.39 × 108

FD = CDf 12 ρV 2 A = (0.00157) 21 (1023)(10.29)2 (103 ) = 8.51 × 104 N = 85.1 kN

For a rough surface, the drag coefficient can be estimated using Equation 10.24 hence
( ( )−2.5
ϵ )−2.5 0.1 × 10−3
CDf = 1.89 − 1.62 log = 1.89 − 1.62 log = 0.00218
L 100

FD = CDf 12 ρV 2 A = (0.00218) 12 (1023)(10.29)2 (103 ) = 1.18 × 105 N = 118 kN

Therefore, the range of drag force between the smooth and rough regimes is 85.1–118 kN .

462
10.13. It is convenient to express the shear stress in terms of the basic variables as follows:

ρV 2 [ 1 3 1
] 1
τw = 0.332 1= 0.332ρ 2 V 2 µ 2 1
Rex2 x2

(a) Integrating over the surface of the flat plate to find the drag force, FD , gives
∫ L [ ]∫ L [ ] 1
1 3 1 1 1 3 1
FD = W τw dx = W 0.332ρ 2 V 2 µ 2 1 dx = 2W 0.332ρ 2 V 2 µ 2 L 2
0 0 x2
Therefore, the drag force is given by
1 3 1 1
FD = 0.664ρ 2 V 2 µ 2 L 2 W

(b) The drag force, FD , can be expressed in the form

[ 1
]
FD µ2 FD 1.328 1.328
1 2
= 1.328 1 1 1 → 1 2 = 1 → CD = 1
2 ρV LW ρ2 V 2 L2 2 ρV LW ReL2 ReL2

(c) For standard air: ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and µ = 0.01789 mPa·s. From the given data:
V = 22 m/s, L = 10 m, and W = 5 m. Using these data in the above-derived formulae
yield:
ReL = 1.506 × 107 , CD = 3.422 × 10−4 , FD = 5.07 N

10.14. From the given data: V = 22.4 m/s, L = 15 m, and W = 5 m. For standard air: ρ =
1.225 kg/m3 and ν = 1.460 × 10−5 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculations are useful,

VL (22.4)(15)
ReL = = = 2.301 × 107
ν 1.460 × 10−5
V 22.4
u∗ = 0.1713 1 = 0.1713 1 = 0.1293 m/s
ReL 5 (2.301 × 107 ) 5

ν 1.460 × 10−5
δv = 5 =5 = 5.65 × 10−4 m = 0.565 mm
u∗ 0.1293

(a) For smooth turbulent flow, CDf is given by Equation 10.22 and FD is given by Equation
10.16, hence
0.455 1742 0.455 1742
CDf = − = − = 0.00256
(log ReL )2.58 ReL [log(2.301 × 10 )]
7 2.58 2.301 × 107

FD = CDf 12 ρV 2 LW = (0.00256) 21 (1.225)(22.4)2 (15)(5) = 59.0 N

(b) When the surface just becomes hydrodynamically rough, the roughness height, ϵ, is given
by Equation 10.21 as
ϵ = 14δv = 14(0.565) = 7.90 mm

463
 (c) For rough turbulent flow, CDf is given by Equation 10.24 and FD is given by Equation
10.16, hence
( ( )−2.5
ϵ )−2.5 7.90 × 10−3
CDf = 1.89 − 1.62 log = 1.89 − 1.62 log = 0.00719
L 15

FD = CDf 12 ρV 2 LW = (0.00719) 21 (1.225)(22.4)2 (15)(5) = 166 N

10.15. (a) By dimensional analysis

( )
F ρV L V
=f ,√
ρV 2 L2 µ gL

(b) For Reynolds number similarity, the following conditions hold,

( ) ( )
ρV L ρV L
= (1)
µ m µ p
( ) ( )
F F
2 2
= (2)
ρV L m ρV 2 L2 p

Equation 1 yields
Lp 6.096
vm = vp = 13.4 = 89.4 m/s
Lm 0.914
and Equation 2 yields
( )2 ( )2 ( )2 ( )2
Fm vm Lm Lp Lm
= = = 1
Fp vp Lp Lm Lp

(c) For Froude number similarity, the following conditions hold,

( ) ( )
V V
√ = √ (3)
gL m gL p
( ) ( )
F F
= (4)
ρV 2 L2 m ρV 2 L2 p

Equation 3 yields √ √
Lm 0.914
vm = vp = 13.4 = 5.18 m/s
Lp 6.096
and Equation 4 yields
( )2 ( ) ( ) ( )
Fm vm Lm 2 Lm Lm 2 0.914 3
= = = = 0.0034
Fp vp Lp Lp Lp 6.096

Froude similarity would more accurately reproduce the wave effects created by the canoe
under normal operating conditions. Reynolds similarity might be more appropriate for
cases where the canoe is moving at very low speeds and wave effects are minimal. In
most cases, both Re and Fr have important roles.

464
 (d) Check the Reynolds number:

VL (13.4)(6.096)
ReL = = = 8.17 × 107
ν 10−6
Based on this result, the flow is fully turbulent at the downstream end of the canoe.
Assuming smooth conditions, the drag coefficient, CDf , is given by
0.455 1742 0.455 1742
CDf = − = − = 0.00217
[log ReL ]2.58 ReL [log(8.17 × 107 )]2.58 8.17 × 107
and the corresponding drag force, F , on the canoe is given by
1 1
F = 2 × CDf AρV 2 = 2 × (0.00217)(6.096 × 0.305)(998)(13.4)2 = 723 N
2 2
If a roughness ϵ = 0.03 mm is considered, then
ϵ 0.03 L
= = 4.9 × 10−6 or = 2.03 × 105
L 6096 ϵ

It is apparent (from Figure 10.7) that the flow is in the smooth regime . If the drag
coefficient were erroneously calculated using the fully-rough flow equation, then
( ( )
ϵ )−2.5 0.03 −2.5
CDf = 1.89 − 1.62 log = 1.89 − 1.62 log = 0.00281
L 6096
0.00281
FD = 723 N × = 936 N
0.00217
which would be wrong.

10.16. From the given data: T = 10 mm, L = 4 m, W = 2 m, and ρ1 = 1900 kg/m3 . For water at
20◦ C, ρ2 = 998.2 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s. The submerged weight, Ws , of the sheet
is given by

Ws = (ρ1 − ρ2 )g(L)(W )(T ) = (1900 − 998.2)(9.807)(4)(2)(0.010) = 707.5 N

Define the Reynolds number as s function of the terminal velocity, V , and the length, Ls , in
the sinking direction such that
V Ls V Ls
ReL (V ) = = (1)
ν 1.004 × 10−6
0.455 1742
CDf (V ) = 2.58
− (2)
(log ReL ) ReL
When the sheet is moving at its terminal velocity, the drag force is equal to the submerged
weight such that

2CDf 12 ρV 2 [LW ] = Ws → 2CDf (V ) 12 (998.2)V 2 [(2)(4)] = 707.5 (3)

(a) Solving Equations 1 to 3 with Ls = 4 m yields V = 5.89 m/s

465
 (b) Solving Equations 1 to 3 with Ls = 2 m yields V = 5.63 m/s

10.17. From the given data: V = 1.2 m/s, b = 3 m, and ℓ = 1 m. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3
and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. Check the Reynolds number along the longest side to see what
type of boundary layer:

Vℓ (1.2)(1)
Reℓ = = = 8.21 × 104
ν 1.461 × 10−5

Since Reℓ < 5 × 105 , the boundary layer can be assumed to be laminar over the entire plate.
Measure x as the distance along the leading edge of the plate, therefore the length of the
plate in the flow direction is equal to x/3. Note that x = 0 is at the vertex opposite the 1-m
long side.

(a) The drag coefficient, CDf , and the incremental drag force, dFD , along a strip of width
dx are given by
[ ]− 1
1.328 V (x/3) 2
CDf = 1 = 1.328
Reℓ2 ν
{ [ ]− 1 } { [ ]1 }
V (x/3) 2 1 2 x 3ν 2 1 2 1 1 1
dFD = 1.328 ρV dx = 1.328 ρV x 2 dx = ax 2 dx
ν 2 3 V 2 3
| {z }
= a

where a is a constant defined in terms of known parameters, and substituting the values
of the known parameters gives
[ ] 12
3(1.461 × 10−5 ) 1 1
a = 1.328 (1.225)(1.2)2 = 0.2940
1.2 2 3

Integrating to find the total drag force, FD , gives

∫ 3 1 2 3 2 3
FD = ax 2 dx = a 3 2 = (0.2940)3 2 = 1.02 N
0 3 3

(b) The area of the triangular surface is A = 21 bℓ = 1.5 m2 and hence the drag coefficient of
the surface, CD , is given by

FD 1.02
CD = 1 2
= 1 2
= 0.770
2 ρV A 2 (1.225)(1.2) (1.5)

10.18. From the given data: U = 15 m/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.461 ×
10−5 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculations of the area, A, and the dynamic pressure,
1 2
2 ρU , are useful,

2
A = 12 (1)(0.5) = 0.25 m2 , 1
2 ρU = 12 (1.225)(15)2 = 137.8 Pa

466
 Let x be the length of the surface in the direction of flow. Assuming that the flow is fully
turbulent over the entire surface, the drag coefficient for an elemental rectangular element is
given by Equation 10.3.1.1, and the drag force over a width dy is given by
[ 1
]
1 2 1 2 0.0735 1 2 0.0735 1 2 ν5 4
dFD = 2 ρU x dyCD = 2 ρU x dy 1 = 2 ρU x dy 1 = 2 ρU 0.0735 1 x dy
5

Re 5 (U x/ν) 5 U5
L

Substituting the given data yields

[ 1
]
(1.461 × 10−5 ) 5 4 4
dFD = 1 2
2 (1.225)(15) 0.0735 1 x 5 dy → dFD = 0.6358x 5 dy (1)
(15) 5

Fitting the equation of a straight line to line BC gives

x = 0.5 − 0.5y = 0.5(1 − y) (2)

Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives the drag force, FD , on the triangular surface as
∫ 1 [ 5 ]
4 4 4 9 1
FD = 0.6358(0.5) 5 (1 − y) 5 dy = 0.6358(0.5) 5 − (1 − y) 5 = 0.203 N
0 9 0

The drag coefficient, CD , is calculated as follows,

FD 0.203
CD = 1 2
= = 0.00589
2 ρU A
(137.8)(0.25)

10.19. From the given data: U = 15 m/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.461 ×
10−5 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculations of the area, A, and the dynamic pressure,
1 2
2 ρU , are useful,

2
A = 12 (1)(0.5) = 0.25 m2 , 1
2 ρU = 12 (1.225)(15)2 = 137.8 Pa

Let x be the length of the surface in the direction of flow. Assuming that the flow is fully
turbulent over the entire surface, the drag coefficient for an elemental rectangular element is
given by Equation 10.3.1.1, and the drag force over a width dy is given by
[ 1
]
0.0735 0.0735 ν 5 4
dFD = 21 ρU 2 x dyCD = 21 ρU 2 x dy 1 = 12 ρU 2 x dy 1 =
1 2
2 ρU 0.0735 1 x dy
5

ReL5 (U x/ν) 5 U 5

Substituting the given data yields

[ 1
]
(1.461 × 10−5 ) 5 4 4
dFD = 1 2
2 (1.225)(15) 0.0735 1 x 5 dy → dFD = 0.6358x 5 dy (1)
(15) 5

Fitting the equation of a straight line to line BC gives

x = 2y (2)

467
 Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives the drag force, FD , on the triangular surface as
∫ 0.5 [ ]
4 4 4 5 9 0.5
FD = 0.6358(2) 5 y 5 dy = 0.6358(2) 5 y 5 = 0.177 N
0 9 0

The drag coefficient, CD , is calculated as follows,

FD 0.177
CD = 1 2
= = 0.00513
2 ρU A
(137.8)(0.25)

10.20. From the given data: U = 15 m/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.461 ×
10−5 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculations of the area, A, and the dynamic pressure,
1 2
2 ρU , are useful,
2
A = 12 (1)(0.5) = 0.25 m2 , 1
2 ρU = 12 (1.225)(15)2 = 137.8 Pa

Let x be the length of the surface in the direction of flow. Assuming that the flow is fully
turbulent over the entire surface, the drag coefficient for an elemental rectangular element is
given by Equation 10.3.1.1, and the drag force over a width dy is given by
[ 1
]
0.0735 0.0735 ν 5 4
dFD = 21 ρU 2 x dyCD = 21 ρU 2 x dy 1 = 12 ρU 2 x dy 1 =
1 2
2 ρU 0.0735 1 x dy
5

ReL5 (U x/ν) 5 U 5

Substituting the given data yields

[ 1
]
(1.461 × 10−5 ) 5 4 4
dFD = 1 2
2 (1.225)(15) 0.0735 1 x 5 dy → dFD = 0.6358x 5 dy (1)
(15) 5

Consider the surface as depicted in Figure 10.1.

y
A

P C
B
(0,0) 0.5 x

Figure 10.1: Flow over a triangular surface III

The following preliminary calculations are useful:

( )
0.5
θ = tan−1 = 26.57◦ , CP = 1 · cos θ = 1 · cos 26.57◦ = 0.8944 m
1
√
BC = 12 + 0.52 = 1.118 m, PB = 1.118 − 0.8944 = 0.2236 m

468
 √
xA = 0.52 − 0.22362 = 0.4472 m

Consider separately the drag force above P and the drag force below P. Fitting the equation
of a straight line to line AC gives

x = 0.5(1.118 − y) (2)

Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives the drag force, FD , on the triangular surface above Point
P as
∫ 1.118 [ 5 ]
4 4 4 9 1.118
FD = 0.6358(0.5) 5 (1.118 − y) 5 dy = 0.6358(0.5) 5 − (1.118 − y) 5 = 0.166 N
0.2236 9 0.2236

Fitting the equation of a straight line to line BA gives

x = 2y (3)

Combining Equations 1 and 3 gives the drag force, FD , on the triangular surface below Point
P as ∫ 0.2236
4 4
[ ]
4 5 9 0.2236
FD = 0.6358(2) 5 y 5 dy = 0.6358(2) 5 y 5 = 0.041 N
0 9 0

The total force on the surface is therefore equal to 0.166 N + 0.041 N = 0.207 N . The drag
coefficient, CD , is calculated as follows,
FD 0.207
CD = 1 2
= = 0.00601
2 ρU A
(137.8)(0.25)

10.21. From the given data: n = 4, D = 10.67 m, R = D/2 = 5.34 m, W = 0.75 m, ω = 350 rpm =
36.65 rad/s, and P = 606 kW. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s.
Find the distance from the center of rotation to where the boundary layer is entirely laminar,
let this distance be r1 , then
(r1 ω)W r1 (36.65)(0.75)
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → r1 = 0.266 m
ν 1.461 × 10−5
For r in the interval [0,r1 ], the boundary layer is laminar and the drag coefficient, CDf , is
given by Equation 10.22 as
[ ]− 1 [ ]− 1
−1 (rω)W 2 c ωW 2
CDf = 1.328ReL 2 = 1.328 = 1 , where c = 1.328 = 9.68 × 10−4
ν r 2 ν

The power, P1 , required to overcome friction in the range [0,r1 ] is calculated as follows, noting
that there are 4 blades and 2 sides to each blade, and using the previously derived expression
for CDf ,
{ } 7
dP1 = 8V dFD = 8 2(rω)CDf 12 ρV 2 W dr = 16[cρω 3 W ]r 2 dr
∫ r1 9
dP1 = 16ρω 3 W c 29 r12 = 16(1.225)(36.65)3 (0.75)(9.68 × 10−4 ) 92 (0.266) 2 = 0.402 W
9
P1 =
0

469
 Following a similar analysis for r in the interval [r1 ,r2 ], where r2 = R = 5.34 m, the boundary
layer is turbulent and the drag coefficient, CDf , is given by Equation 10.22 as
0.0735 1742 a b
CDf = 1 − → CDf = 1 −
ReL5 ReL r 5 r

where
[ ]− 1 [ ]−1
ωW 5
−3 ωW
a = 0.0735 = 4.09 × 10 , b = 1742 = 9.26 × 10−4
ν ν

The power, P2 , required to overcome friction in the range [r1 ,r2 ] is calculated as follows,
noting that there are 4 blades and 2 sides to each blade, and using the previously derived
expression for CDf ,
{ }
dP2 = 8V dFD = 8 2(rω)CDf 21 ρV 2 W dr
∫ r1 [ ]
5a 19 19 b 3
P2 = 3
dP2 = 16ρω W (r − r1 ) − (r2 − r1 ) = 1.14 × 104 W = 11.4 kW
5 5 3
0 19 2 3

Therefore, the total power to overcome friction is P1 + P2 ≈ 11.4 kW . This is 11.4/606 =

1.9% of the engine power.

10.22. For standard air, ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s, and for water at 20◦ C, ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s.
It can be assumed that viscous drag is predominant when Re < 10, and pressure drag is
predominant when Re > 5000.

(a) For V = 10 m/s and standard air, the diameter is related to the Reynolds number as
follows:
VD ν · Re (1.461 × 10−5 )Re
= Re → D= = = 3.27 × 10−6 Re
ν V 10
Using the aforementioned conditions for predominant viscous drag and predominant
pressure drag yields the following results:

D
Re
(mm)
10 3.27 × 10−5
5000 1.63 × 10−2

Therefore, viscous drag predominates when D < 32.7 µm , and pressure drag predomi-
nates when D > 16.3 mm .
(b) For D = 5 mm and water at 20◦ C, the current speed in the water is related to the
Reynolds number as follows:

VD ν · Re (1.004 × 10−6 )Re

= Re → V = = = 2.008 × 10−4 Re
ν D 0.005

470
 Using the previously stated conditions for predominant viscous drag and predominant
pressure drag yields the following results:

V
Re
(m/s)
10 2.01 × 10−3
5000 1.00

Therefore, viscous drag predominates when V < 2.01 mm/s , and pressure drag pre-
dominates when V > 1.00 m/s .

10.23. From the given data: L1 = 3.05 m, L2 = 5.64 m, L3 = 9.14 m, D1 = 0.168 m, D2 = 0.102 m,
and V = 48 km/h = 13.33 m/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.461×10−5 m2 /s.
Calculate the Reynolds numbers for the two diameters involved:

V D1 (13.33)(0.168) V D2 (13.33)(0.102)
Re1 = = = 1.53 × 105 , Re2 = = = 9.31 × 104
ν 1.461 × 10−5 ν 1.461 × 10−5
Using these Reynolds numbers in Figure 10.9 and considering the guidance in Table 10.4, the
drag coefficient can be conservatively estimated as CD = 1.2. Using this drag coefficient, the
aerodynamic drag force, FD , on the structure can be estimated by the following relation,

FD = CD 12 ρV 2 [D1 L1 + D2 (L2 + 2 × L3 )]

→ FD = (1.2) 12 (1.225)(13.33)2 [(0.168)(3.05) + (0.102)(5.64 + 2 × 9.14)] = 386 N = 86.7 lb

10.24. From the given data: SG = 1.25, and h = 3 m. For standard air: ρa = 1.225 kg/m3 , µa =
0.01789 mPa·s = 1.789 × 10−5 m2 /s, νa = µa /ρa = 1.460 × 10−5 m2 /s. For water at 4◦ C:
ρw = 1000 kg/m3 . Taking g = 9.807 m/s2 , the following preliminary calculations are useful,

γs = SG(ρw g) = 1.226 × 104 N/m3 , γf = ρa g = 12.01 N/m3

γs − γf 1.226 × 104 − 12.01

a= = = 3.803 × 107 m−1 s−1
18µa 18(1.789 × 10−5 )

(a) Under the creeping-flow condition, the velocity is given by Equation 1. The creeping-flow
condition which requires that Re ≤ 1. Imposing these conditions give

(ν )1 ( ) 13
VD 1.460 × 10−5
= 7.27 × 10−5 m = 72.7 µm
a 3
2
V = aD , =1→D= =
νa a 3.803 × 107

(b) For D = 7.27 × 10−5 m, the settling velocity and the time taken to fall h = 3 m are
calculated as follows:
h 3
V = aD2 = (3.803 × 107 )(7.27 × 10−5 )2 = 0.2009 m/s, t= = = 14.9 s
V 0.2009

471
10.25. From the given data: D = 5 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 1.963 × 10−5 m2 , and V = πD3 /6 =
6.545 × 10−8 m3 , and V∞ = 70 mm/s. For glycerin at 20◦ C, ρg = 1260 kg/m3 , and νg =
1.190 × 10−3 m2 /s (from Appendix B.4). The Reynolds number at the terminal velocity is
calculated as follows,
V∞ D (70 × 10−3 )(5 × 10−3 )
Re = = = 0.2941
νg 1.190 × 10−3
(a) Since 0.1 ≤ Re ≤ 10 use the Shanks equation (Equation 10.31) to calculate CD , which
gives
7.096 × 106 + 3.197 × 106 Re + 2.611 × 105 Re2
CD = = 86.00 ≈ 86
(2.957 × 105 + 7.776 × 104 Re + 689 Re2 )Re
(b) Under the terminal-velocity condition the following equation holds
2
CD 12 ρg V∞ A = (ρs − ρg )gV

→ (86.00) 12 (1260)(70 × 10−3 )2 (1.963 × 10−5 ) = (ρs − 1260)(9.807)(6.545 × 10−8 )

→ ρs = 9318 kg/m3 → SG ≈ 9.3

10.26. From the given data: M = 0.145 kg, D = 0.0716 m, V0 = 40.2 m/s, and ∆t = 0.5 s. For
standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. The frontal area, A, Reynolds
number, Re, and the corresponding drag coefficient, CD , of the baseball upon release by the
pitcher are given by
πD2 π(0.0716)2
A= = = 4.03 × 10−3 m2
4 4
VD (40.2)(0.0716)
Re = = = 1.95 × 105
ν 1.461 × 10−5
CD = 0.2

The drag force, FD , and the rate of deceleration, a, can be derived using the drag coefficient,
CD , and the other given data as follows,

FD = CD 12 ρV 2 A = (0.2) 12 (1.225)(40.2)2 (4.03 × 10−3 ) = 0.799 N

FD 0.799
a= = = 5.51 m/s2
M 0.145
Over a time interval, ∆t, of 0.5 s, the percentage change in velocity can be estimated as
follows,
a∆t (5.51)(0.5)
change in velocity = × 100 = × 100 = 6.9%
V0 40.2
(Therefore, the baseball is traveling at around 84 mph when it reaches the batter’s box.)

10.27. From the given data: m = 145 g, D = 71.6 mm, and A = πD2 /4 = 4.026 × 10−3 m2 . In a
standard atmosphere at an altitude of 1 km: ρ = 1.1117 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.581 × 10−5 m2 /s
(from Appendix B.3).

472
(a) At the terminal speed, V∞ , the following equation must be satisfied,
2
CD 12 ρV∞ A = mg → CD 12 (1.1117)V∞
2
(4.026 × 10−3 ) = (0.145)(9.807) → 2
CD V∞ = 635.4 (1)

Equation 10.32 requires that



 5.948 × 105 + 7.735 × 104 Re∞ + 398.1 Re2∞

 , 5.33 ≤ Re∞ ≤ 1.18 × 105
(2.230 × 104 + 928.3 Re∞ + 0.01675 Re2∞ )Re∞
CD =



0.2, Re∞ > 1.18 × 105
(2)
where Re∞ = V∞ D/ν = 4501V∞ . Solving Equations 1 and 2 simultaneously gives

V∞ = 56.36 m/s , CD∞ = 0.200, Re∞ = 2.553 × 105

(b) At 90% of the terminal velocity, the velocity of the ball is V90 = 0.9(56.36) = 50.73 m/s.
The motion of the ball is described by
dV
mg − CD∞ 12 ρV 2 A = m
dt
dV
→ (0.145)(9.807) − (0.2) 21 (1.1117)V 2 (4.026 × 10−3 ) = (0.145)
dt
dV
→ 1.422 − 4.476 × 10−4 V 2 = 0.145
dt
∫ t90 ∫ 50.73
0.145 dV
→ dt = → t90 = 8.46 s
0 0 1.422 − 4.476 × 10−4 V 2

(c) The motion of the ball is described in terms of the distance traveled by

dV
mg − CD∞ 12 ρV 2 A = mV
dx
dV
→ (0.145)(9.807) − (0.2) 21 (1.1117)V 2 (4.026 × 10−3 ) = (0.145)V
dx
dV
→ 1.422 − 4.476 × 10−4 V 2 = 0.145V
dx
∫ x90 ∫ 50.73
0.145V dV
→ dx = → x90 = 269 m
0 0 1.422 − 4.476 × 10−4 V 2

The assumption of constant atmospheric conditions is not reasonable since significant

changes in atmospheric conditions occur over a difference in elevation of 269 m.

Note: The following integral formulae were useful in evaluating the integrals in this problem:
∫   ∫
dV 1  a + bx  V dV 1
= ln  ,
 = ln |a2 − V 2 |
a −b V
2 2 2 2ab a − bx a −V
2 2 2

473
10.28. From the given data: D = 600 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 0.2827 m2 , T = FB = 2 N, V = 4 m/s, and
θ = 42◦ . For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Neglecting the weight of the string and the drag
on the string, when the balloon position is deflected by the wind the resultant force is aligned
with the string such that
FD FD
tan θ = → tan 42◦ = → FD = 1.801 N
FB 2N
Expressing the drag force in terms of the drag coefficient, CD , gives
FD = CD 21 ρV 2 A → 1.801 = CD 21 (1.225)(4)2 (0.2827) → CD = 0.65

10.29. From the given data: D = 1 m, R = D/2 = 0.5 m, Wb = 1 N, T = 20◦ C = 293 K, p =

101.3 kPa, and θ = 15◦ . For air at 20◦ C, Appendix B.2 gives ρa = 1.204 kg/m3 , µa =
0.0182 mPa·s, and νa = 1.512 × 10−5 m2 /s. For helium, the gas constant is R = 8314/4.003 =
2077 J/kg·K. The following preliminary calculations are useful:
p 101.3 × 103
ρh = = = 0.1664 kg/m3 , Ab = πR2 = π(0.5)2 = 0.7854 m2
RT (2077)(293)

Vb = 43 πR3 = 43 π(0.5)3 = 0.5236 m3 , γa = ρa g = 11.81 N/m3

γh = ρh g = 1.632 N/m3
The wind velocity, V , is obtained by simultaneous solution to the following equations,
VD V (1)
Rea = = = 6.614 × 104 V (1)
νa 1.512 × 10−5
5.948 × 105 + 7.735 × 104 Re + 398.1 Re2
CD = (2)
(2.230 × 104 + 928.3 Re + 0.01675 Re2 )Re

CD 21 ρa V 2 Ab CD 21 (1.204)V 2 (0.7854)
tan θ = → tan 15◦ = (3)
(γa − γh )Vb − Wb (11.81 − 1.632)(0.5236) − 1
which yields V = 2.76 m/s. This corresponds to Re = 1.82 × 105 . Since Re > 1.18 × 105 , the
boundary layer is likely turbulent and a values of CD = 0.2 should be used in this analysis.
Solving Equations 1 and 3 with CD = 0.2 gives V = 3.50 m/s = 7.8 mph .

10.30. From the given data: D = 600 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 0.2827 m2 , V = πD3 /6 = 0.1131 m3 ,
SG = 0.35, and V = 8 m/s. Using SG = 0.35, the corresponding specific weight of the
sphere is γs = 3.432 kN/m3 . For water at 5◦ C, γw = 9.789 kN/m3 , ρ = 1000 kg/m3 , and
ν = 1.518 × 10−6 m2 /s. The Reynolds coefficient and drag coefficient (using Equation 10.32)
are calculated as follows:
VD (8)(0.6)
Re = = = 3.162 × 106
ν 1.518 × 10−6


 5.948 × 105 + 7.735 × 104 Re + 398.1 Re2

 , 5.33 ≤ Re ≤ 1.18 × 105
(2.230 × 104 + 928.3 Re + 0.01675 Re2 )Re
CD =



0.2, Re > 1.18 × 105

474
 Since Re > 1.18 × 105 , take CD = 0.2. The buoyant force, FB , and the drag force, FD , are
calculated as follows

FB = (γw − γs )V = 0.7210 kN

FD = CD 12 ρV 2 A = (0.2) 12 (1000)(8)2 (0.2827) = 1.810 kN

Since the vector sum of the drag force and the buoyant force must align with the tension force
in the support cable, then the angle θ is given by
( ) ( )
−1 FB −1 0.7210
θ = tan = tan = 21.7◦
FD 1.810

10.31. From the given data: D = 12.8 m, P = 45 MW, CD = 0.01, and c = 0.5. For seawater at 20◦ C,
ρ = 1023 kg/m3 . The cross-sectional area of the submarine is given by A = πD2 /4 = 128.7 m2 .
When 50% of the engine power is used for propulsion,
[ ]1 [ ]1
0.5P 3
0.5(45 × 106 ) 3

0.5P = FD · V = CD 12 ρV 2 A · V → V = = = 32.4 m/s

CD 21 ρA (0.01) 12 (1023)(128.7)

Therefore the theoretical maximum speed is 32.4 m/s = 117 km/h . Comparing this speed
to the speed of 46 km/h normally attributed to an Ohio-class submarine gives
117
ratio of speeds = ≈ 2.5
46
This result supports the conventional wisdom that the actual speeds of Ohio-class submarines
are underreported.

10.32. From the given data: D = 10µm = 1 × 10−5 m, h = 3µm = 3 × 10−6 m, and SGc = 2.65.
For water at 20◦ C: µ = 1.002 × 10−3 Pa·s and ρw = 998 kg/m3 , hence ρc = 2.65(998) =
2645 kg/m3 .

For sideways falling:

13.6
CD =
Re
FD = W
1
CD ρw V 2 A1 = (ρc − ρw )gA2 h
2
µ 1 π
13.6 ρw V 2 (Dh) = (ρc − ρw )g D2 h
ρw V h 2 4
which simplifies to

π Dh 2 π (10−5 )(3 × 10−6 ) 2

V = (ρc − ρw )g = (2645 − 998)(9.81) = 5.59 × 10−5 m/s
4 µ 13.6 4 1.002 × 10−3 13.6
= 4.83 m/d

475
 For frontal falling:
20.4
CD =
Re
FD = W
1
CD ρw V 2 A1 = (ρc − ρw )gA2 h
2
µ 1 π π
20.4 ρw V 2 D2 = (ρc − ρw )g D2 h
ρw V D 2 4 4
which simplifies to

Dh 2 (10−5 )(3 × 10−6 ) 2

V = (ρc − ρw )g = (2645 − 998)(9.81) = 4.74 × 10−5 m/s
µ 20.4 1.002 × 10−3 20.4
= 4.10 m/d

Therefore, the settling velocity is not very sensitive to the orientation of the settling particle.

10.33. From the given data: D = 0.6 m, A = πD2 /4 = 1.131 m2 , and V = 10 m/s. For water at
20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 . On the front side of the disk, the pressure distribution and total
force, F1 , are given by

p(r) = 200 − 83.33r kPa

∫ 0.6 ∫ 0.6
F1 = p(r) 2πr dr = (200 − 83.33r) 2πr dr = 188.5 kN
0 0

On the back side of the disk, the pressure distribution and total force, F2 , are given by

p(r) = 125 kPa

∫ 0.6 ∫ 0.6
F2 = p(r) 2πr dr = (125) 2πr dr = 141.4 kN
0 0

The drag force on the disk is therefore given by

FD = F1 − F2 = 188.5 − 141.4 = 47.1 kN

The drag coefficient, CD , on the disk is calculated as follows

FD 47.1 × 103
CD = 1 2
= 1 2
= 0.83
2 ρV A 2 (998.2)(10) (1.131)

10.34. From the given data: D = 1 cm. At 20◦ C, ρair = 1.204 kg/m3 , µair = 1.825 × 10−5 kg/m·s,
and νair = 1.516 × 10−5 m2 /s. The following are derived from the given data:

ρair V D VD V (0.01)
Re = = = = 660V
νair νair 1.516 × 10−5

476
 π 2 π
A= D = (0.01)2 = 7.85 × 10−5 m2
4 4
For V = 1 mm/s,

Re = 660V = 660(0.001) = 0.66

24 24
CD = = = 36.4
Re 0.66
1 1
FD = CD ρair V 2 A = (36.4) (1.204)(0.001)2 (7.85 × 10−5 ) = 1.72 × 10−9 N
2 2
For V = 20 m/s,

Re = 660V = 660(20) = 13200 = 1.32 × 104

CD = 0.5 (from given relationship)
1 1
FD = CD ρair V 2 A = (0.5) (1.204)(20)2 (7.85 × 10−5 ) = 9.45 × 10−3 N
2 2

10.35. When Re ≤ 1, the drag coefficient, CD is given by

24 24 24µ
CD = = =
Re ρvD ρvD
µ
When the particle attains its terminal velocity the sum of the forces on the particle is equal
to zero. Hence
1 1
γs V − γf V − CD ρv 2 A = 0 → V (γs − γf ) − CD ρv 2 A = 0
2 2
( )3 ( ) ( )
4 D 24µ D2
→ π (γs − γf ) − 2
v π = 0 → (γs − γf )D2 − 18µv = 0
3 2 ρvD 4
which simplifies to
(γs − γf )D2
V = (1)
18µ
This expression for the settling velocity of a spherical particle is commonly known as the
Stokes equation for settling velocity.

For water at 20◦ C, γf = 9790 N/m3 , µ = 1.002 × 10−3 kg/m·s, ρ = 998 kg/m3 , and from the
given data, D = 1 mm = 0.001 m, and γs = 2.65γf = 2.65(9790) = 25944 N/m3 . Substituting
these data into Equation 1 yields
(25944 − 9790)(0.001)2
v= = 0.896 m/s
18(1.002 × 10−3 )
Verify the validity of Equation 1 by checking the Reynolds number,
ρvD (998)(0.896)(0.001)
Re = = = 892
µ 1.002 × 10−3

477
 Since Re ≫ 1, the Stokes equation is not applicable for estimating the settling velocity of
the given particle.

10.36. From the given data: D = 4 mm, and R = D/2 = 2 mm. For water at 20◦ C, ρw =
998.2 kg/m3 . For standard air, ρa = 1.225 kg/m3 and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 . The volume, Vs , and
the frontal area, As , of a spherical raindrop are given by
4 4
Vs = πR3 = π(0.002)3 = 3.351 × 10−8 m3 /s, As = πR2 = π(0.002)2 = 1.257 × 10−5 m2
3 3
If V is the terminal velocity, then the following equations must be satisfied:
VD V (0.004)
Re = = = 273.8V (1)
ν 1.461 × 10−5
5.948 × 105 + 7.735 × 104 Re + 398.1 Re2
CD = (2)
(2.230 × 104 + 928.3 Re + 0.01675 Re2 )Re
When traveling at the terminal velocity, the weight of the droplet is equal to the drag force,
hence
[ ]1 [ ]1
ρ gV 2
(998.2)(9.807)(3.351 × 10 −8 ) 2
w s
ρw gVs = CD 21 ρV 2 As → V = = (3)
CD 12 ρAs CD 12 (1.225)(1.257 × 10−5 )

Solving Equations 1 to 3 simultaneously yields V = 9.69 m/s = 21.7 mph . For this velocity,
Re = 2.65 × 103 and so the assumed expression for CD is valid.
10.37. From the given data: D = 0.178 m, A = πD2 /4 = 2.488 × 10−2 m2 , W = 4.03 N, and
CD = 0.055. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . When the football attains its terminal
velocity,
[ ]1 [ ]1
2 2
W 4.03
W = CD 21 ρV 2 A → V = =
CD 21 ρA (0.055) 12 (1.225)(2.488 × 10−2 )

which yields V = 69.3 m/s = 155 mph. For a spinning football, CD = 0.9(0.055) = 0.0495
and the terminal velocity is given by
[ ]1 [ ]1
2 2
W 4.03
V = = = 73.1 m/s = 164 mph
CD 12 ρA (0.0495) 12 (1.225)(2.488 × 10−2 )

These are very high velocities that would be dangerous to players, fortunately they are not
attained!
10.38. From the given data: D = 0.221 m, A = πD2 /4 = 0.03836 m2 , m = 0.425 kg, and W = mg =
4.168 N. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. At the terminal
velocity, the following equations must be satisfied:
VD V (0.221)
Re = = = 1.513 × 104 V (1)
ν 1.461 × 10−5

478
 5.948 × 105 + 7.735 × 104 Re + 398.1 Re2
CD = (2)
(2.230 × 104 + 928.3 Re + 0.01675 Re2 )Re

W = CD 21 ρV 2 A → 4.618 = CD 21 (1.225)V 2 (0.03836) (3)

Solution of these equations yields V = 26.7 m/s and Re = 4.05 × 105 . Since Re > 2 × 105 ,
the boundary layer is turbulent and it is more appropriate to use CD = 0.2, in which case
Equations 1 and 3 give V = 29.8 m/s = 66.6 mph .

10.39. From the given data: W = 200 N, L = 4D, and V = 10 m/s. For standard air, ρ =
1.225 kg/m3 . For Alternative A, the drag coefficient can be estimated using Table 10.4 as
CDA = 0.3, and for Alternative B, the drag coefficient can be estimated using Table 10.5 as
CDB = 0.85. The frontal areas for alternatives A and B are given by

πD2
AA = LD, AB =
4
When the bomb is at its terminal speed, the weight of the bomb is balanced by the drag force
such that √
2W
W = 21 CD ρV 2 A → A = (1)
CD ρV 2
Applying Equation 1 to alternatives A and B yields
√ √
2W 2(200)
Alternative A: LA DA = → (4DA )(DA ) = → DA = 1.65 m
CDA ρV 2 (0.3)(1.225)(10)2
√ √
πDB2 πDB 2
2W 2(200)
Alternative B: = 2
→ = → DB = 2.21 m
4 CDA ρV 4 (0.3)(1.225)(10)2

The corresponding lengths and volumes for alternatives A and B are:

2
Alternative A: LA = 4DA = 6.60 m, VA = 14 πDA LA = 14 π(1.65)2 (6.60) = 14.1 m3
2
Alternative B: LB = 4DB = 8.85 m, VB = 14 πDB LB = 14 π(2.21)2 (8.85) = 34.0 m3

Therefore, for Alternative A the dimensions of the bomb are 6.60 m × 1.65 m , and for Al-
ternative B the dimensions of the bomb are 8.85 m × 2.21 m . Alternative A has a lesser
volume.

10.40. From the given data: D = 0.6 m, m = 0.3 kg, and CD = 0.15. For a standard atmosphere,
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The governing equation for the motion of the falling sphere is

π dV dV
mg − CD 12 ρV 2 D2 = m → = a − bV 2 (1)
4 dt dt
where
CD ρπD2
a = g, b=
8m

479
 Equation 1 can also be written as
∫ V2
dV dz dV V V
= a − bV 2 → V = a − bV 2 → dz = dV → ∆z = dV
dz dt dz a − bV 2 0 a − bV 2
This equation can be integrated by making the following substitution:
1
x = a − bV 2 , − dx = V dV
2b
After substitution and integration, and requiring that V = 0 at z = 0,

1 x2 1 a − bV22
∆z = − ln → ∆z = − ln (2)
2b x0 2b a
The terminal velocity, Vt , occurs when the weight of the sphere is equal to the drag force,
such that √ √
2π 2 8mg a
1
mg = CD 2 ρVt D → Vt = → Vt = (3)
4 CD ρπD2 b
(a) Using the given data,

a = g = 9.807 m2 /s

CD ρπD2 (0.15)(1.225)π(0.6)2
b= = = 0.08659 m−1
8m 8(0.3)
√ √
a 9.807
Vt = = = 10.64 m/s
b 0.08659
V2 = 0.8Vt = 0.8(10.64) = 8.512 m/s

1 9.807 − 0.08659(8.512)2
∆z = − ln = 5.899 m
2(0.08659) 9.807

Therefore, a distance of approximately 5.90 m is required for the sphere to attain 80%
of the terminal velocity.
(b) Theoretically, and infinite drop distance is required for the sphere to attain its terminal
velocity. This can be seen by setting V2 = Vt and substituting Equation 3 into Equation
2. This combined equation has no solution since − ln 0 is infinite.

10.41. From the given data: W = 17.8 × 103 N, A = 3.00 m2 , S = 0.05%, V = 25.9 m/s, and c = 0.5.
For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . From the given slope, θ = tan−1 S = 2.86◦ . The force
moving the car down the slope is equal to the component of the weight down the slope, and ,
under terminal conditions, the drag force is equal to 50% of this force component. Therefore
1
0.5W sin θ = CD ρV 2 A
2
1
→ 0.5(17.8 × 103 ) sin 2.86◦ = CD (1.225)(25.9)2 (3.00) → CD = 0.36
2

480
10.42. From the given data: D = 43 mm, W = 0.45 N, V0 = 60 m/s, CDs = 0.50, CDr = 0.25, and
∆t = 1 s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The frontal area of the ball is A = πD2 /4 =
1.452 × 10−3 m2 . The mass of the golf ball is m = W/g = 0.04589 kg

(a) The drag forces on the smooth and rough golf balls, FDs and FDr , respectively are given
by

FDs = CDs 21 ρV02 A = (0.50) 12 (1.225)(60)2 (1.452 × 10−3 ) = 1.60 N

FDr = CDr 21 ρV02 A = (0.25) 12 (1.225)(60)2 (1.452 × 10−3 ) = 0.80 N

(b) The initial decelerations of the smooth and rough golf balls as and ar , respectively are
given by
FDs 1.60
as = = = 34.9 m/s2
m 0.04589
FDr 0.80
ar = = = 17.4 m/s2
m 0.04589
The velocities of the smooth and rough golf balls V1s and V1r , respectively one second
after they are struck can be estimated by

V1s ≈ V0 − as ∆t = 60 − 34.9(1) = 25.1 m/s

V1r ≈ V0 − ar ∆t = 60 − 17.4(1) = 42.6 m/s

The distances traveled by the smooth and rough golf balls ss and sr , respectively one
second after they are struck can be estimated by

ss ≈ 12 (V0 + V1s )∆t = 12 (60 + 25.1)(1) = 42.6 m

sr ≈ 21 (V0 + V1r )∆t = 12 (60 + 42.6)(1) = 51.3 m

Therefore, the rough golf ball travels approximately 8.7 m farther in the first second.

10.43. The terminal velocity, V , of a rising sphere is derived from Equation 10.38 which leads to the
following (derived similarly as Equation 10.36)
√
4(γf − γb )D 4g ′ D ∆ρ
V = → V2 = , where g ′ = g
3CD ρf 3CD ρ

Rearranging this result gives

V2 4 4
′
= → Fr2d =
gD 3 CD 3 CD

This result is also applicable to a falling sphere, in which case ∆ρ is taken as ρb − ρf , rather
than ρf − ρb in the case of a rising sphere.

481
10.44. From the given data: ∆t = 10 s, and ∆z = 100 m. For seawater at 20◦ C, ρ = 1023 kg/m3 ,
µ = 1.07 mPa·s, and ν = µ/ρ = 1.046 × 10−6 m2 /s. The required terminal velocity, V , is
given by V = ∆z/∆t = 100/10 = 10 m/s.

(a) In this case, D = 0.6 m, and the Reynolds number and drag coefficient (from Equation
10.32) are given by
VD (10)(0.6)
Re = = = 5.736 × 106
ν 1.046 × 10−6
CD = 0.2

The equation for the terminal velocity (derived from Equation 10.38 and similar to
Equation 10.36) gives
√ √
4(γf − γb )D 4(1023 − ρb )(9.807)(0.6)
V = → 10 = → no solution
3CD ρ 3(0.2)(1023)

Since there is no solution, it is not possible to have a sphere of diameter 0.6 m reach
the surface in 10 seconds.
(b) In this case, ρb = 0.7ρ = 716 kg/m3 . The drag coefficient is a function of the sphere
diameter, D, as given by the following relations,
VD (10)D
Re = = = 9.560 × 106 D (1)
ν 1.046 × 10−6
5.948 × 105 + 7.735 × 104 Re + 398.1 Re2
CD = (2)
(2.230 × 104 + 928.3 Re + 0.01675 Re2 )Re
The equation for the terminal velocity gives
√ √
4(γf − γb )D 4(1023 − 716)(9.807)D
V = → 10 = (3)
3CD ρ 3CD (1023)

Simultaneous solution of Equations 1 to 3 for D yields D = 0.768 m, which corresponds

to Re = 7.3 × 106 . Therefore, use CD = 0.2 instead of Equation 2 which yields V =
5.10 m/s .

10.45. From the given data: ∆ = 12 ft, Mmax = 4 × 108 ft·lb, V = 80 mph, T = 70◦ F, and Af =
750000 ft2 . At 70◦ F, ρair = 0.07489 lbm/ft3 = 0.002326 slugs/ft3 . Let H, W , and L be the
height, width, and depth of the building, respectively. It is required that L ≥ 80 ft. Using
the given data,
1 1
FD = CD ρair V 2 A = CD ρair V 2 HW
2 2
H 1 2 2
Mmax = FD = CD ρair V H W
2 4
1
4 × 108 = CD (0.002326)(117)2 H 2 W
4

482
 CD H 2 W = 3.015 × 107 (1)
( )
H
A = LW
∆
LW H
750000 = (2)
12
From the given data (in the book) on drag coefficients for turbulent flow around an object
with a rectangular cross-section, the following relationship is known:
CD = f (L, W ) (3)

Taking L = 80 ft and solving Equations 1 to 3 yields H = 272 ft .

10.46. From the given data: S = 3%, θ = tan−1 S = 1.72◦ , V = 70 km/h = 19.44 m/s, b = 2.59 m,
h = 4.11 m, A = bh = 10.64 m2 , Pe = 500 hp = 373 kW, W = 355 kN, cr = 0.008, and
CD = 0.6. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The force, F , that must be overcome by the
tractor-trailer is given by
F = W sin θ + cr W cos θ + CD 12 ρV 2 A

= (355) sin 1.72◦ + (0.008)(355) cos 1.72◦ + (0.6) 12 (1.225)(19.44)2 (10.64)[×10−3 kN/N]

= 14.96 kN
Since the tractor-trailer is traveling at 19.44 m/s, the power, P , required to overcome this
force is
P = F · V = (14.96)(19.44) = 291 kW
and
expended power 291
= = 0.78 = 78%
engine power 373
10.47. From the given data: L1 = 4.83 m, W1 = 1.93 m, H1 = 1.78 m, CD1 = 0.371, L2 = 1.22 m,
W2 = 0.965 m, H2 = 0.406 m, and V = 105 km/h = 29.17 m/s. For standard air, ρ =
1.225 kg/m3 . From the given data on the storage compartment, L2 /H2 = 3.0, and Table 10.4
estimates the the drag coefficient (for a rectangular shape) as CD2 = 1.3. Using these data,
the power, P1 , required to overcome drag on the SUV and the power P2 to overcome drag on
the storage compartment are given by
P1 = FD · V = CD1 21 ρV 2 W1 H1 · V = (0.371) 12 (1.225)(29.17)2 (1.93)(1.78) · (29.17)

→ P1 = 1.94 × 104 W (= 26.0 hp)

P2 = FD · V = CD2 12 ρV 2 L2 H2 · V = (1.3) 12 (1.225)(29.17)2 (0.965)(0.406) · (29.17)

→ P2 = 7.74 × 103 W (= 10.4 hp)

Therefore the percentage increase in horsepower required when the storage compartment is
attached is given by
P2 10.4
increase in power = × 100 = × 100 = 40%
P1 26.0

483
10.??. From the the given data: P = 350 kW, CD = 0.17, and A = 2 m2 . For standard air at sea
level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Assuming that aerodynamic drag is dominant, at the terminal speed
the following relationship holds,

CD A 12 ρV 3 = P → (0.17)(2) 21 (1.225)V 3 = 350 × 103 → V = 119.9 m/s = 428 km/h

10.49. From the given data: Vc = 88 km/h = 24.44 m/s, Vw = 24 km/h = 6.667 m/s, θw = 30◦ ,
L = 4.46 m, W = 1.93 m, H = 1.24 m, CD1 = 0.35, and CD2 = 0.82. For standard air,
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The drag force on the front, FD1 , and the side, FD2 , are calculated as
follows,

FD1 = CD1 12 ρ(Vc + Vw cos θw )2 [HW ] = (0.35) 21 (1.225)(24.44 + 6.667 cos 30◦ )2 [(1.24)(1.93)] = 468 N

FD2 = CD2 21 ρ(Vw sin θw )2 [HL] = (0.82) 12 (1.225)(6.667 sin 30◦ )2 [(1.24)(4.46)] = 30.9 N
√ √
F = FD12 + F2 = 4682 + 30.92 = 469 N
D2

θ = tan−1 (FD2 /FD1 ) = tan−1 (30.9/468) = 3.7◦

The aerodynamic force makes an angle of 3.7◦ with the direction in which the car is driving.

10.50. From the given data: ∆CD = 0.4 − 0.3 = 0.1, A = 2.5 m2 , V = 88 km/h = 24.44 m/s,
L = 200 km, C = $0.6604 L−1 = $660.4 m−3 , and eg = 4.44 MJ/kg. For standard air,
ρa = 1.225 kg/m3 . The density of gasoline is ρg = 680 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.4). The cost
of gasoline can be expressed as
1
C = 660.6 × = $ 0.9715 kg−1
680
The additional energy expended in riding with the windows down is

∆E = FD ·L = ∆CD 12 ρa V 2 AL = (0.1) 21 (1.225)(24.44)2 (2.5)(200×103 ) = 1.829×107 J = 18.29 MJ

The additional mass, m, of gasoline required is therefore given by

∆E 18.29
m= = = 4.119 kg
eg 4.44

The additional cost is

additional cost = mC = (4.119)(0.9715) = $ 4.00

10.51. From the given data: A = 8 m2 , CD1 = 0.90, V = 88 km/h, and CD2 = 0.80. The reduction
in power is calculated as follows,

P1 = CD1 12 ρV 2 A, P2 = CD2 12 ρV 2 A
P1 − P2 CD1 − CD2 0.90 − 0.80
→ × 100 = × 100 = × 100 = 11.1%
P1 CD1 0.90

484
10.52. From the given data: L = 16.16 m, W = 2.59 m, H = 4.27 m, h = 1.27 m, m = 4350 kg, and
CD = 0.95. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Let V be the wind velocity, then the drag
force is given by
FD = CD 12 ρV 2 [LH] = (0.95) 21 (1.225)V 2 [(16.16)(4.27)] = 40.13V 2
When the trailer is about to turn over (pivoting on its downwind wheels), the following
relationship must hold,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
H W 4.27 2.59
FD h + = mg → 40.13V 2
1.27 + = (4350)(9.807)
2 2 2 2

→ V = 62.68 m/s = 227 km/h = 140 m/h

10.53. From the given data: z = 10 km, V = 880 km/h = 244.4 m/s, D = 5 m, A = πD2 /4 =
19.63 m2 , L = 40 m. In a standard atmosphere at an altitude of 10 km: ρ = 0.41351 kg/m3 ,
and ν = 3.526 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.3).
(a) The Reynolds number and L/D can be derived from the given data as follows:
VD (244.4)(5) L 40
ReL = = = 3.466 × 107 , = =8
ν 3.526 × 10−5 D 5
Based on these data, Table 10.5 gives CD = 0.85 and the power required to overcome
drag is given by
P = CD 21 ρV 3 A = (0.85) 21 (0.41351)(244.4)3 (19.63) = 50.36 × 106 W ≈ 50.4 MW

(b) To calculate skin friction, the fuselage can be considered as a wrapped-around flat plate
with an area, A, given by A = πDL = 628.3 m2 . The friction drag coefficient is therefore
estimated by Equation 10.22 as
0.455 1742 0.455 1742
CDf = − = − = 0.002430
(log ReL )2.58 ReL (log 3.466 × 10 )
7 2.58 3.466 × 107
The power required to overcome drag is therefore given by
P = CDf 12 ρV 3 A = (0.002430) 12 (0.41351)(244.4)3 (628.3) = 4.608 × 106 W ≈ 4.61 MW

(c) The power to overcome drag a calculated in Part (a) is greater than that in Part(b)
because it includes the pressure drag in addition to the friction drag.

10.54. From the given data: V = 30 kt = 15.43 m/s, D = 12 m, A = πD2 /4 = 113.1 m2 , L = 120 m.
In seawater at 10◦ C: ρ = 1025 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.356 × 10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.4).
(a) The Reynolds number and L/D can be derived from the given data as follows:
VD (15.43)(12) L 120
ReL = = = 1.365 × 108 , = = 10
ν 1.356 × 10−6 D 12
Based on these data, Table 10.5 gives CD = 0.85 and the power required to overcome
drag is given by
P = CD 21 ρV 3 A = (0.85) 21 (1025)(15.53)3 (113.1) = 1.89 × 108 W ≈ 189 MW

485
 (b) To calculate skin friction, the fuselage can be considered as a wrapped-around flat plate
with an area, A, given by A = πDL = 4524 m2 . The friction drag coefficient is therefore
estimated by Equation 10.22 as
0.455 1742 0.455 1742
CDf = − = − = 0.002025
(log ReL )2.58 ReL (log 1.365 × 10 )
8 2.58 1.365 × 108
The power required to overcome drag is therefore given by
P = CDf 12 ρV 3 A = (0.002025) 12 (1025)(15.43)3 (4524) = 1.725 × 107 W ≈ 17.3 MW

10.55. From the given data: D = 533 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 0.2231 m2 , L = 6.6 m, and V = 65 km/h =
18.06 m/s. For seawater at 10◦ C, ρ = 1025 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.356×10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix
B.4). The Reynolds number and length-to-diameter ration are calculated as follows,
VD (18.06)(0.533) L 6.6
Re = = = 7.10 × 106 , = = 12.4
ν 1.356 × 10−6 D 0.533
Since Re > 106 , the drag coefficient can be estimated from Table 10.5 for an ellipsoid as
CD = 0.1. The power, P , required to propel the torpedo is therefore given by
P = FD ·V = CD 12 ρV 3 A = (0.1) 12 (1025)(18.06)3 (0.2231) = 6.735×104 W = 67.4 kW = 90.3 hp

10.56. From the given data: W = 130 kgf, and V = 6 m/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .
Approximating the parachute as an open hemisphere and assuming that Re > 104 , the drag
coefficient can be estimated using Table 10.5, which gives CD = 1.42. Assuming that the
person is traveling at the terminal (highest) speed when he/she lands, then the following
relationship holds upon landing:
π
W = 21 CD ρV 2 A → (130)(9.807) = 21 (1.42)(1.225)(6)2 D2 → D = 7.20 m
4
10.57. From the given data: H = W = 30 mm, A = W H = 9.000 × 10−4 m2 , θ = 15◦ , V = 8 m/s,
and γ = 89 kN/m3 . For standard air at sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The component of the
velocity normal to the plate, Vn , is given by
Vn = V cos θ = 8 cos 15◦ = 7.727 m/s
The aspect ratio is W/H = 30/30 = 1, so the drag coefficient is obtained from Table 10.5 as
CD = 1.18. The drag force on the plate, FD , and the weight of the plate, W , are calculated
as follows:
FD = CD 21 ρVn2 A = (1.18) 12 (1.225)(7.727)2 (9.000 × 10−4 ) = 0.03884 N

W = γHW t = (89 × 103 )(0.030)2 t = 80.10t N

Assuming that the drag force acts normal to the plate, and requiring that the resultant be
aligned along the plate (since the moment about P must be zero), gives
FD cos θ (0.03884) cos 15◦
tan θ = → tan 15◦ =
W − FD sin θ 80.10t − (0.03884) sin 15◦

→ t = 3.745 × 10−4 m ≈ 0.37 mm

486
10.58. From the given data: θ = 20◦ , V = 10 m/s, and γ = 2.7 kN/m3 . For standard air at sea level,
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Assume that the drag coefficient for a hemisphere can be used with the
component of the wind velocity normal to the hemisphere. The component of the velocity
normal to the hemisphere, Vn , is given by

Vn = V cos θ = 10 cos 20◦ = 9.397 m/s

The drag coefficient is obtained from Table 10.5 as CD = 1.17. The drag force on the
hemisphere, FD , and the weight of the hemisphere, W , are calculated as follows:
π
FD = CD 12 ρVn2 A = (1.17) 12 (1.225)(9.397)2 D2 = 49.70D2 N
4
1
W = γ 12 πD3 = (2.7 × 103 ) 12
1
πD3 = 706.9D3 N

Assuming that the drag force acts normal to the hemisphere, and requiring that the resultant
be aligned along the strut (since the moment about P must be zero), gives

FD cos θ 49.70D2 cos 20◦

tan θ = → tan 20◦ = → D = 0.206 m = 206 mm
W − FD sin θ 706.9D3 − 49.70D2 sin 20◦

If the wind is blowing in the opposite direction, then Table 10.5 gives CD = 0.42. Using this
drag coefficient, the drag force on the hemisphere, FD , and the weight of the hemisphere, W ,
are calculated as follows:
π
FD = CD 21 ρVn2 A = (0.42) 12 (1.225)(9.397)2 D2 = 17.84D2 N
4
1
W = γ 12 πD3 = (2.7 × 103 ) 12
1
πD3 = 706.9D3 N

Assuming that the drag force acts normal to the hemisphere, and requiring that the resultant
be aligned along the strut (since the moment about P must be zero), gives

FD cos θ 17.84D2 cos 20◦

tan θ = → tan 20◦ = → D = 0.0738 m = 74 mm
W − FD sin θ 706.9D3 − 17.84D2 sin 20◦

10.59. From the given data: D = 1.5 m, H = 30 m, and V = 60 km/h = 16.67 m/s. For standard
air, ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s, and ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are
useful,

VD (16.67)(1.5)
Re = = = 1.711 × 106 , A = D · H = (1.5)(30) = 45 m2
ν 1.461 × 10−5

Since Re ≈ 2 × 106 , the drag coefficient can be taken as CD = 0.3 in accordance with Table
10.4. Using these data and the definition of the drag coefficient gives

FD = CD 12 ρV 2 A = (0.3) 21 (1.225)(16.67)2 (45) = 2.297 × 103 N ≈ 2.30 kN

M = FD (H/2) = 2.297(30/2) ≈ 34.5 kN·m

487
10.60. From the given data: D = 8 mm, L = 1.5 m, A = LH = 0.012 m2 , and M = 3 N·m. For
standard air, ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s, and ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . For turbulent flow past a vertical
cylinder, Table 10.4 gives CD = 0.3. When the antenna support is about to fail, the following
equation is satisfied,
L 1.5
M = CD 21 ρV 2 A · → 3 = (0.3) 21 (1.225)V 2 (0.012) · → V = 42.6 m/s
2 2
Check the Reynolds number to validate the assumed drag coefficient:
VD (42.6)(0.008)
Re = = = 2.33 × 104
ν 1.461 × 10−5
Since Re > 104 , the assumed value of CD is validated, and the maximum speed before the
antenna support fails is 42.6 m/s = 153 km/h .

10.61. From the given data: D = 2.5 m, V = 3 m/s, M = 950 kN·m. For water at 20◦ C, ρ =
998.2 kg/m3 . For turbulent a boundary layer, Table 10.4 gives CD = 0.3. Let H be the
maximum allowable flow depth, which requires that
H H
M = CD 21 ρV 2 A · → 950 × 103 = (0.3) 21 (998.2)(3)2 (2.5H) · → H = 13.0 m
2 2
10.62. From the given data: V = 90 km/h = 25 m/s, Ds = 1.5 m, Hs = 35 m, Dt = 4 m, Ht = 6 m.
At 25◦ C, ρ = 1.184 kg/m3 and µ = 0.0185 mPa·s. This is a composite body.
For each support:
ρV Ds (1.184)(25)(1.5)
Re = = = 2.4 × 106
µ 0.0185 × 10−3
CDs = 0.3 (for turbulent flow)
As = Ds Hs = (1.5)(35) = 52.5 m2

For the tank:

ρV Dt (1.184)(25)(4)
Re = = = 6.4 × 106
µ 0.0185 × 10−3
CDt = 0.3 (for turbulent flow)
At = Dt Ht = (4)(6) = 24 m2
Hence, recognizing that there are 3 supports
[ ( )]
1 2 35 6
Moment at base = ρV CDs As (3) + CDt At 35 +
2 2 2
[ ]
1 2 35
= (1.184)(25) (0.3)(52.5) (3) + (0.3)(24)(38)
2 2
= 4.07 × 105 N·m = 407 kN·m
For high Re, the vortex shedding and flag flutter frequency is given by
ωDt V 25
= 0.20 → ω = 0.20 = 0.20 = 1.25 s−1
V Dt 4

488
10.63. (a) The drag force on the advertising board is given by

ρa V 2
F1 = CD1 A1 (1)
2
The advertising board can be regarded as a rectangular plate with h = 2 m, w = 4 m,
and w/h = 2. For turbulent flow past a rectangular plate with w/h = 2, Table 10.5
gives CD1 = 1.19 (by interpolation). From the given data, ρa = 1.30 kg/m3 , V = 150
km/h = 41.7 m/s, and A1 = 2 m × 4 m = 8 m2 . Substituting into Equation 2.23 gives

(1.30)(41.7)2
F1 = (1.19) (8) = 10.8 kN
2

(b) The drag force on each vertical pole is given by

ρa V 2
F2 = CD2 A2 (2)
2
For turbulent flow past a circular pole, Table 10.4 gives CD2 = 0.3, and from the given
data, A2 = 0.05 m × 4 m = 0.20 m2 . Substituting into Equation 2.24 gives

(1.30)(41.7)2
F1 = (0.3) (0.20) = 67.8 N
2

Since there are two poles, the total force on the poles is 2 × 67.8 N = 136 N .
(c) If L is the length of the concrete block and ρc = 2300 kg/m3 , taking moments about the
edge of the block when the sign is about to tip over is given by
( )
L
(4 × 0.15 × L × 2300 × 9.81) = (2.15)(136) + (5.15)(10800)
2

which gives L = 2.87 m .

10.64. From the given data: Dp = 100 mm, Hp = 7.62 m, Hf = 1.22 m, Lf = 1.83 m, CDf = 0.1, and
V = 105 km/h = 29.17 m/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and ν = 1.416 × 10−5 m2 /s.
The Reynolds number for flow past the pole is given by

V Dp (29.17)(0.100)
Rep = = = 2.0 × 105
ν 1.416 × 10−5

For Rep = 2.0 × 105 , it is apparent from Figure 10.9 and Table 10.4 that the drag coefficient
of the flag pole can be estimated as CDp = 0.3. The forces and moments exerted by the wind
blowing on the flag pole and the flag are calculated as follows:

Fp = CDp 21 ρV 2 Hp Dp = (0.3) 12 (1.225)(29.17)2 (7.62)(0.100) = 119.1 N

Hp 7.62
Mp = Fp = (119.1) = 453.9 N·m
2 2
Ff = CDf 21 ρV 2 Hf Lf = (0.1) 12 (1.225)(29.17)2 (1.22)(1.83) = 116 N

489
 ( ) ( )
Hf 1.22
Mf = Ff Hp + = (116) 7.62 + = 957 N·m
2 2

M = Mp + Mf = 453.9 N·m + 957 N·m = 1411 N·m

Mf 957
∆= × 100 = × 100 = 211%
Mp 453.9

Therefore, the moment at the base of the flagpole without the flag is 454 N·m , the moment
with the flag is 1411 N·m , and the percentage increase is 211% . This indicates that is
makes good sense to take down a flag when a hurricane is coming!

10.65. From the given data: D = 100 mm, H = 7.62 m, and U = 105 km/h = 29.17 m/s. For
standard air at sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . For turbulent-boundary-layer flow over the (cylin-
drical) flagpole Table 10.4 gives CD = 0.3.

(a) The velocity profile can be expressed in dimensional terms as

u ( z )1 u ( z )1 1
7 7
= → = → u = 21.82z 7 m/s
U H 29.17 7.62
The total drag force on the pole, FD , is calculated as follows:
∫ 7.62
2
dFD = CD 2 ρu D dz → FD = CD 2 ρD
1 2 1
(21.82)2 z 7 dz
0

Substituting the given data yields

∫ 7.62 2
FD = (0.3) 12 (1.225)(0.1) (21.82)2 z 7 dz = 92.6 N
0

(b) If the velocity remains constant at U = 29.17 m/s over the entire height of the flagpole,
the the drag force is given by

FD = CD 12 ρU 2 DH = (0.3) 12 (1.225)(29.17)2 (0.1)(7.62) = 119 N

10.66. From the given data: H = 2 m, L = 18 m, A = LH = 36 m2 , CD = 0.45, and V = 90 km/h =

25 m/s. For standard air at sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. Using the
given data, the power, P , required to tow the banner is calculated as follows,

P = CD 21 ρV 3 A = (0.45) 21 (1.225)(25)3 (36) = 1.550 × 105 W = 155 kW

If the banner were assumed to be a flat plate, the drag coefficient would be calculated using
Equation 10.22 which gives
VL (25)(18)
ReL = = = 3.080 × 107
ν 1.461 × 10−5
0.455 1742
CDf = 2.58
− = 0.002467
(log ReL ) ReL

490
 The power, P , required to tow a two-sided flat plate that is the same size as the banner is
calculated as follows,
P = 2CDf 12 ρV 3 A = 2(0.002467) 21 (1.225)(25)3 (36) = 1.699 × 103 W = 1.7 kW
Therefore it is not reasonable to approximate the banner by a two-sided flat plate. Obvi-
ously, the fluttering of the banner adds considerably to the drag on the banner.
10.67. From the given data: V = 72 km/h = 20 m/s, h1 = 5.2 m, A1 = 25 m2 , CD1 = 0.26, D2 =
0.6 m, h2 = 2.5 m, h3 = 2 m, and L3 = 2.3 m. The angle, θ, between the cable and the ground
is given by ( ) ( )
−1 h3 −1 2
θ = tan = tan = 41.0◦
L3 2.3
For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and ν = 1.461 × 105 m2 /s. Check the Reynolds number for
the flow around the cylindrical trunk of the tree:
V D2 (20)(0.6)
Re = = = 8.21 × 105
ν 1.461 × 105
Based on the drag-coefficient data for a cylinder given in Figure 10.9 and Table 10.4, the
drag coefficient of the trunk can be estimated as CD2 = 0.3. The forces and moments on the
canopy and the trunk of the tree are calculated as follows:
F1 = CD1 12 ρV 2 A1 = (0.26) 21 (1.225)(20)2 (25) = 1.59 × 103 N
( ) ( )
h1 5.2
M1 = F1 h2 + = 1.59 × 10 2.5 +
3
= 8.12 × 103 N·m
2 2

F2 = CD2 12 ρV 2 D2 h2 = (0.3) 12 (1.225)(20)2 (0.6)(2.5) = 110 N

( ) ( )
h2 2.5
M2 = F2 = 110 = 138 N·m
2 2
Taking moments about the base of the tree trunk, and denoting the tension in the cable as
T , which is also equal to the force supported by the pin, gives
M1 + M2 8120 + 138
T cos θ(h3 ) = M1 +M2 → T = = = 5.47×103 N = 5.47 kN = 1230 lb
h3 cos θ 2 cos 41.0◦
10.68. From the given data: D = 10.7 m, M1 = 14 kg, CD = 1.4, M2 = 82 kg, M3 = 28 kg, and
ρ = 1.20 kg/m3 . Under terminal conditions,
 1
2
( )
πD 2  (M1 + M2 + M3 )g 
(M1 + M2 + M3 )g = CD 12 ρV 2 → V = ( 2
) 

4 πD
CD 21 ρ
4
Substituting the given data into this equation yields the following
 1
2

 (14 + 82 + 28)(9.807) 
V =
 ( )  = 4.0 m/s = 9.0 mph
1 π × 10.72 
(1.4) 2 (1.20)
4

491
10.69. From the given data: V = 8.05 m/s, A = 0.5 m2 , and CD = 0.5. For standard air, ρ =
1.225 kg/m3 . The power, P , to overcome aerodynamic drag is given by
P = FD · V = CD 21 ρV 3 A = (0.5) 21 (1.225)(8.05)3 (0.5) = 160 W = 0.160 kW = 0.215 hp

10.70. From the given data: W = 85 kgf = 833.6 N, S = 5%, V = 18 m/s, and A = 0.6 m2 .
For a slope of 5%, the angle of inclination is θ = tan−1 0.05 = 2.862◦ . For standard air,
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Under terminal-velocity conditions,
W sin θ = CD 21 ρV 2 A → (833.6) sin 2.862◦ = CD 21 (1.225)(18)2 (0.6) → CD = 0.35

10.71. From the given data: The person can maintain a speed of 35 km/h in no wind. The key
to answering this question is that, assuming that the person can generate the same power
with and without wind, the speed of 35 km/h can be maintained relative to the wind. So
V = 35 − W , where V is the speed of the bicycle, and W is the wind speed in the opposite
direction to V .
(a) In this case W = 8 km/h, so V = 35 − 8 = 27 km/h .
(b) In this case W = −8 km/h, so V = 35 − (−8) = 43 km/h .

10.72. From the given data: CD = [0.51 0.56], A = 450 cm2 = 0.0450 m2 , and V = 88 km/h =
24.44 m/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The corresponding ranges of forces and
pressures are:
FD = CD 12 ρV 2 A = [0.51 0.56] 12 (1.225)(24.44)2 (0.0450) = [8.40 N 9.22 N]

1 1
p= FD = [8.40 N 9.22 N] = [187 Pa 205 Pa]
A 0.0450
10.73. From the given data: L = 36.3 m, h = 12.2 m, and V = 96 km/h = 26.67 m/s. For standard
air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s.
(a) From the given flag dimensions, L/h = 2.98 and Table 10.6 gives CD = 0.15. The
required power, P , is given by
P = FD ·V = CD 12 ρV 3 Lh = (0.15) 12 (1.225)(26.97)3 (36.3)(12.2) = 3.26×103 W = 4.4 hp

(b) If the banner is assumed to be a flat plate, then CD depends on ReL , where
VL (26.97)(36.3)
ReL = = = 6.63 × 107
ν 1.461 × 10−5
The boundary layer is turbulent, and using ReL in Equation 10.22 gives
0.455 1742 0.455 1742
CD = − = − = 0.00223
(log ReL )2.58 ReL (log 6.63 × 107 )2.58 6.63 × 107
Taking the banner as a two-sided flat plate, the required power, P , is given by
P = 2FD ·V = 2CD 12 ρV 3 Lh = 2(0.00223) 12 (1.225)(26.97)3 (36.3)(12.2) = 96.8 W = 0.13 hp
It is apparent from this result that the drag on a banner (which is significantly influenced
by fluttering) is much greater that on a flat plate which would slice through the air.

492
10.74. From the given data: m = 86.2 kg, W = mg = 845 N, and A = 0.70 m2 . For standard air,
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Table 10.6 gives the drag coefficient of an upright person as being in the
range of 1.1–1.3. Take a mid-range value CD = 1.15 and assume that the person falls with
their full frontal area towards the ground. This will at least minimize their terminal velocity.
The terminal velocity, V , is derived by balancing the weight and drag force, which gives

W = CD 12 ρV 2 A
√ √
W 845
→ V = = = 41.4 m/s = 149 km/h = 92.6 mph
CD 21 ρA (1.15) 12 (1.225)(0.70)

10.75. From the given data: ∆x = 100 m, ∆t = 9.58 s, and A = 0.75 m2 . The average velocity, V , is
given by
100
V = = 10.4 m/s = 23.3 mph
9.58
For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Table 10.6 gives the drag coefficient of an upright person
as being in the range of 1.1–1.3. Take a mid-range value CD = 1.15. The drag force, FD , and
the required power, P , are given by

FD = CD 21 ρV 2 A = (1.15) 21 (1.225)(10.4)2 (0.75) = 11.0 N

P = FD · V = (11.0)(10.4) = 115 W

10.76. From the given data: L = 10 km, V = 12 km/h = 3.333 m/s, CD A = 1.1 m2 , and W =
7 km/h = 1.944 m/s. For standard air at sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .

(a) Without wind, the energy, E, expended is calculated as follows

E = FD L = CD A 21 ρV 2 L = (1.1) 12 (1.225)(3.333)2 (10 × 103 ) = 7.485 × 104 J = 17900 cal

(b) Running against the wind, the energy, E1 , expended over 5 km is calculated as follows

E1 = FD (L/2) = CD A 12 ρ(V +W )2 (L/2) = (1.1) 12 (1.225)(3.333+1.944)2 (5×103 ) = 9.381×104 J

Running with the wind, the energy, E2 , expended over 5 km is calculated as follows

E2 = FD (L/2) = CD A 12 ρ(V −W )2 (L/2) = (1.1) 12 (1.225)(3.333−1.944)2 (5×103 ) = 6.499×103 J

Therefore, with wind effects considered, the total energy, E, expended is given by

E = E1 + E2 = 9.381 × 104 J + 6.499 × 103 J = 1.003 × 105 J = 23970 cal

10.77. From the given data: D = 15.2 m, A = πD2 /4 = 181.5 m2 , P = 2×210 hp = 3.13×105 W, and
CD = 0.020 (assume minimum CD for maximum speed). For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .
If all of the engine power goes into overcoming aerodynamic drag, then

P = FD ·V = CD 21 ρV 3 A → 3.13×105 = (0.020) 21 (1.225)V 3 (181.5) → V = 52.0 m/s = 116 mph

493
10.78. From the given data: W2 /W1 = 1.15. The relationship between the takeoff speed, V , and the
weight of the aircraft, W , is given by Equation 10.48 as
√
2W
V =
ρCL A

Taking ρ, CL , and A as constant, using Equation 10.48 gives the following relationship for
the adjusted takeoff speed,
√
V2 W2 √
= = 1.15 = 1.07 → 7% increase in takeoff speed.
V1 W1

10.79. The speed, V , required for takeoff if given by Equation 10.48 as

√
2W V12 ρ2
V = → = (1)
ρCL A V22 ρ1

where it is assumed that W , CL , and A, are constant. If L is the runway length and the
aircraft starts from rest and accelerates with a constant acceleration a, then
V2 L1 V2
L = 21 at2 , V = at → L= → = 12 (2)
a L2 V2
Combining Equations 1 and 2, and taking the ratio for two separate locations gives
L2 ρ1
= (3)
L1 ρ2
In a standard atmosphere, at sea level ρ1 = 1.225 kg/m3 , and at 2000 m, ρ2 = 1.006 kg/m3 .
Substituting into Equation 3 yields
L2 1.225
= = 1.217 ≈ 22% increase in runway length
L1 1.0066

10.80. The fuel consumption rate is proportional power, P , expended in overcoming aerodynamic
drag. The power can be expressed as

P = FD · V = CD 21 ρV 3 A

Assuming that CD , V , and A remain constant regardless of elevation,

P2 ρ2
= (1)
P1 ρ1
In a standard atmosphere at an altitude of 3 km, ρ1 = 0.90925 kg/m3 , and at 10 km, ρ2 =
0.41351 kg/m3 . Substituting these data into Equation 1 gives
P2 0.41351
= = 0.4548
P1 0.90925
[ ]
P2
reduction in power = 1 − × 100 = [1 − 0.4548] × 100 = 54.5%
P1

494
10.81. From the given data: b = 5 m, c = 2 m, θ = 5◦ , p̄top = 8.3 kN/m2 , p̄bot = 23.9 kN/m2 ,
τ̄top = 0.218 kN/m2 , τ̄bot = 0.253 kN/m2 , and V = 10 m/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .
The surface area, A of the wings is A = 2bc = 20 m2 .

(a) The drag force, FD , and lift force, FL , are calculated as follows,

FD = (p̄bot − p̄top )A sin θ + (τ̄top + τ̄bot )A cos θ

= (23.9 − 8.3)(20) sin 5◦ + (0.218 + 0.253)(20) cos 5◦ = 36.6 kN

FL = (p̄bot − p̄top )A cos θ + (τ̄top + τ̄bot )A sin θ

= (23.9 − 8.3)(20) cos 5◦ + (0.218 + 0.253)(20) sin 5◦ = 310 kN

(b) The drag coefficient, CD , and lift coefficient, CL , are calculated as follows,
FD 36.6
CD = 1 2
= 1 2
= 0.0299
2 ρV A 2 (1.225)(10) (20)

FL 310
CL = 1 2A
= 1 2
= 0.253
2 ρV 2 (1.225)(10) (20)

10.82. From the given data: A = 6 m2 , CL = 0.71, CD = 0.17, and V = 15 m/s. At standard
sea-level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .

(a) The maximum allowable weight, Wmax , is equal to the lift force generated at the maxi-
mum speed, hence,

Wmax = CL 21 ρV 2 A = (0.71) 12 (1.225)(15)2 (6) = 587 N = 132 lb

(b) The required power, P , is the power required to overcome the drag force at the design
speed, hence

P = FD V = CD 21 ρV 3 A = (0.17) 12 (1.225)(15)3 (6) = 2.109 × 103 W = 1.11 kW = 2.83 hp

10.83. From the given data: V = 200 km/h = 55.55 m/s, m = 1050 kg, CD = 0.073, and CL = 0.52.
At an elevation of 2 km in a standard atmosphere, ρ = 1.0066 kg/m3 .

(a) Under cruising conditions the lift force is equal to the weight of the aircraft, which
requires that

CL 21 ρV 2 A = mg → (0.52) 21 91.0066)(55.55)2 A = (1050)(9.807) → A = 12.75 m2

(b) The required engine power, P , is that required to overcome aerodynamic drag, which
requires that

P = FD V = CD 12 ρV 3 A = (0.073) 12 (1.0066)(55.55)3 (12.75) = 80.30 kW = 108 hp

10.84. From the given data: A = 15 m2 , m = 1200 kg, and V = 250 km/h = 69.44 m/s. For a
standard atmosphere at sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .

495
 (a) Under cruising conditions, the lift force must be equal to the weight of the aircraft, which
requires that

FL = CL 12 ρV 2 A = W → CL 21 (1.225)(69.44)2 (15) = (1200)(9.807) → CL = 0.266

Using CL = 0.266 in Figure 10.21(b) gives the following approximate results: α = 1◦

and CD = 0.006.
(b) The power, P , required to fly the plane is equal to the product of the drag force and the
velocity, which gives

P = FD V = CD 12 ρV 3 A = (0.006) 12 (1.225)(69.44)3 (15) = 1.846 × 104 W = 18.46 kW

(c) The glide ratio, GR, is defined by Equation 10.49 as GR = CL /CD . Taking α = 1◦ in
Figure 10.21(a) gives the GR = CL /CD ≈ 50 .
10.85. (a) The glide ratio is defined as GR = CL /CD , and Figure 10.21 gives a maximum value of
CL /CD ≈ 96 at α ≈ 5◦ .
(b) Since the starting altitude is 2 km, the maximum glide distance is given by

glide distance = GR × altitude = 96 × 2 km = 192 km

10.86. From the given data: A = 30 m2 , CL = 0.45, m = 2800 kg, and ρair = 1.225 kg/m3 (standard
air, sea level, 15◦ C).
(a) At the takeoff speed the lift force is equal to the weight of the aircraft,
V2
mg = CL ρair A
2
V2
2800(9.81) = (0.45)(1.225) (30)
2
which gives V = 57.6 m/s = 207 km/h .
(b) The wing loading is given by
FL W (2800)(9.81)
= = = 916 Pa
A A 30
(c) For CD = 0.035 and V = 300 km/h = 83.3 m/s,
V2 (0.035)(1.225)(83.3)2 (30)
P = FD V = CD ρair A= = 372 × 103 W = 372 kW
2 2
10.87. From the given data: WL = 5982 N/m2 , V1 = 919 km/h = 255.3 m/s, and W = 279 000 kg =
2.736 MN. At an elevation of 10.6 km in a standard atmosphere, the air density is given by
ρ1 = 0.3837 kg/m3 (see Appendix B.3).
(a) Using the definitions of the lift coefficient, CL , and the wing loading, WL, yield
FL WL · A WL 5982
CL = 1 2
= 1 2
= 1 2
= 1 2
= 0.478
2 ρ1 V 1 A 2 ρ1 V1 A 2 ρ1 V 1 2 (0.3837)(255.3)

496
 (b) On takeoff, CL = 2(0.478) = 0.956 and ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 for standard air at sea level.
Using Equation 10.48, the minimum takeoff speed, Vmin , is estimated as
√ √ √
2W 2 · WL 2 · 5982
Vmin = = = = 101 m/s = 226 mph
ρCL A ρCL (1.225)(0.956)

10.88. From the given data: V = 317 km/h = 88.06 m/s, P = 505 kW, A = 25.9 m2 , and WL =
139.5 N/m2 . For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .

(a) Using the definitions of the lift coefficient, CL , and the wing loading, WL, yield
FL WL · A WL 1502
CL = 1 2
= 1 2
= 1 2 = 1 2
= 0.316
2 ρV A 2 ρV A 2 ρV 2 (1.225)(88.06)

(b) If all of the engine power goes into overcoming drag on the wings (and noting that the
lift force is perpendicular to the flow direction and therefore requires no power), the
maximum possible drag coefficient, CDmax , is given by
P 505 × 103
CDmax = 1 3
= 1 3
= 0.0466
2 ρV A 2 (1.225)(88.06) (25.9)

10.89. From the given data: z1 = 2 km, and z2 = 10 km. From Appendix B.3, in a standard
atmosphere: ρ1 = 1.0066 kg/m3 and ρ2 = 0.4135 kg/m3 .

((a) The ratio of the power requirements are as follows

P2 C 1
D ρ2 V
3A
ρ2 0.4135
=  21 = = = 0.41 = 41%
P1 C
 VA
D 2 ρ1
3 ρ1 1.0066

Therefore, approximately 41% less power is required at the higher elevation.

(b) The ratio of the lift requirements are as follows

FL2 C 1
L ρ2 V2 A
2
ρ2 V22
=  21 =
FL1 C

2
L 2 ρ1 V1 A ρ1 V12

Since FL2 /FL1 = 1, then

√ √
ρ2 V22 V2 ρ1 1.0066
=1 → = = = 1.56 = 156%
ρ1 V12 V1 ρ2 0.4135
Therefore, a 156% increase in speed is required at the higher elevation.

10.90. From the given data: V1 = 200 km/h. For the standard atmosphere, given in Appendix
B.3, the air densities at sea level and at an elevation of 4411 m are: ρ1 = 1.225 kg/m3 and
ρ2 = 0.7894 kg/m3 , respectively. Using Equation 10.48 and assuming that the gross weight,
W , lift coefficient, CL , and planform area, A, of the aircraft is the same under both conditions,
then √ √ √
V2 ρ1 ρ1 1.225
= → V2 = V1 = (200) = 249 km/h = 155 m/h
V1 ρ2 ρ2 0.7894

497
10.91. From the given data: θ = 3◦ . If GR is the glide ratio, then Equation 10.49 gives
1 1
GR = → GR = = 19.1
tan θ tan 3◦
The ratio of the lift coefficient, CL , to the drag coefficient, CD , is given by
CL CL
= GR → = 12
CD CD

If the glide ratio of a plane is less that 19.1, then engine power must be used upon landing.

10.92. From the given data: A = 160 m2 , AR = 6.2, CD,0 = 0.0175, W = 680 kN, and V =
280 km/h = 77.78 m/s. For standard air at sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .
(a) The lift coefficient, CL , and drag coefficient, CD , are calculated using Equations 10.48
and 10.53 as follows
W 680 × 103
CL = 1 2
= 1 2
= 1.147
2 ρV A 2 (1.225)(77.78) (160)

CL2 1.1472
CD = CD,0 + = 0.0175 + = 0.08505
π(AR) π(6.2)

(b) The engine thrust must be equal to the drag force, FD , which is calculated using the
definition of the drag coefficient as

FD = CD 12 ρV 2 A = (0.08505) 21 (1.225)(77.78)2 (160) = 5.042 × 104 N ≈ 50.4 kN

10.93. From the given data: A = 180 m2 , AR = 7.5, CD,0 = 0.0185, and W = 800 kN. For standard
air at sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The lift coefficient, CL , and drag coefficient, CD , are
calculated as functions of the speed of the aircraft, V , using Equations 10.48 and 10.53 as
follows
W 800 × 103 7.256 × 103
CL (V ) = 1 = 1 =
2
2 ρV A
2
2 (1.225)V (180)
V2

CL (V )2 CL (V )2
CD (V ) = CD,0 + = 0.0185 +
π(AR) π(7.5)
The engine thrust must be equal to the drag force, FD , which is calculated using the definition
of the drag coefficient as

FD (V ) = CD (V ) 12 ρV 2 A = CD (V ) 12 (1.225)V 2 (180)

The function FD (V ) is minimized when V = 104.8 m/s = 377 km/h .

10.94. From the given data: Wh = 1300 N, Vh = 0.125 m3 , Ah = 0.5 m2 , V = 3 m/s, θ = 85◦ , and
T = 2750 N. For seawater at 20◦ C, ρ = 1023 kg/m3 . The submerged weight of the hydrofoil,
Wsub can be calculated as follows:

Wsub = W − ρgVh = 1300 − (1023)(9.807)(0.125) = 45.93 N

498
 For static equilibrium of the hydrofoil, the following equations must hold:

T 2 = (FL − Wsub )2 + FD2 (1)

FL − Wsub
tan θ = (2)
FD
Combining Equations 1 and 2 yields
√ √
1 1
FD = T = (2750) = 239.7 N
2
1 + tan θ 1 + tan2 85◦
FL = FD tan θ + Wsub = (239.7) tan 85◦ + 45.93 = 2786 N

The drag coefficient, CL , and lift coefficient, CL , are therefore given by

FD 239.7
CD = 1 2
= 1 2
= 0.104
2 ρV Ah 2 (1023)(3) (0.5)

FL 2786
CL = 1 2
= 1 2
= 1.21
2 ρV Ah 2 (1023)(3) (0.5)

10.95. From the given data: A = 1.5 m2 , CL = 1.6, CD = 0.69, W = 20 kN, and P = 180 hp =
134.2 kW. For seawater at 10◦ C, ρ = 1025 kg/m3 (from Appendix B.4).

(a) At the minimum velocity, Vmin , the lift force is equal to the weight, W , such that
2
W = CL 12 ρVmin A → 20 × 103 = (1.6) 12 (1025)Vmin
2
(1.5)

→ Vmin = 4.032 m/s = 14.5 km/h

(b) At the maximum theoretical speed, Vmax , all the available power is used to overcome
drag, which requires that
3
P = FD V = CD 12 ρVmax A → 20 × 103 = (0.69) 12 (1025)Vmax
3
(1.5)

→ Vmax = 6.325 m/s = 22.8 km/h

10.96. From the given data: L = 5 m, W = 2 m, h = 3 m, and α = 2◦ . At 20◦ C, ρ = 998 kg/m3 , γ

= 9.79 kN/m3 , and pv = 2.337 kPa. For a typical hydrofoil with α = 2◦ , σcrit = 0.7, and CL
= 0.6. At a depth of 3 m below the water surface,

p∞ = patm + γh = 101 + (9.79)(3) = 130.37 kPa

Using the given and derived data,

p∞ − pv (130.37 − 2.337)(1000)
σcrit = 1 2
→ 0.7 = 1 2
→ Vmax = 19.1 m/s
2 ρVmax 2 (998)Vmax
1 2 1
FL,max = CL ρVmax A = (0.6) (998)(19.1)2 (5 × 2) = 1.09 × 106 N = 1.09 MN
2 2

499
10.97. From the given data: D = 43 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 1.452 × 10−3 , m = 48 g, V = 30 m/s, and
ω = 2500 rpm = 261.8 rad/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The following preliminary
calculations are useful,
ωD (261.8)(0.043)
= = 0.19, 1 2
2 ρV A = 12 (1.225)(30)2 (1.452 × 10−3 ) = 0.8004
2V 2(30)
Using the calculated spin ratio (= 0.19), Figure 10.49 gives CL = 0.20 and CD = 0.29. The
lift and drag forces are therefore given by

FL = CL 12 ρV 2 A = (0.20)(0.8004) = 0.160 N

FD = CD 21 ρV 2 A = (0.29)(0.8004) = 0.232 N

The weight, W of the golf ball, and the lift and drag forces as a percentage of the weight are
as follows,

W = mg = (0.048)(9.807) = 0.490 N, FL /W = 0.33 = 33% , FD /W = 0.47 = 47%

10.98. From the given data: D = 73 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 4.185 × 10−3 m2 , m = 140 g, L = 18 m,
Vf = 90 m/h = 39.67 m/s, ωf = 2200 rpm = 230.4 rad/s, Vc = 80 m/h = 35.76 m/s, ωc =
1300 rpm = 136.1 rad/s. For standard air at sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Calculate the spin
ratios for the fastball and the curveball,
ωf D (230.4)(0.073) ωc D (136.1)(0.073)
Sf = = = 0.21, Sc = = = 0.14
2Vf 2(39.67) 2Vc 2(35.76)
Since both Sf and Sc ate in the range 0.1 < S < 0.25, the lift coefficient can be taken as
being the same magnitude in both cases as CL = 0.22. The difference is that the lift force is
upward in the case of the fastball (because of backspin), and the “lift” force is downward in
the case of a curveball (because of topspin). The deviation, d, of a ball from a straight-line
trajectory is illustrated in Figure 10.27.

y
(0,R) L
d=R-(R2-L2)½
(L,R-d)
R
x
2 2 2
x +y =R

Figure 10.2: Deviation from a straight-line trajectory.

Based on the analytic geometry illustrated in Figure 10.27 the deviation, d, can be calculated
using the relation √
d = R − R 2 − L2

500
 where R is the radius of curvature of the trajectory of the ball, and L is the distance from
the pitcher’s mound to the batter’s box.

(a) The lift force, Ff , for the case of a fastball is given by

Ff = CL 12 ρVf2 A = (0.22)( 12 (1.225)(39.67)2 (4.185 × 10−3 ) = 0.8875 N

The downward force, Ff , for the case of a curveball is given by

Fc = −CL 21 ρVc2 A = −(0.22)( 12 (1.225)(35.76)2 (4.185 × 10−3 ) = −0.7211 N

(b) For a curveball, the radius of curvature, Rc , is estimated using the relation

Vc2 mVc2 (0.14)(35.76)2

−Fc − mg = −m → Rc = = = 85.49 m
Rc mg + Ff (0.14)(9.807) + 0.7211

The corresponding deviation, dc , from a straight-line trajectory is given by

√ √
dc = Rc − Rc2 − L2 = 85.49 − 85.492 − 182 = 1.916 m

For a fastball, the radius of curvature, Rf , is estimated using the relation

Vf2 mVf2 (0.14)(39.67)2

Ff − mg = −m → Rf = = = 453.8 m
Rf mg − Ff (0.14)(9.807) − 0.8875

The corresponding deviation, df , from a straight-line trajectory is given by

√ √
df = Rf − Rf2 − L2 = 453.8 − 453.82 − 182 = 0.357 m

Therefore, the deviation of a curveball from a straight-line trajectory is approximately

(1.916-0.357)/0.357 × 100 = 437% greater than for a fastball. Note that all of these
calculations assume that the speed of the ball does not change over its trajectory. In
reality, the speed of the ball is likely to change by about 10%.

10.99. From the given data: L = 15 m, d = 1.5 m, V = 35 m/s, m = 425 g, D = 22.5 cm, and
A = πD2 /4 = 0.3848 m2 . For standard air at sea level, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The deviation, d, of
a ball from a straight-line trajectory is illustrated in Figure 10.27. The deviation, d, can be
calculated using the relation √
d = R − R 2 − L2
where R is the radius of curvature of the trajectory of the ball, and L is the distance traveled
by the ball. Using the given data in the above relationship gives,
√
1.5 = R − R2 − 152 → R = 75.75 m

Using this results yields

mV 2 (0.425)(35)2
FL = = = 6.873 N
R 75.75

501
 FL = CL 12 ρV 2 A → 6.873 = CL 21 (1.225)(35)2 (0.3848) → CL = 0.23

For CL = 0.23, Figure 10.27 gives the corresponding spin ratio as approximately 0.14. There-
fore,
ωD ω(0.225)
= 0.14 → = 0.14 → ω = 43.56 rad/s = 416 rpm
2V 2(35)

10.100. From the given data: m = 190 g, D = 95 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 7.088 × 10−3 m2 , V = 15 m/s,
and ω = 4500 rpm = 471.2 rad/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Using the given data,
the Reynolds numbers is calculated as

VD (15)(0.095)
Re = = = 9.76 × 104
ν 1.461 × 10−5
This is within the range in which Figure 10.26 is applicable, so Figure 10.26 can be used to
estimate CD . The spin ratio is given by

ωD (471.2)(0.095)
S= = = 1.5
2V 2(15)

Using S = 1.5, Figure 10.26 gives CD = 0.40. Therefore, the lift force, FL , is given by

FL = CD 21 ρV 2 A = (0.40) 12 (1.225)(15)2 (7.088 × 10−3 ) = 0.391 N

The weight, W , of the ball is calculated as follows

W = mg = (0.190)(9.807) = 1.86 N

Since W > FL , the softball will move downward after it leaves the pitching machine.

10.101. From the given data: m = 57 g, D = 64 mm, A = πD2 /4 = 3.217 × 10−3 m2 , V = 100 km/h =
27.78 m/s, and ω = 3000 rpm = 314.2 rad/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The spin
ratio is given by
ωD (3000)(0.064)
S= = = 0.36
2V 2(27.78)
Using S = 0.36, Figure 10.51 gives CD ≈ 0.26. Therefore, the lift force, FL , is given by

FL = CD 21 ρV 2 A = (0.26) 12 (1.225)(27.78)2 (3.217 × 10−3 ) = 0.395 N

The weight, W , of the ball is calculated as follows

W = mg = (0.057)(9.807) = 0.559 N

The ratio of the lift force to the weight of the ball is 0.395/0.559 = 0.71 . Since W > FL ,
the tennis will move downward after it leaves the practice machine.

502
Chapter 11

Boundary-Layer Flow

11.1. From the given data: L = 1.8 m. For standard air at sea level: ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. At
transition, Rex = 5 × 105 .

(a) For laminar flow over the entire length of the surface,
Vx V (1.8)
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → V = 4.1 m/s
ν 1.461 × 10−5
(b) For laminar flow over 50% of the surface, x = 1.8/2 = 0.9 m and
Vx V (0.9)
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → V = 8.1 m/s
ν 1.461 × 10−5
11.2. From the given data: V1 = 130 km/h = 36.11 m/s, and V2 = 880 km/h = 244.4 m/s. For
standard air, at sea level: ν1 = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s, and at an elevation of 10 km, ν2 =
3.526 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.3). The transition to a turbulent boundary occurs
where Rex = 5 × 105 .

(a) At sea level,

V1 x1 (36.11)x1
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → x1 = 0.202 m
ν1 1.461 × 10−5
(b) At 10 km elevation,
V2 x2 (244.4)x2
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → x2 = 0.072 m
ν2 3.526 × 10−5

11.3. From the given data: L = 150 mm. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.461 ×
10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.2). In the standard atmosphere at an elevation of 5 km, ρ =
0.73643 kg/m3 , and ν = 2.211 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.3).

(a) Under design (sea-level) conditions, transition to turbulence at the downstream end of
the wing occurs when the speed, V , of the plane satisfies the following relationship,
VL V (0.15)
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → V = 48.7 m/s = 175 km/h
ν 1.461 × 10−5

503
 (b) At an elevation of 5000 m in the standard atmosphere, transition to turbulence at the
downstream end of the wing occurs when the speed, V , of the plane satisfies the following
relationship,
VL V (0.15)
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → V = 73.7 m/s = 265 km/h
ν 2.211 × 10−5

11.4. From the given data: V = 15 km/h = 4.167 m/s. For water at 15◦ C, ν = 1.140 × 10−6 m2 /s
(from Appendix B.1).

(a) The condition at transition is given by

Vx (4.167)x
Rex = 5×105 → = 5×105 → = 5×105 → x = 0.137 m
ν 1.140 × 10−6

(b) For the model, the length-scale ratio is given by Lr = 20, so, the corresponding transition
distance in the model is
x 0.137
xmodel = = = 0.00715 m ≈ 7.2 mm
20 20
11.5. From the given data: δ/x = 0.1 at the transition point. The Blasius solution given by
Equation 11.18 requires that
δ 4.91 4.91
= 1 → 0.1 = 1 → Rex = 2410
x Rex2 Rex2

Therefore, the Blasius approximation is not justified when Rex < 2410 .

11.6. Up to where the boundary later transitions from being laminar to being turbulent, the growth
of the boundary layer is given by the Blasius equation (Equation 11.18) as
δ 4.91
= 1
x Rex2

Assuming that transition occurs at Rex = 5 × 105 , the Blasius equation gives
δ 4.91
= 1 = 0.00694
x (5 × 105 ) 2

11.7. From the given data: L = 2.5 m. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.461 ×
10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.2). For water at 15◦ C, ρ = 999.1 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.140 ×
10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.1). Assuming that transition to turbulence occurs when Rex =
5 × 105 ,
VL V (2.5)
For air: = 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → V = 2.92 m/s
ν 1.461 × 10−5
VL V (2.5)
For water: = 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → V = 0.228 m/s
ν 1.140 × 10−6

504
11.8. (a) Since the fluid is incompressible, the continuity equation must be satisfied, which requires
that
∂u ∂v
+ =0 (1)
∂x ∂y
The following preliminary calculation will turn out to be useful:
[ ( νx ) 1 ] ( ν )1 ( )
dδ d 2 2 1 δ
= 4.91 = 2.455 = (2)
dx dx U Ux 2 x
From the given x-component of the velocity and using Equation 2:
[ ( ) ( ) ] [ ] [ ]
∂u ∂ y y 2 ∂u U U
=U 2 − → = − y+ y2
∂x ∂x δ δ ∂x xδ xδ 2
Combining this result with the continuity equation given by Equation 1 gives
[ ] [ ] [ ]
∂v U U 1 y
= y− y 2
→ v = Uy 2
− + f (x)
∂y xδ xδ 2 2xδ 3xδ 2

Since v = 0 at y = 0, then this requires that f (x) = 0 and so the y-component of the
velocity can be expressed in the following normalized form:

v 1 ( y ) ( y ) 1 ( y ) ( y )2
= −
U 2 x δ 3 x δ

(b) Combining the analytic expressions for u and v gives

1 ( y ) ( y ) 1 ( y ) ( y )2
v −
= 2 x (δ ) 3( x)2 δ
u y y
2 −
δ δ
Setting y = δ and simplifying, gives
v  0.8183
 = 1
u y=δ Re 2

Putting v/u = 0.1 and solving for Re yields Re = 67. Therefore, when Re ≤ 67 then v
is less than10% of u.

11.9. For a laminar boundary layer on a rectangular surface of length L, the drag force is given by
Equation 11.24 as
FD 1.328 [ 3 1
] 1 1
1 2
= 1 → F D = 0.664ρU 2 bν 2 L 2 → F D = αL 2

2 ρU Lb ReL2

Therefore, if L50 is the length over which the drag force is 12 FD , then

1 ( )1 ( )2
2 FD L50 L50 1
2
= → = = 0.25 = 25%
FD L L 2

505
11.10. From the given data: U = 4 m/s, and x = 0.25 m. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and
ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. Check the Reynolds number at x = 0.25 m:

Ux (4)(0.25)
Rex = = = 6.845 × 104
ν 1.461 × 10−5
Since Rex < 5 × 105 , the boundary layer is laminar and the Blasius solution can be used. The
average shear stress, τ̄ can be estimated using Equation 11.24, which gives
τ̄ 1.328 τ̄ 1.328
1 2
= 1 → 1 2
= 1 → τ̄ = 0.796 Pa ≈ 0.80 Pa
2 ρU Rex2 2 (1.225)(4) (6.845 × 104 ) 2

11.11. From the given data: L = 0.5 m, U = 2 m/s, and b = 1.2 m. For water at 20◦ C, ρ =
998.2 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s. The Reynolds number over the length of the plate,
ReL , is given by
UL (2)(0.5)
ReL = = = 9.960 × 105
ν 1.004 × 10−6
The drag force, FD , on one side of the plate can be calculated using Equation 11.24, which
gives
FD 1.328 FD 1.328
1 = 1 → 1 = 1 → FD = 1.594 N
2
2 ρU Lb ReL 2
2
2 (998.2)(2) (0.5)(1.2) (1.004 × 10−6 ) 2

Since the drag force acts on two sides of the plate, the total drag force is 2×1.594 N = 3.19 N

11.12. From the given data: L = W = 1.2 m, H = 5 mm, and U = 18 cm/s. For sea water at 20◦ C,
ρ = 1023 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.046 × 10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.4). From the given data,

UL (0.18)(1.2)
ReL = = = 2.065 × 105
ν 1.046 × 10−6
Since ReL < 5 × 105 the boundary-layer flow is expected to be laminar, and hence the Blasius
equations apply.

(a) The friction-drag coefficient given by Equation 11.24 as

1.328 1.328
CDf = 1 = 1 = 2.922 × 10−3
2
ReL (2.065 × 105 ) 2

The drag force on the plate, with a factor of 2 since there are 2 sides is therefore given
by

FD = 2CDf 12 ρU 2 LW = 2(2.922 × 10−3 ) 21 (1023)(0.18)2 (1.2)(1.2) = 0.139 N

(b) The thickness of the boundary layer can be estimated by Equation 11.18, which gives

δ 4.91 δ 4.91
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 1.297 × 10−2 m = 13 mm
L ReL2 1.2 (2.065 × 105 ) 2

506
11.13. From the given data: U = 2 m/s. For transition from a laminar boundary layer to a turbulent
boundary layer: Recr = 5 × 105 . Taking xcr and δcr as the distance from the leading edge to
the transition and the corresponding thickness of the (laminar) boundary layer, then

U xcr ν 2
Recr = → xcr = Recr = (5 × 105 )
ν U ν
δcr 4.91 4.91
= 1 → δcr = 1 xcr
xcr 2
Recr (5 × 105 ) 2

Deriving the fluid properties from Appendix B.4 and using these properties in the above
equations gives the following results:

Fluid ρ µ ν xcr δcr

(kg/m3 ) (mPa·s) (m2 /s) (m) (mm)
Water 998 1.00 1.00 × 10−6 0.0501 0.78
Air 1.204 0.0182 1.51 × 10−5 0.756 11.7
SAE 30 918 440 4.79 × 10−4 24.0 372

11.14. From the given data: U = 35 mm/s, and x = 10 m. For water at 20◦ C, ν = 1.004×10−6 m2 /s.

(a) The Reynolds number, Rex , at the measurement location is given by

Ux (0.035)(10)
Rex = = = 3.49 × 105
ν 1.004 × 10−6

Since Rex < 5 × 105 , the boundary layer can be assumed to be laminar and the
boundary-layer thickness is given by Equation 11.18 as

δ 4.91 4.91 4.91

= 1 → δ= 1 x= 1 10 = 0.0832 m = 83.2 mm
x Rex2 Rex2 (3.49 × 105 ) 2

(b) The velocity distribution is given by the Blasius solution. The following relationships
are defined by the Blasius solution,

( )1
U 2 u u
η=y = 59.04y, f ′ (η) = =
νx U 0.035

507
 Using the Blasius solution given in Table 11.1 yields the following results:

η f ′ (η) y u
(-) (-) (mm) (mm/s)
0.0 0.0000 0.000 0.000
0.4 0.1328 6.775 4.648
0.8 0.2647 13.55 9.265
1.2 0.3938 20.32 13.78
1.6 0.5168 27.10 18.09
2.0 0.6298 33.87 22.04
2.4 0.7290 40.65 25.52
2.8 0.8115 47.42 28.40
3.2 0.8761 54.20 30.66
3.6 0.9233 60.97 32.32
4.0 0.9555 67.75 33.44
4.4 0.9759 74.52 34.16
4.8 0.9878 81.30 34.57
5.0 0.9916 84.68 34.71
5.2 0.9943 88.07 34.80
5.6 0.9975 94.85 34.91
6.0 0.9990 101.6 34.97

11.15. From the given data: U = 20 m/s. For air at 20◦ C, Appendix B.5 gives ρ = 1.204 kg/m3 and
µ = 0.0182 mPa·s, and hence ν = 0.0182 × 10−3 /1.204 = 1.51 × 10−5 m2 /s.
(a) At the transition location,
Ux (20)x
= 5 × 10−5 → = 5 × 10−5 → x = 0.378 m
ν 1.51 × 10−5
(b) At the transition location,
δ 4.91 δ 4.91
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.00262 m = 2.6 mm
x Rex2 0.378 (5 × 105 ) 2
(c) At the midpoint of the transition-location boundary layer,
y
η = = 0.5
δ
f ′ (η) = 0.166 (interpolated from Table 11.1)
u u
= f ′ (η) → = 0.166 → u = 3.32 m/s
U 20
11.17. From the given data: U = 1.5 m/s, x = 0.3 m, and y = 0.7 mm. For water at 20◦ C, ρ =
998.2 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.004×10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.1). Use the given data to calculate
the Reynolds number at the location of interest,
Ux (1.5)(0.3)
Rex = = = 4.48 × 105
ν 1.004 × 10−6

508
 Since Rex < 5 × 105 , laminar-flow formulations can be used. Calculate the thickness of the
boundary layer, δ, using Equation 11.18,
δ 4.91 δ 4.91
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 2.201 × 10−3 m = 2.20 mm
x Rex2 0.3 (4.48 × 105 ) 2

Using this result in the given parabolic distribution yields,

y 0.7 u
= = 0.318, = 2(0.318) − (0.318)2 = 0.5349 → u = 0.802 m/s
δ 2.201 1.5
The Blasius velocity is determined using Equations 11.11 and ?? and Table 11.1, by the
following calculations,
[ ]1 [ ]1
U 2 1.5 2
η=y = (0.0007) = 1.56 → f ′ (1.56) = 0.5045
νx (1.004 × 10−6 )(0.3)

u = U f ′ (η) = (1.5)(0.5045) = 0.757 m/s

Based on these calculations, the percentage error incurred by not using the Blasius solution
is (0.802 − 0.757)/0.757 × 100 = 5.9% .

11.18. From the given data: U = 1.1 m/s, x = 0.5 m, and y = 1 mm. For water at 15◦ C, ρ =
999.1 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.140×10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.1). Use the given data to calculate
the Reynolds number at the location of interest,
Ux (1.1)(0.5)
Rex = = = 4.825 × 105
ν 1.140 × 10−6
Since Rex < 5 × 105 , laminar-flow formulations can be used. Calculate the thickness of the
boundary layer, δ, using Equation 11.18,
δ 4.91 δ 4.91
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 3.534 × 10−3 m = 3.53 mm
x Rex2 0.5 (4.825 × 105 ) 2

Using this result in the given parabolic distribution yields,

y 1 u
= = 0.283, = 23 (0.283) + 12 (0.283)3 = 0.4358 → u = 0.479 m/s
δ 3.534 1.1
The Blasius velocity is determined using Equations 11.11 and ?? and Table 11.1, by the
following calculations,
[ ]1 [ ]1
U 2 1.1 2
η=y = (0.001) = 1.389 → f ′ (1.389) = 0.4519
νx (1.140 × 10−6 )(0.5)

u = U f ′ (η) = (1.1)(0.4519) = 0.497 m/s

Based on these calculations, the percentage error incurred by not using the Blasius solution
is (0.479 − 0.497)/0.497 × 100 = −3.6% .

509
11.19. From the given data: U = 0.9 m/s, x = 0.7 m, and y = 1.5 mm. For water at 10◦ C, ρ =
999.7 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.307×10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.1). Use the given data to calculate
the Reynolds number at the location of interest,
Ux (0.9)(0.7)
Rex = = = 4.820 × 105
ν 1.307 × 10−6
Since Rex < 5 × 105 , laminar-flow formulations can be used. Calculate the thickness of the
boundary layer, δ, using Equation 11.18,
δ 4.91 δ 4.91
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 4.950 × 10−3 m = 4.95 mm
x Rex2 0.7 (4.820 × 105 ) 2
Using this result in the given linear distribution yields,
y 1.5 u
= = 0.3030, = 0.3030 → u = 0.273 m/s
δ 4.950 0.9
The Blasius velocity is determined using Equations 11.11 and ?? and Table 11.1, by the
following calculations,
[ ]1 [ ]1
U 2 0.9 2
η=y = (0.0015) = 1.488 → f ′ (1.488) = 0.4824
νx (1.307 × 10−6 )(0.7)

u = U f ′ (η) = (0.9)(0.4824) = 0.434 m/s

Based on these calculations, the percentage error incurred by not using the Blasius solution
is (0.273 − 0.434)/0.434 × 100 = −37.1% .

11.20. From the given data: U = 0.8 m/s, x = 0.9 m, and y = 2 mm. For water at 5◦ C, ρ =
1000 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.518 × 10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.1). Use the given data to calculate
the Reynolds number at the location of interest,
Ux (0.8)(0.9)
Rex = = = 4.743 × 105
ν 1.518 × 10−6
Since Rex < 5 × 105 , laminar-flow formulations can be used. Calculate the thickness of the
boundary layer, δ, using Equation 11.18,
δ 4.91 δ 4.91
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 6.416 × 10−3 m = 6.42 mm
x Rex2 0.9 (4.743 × 105 ) 2
Using this result in the given linear distribution yields,
y 2 u [π ]
= = 0.3115, = sin · (0.3115) → u = 0.376 m/s
δ 6.416 0.8 2
The Blasius velocity is determined using Equations 11.11 and ?? and Table 11.1, by the
following calculations,
[ ]1 [ ]1
U 2 0.8 2
η=y = (0.002) = 1.530 → f ′ (1.530) = 0.4953
νx (1.518 × 10−6 )(0.9)

510
 u = U f ′ (η) = (0.8)(0.4953) = 0.396 m/s

Based on these calculations, the percentage error incurred by not using the Blasius solution
is (0.376 − 0.396)/0.396 × 100 = −5.1% .

11.21. From the given data: L = 2 m, and W = 30 cm = 0.30 m. For water at 20◦ C. ρ = 998 kg/m3 ,
and ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s. For the boundary layer to be laminar over the entire length of
the canoe,

UL U (2)
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → U = 0.25 m/s
ν 1 × 10−6

The computations to obtain the drag force, FD , on the canoe are as follows (note that there
are two sides to the canoe)

1.328 1.328
CDf = 1 = 1 = 0.00188
ReL2 (5 × 105 ) 2

1 1
FD = CDf ρU 2 [2W L] = (0.00188) (998)(0.25)2 [2(0.3)(2)] = 0.0704 N
2 2

11.22. (a) For laminar flow, where Rex < 5 × 105 :

4.91x
δ= 1
Rex2
D 4.91L
=( )1
2 VL 2
ν

which simplifies to
L
= 0.0104Re
D

where Re = V D/ν. For turbulent flow, where 5 × 105 < Rex < 107 :

0.377x
δ= 1
Rex5
D 0.377L
=( )1
2 VL 5
ν

which simplifies to
L
= 1.42 Re
D

511
 (b) At Re = 8000 the flow in the pipe can be assumed to be turbulent, so
L
= 1.42 Re = 1.42(8000) = 13
D

Therefore the velocity profile stabilizes after 13 pipe diameters .

(c) For turbulent flow with ρ = 998 kg/m3 @ 20◦ C and V = 0.1 m/s:
0.0735
Cf = 1
ReL5
1
FD = Cf ρV 2 A
2  
FD 1 0.0735  2
τ= =  1 ρV
A 2 Re 5 L
VL V (10D)
ReL = = = 10Re
ν[ ν]
1 0.0735
τ= (998)(0.1)2 = 0.038 Pa
2 (10Re) 51

Therefore the average shear stress is 0.038 Pa .

(d) Use the relation
4τ L
hf =
γD
and use flat-plate theory to estimate τ over a distance L.

11.23. (a) By definition,

1 1 3
1 0.332ρ 2 µ 2 V 2
τx = cfx ρV 2 = 1
2 x2
Hence the total drag force is given by
∫ L
1 1 3 1
FD = b τx dx = 0.664bρ 2 µ 2 V 2 L 2
0

which gives
1 1 3 1
FD 0.664bρ 2 µ 2 V 2 L 2 1.328 1.328
CD = 1 2 = 1 2
=( ) 1 = √
2 ρV bL 2 ρV bL ρV L 2 ReL
µ

(b) From the given data: L = 0.50 m, b = 3 m, V = 2.5 m/s, ρa = 1.2 kg/m3 , and νa =
1.5 × 10−5 m2 /s. These data give

VL (2.5)(0.5)
ReL = = = 83, 300 < 105
νa 1.5 × 10−5

512
 So the boundary layer is laminar, and the drag force is given by
( )
1 1.328 1
FD = CD ρa V bL = √
2
(1.2)(2.5)2 (0.5)(3) = 0.026 N
2 83300 2
For a laminar boundary layer,
δ 4.91 4.91
=√ =√ = 0.0170 → δ = 0.0170(0.50) = 0.00851 m
L ReL 83300

11.24. From the given data: x1 = 1 m, δ1 = 10 mm, x2 = 5 m, and x3 = 10 m. For standard air,
ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s.

(a) For a turbulent boundary layer, Equation 11.56 gives

( )− 1
δ 0.382 V 5 4
= 1 → δ = 0.382 x5
x Rex5 ν

Since V and ν are constants, the thicknesses of the boundary layer downstream of the
measured thickness are given by
( )1 ( )1
x2 5 5 5
δ2 = δ1 = (10) = 36 mm
x1 1
( )1 ( )1
x3 5 10 5
δ3 = δ1 = (10) = 63 mm
x1 1

These calculations assume that 5 × 105 ≤ Rex ≤ 107 for all three locations.
(b) If the transition to a turbulent boundary layer occurs at x = 1 m, then
Vx V (1)
Rex = = 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → V = 7.3 m/s
ν 1.461 × 10−5
11.27. Substituting the given relationships in the momentum integral equation (Equation 11.76)
gives
dθ ( ν )1 7 dδ
4
τw = ρU 2 → 0.0233ρU 2 = ρU 2
dx Uδ 72 dx
[ 1
] [ 1
]∫ ∫ δ
x
ν4 ν4 ′
1 δ 0.382
δ ′ 4 dδ ′
1
→ 0.2397 1 dx = δ 4 dδ → 0.2397 1 dx = → = 1
U 4 U4 0 0 x Rex5

Substituting the derived expression for δ/x into the given expression for τw gives
 1
4

( ν ) 1  
4 2 ν  τw 0.0594
τw = 0.0233ρU 2 → τw = 0.0233ρU  →
0.382x 
=
Uδ   1
2 ρU
2 1
Rex5
U 1
Rex5

513
 The drag force is calculated by integrating the shear stress over the surface, which yields,
∫ L ∫ L 1 ∫
L
1 2 0.0594 1 2 0.0594ν
5 1
FD = b τw dx = 2 ρU b 1 dx = 2 ρU b 1 1 dx
0 0 Rex5 U5 0 x5

FD 0.0735
→ 1 2
= 1
2 ρU Lb ReL5

11.28. From the given data: U = 5 kt = 2.572 m/s, and x = 1 m. For sea water at 10◦ C, ρ =
1025 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.356 × 10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.4). Using the given data,
Ux (2.572)(1)
Rex = = = 1.897 × 106
ν 1.356 × 10−6
Rough-flow occurs when the roughness height, ϵ, meets the following criterion
70ν
ϵ≥ (1)
u∗
Using Equation 11.57 to estimate the local shear stress,
τw 0.0594 2u2∗ 0.0594 0.1723U
1 2
= 1 → 2
= 1 → u∗ = 1
2 ρU Rex5 U Rex5 Rex10
Substituting the given data yields
0.1723(2.572)
u∗ = 1 = 0.1044 m/s
(1.897 × 106 ) 10
The corresponding roughness-height requirement is given by Equation 1 as
70(1.356 × 10−6 )
ϵ≥ = 9.09 × 10−4 m = 0.91 mm
0.1044
Using Equation 11.82 to estimate the local shear stress,
τw 0.027 2u2∗ 0.027 0.1162U
1 2
= 1 → 2
= 1 → u∗ = 1
2 ρU Rex7 U Rex7 Rex14
Substituting the given data yields
0.1162(2.572)
u∗ = 1 = 0.1064 m/s
(1.897 × 106 ) 14
The corresponding roughness-height requirement is given by Equation 1 as
70(1.356 × 10−6 )
ϵ≥ = 8.92 × 10−4 m = 0.89 mm
0.1064
Based on these results, the roughness height should be less than 0.89 mm to avoid rough-
turbulent conditions in the boundary layer.

514
11.29. From the given data: U = 10 km/h = 2.778 m/s. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and
ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.2).

(a) The maximum length, L, required for laminar flow over the entire surface is calculated
as follows:
UL (2.778)L
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → L = 2.62 m
ν 1.461 × 10−5

(b) When x = L/2 then Rex = 2.5 × 105 . The friction velocity, u∗ , is calculated using
Equation 11.22 which gives

τw 0.664 2u2∗ 0.664 2u2∗ 0.664

1 = 1 → = 1 → = 1 → u∗ = 0.07158 m/s
2 ρU
2
Rex2 U2 Rex2 2.778 2
(2.5 × 105 ) 2

The corresponding minimum required roughness height is given by Equation 11.47 as

15ν 15(1.461 × 10−5 )

ϵc = = = 3.06 × 10−3 ≈ 3.1 mm
u∗ 0.07158

Therefore the minimum required roughness height is 3.1 mm .

11.94. The logarithmic and laminar sublayer equations are given by

u (u y ) u u∗ y
∗
= 2.44 ln + 5.0, =
u∗ ν u∗ ν
Solving these equations simultaneously gives
u∗ y
= 10.8 → α = 10.8 (1)
ν

11.31. From the given data: U = 300 km/h = 83.33 m/s, and x = 0.5 m. At an elevation of 5 km
in a standard atmosphere, ν = 2.211 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.3). At the location of
interest,
Ux (83.33)(0.5)
Rex = = = 1.884 × 106
ν 2.211 × 10−5
The shear velocity, u∗ , for a turbulent boundary layer is given by Equation 11.82 as

τw 0.027 2u2∗ 0.027 2u2∗ 0.027

1 2
= 1 → 2
= 1 → 2
= 1 → u∗ = 3.449 m/s
2 ρU Rex7 U Rex7 83.33 (1.884 × 106 ) 7

The required roughness height for rough flow is given by Equation 11.45 as
ϵ u∗ ϵ(3.449)
> 70 → > 70 → ϵ > 4.487 × 10−4 m = 0.45 mm
ν 2.211 × 10−5

11.32. Equations 11.56 and 11.81 are given by

δ1 0.382 δ2 0.16
= 1 , = 1
x Rex5 x Rex7

515
 Taking the ratio of these two equations gives
( )
0.16
1
δ2 Rex7 ) 2
=( = 0.42 Rex35
δ1 0.382
1
Rex5
Considering the limiting Reynolds numbers,
δ2 2
Rex = 5 × 105 , = 0.42(5 × 105 ) 35 = 0.89
δ1
δ2 2
Rex = 1 × 107 : = 0.42(1 × 107 ) 35 = 1.05
δ1

Therefore, the percentage deviation varies within the range of −11% to +5%
11.33. Equations 11.56 and 11.81 are given by
τ1 0.0594 τ2 0.027
1 2
= 1 , 1 2
= 1
2 ρU 5
Rex 2 ρU Rex7
Taking the ratio of these two equations gives
( )
0.027
1
τ2 Rex7 ) 2
=( = 0.45 Rex35
τ1 0.0594
1
Rex5
Considering the limiting Reynolds numbers,
τ2 2
Rex = 5 × 105 , = 0.45(5 × 105 ) 35 = 0.95
τ1
τ2 2
Rex = 1 × 107 : = 0.45(1 × 107 ) 35 = 1.13
τ1

Therefore, the percentage deviation varies within the range of −5% to +13%
11.34. Equations 11.59 and 11.84 are given by
F1 0.0735 F2 0.031
1 2
= 1 , 1 2
= 1
2 ρU Lb 5
Rex 2 ρU Lb Rex7
Taking the ratio of these two equations gives
( )
0.031
1
F2 Rex7 ) 2
=( = 0.42 Rex35
F1 0.0735
1
Rex5

516
 Considering the limiting Reynolds numbers,
F2 2
Rex = 5 × 105 , = 0.42(5 × 105 ) 35 = 0.89
F1
F2 2
Rex = 1 × 107 : = 0.42(1 × 107 ) 35 = 1.05
F1

Therefore, the percentage deviation varies within the range of −11% to +5%

11.35. From the given data: S0 = 0.05% = 0.0005, ϵ = 1 mm = 0.001 m, and d = 1 cm = 0.01 m.
For water at 20◦ C, ν = 1 × 10−6 m2 /s. for the given conditions,
√
τw √ √
u∗ = = gdS0 = (9.81)(0.01)(0.0005) = 0.00700 m/s
ρ

5ν 5(1.00 × 10−6 )
δv = = = 0.000714 m = 0.714 mm
u∗ 0.00700
δt = 4δv = 4(0.714) = 2.85 mm

u∗ ϵ (0.00700)(0.001)
= =7
ν 1.00 × 10−6

Since d > δt turbulent flow exists beyond 2.85 mm from the pavement. Since 5 < u∗ ϵ/ν <
70, the flow in the turbulent layer is in the intermediate regime and therefore depends on
both the roughness of the surface and the viscosity of the fluid.

11.36. (a) Using the one-seventh-power velocity distribution yields the following results:

u (y )1 y
7
= 0.5 → 0.5 = → = 0.00781
U δ δ
u (y )1 y
7
= 0.9 → 0.9 = → = 0.478
U δ δ
(b) Applying the results of Part a to Equation 11.48 gives
[ ]
0.5U u∗ (0.00781δ)
= 2.5 ln + 5.5
u∗ ν
[ ]
0.9U u∗ (0.478δ)
= 2.5 ln + 5.5
u∗ ν
Subtracting these equations (the first from the second) and solving for u∗ /U yields
u∗ /U = 0.0389. Similarly, applying the results of Part a to Equation 11.49 gives
[ ]
0.5U 0.00781δ
= 2.5 ln + 8.5
u∗ ϵ
[ ]
0.9U 0.478δ
= 2.5 ln + 8.5
u∗ ϵ

517
 Subtracting these equations (the first from the second) and solving for u∗ /U yields
u∗ /U = 0.0389. Therefore, when u∗ /U = 0.0389 the smooth and rough-flow velocities
predicted Equations 11.48 and 11.49 agree at both y/δ = 0.5 and 0.9.

11.37. From the given data: L = 1 m, U = 32 km/h = 8.889 m/s, and y10 = 10 mm. For standard air,
ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s, and ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . Check the Reynolds number at the downstream
edge,
UL (8.889)(1)
ReL = = = 6.084 × 105
ν 1.461 × 10−5
Since ReL > 5 × 105 , the turbulent-boundary-layer formulation may be used.

(a) Calculate the thickness of the boundary layer, δ, using Equation 11.81 as follows,
δ 0.16 δ 0.16
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.02387 = 23.9 mm
L ReL7 1 (6.084 × 105 ) 7

Calculate the velocity 10 mm from the surface using the one-seventh profile, (Equation
11.52), which gives
( )1
u10 ( y10 ) 17 u10 10 7
= → = → u10 = 28.3 km/h
U δ 32 23.9

(b) Estimate the local shear stress, τw , using Equation 11.82, which gives
τw 0.027 τw 0.027
1 2
= 1 → 1 2
= 1 → τw = 0.195 Pa
2 ρU ReL7 2 (1.225)(8.889) (6.084 × 105 ) 7

11.16. From the given data: U = 1.8 m2 , x = 1.5 m, and y = 1 mm. For ethylene glycol at 20◦ C,
ρ = 1117 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.916 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.4). Based on the given data,
Ux (1.8)(1.5)
Rex = = = 1.409 × 105
ν 1.916 × 10−5
Since Rex < 5 × 105 , flow in the boundary layer is laminar and the Blasius solution can be
used.

(a) The Blasius equation, Equation 11.18, gives

δ 4.91 δ 4.91
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 1.962 × 10−2 m = 19.6 mm
x Rex2 1.5 (1.409 × 105 ) 2

(b) The Blasius variable, η, is calculated using Equation 11.11 as

( )1 [ ]1
U 2 1.8 2
η=y = (0.001) = 9.6
νx (1.916 × 10−5 (0.001)
Taking η = 9.6 in Table 11.1 gives f ′ (η) = 1.000, and the corresponding velocity is given
by Equation ?? as
u = U f ′ (η) = (1.5)(1.000) = 1.5 m/s

518
11.38. From the given data: L = 2 m, b = 3 m, and U = 30 m/s. For standard air, ν = 1.461 ×
10−5 m2 /s, and ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The following preliminary calculations are useful,

UL (30)(2) U (L/2) (30)(1)

ReL1 = = = 4.107 × 106 , ReL2 = = = 2.054 × 106
ν 1.461 × 10−5 ν 1.461 × 10−5
2
1
2 ρU b = 12 (1.225)(30)2 (3) = 1654

The boundary-layer thickness at the end of the plate can be calculated using Equation 11.56
which gives
δ 0.382 δ 0.382
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 3.634 × 10−2 m = 36.3 mm
L 5
ReL1 2 (4.107 × 106 ) 5

The drag force on the entire plate is given by Equation 11.59 as

FL1 0.0735 FL1 0.0735
1 2
= 1 → = 1 → FL1 = 11.6 N
2 ρU Lb 5
ReL1 (1654)(2) (4.107 × 106 ) 5

The drag force on the front half plate is given by Equation 11.59 as
FL2 0.0735 FL2 0.0735
1 2
= 1 → = 1 → FL2 = 6.64 N
2 ρU (L/2)b ReL2 5 (1654)(1) (2.054 × 106 ) 5

The drag force on the back half plate is given by 11.6 N − 6.64 N = 4.96 N .

11.25. For a turbulent boundary layer on a rectangular surface of length L, the drag force is given
by Equation 11.84 as
FD 0.031 [ 13 1
] 6 6
1 2 Lb
= 1 → FD = 0.0155ρU 7 bν 7 L 7 → FD = αL 7
2 ρU ReL7

Therefore, if L50 is the length over which the drag force is 12 FD , then

1 ( )6 ( )7
2 FD L50 L50 1 6
7
= → = = 0.198 ≈ 20%
FD L L 2

11.26. For a turbulent boundary layer on a rectangular surface of length L, the drag force is given
by Equation 11.59 as
FD 0.0732 [ 9 1
] 4 4
1 2
= 1 → FD = 0.03675ρU 5 bν 5 L 5 → FD = αL 5
2 ρU Lb ReL5

Therefore, if L50 is the length over which the drag force is 12 FD , then

1 ( )4 ( )5
2 FD L50 L50 1 4
5
= → = = 0.420 ≈ 42%
FD L L 2

519
11.39. From the given data: L = 120 m, H = 4 m, and W = 88 km/h = 24.44 m/s. Worst case
conditions occur when operating at sea level, since the air density and hence the drag force
will be highest. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.461×10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix
B.2). The train can be approximated as a flat plate of length 120 m and width b = 2(4)+4.5 =
12.5 m. The Reynolds number at the downstream edge of the train is calculated as follows:
VL (24.44)(120)
ReL = = = 2.007 × 108
ν 1.461 × 10− 5
Therefore, the boundary layer is turbulent. Assuming smooth-turbulent, the friction-drag
coefficient can be estimated by Equation 11.60 as follows
0.455 0.455
CDf = = = 0.001934
(log ReL )2.58 (log 2.007 × 108 )2.58
The power, P , to overcome aerodynamic drag is therefore given by
P = FD ·V = CDf 21 ρV 3 Lb = (0.001934) 21 (1.225)(24.44)3 (120)(12.5) = 2.59×104 W = 25.9 kW

11.40. From the given data: U = 30 m/s, δ1 = 10 mm, and δ2 = 20 mm. For standard air, ν =
1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. The growth of the boundary layer is given by Equation 11.56 as
[ 1
] [ 1
]
δ 0.382 0.382ν 5 4 0.382(1.461 × 10−5 ) 5 4 4
= 1 → δ= 1 x5 = 1 x 5 → δ = 0.02087x 5
x Re 5 U5 (30) 5
x

Taking δ = 0.010 m yields x = 0.399 m, and taking δ = 0.020 m yields x = 2.521 m. Therefore,
the distance between the measurement locations are estimated as 2.521 m−0.399 m = 2.12 m
11.41. From the given data: V = 30 km/h = 8.333 m/s, and δ = 30 mm. For standard air, ν =
1.461×10−5 m2 /s. Assuming that the flow in the boundary layer is turbulent when δ = 30 mm,
Equation 11.81 gives
1
[ 1
]7
δ 0.16 0.16ν 7 U 7δ 6
= 1 = 1 1 → x= 1
x Re 7 U 7 x7 0.16ν 7
x

Substituting the given data yields

[ 1
]7
6
(8.333) 7 (0.030)
x= 1 = 1.292 m
0.16(1.461 × 10−5 ) 7
Ux (8.33)(1.292)
Rex = = = 7.36 × 105
ν 1.461 × 10−5
Since Re > 5 × 105 , turbulent-flow is confirmed and use of the turbulent-flow formula for the
growth of the boundary layer is supported. So, the minimum required length of the surface is
estimated as approximately 1.29 m . This result can be further confirmed by assuming that
the flow in the boundary layer is laminar when δ = 30 mm, Equation 11.18 gives
1
[ 1
]2
δ 4.91 4.91ν 2 U 2δ
= 1 = 1 1 → x= 1
x Re 2 U 2 x2 4.91ν 2
x

520
 Substituting the given data yields
[ 1
]2
(8.333) 2 (0.030)
x= 1 = 21.29 m
4.91(1.461 × 10−5 ) 2
Ux (8.333)(21.29)
Rex = = = 1.214 × 107
ν 1.461 × 10−5
Since Re > 5 × 105 , the assumption of laminar-flow is not confirmed and use of the turbulent-
flow formula for the growth of the boundary layer is further supported.
11.42. From the given data: V1 = 850 km/h = 236.1 m/s, V2 = 80 km/h = 22.22 m/s, and L =
3 m. In the standard atmosphere at an elevation of 10 km, ρ = 0.41351 kg/m3 , and ν =
3.526 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.3). In the standard atmosphere at an elevation of 0 km,
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.3). At cruising altitude,
V1 L (236.1)(3)
Re1 = = = 2.01 × 107
ν 3.526 × 10−5
δ1 0.16 δ1 0.16
= 1 → = 1 → δ1 = 4.344 × 10−2 m = 43.4 mm
L Re17 3 (2.01 × 107 ) 7

On landing,
V2 L (22.2)(3)
Re2 = = = 4.563 × 106
ν 1.461 × 10−5
δ2 0.16 δ2 0.16
= 1 → = 1 → δ2 = 5.369 × 10−2 m = 53.7 mm
L Re27 3 (4.563 × 106 ) 7

11.43. From the given data: D = 200 mm, and U = 2 m/s. For SAE 50 oil at 20◦ C, ν = 9.534 ×
10−4 m2 /s. The entire pipe section is in the boundary layer when δ = D/2 = 100 mm. Let
L be the minimum length of pipe, then assuming a laminar boundary layer Equation 11.18
gives
1 1
δ 4.91 δ 4.91ν 2 0.1 4.91(9.534 × 10−4 ) 2
= 1 → = 1 1 → = 1 1 → L = 0.8701 m
L ReL2 L U 2 L2 L (2) 2 L 2

Verify the laminar-flow assumption by calculating ReL ,

UL (2)(0.8701
ReL = = = 1.826 × 103
ν 9.534 × 10−4
Since ReL < 5 × 105 , laminar flow is confirmed and L = 0.870 m . No further changes in
the velocity profile are expected downstream of the merging location (at L = 0.870 m).
11.44. (a) The laminar and turbulent BL formulations are given by Equations 11.18 and 11.81 as
follows,
δ 4.91 δ 0.16
= 1 , = 1
x Rex2 x1 7
Rex1

521
 where x1 is the distance from the virtual origin (at x = x0 ) of the turbulent BL to the
critical location (x = xcr ). So at Re = Recr and δ = δcr the above relationships give
1 1 1 6
2
4.91ν 2 xcr 0.16ν 7 x17
δcr = 1 , δcr = 1
U2 U7
Combining these relationships to eliminate δcr gives
54.3 U xcr
x1 = 5 , where Recr =
12
Recr ν

The location, x0 , of the virtual origin is therefore given by

( )
54.3
x0 = xcr − x1 → x0 = xcr 1− 5
12
Recr

(b) From the given data: L = 3 m, U = 35 km/h = 9.722 m/s, and Recr = 5 × 105 . For
standard air, ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. The critical location is derived from Recr as follows
U xcr (9.722)xcr
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → xcr = 0.7514 m
ν 1.461 × 10−5
Using the proposed model,
[ ] [ ]
54.3 54.3
x0 = xcr 1 − 5 = (0.7514) 1 − 5 = 0.5792 m
12
Recr (5 × 105 ) 12

x1 = L − x0 = 3 − 0.5792 = 2.421 m

U x1 (9.722)(2.421)
Rex1 = = = 1.611 × 106
ν 1.461 × 10−5
δ 0.16 δ 0.16
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.0503 m = 50.3 mm
x1 7
Rex1 2.421 (1.611 × 106 ) 7

Using the conventional approach,

UL (9.722)(3)
ReL = = = 1.996 × 106 (confirms using a turbulent model)
ν 1.461 × 10−5
δ 0.16 δ 0.16
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.0604 m = 60.4 mm
L ReL7 3 (1.996 × 106 ) 7

Comparing the two results, taking the proposed model as the baseline prediction, shows
that the conventional model predicts a boundary-layer thickness that is (60.4−50.3)/50.3×
100 ≈ 20% too high.

11.45. From the given data: U = 10 m/s, L = 5 m, and b = 2 m. For standard air, ν = 1.461 ×
10−5 m2 /s.

522
 (a) Transition typically occurs around Rex = 5 × 105 , which requires that
Ux (10)x
= 5 × 105 → = 5 × 105 → x = 0.731 m
ν 1.461 × 10−5
Therefore, the area over which the boundary layer is laminar is the front area with
dimensions 0.731 m × 2 m . The area over which the boundary layer is turbulent is the
back area with dimensions 4.269 m × 2 m .
(b) The displacement thickness, δ ∗ , at the end of the laminar boundary layer is given by
Equation 11.64 as
δ∗ 1.72 δ∗ 1.72
= 1 → = 1 → δ ∗ = 1.78 × 10−3 m = 1.78 mm
x Rex2 0.731 (5 × 105 ) 2

(c) At the downstream end of the flat surface, take x as the distance from where the turbulent
boundary layer begins, hence
Ux (10)(4.269)
x = 5 m − 0.731 m = 4.269 m, Rex = = = 2.922 × 106
ν 1.461 × 10−5
The displacement thickness, δ ∗ , at the end of the flat surface is given by Equation 11.65
as
δ∗ 0.020 δ∗ 0.020
= 1 → = 1 → δ ∗ = 10.18 × 10−3 m = 10.18 mm
x Rex7 4.269 (2.922 × 106 ) 7
Since the displacement thickness in the turbulent boundary layer adds upon the dis-
placement thickness of the laminar boundary layer, the total displacement thickness at
the downstream end of the flat surface is 1.78 mm + 10.18 mm ≈ 12 mm .
11.46. From the given polynomial distribution:
du
u = a + by + cy 2 , = b + cy
dy
Applying the given boundary conditions:

u(0) = 0 : a=0 (1)

u(δ) = U : bδ + cδ 2 = U (2)

du 
=0: b + 2cδ = 0 (3)
dy y=δ

Combining Equations 1 to 3 gives

U U
a = 0, b=2 , c=−
δ δ2
Substituting into the given polynomial velocity distribution gives

U U u ( y ) ( y )2
u=0+2 y − 2 y2 → =2 −
δ δ U δ δ

523
11.47. Define the normalized distance from the boundary, y ∗ , such that
y
y∗ = → dy ∗ = δ −1 dy
δ
Hence,
u 3 1
= y ∗ − y ∗3 (1)
U 2 2
∫ δ( ∫ 1(
∗ u) u) ∗
δ = 1− dy = δ 1− dy (2)
0 U 0 U
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
∫ 1( ) [ ]
∗ 3 ∗ 1 ∗3 3 ∗2 1 ∗4 1 3
δ =δ 1− y + y dy ∗ → ∗ ∗
δ =δ y − y + y → δ∗ = δ
0 2 2 4 8 0 8
δ∗ 3
→ =
δ 8

11.48. Define the normalized distance from the boundary, y ∗ , such that
y
y∗ = → dy ∗ = δ −1 dy
δ
The given parabolic velocity distribution and the expression for the momentum thickness can
then be expressed as
u 3 1
= y ∗ − y ∗3 (1)
U 2 2
∫ δ ( ∫ 1 (
u u) u u) ∗
θ= 1− dy = δ 1− dy (2)
0 U U 0 U U
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
∫ 1( )( )
3 ∗ 1 ∗3 3 ∗ 1 ∗3
θ=δ y − y 1− y + y dy ∗
0 2 2 2 2
[ ]
3 ∗2 3 ∗3 1 ∗4 3 ∗5 1 ∗7 1 39 θ 39
θ=δ y − y − y + y − y →θ= δ → =
4 4 8 10 28 0 280 δ 280

Therefore the ratio of the momentum thickness to the boundary-layer thickness is 39/280 .
From Problem 11.47, the ratio of the displacement thickness to the boundary-layer thickness
for the given parabolic distribution is equal to 3/8. Therefore, the ratio of the momentum
thickness to the displacement thickness is (39/280)/(3/8) = 13/35 .

11.49. Define the normalized distance from the boundary, y ∗ , and the normalized velocity, u∗ , such
that
y u
y ∗ = , dy ∗ = δ −1 dy, u∗ =
δ U

524
 The self-similar parabolic velocity distribution within the boundary layer can therefore be
expressed as
3 1
u∗ = y ∗ − y ∗3
2 2
It is shown in Problem 11.48 that for the given velocity distribution the momentum thickness
is given by θ = 39/280 δ.
(a) The drag force FD is related to the boundary layer by Equation 11.74 which gives
( )
39 39
dFD = ρbU dθ → dFD = ρbU
2 2
dδ → dFD = ρbU 2 dδ (1)
280 280
Assuming that the fluid is Newtonian, the wall shear stress, τw , is given by
  [ ]
du  U du∗  U 3 3 ∗2 3 U
τw = µ  =µ ∗  =µ − y → τw = µ (2)
dy y=0 δ dy y∗ =0 δ 2 2 y ∗ =0 2 δ
Combining Equations 1 and 2 and taking δ = 0 at x = 0 yields
dFD = τw b dx
( )
39 2 3 U
ρbU dδ = µ b dx
280 2 δ
∫ δ ∫ x
39 ′ ′ 3
ρbU 2
δ dδ = µU b dx′
280 0 2 0

39 3
ρbU 2 δ 2 = µU bx
560 2
which simplifies to
√
√ √ 280
δ 280 µ δ 13 δ 4.64
= → = 1 → ≃ 1 (3)
x 13 ρU x x Rex2 x Rex2

(b) The relationship between the wall shear stress, τw , and the distance along the boundary
(x) can be obtained by combining Equations 3 and 2 which yields

3 U τw 3 −1
1 τw 0.646
τw = µ → 1 2
≃ Re x Re 2
x → 1 2
≃ 1
2 δ 2 ρU 4.64 2 ρU Rex2

11.50. From the given distribution, find the values of y/δ corresponding to u/U = 0.10, 0.25, 0.50,
and 0.75. The results are as follows,

u/U y/δ
0.10 0.067
0.25 0.168
0.50 0.347
0.75 0.558

525
11.51. Expanding the given expression for τw and denoting all the constants as a single constant
“A” gives [ ]
[ 1 2 ] 0.646µ 2 1
1
A
τw = 2 ρU 1 1 1 → τw = 1
ρ2 U 2 x2 x2
| {z }
=A
Integrating the shear force to determine the drag force on the plate:
∫ L ∫ L
A 1
FD = b τw dx = b 1 dx = 2AbL
2
0 0 x2

Replacing A by in terms of the variables that define it and rearranging gives

FD 1.29
1 2
= 1
2 ρU Lb ReL2

11.52. From the definition of the displacement thickness given by Equation 11.63
∫ 1 ∫ 1 [ ]1
δ∗ 3
= (1 − u∗ ) dy ∗ = (1 − 2y ∗ + 2y ∗3 − y ∗4 ) dy ∗ = y ∗ − y ∗2 + 21 y ∗4 − 51 y ∗5 =
δ 0 0 0 10

11.53. From the definition of the displacement thickness given by Equation 11.69
∫ 1 ∫ 1
θ ∗ ∗ ∗
= u (1 − u ) dy = (2y ∗ − 4y ∗2 − 2y ∗3 + 9y ∗4 − 4y ∗5 − 4y ∗6 + 4y ∗7 − y ∗8 ) dy ∗
δ 0 0
[ ]1 37
→ = y ∗ − 34 y ∗3 − 12 y ∗4 + 59 y ∗5 − 32 y ∗6 − 47 y ∗7 + 21 y ∗8 − 19 y ∗9 =
0 315
Therefore the ratio of the momentum thickness to the boundary-layer thickness is 37/315 .
From Problem 11.52, the ratio of the displacement thickness to the boundary-layer thickness is
equal to 3/10. Therefore, the ratio of the momentum thickness to the displacement thickness
is (37/315)/(3/10) = 74/189 .

11.54. It is shown in Problem 11.53 that for the given velocity distribution the momentum thickness
is given by θ = 37/315 δ.

(a) The drag force FD is related to the boundary layer by Equation 11.74 which gives
( )
37 37
dFD = ρbU dθ → dFD = ρbU
2 2
dδ → dFD = ρbU 2 dδ (1)
315 315
Assuming that the fluid is Newtonian, the wall shear stress, τw , is given by
 
du  U du∗  U[ ] U
τw = µ  =µ ∗  =µ 2 − 6y ∗2 + 4y ∗3 y∗ =0 → τw = 2µ (2)
dy y=0 δ dy y∗ =0 δ δ

Combining Equations 1 and 2 and taking δ = 0 at x = 0 yields

dFD = τw b dx

526
 ( )
37 U
ρbU 2 dδ = 2µ b dx
315 δ
∫ δ ∫ x
37 ′ ′
ρbU 2
δ dδ = 2µU b dx′
315 0 0

37 2
ρbU 2 δ 2 = U bx
630 µ

which simplifies to
√
√ √ 1260
δ 1260 µ δ 37 δ 5.84
= → = 1 → ≃ 1 (3)
x 37 ρU x x Rex2 x Rex2

(b) The relationship between the wall shear stress, τw , and the distance along the boundary
(x) can be obtained by combining Equations 3 and 2 which yields

U τw 4 1 τw 0.685
τw = 2µ → 1 2
≃ Re−1 2
x Rex → 1 2
≃ 1
δ 2 ρU
5.84 2 ρU Rex2

11.55. From the given distribution, find the values of y/δ corresponding to u/U = 0.10, 0.25, 0.50,
and 0.75. The results are as follows,

u/U y/δ
0.10 0.050
0.25 0.127
0.50 0.266
0.75 0.442

11.56. Expanding the given expression for τw and denoting all the constants as a single constant
“A” gives [ ]
[ 1 2 ] 0.685µ 2 1
1
A
τw = 2 ρU 1 1 1 → τw = 1
ρ2 U 2 x2 x2
| {z }
=A

Integrating the shear force to determine the drag force on the plate:
∫ L ∫ L
A 1
FD = b τw dx = b 1 dx = 2AbL 2
0 0 x 2

Replacing A by in terms of the variables that define it and rearranging gives

FD 1.37
1 2
= 1
2 ρU Lb ReL2

527
11.57. From the definition of the displacement thickness given by Equation 11.63
∫ 1 ∫ 1 [ ]
δ∗ ∗ ∗ 8 1 1
(1 − y ∗ 7 ) dy ∗ = y ∗ − 78 y ∗ 7 =
1
= (1 − u ) dy =
δ 0 0 0 8

11.58. From the definition of the displacement thickness given by Equation 11.69
∫ 1 ∫ 1
θ ∗ ∗ ∗
(y ∗ 7 − y ∗ 7 ) dy ∗
1 2
= u (1 − u ) dy =
δ 0 0
[ ]
9 1 7
→ = 78 y ∗ 7 − 79 y ∗ 7 =
8

0 72

Therefore the ratio of the momentum thickness to the boundary-layer thickness is 7/72 .
From Problem 11.57, the ratio of the displacement thickness to the boundary-layer thickness
is equal to 1/8. Therefore, the ratio of the momentum thickness to the displacement thickness
is (7/72)/(1/8) = 7/9 .

11.59. Define the normalized distance from the boundary, y ∗ , such that
πy 2δ ∗
y∗ = → dy = dy
2δ π
Hence,
u
= sin y ∗ (1)
U
∫ δ( ∫
∗ u) 2δ π/2 ( u) ∗
δ = 1− dy = 1− dy (2)
0 U π 0 U
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
∫
∗ 2δ π/2 2δ [ ∗ ]π/2 2δ [ π ]
δ = (1 − sin y ∗ ) dy ∗ → δ∗ = y + cos y ∗ → δ∗ = −1
π 0 π 0 π 2
δ∗ π−2
→ =
δ π

11.60. Define the normalized distance from the boundary, y ∗ , such that
πy 2δ ∗
y∗ = → dy = dy
2δ π
The given half-sine-wave velocity distribution and the expression for the momentum thickness
can then be expressed as
u
= sin y ∗ (1)
U
∫ δ ( ∫
u u) 2δ π/2 u ( u) ∗
θ= 1− dy = 1− dy (2)
0 U U π 0 U U

528
 Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
∫
2δ π/2 ( )
θ= sin y ∗ − sin2 y ∗ dy ∗
π 0
[ ]
2δ ∗ y ∗ sin 2y ∗ π/2 4−π θ 4−π
θ= − cos y − + →θ= δ → =
π 2 4 0 2π δ 2π

11.61. Define the normalized distance from the boundary, y ∗ , and the normalized velocity, u∗ , such
that
πy 2δ ∗ u
y∗ = , dy = dy, u∗ =
2δ π U
The self-similar half-sine-wave velocity distribution within the boundary layer can therefore
be expressed as
u∗ = sin y ∗
It is shown in Problem 11.60 that for the given velocity distribution the momentum thickness
is given by θ = (4 − π)/(2π) δ.
(a) The drag force FD is related to the boundary layer by Equation 11.74 which gives
( )
2 4−π
dFD = ρbU dθ → dFD = ρbU
2
dδ → dFD = 0.1366 ρbU 2 dδ (1)
2π
Assuming that the fluid is Newtonian, the wall shear stress, τw , is given by
 
du  π U du∗  π U[ ∗
] π U
τw = µ = µ = µ cos y → τw = µ (2)
dy y=0 2 δ dy ∗ y∗ =0 2 δ y ∗ =0 2 δ
Combining Equations 1 and 2 and taking δ = 0 at x = 0 yields
dFD = τw b dx
( )
2 π U
0.1366 ρbU dδ = µ b dx
2 δ
∫ δ ∫ x
′ ′ π
0.1366 ρbU 2
δ dδ = µU b dx′
0 2 0
π
0.06831 ρbU 2 δ 2 = µU bx
2
which simplifies to
√
δ µ δ 4.795 δ 4.80
= 4.795 → = 1 → ≃ 1 (3)
x ρU x x Rex2 x Rex2

(b) The relationship between the wall shear stress, τw , and the distance along the boundary
(x) can be obtained by combining Equations 3 and 2 which yields
π U τw π 1 τw 0.655
τw = µ → 1 2
≃ Re−1 2
x Rex → 1 2
≃ 1
2 δ 2 ρU 4.795 2 ρU Rex2

529
11.62. From the given distribution, find the values of y/δ corresponding to u/U = 0.10, 0.25, 0.50,
and 0.75. The results are as follows,

u/U y/δ
0.10 0.064
0.25 0.161
0.50 0.333
0.75 0.540

11.63. Expanding the given expression for τw and denoting all the constants as a single constant
“A” gives
[ ]
[ 1 2 ] 0.655µ 2 1
1
A
τw = 2 ρU 1 1 1 → τw = 1
ρ2 U 2 x2 x2
| {z }
=A

Integrating the shear force to determine the drag force on the plate:
∫ L ∫ L
A 1
FD = b τw dx = b 1 dx = 2AbL 2
0 0 x 2

Replacing A by in terms of the variables that define it and rearranging gives

FD 1.31
1 2
= 1
2 ρU Lb ReL2

11.64. (a) For the Blasius solution, Equations 11.18 and 11.70 give

δ 4.91 θ 0.664 θ 0.664

= 1 , = 1 → = = 0.135
x Rex2 x Rex2 δ 4.91

(b) For analytical convenience the variables can be changed as follows,

y 1 u
η= , N= → = ηN
δ n U
The momentum thickness, θ, can then be calculated using Equation 11.69 as follows:
∫ ∫ 1 [ ]
δ
u( u) θ 1 1
θ= 1− dy = δ η N (1 − η N ) dη → = −
0 U U 0 δ N + 1 2N + 1

For θ/δ = 0.385, the above relationship yields N = 0.257, which corresponds to n =
1/N = 3.89. Hence using n = 3.89 in the power-law velocity distribution gives the
same relative momentum thickness as the Blasius relationship.

530
11.65. From the definitions of the Blasius variables,
( )1
u U 2 1
= f ′ (η), η = ay, a= , dy = dη (1)
U νx a

Using these definitions, the displacement thickness, δ ∗ , given by Equation 11.63 can be ex-
pressed as ∫ y1 ( ∫
∗ u) 1 η1
δ = 1− dy = [1 − f ′ (η)] dη
0 U a 0
Discretizing this integral so that it can be used with tabulated values gives
[ ]
1 ∑
N
δ ∗ (ηN ) = ηN − 1 ′ ′
2 (fi + fi−1 )(ηi − ηi−1 ) (2)
a
i=2

Defining the function F (ηN ) as

∑
N
1 ′ ′
F (ηN ) = ηN − 2 (fi + fi−1 )(ηi − ηi−1 )
i=2

Then combining Equation 2 with the definition of a given in Equation 1 yields

δ∗ F (ηN )
= 1
x Rex2

Therefore, the proportionality “constant” being sought is equal to F (ηN ) and, using the values
of the Blasius solution in Table 11.1, the values of the required “constant” are tabulated below.

η constant η constant η constant

0.0 2.4 1.479 4.8 1.719
0.4 0.373 2.8 1.571 5.0 1.721
0.8 0.694 3.2 1.633 5.2 1.722
1.2 0.962 3.6 1.674 5.6 1.724
1.6 1.180 4.0 1.698 6.0 1.725
2.0 1.351 4.4 1.712

11.66. (a) Using the definition of the momentum thickness given by Equation 11.69 (with y1 = ∞)
gives
∫ ∞ ( ∫ ∞ (
u u) y y) δ
θ= 1− dy = 1− dy → θ =
0 U U 0 δ δ 6

(b) Using Newton’s law of viscosity with the given velocity profile, the wall shear stress, τw ,
is given by

du  U U
τw = µ  =µ → τw = µ (1)
dy y=0 δ δ

531
 (c) Combining the result from Part (a) with the momentum integral equation (Equation
11.76) gives
dθ ρU 2 dδ
τw = ρU 2 → τw = (2)
dx 6 dx
Combining Equations 1 and 2 and using the condition that δ = 0 when x = 0 gives
[ ] [
] [ ]1
ρU 2 dδ U 6µ 12µ δ 12µ 2
=µ → δ dδ = dx → 2
δ = x → =
6 dx δ ρU ρU x ρU x

which yields
δ 3.46
= 1
x Rex2

11.67. Solving the momentum integral equation (Equation 11.89) with the boundary condition that
δ(0) = 0 gives
] [ ∫ δ [ ]∫ x
dδ ν A νA ′ ′ νA
δ = · → δ dδ = dx → δ dδ = dx′
dx U B UB 0 U B 0
[ ] √ √
νA δ 2A/B δ 2A/B
→ 1 2
2 δ = x → = → = 1
UB x U x/ν x Re 2 x

δ C1
→ = 1
x Rex2
√
where C1 = 2A/B. Since A and B depend only of the velocity distribution (from their
definitions given by Equation 11.90), then C1 depends only on the velocity distribution.

11.68. Solving the momentum integral equation (Equation 11.89) with the boundary condition that
δ(x0 ) = δ0 and taking ∆x = (x − x0 ) gives
[ ] ∫ δ [ ]∫ x
dδ ν A νA ′ ′ νA
δ = · → δ dδ = dx → δ dδ = dx′
dx U B UB δ0 UB x0
v ( √ )2
[ ] u(
u δ )2 2A/B
→ 1 2
− δ02 )
νA
→
δ t 0
2 (δ =
UB
∆x
∆x
=
∆x
+ 1
(U ∆x/ν) 2
v
u( )2 ( )2
u
δ u δ0 C1
→ =t + 1
∆x ∆x Re 2 ∆x

√
where C1 = 2A/B and Re∆x = U ∆x/ν. Since A and B depend only of the velocity
distribution (from their definitions given by Equation 11.90), then C1 depends only on the
velocity distribution.

532
11.69. Let u∗ = u/U and y ∗ = y/δ. Using the definition of τw ,

U du∗  U
τw = µ → τw = µ A (1)
δ dy ∗ y∗ =0 δ

where A depends only on the velocity distribution. It can be shown that for a self-similar
velocity profile the growth of the boundary layer is given by (see Problem 11.67)

δ C1
= 1 (2)
x Rex2

where C1 is a function of the velocity profile only. Combining Equations 1 and 2 to eliminate
δ, yields
 1
 [ 1 1 ]
2
Re  = µU A U 1x
2 2 τw 2A τw 2A/C1
τw = µU A 
x
→ 1 2
=√ → 1 2
= 1
xC1 xν 2 C1 2 ρU U x/ν 2 ρU Rex2

τw C2
→ 1 2
= 1
2 ρU Rex2
√
where C2 = 2A/C1 . Since A and C1 depend only on the velocity distribution, then C2
depends only on the velocity distribution.

11.70. Let u∗ = u/U and y ∗ = y/δ. Using the definition of τw ,


U du∗  U
τw = µ → τw = µ A (1)
δ dy ∗ y∗ =0 δ

where A depends only on the velocity distribution. It can be shown that for a self-similar
velocity profile the growth of the boundary layer is given by (see Problem 11.68)
v
u( )2 ( )2
u
δ u δ0 C1
=t + 1 (2)
∆x ∆x Re 2 ∆x

where C1 is a function of the velocity profile only. Combining Equations 1 and 2 to eliminate
δ, yields, upon rearrangement,

τw 2A
=[ ]1
1 2 ( )2
2 ρU δ0 U 2

+ C12 · Re∆x
ν

where A and C1 depend only on the velocity distribution.

533
11.71. It can be shown that for a self-similar velocity profile the growth of the boundary layer is
given by (see Problem 11.67)
δ C1 δ C1
= 1 → = 1 (1)
x Rex2 L ReL2

The drag force is given by Equation 11.68, which can be combined with Equation 1 and the
definition of B as the constant B = θ/δ as defined by Equations 11.88 and 11.90 to give
θ δ C1
FD = ρbU 2 θ = ρbU 2 L · = ρbU 2 LB · 1
δ L ReL2

which rearranges to give

FD 2BC1 FD C3
1 2
= 1 → 1 2
= 1
2 ρU bL 2
ReL 2 ρU bL ReL2

where C3 = 2BC1 . Since B and C1 depend only on the velocity distribution, then C3 depends
only on the velocity distribution.

11.72. It can be shown that for a self-similar velocity profile the growth of the boundary layer is
given by (see Problem 11.68)
v
u( )2 ( )2
u
δ u δ0 C1
=t + 1 (1)
∆L ∆L Re∆L2

where ∆L is the distance from x = x0 to x = L, and Re∆L = U ∆L/ν. The drag force is
given by Equation 11.68, which can be combined with Equation 1 and the definition of B as
the constant B = θ/δ as defined by Equations 11.88 and 11.90 to give
v
u( )2 ( )2
u
θ δ u δ0 C1
FD = ρbU θ = ρbU ∆L · ·
2 2
= ρbU ∆LB · t
2
+ 1
δ ∆L ∆L 2
Re∆L

which rearranges to give

v
u( )2 ( )2
u
FD u δ0 C1
1 2
= 2B t + 1
2 ρU b∆L
∆L Re 2 ∆L

where B and C1 depend only on the velocity distribution.

11.73. The pressure gradient, dp/dx, can be related to the free-stream velocity, U (x), by the
Bernoulli equation such that
dp dU
= −ρU
dx dx

534
 Hence, the term δ dp/dx can be expressed as
(∫ δ ) ( )
dp dU
δ = dy −ρU
dx 0 dx
Substituting this equation into the given relation and rearranging yields
∫ δ ∫ δ ∫
∂ ∂ dU δ
τw = − u ρu dy + U ρu dy + ρU dy
∂x 0 ∂x 0 dx 0

11.74. The formula for differentiating the product of two functions can be applied as follows
∫ δ ∫ δ ∫
∂ ∂ dU δ
U ρu dy = ρuU dy − ρu dy
∂x 0 ∂x 0 dx 0
Substituting this relationship into the given momentum equation yields
∫ δ ∫
∂ dU δ
τw = ρu(U − u) dy + ρ(U − u) dy
∂x 0 dx 0
∫ ∫
∂ 2 δ u( u) dU δ ( u)
→ τw = U ρ 1− dy + U ρ 1− dy (1)
∂x 0 U U dx 0 U
Use the definitions of the momentum thickness, θ, and the displacement thickness, δ ∗ , given
by
∫ δ ( ∫ δ(
u u) ∗ u)
θ= 1− dy, δ = 1− dy (2)
0 U U 0 U
Combining Equations 1 and 2 yields
τw d dU
= (U 2 θ) + δ ∗ U
ρ dx dx

11.75. The given momentum integral equation can be expanded to the form
τw dθ dU dU
= U2 + 2θU + δ∗U (1)
ρ dx dx dx
For zero pressure gradient, dU/dx = 0 and Equation 1 becomes
dθ
τw = ρU 2
dx

11.76. (a) Since the streamline originating at y0 is displaced by the displacement distance, δ ∗ , then
y0 δ∗
y0 + δ ∗ = δ → =1− (1)
δ δ
From the definitions of δ and δ ∗ ,
δ 4.91 δ∗ 1.72
= 1 , = 1 (2)
x Rex2 x Rex2
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
y0 1.72 y0
=1− → = 0.650
δ 4.91 δ

535
 (b) From the given data: x = 10 m. At the transition to a turbulent boundary layer,
Rex = 5 × 105 as so
4.91x 4.91(10)
δ= 1 = 1 = 6.94 × 10−2 m = 69.4 mm
Rex2 (5 × 105 ) 2

y0 = 0.650δ = 0.650(69.4) = 45.1 mm

11.77. From the given data: U = 20 m/s, L = 10 m, and b = 3 m. For standard air, ν = 1.461 ×
10−5 m2 /s and ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 .

(a) At the downstream end of the flat surface, Equation 11.71 gives

Ux (20)(10)
Rex = = = 1.369 × 107
ν 1.461 × 10−5
θ 0.016 θ 0.016
= 1 → = 1 → θ = 1.53 × 10−2 m = 15.3 mm
x Rex7 10 (1.369 × 107 ) 7

(b) The drag force, FD , on the surface is given by Equation 11.68 as

FD = ρbU 2 θ = (1.225)(3)(20)2 (1.52 × 10−2 ) = 22.3 N

11.78. From the given data: U = 0.6 m/s, L = 0.3 m, and b = 2 m. For water at 20◦ C, ρ =
998.2 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s. The following preliminary calculation is useful,

UL (0.6)(0.3)
ReL = = = 1.793 × 105
ν (1.004 × 10−6 )
Solve this problem by calculating the momentum thickness and then applying the momentum
integral equation. Using the definition of the momentum thickness given by Equation 11.69
(with y1 = δ) gives
∫ 1 ∫ 1
∗ ∗ ∗ δ
θ=δ u (1 − u ) dy = δ y ∗ (1 − y ∗ ) dy ∗ → θ = (1)
0 0 6
The wall shear stress, τw , is given by

U du∗  U
τw = µ =µ
δ dy ∗ y∗ =0 δ

Combining this result with the momentum integral equation (Equation 11.76) and using the
condition that δ = 0 when x = 0 gives
[ ]
2 dθ ρU 2 dδ ρU 2 dδ U 6µ
τw = ρU → τw = → =µ → δ dδ = dx
dx 6 dx 6 dx δ ρU
[] [ ]1
12µ δ 12µ 2 δ 3.46
→ δ =2
x → = → = 1 (2)
ρU x ρU x x Rex2

536
 Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
1 3.46L 0.577L
θ= 1 = 1
6 Re 2 Rex2
x

For the given parameters,

0.577(0.3)
θ= 1 = 4.086 × 10−4 m
(1.793 × 105 ) 2
The momentum equation, Equation 11.68 gives
FD = ρbU 2 θ = (998.2)(2)(0.6)2 (4.086 × 10−4 ) = 0.294 N

11.79. From the given data: U = 5 m/s, b = 2.4 m, and L = 1.4 m. For standard air, ν = 1.461 ×
10− 5 m2 /s. Using these data gives
UL (5)(1.4)
ReL = = = 4.79 × 105
ν 1.461 × 10− 5
(a) For a laminar BL, the momentum thickness is given by Equation 11.70 as
θ 0.664 θ 0.664
= 1 → = 1 → θ = 1.343 × 10−3 m ≈ 1.3 mm
L ReL2 1.4 (4.79 × 105 ) 2

For a smooth-surface turbulent BL, the momentum thickness is given by Equation 11.71
as
θ 0.016 θ 0.016
= 1 → = 1 → θ = 3.457 × 10−3 m ≈ 3.5 mm
L ReL7 1.4 (4.79 × 105 ) 7

(b) Since the drag force is proportional to the momentum thickness, as per Equation 11.68,
the increase in drag force caused by tripping turbulent flow in the boundary layer is
given by
3.457 − 1.343
percent increase in drag force = × 100 = 157%
1.343
11.80. From the given data: W = H = 200 mm, U1 = 30 m/s, δ1∗ = 1.8 mm, and δ2∗ = 2.9 mm.
Applying the Bernoulli equation in the free stream between sections 1 and 2 gives
( )2
p1 U12 p2 U22 ∆p U2
+ = + → 1 2 = −1 (1)
ρ 2 ρ 2 2 ρU1
U1
where ∆p = p1 − p2 . Applying the continuity equation in the free stream between sections 1
and 2 gives
U2 A1 [200 − 2(1.8)]2
U1 A1 = U2 A2 → = = = 1.023 (2)
U1 A2 [200 − 2(2.9)]2
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives
∆p
1 2
= (1.023)2 − 1 = 0.0461 (≈ 4.6%)
2 ρU1

537
11.81. From the given data: D = 400 mm, A1 = πD2 /4 = 0.1257 m2 , L = 750 mm, and V = 1.8 m/s.
For air at 25◦ C, ν = 1.557 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.2). Determine what type of
boundary layer exists by calculating the Reynolds number,

VL (1.8)(0.75)
ReL = = = 8.67 × 104
ν (1.557 × 10−5

Since ReL < 5×105 the boundary layer is laminar. The displacement thickness, δ ∗ , is therefore
given by Equation 11.64 as
δ∗ 1.72 δ∗ 1.72
= 1 → = 1 → δ ∗ = 4.381 × 10−3 m
L ReL2 0.75 (8.67 × 104 ) 2

Hence, the flow area at the outflow section, A2 is calculated as follows,

π
A2 = [0.4 − 2(4.381 × 10−3 )]2 = 0.1202 m2
4
The centerline velocity at the outflow section, V2 , is therefore given by
A1 0.1257
V2 = · V1 = · (1.8) = 1.88 m/s
A2 0.1202

11.82. The required duct diameter to maintain a pressure gradient of zero along the centerline is

D(x) = D0 + 2δ ∗ (1)

where δ ∗ is the displacement thickness. From the definition of the displacement thickness
given by Equation 11.63
∫ 1 ∫ 1 [ ]
δ∗ 8 1 δ∗ 1
(1 − u∗ ) dy ∗ = (1 − y ∗ 7 ) dy ∗ = y ∗ − 78 y ∗ 7
1
= → = (2)
δ 0 0 0 δ 8
The growth of the boundary-layer thickness is given by Equation 11.81 as
δ 0.16
= 1 (3)
x Rex7
Substituting Equations 2 and 3 into Equation 1 (eliminating δ) gives

0.04x
D(x) = D0 + 1
Rex7

11.83. From the given data: H = W = 400 mm, A1 = HW = 0.1600 m2 , L = 750 mm, and
V = 1.8 m/s. For air at 25◦ C, ν = 1.557 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.2). Determine what
type of boundary layer exists by calculating the Reynolds number,

VL (1.8)(0.75)
ReL = = = 8.67 × 104
ν (1.557 × 10−5

538
 Since ReL < 5×105 the boundary layer is laminar. The displacement thickness, δ ∗ , is therefore
given by Equation 11.64 as

δ∗ 1.72 δ∗ 1.72
= 1 → = 1 → δ ∗ = 4.381 × 10−3 m
L ReL2 0.75 (8.67 × 104 ) 2

Hence, the flow area at the outflow section, A2 is calculated as follows,

A2 = [0.4 − 2(4.381 × 10−3 )]2 = 0.1531 m2

The centerline velocity at the outflow section, V2 , is therefore given by

A1 0.1600
V2 = · V1 = · (1.8) = 1.88 m/s
A2 0.1531

11.84. From the given data: D = 400 mm, U1 = 18 m/s, δ2 = 120 mm, δ ∗ = 120/8 = 15 mm, and
L = 6 m. For standard air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s. The core flow areas
at the upstream and downstream sections where the volume flow rate remains the same, A1
and A2 , can be estimates as follows,
π π
A1 = [D]2 = [400]2 = 1.257 × 105 mm4
4 4
π π
A2 = [D − 2δ2 ]2 = [400 − 2(15)]2 = 1.074 × 105 mm4
4 4
(a) Applying the continuity equation in the free stream between the upstream and down-
stream sections gives
( ) ( )
A1 1.257
U1 A1 = U2 A2 → U2 = U1 = (18) = 21.05 m/s
A2 1.075

Applying the Bernoulli equation in the free stream between the upstream and down-
stream sections gives

∆p = 12 ρ(U22 − U12 ) = 21 (1.225)(21.052 − 182 ) = 73.0 Pa

(b) For estimating the average shear stress between the upstream and downstream sections,
use the average velocity, U , hence

U1 + U2 18 + 21.05 UL (19.53)(6)
U= = = 19.53 m/s, ReL = = = 8.021 × 106
2 2 ν 1.461 × 10−5

The drag coefficient and average shear stress can be estimated using Equation 11.59,
which can be expressed as

τ̄ 0.0735 τ̄ 0.0735
2 = 1 → 1 2
= 1 → τ̄ = 0.714 Pa
1
2 ρU
5
ReL 2 (1.225)(19.53) (8.021 × 106 ) 5

539
11.85. From the given data: U = 4 m/s, and x = 0.25 m. For standard air, ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s.
Check the Reynolds number at x = 0.25 m:

Ux (4)(0.25)
Rex = = = 6.845 × 104
ν 1.461 × 10−5

Since Rex < 5 × 105 , the boundary layer is laminar and the Blasius solution can be used.

(a) Using the Blasius solution given in Table 11.1, u = 0.9U when f ′ (η) = 0.9, hence Table
11.1 gives η = 3.40. Using the definition of η,
√ √
U 4
3.40 = y → 3.40 = y → y = 3.248 × 10−3 m = 3.25 mm
νx (1.461 × 10−5 )(0.25)

(b) The growth of the displacement thickness is given by Equation 11.64 as follows,
( )
δ∗ 1.72 1.72ν
1
2 dδ ∗ ( ν )1 0.86
∗ 1 2
= 1 → δ = 1 x 2 → = 0.86 = 1
x Rex2 U2 dx Ux Rex2

Substituting the given and derived data yields the slope of the streamline dδ ∗ /dx at
x = 0.25 m as
dδ ∗ 0.86 −3
= 1 = 3.29 × 10 ≈ 0.33% .
dx (6.845 × 10 ) 2
4

11.86. From the given data: L = 4 m, and W = H = 200 mm. For standard air, ν = 1.461 ×
10−5 m2 /s. The displacement thickness, δ ∗ , at the end of the duct can be estimated from
Equation 11.65 as
1 6 1 6
δ∗ 0.020 0.020ν 7 L 7 0.020(1.461 × 10−5 ) 7 (4) 7 1.338
= 1 → δ∗ = 1 = 1 → δ ∗ (UL ) = 1
L ReL7 UL7 7
UL UL7
(1)
where UL is the flow in the core of the duct at the exit. When the the flow in the core becomes
fully turbulent, Reh = 4000, which requires that

UL 4[0.2 − 2δ ∗ (UL )]2 UL 4[0.2 − 2δ ∗ (UL )]2

= 4000 → = 4000 (2)
ν 4[0.2 − 2δ ∗ (UL )] 1.461 × 10−5 4[0.2 − 2δ ∗ (UL )]

Combining Equations 1 and 2 and solving for UL gives UL = 0.333 m/s .

11.87. From the given data: U = 20 m/s, b = 4 m, δ1 = 80 mm, and δ2 = 120 mm. For standard air,
ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 . The ratio of the momentum thickness to the boundary layer thickness can
be calculated as θ/δ = 7/72 (See Problem 11.58). From Equation 11.74,

dFD dθ
= ρbU 2 → dFD = ρbU 2 dθ → FD = ρbU 2 (θ2 − θ1 )
dx dx
→ FD = ρbU 2 72
7
(δ2 − δ1 ) = (1.225)(4)(20)2 72
7
(0.120 − 0.080) = 7.62 N

540
11.88. From the given data: H = 4.27 m, L = 12.17 m, and V = 24 km/h = 6.667 m/s. For air at
20◦ C, ν = 1.512 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.2).

(a) The Reynolds number at the downstream edge of the billboard is given by

VL (6.667)(12.17)
ReL = = → ReL = 5.366 × 106
ν 1.512 × 10−5
Since ReL > 5 × 105 the boundary layer is confirmed to be fully turbulent.
(b) Using the one-seventh-power-law relationship given by Equation 11.81 gives

δ 0.16 δ 0.16
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.213 m
L ReL7 12.17 (5.366 × 106 ) 7

(c) Using the semi-empirical relationship given by Equation 11.56 gives

δ 0.382 δ 0.382
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.209 m
L ReL5 12.17 (5.366 × 106 ) 5

(d) Comparing the results from Parts (b) and (c) show close agreement, so the statement
that the formulations used in Parts (b) and (c) usually give results in close agreement
is validated .

11.89. From the given data: L = 4 m, and V = 5 m/s. For air at 20◦ C, ν = 1.512 × 10−5 m2 /s (from
Appendix B.2).

(a) The Reynolds number at the downstream edge of the surface is

VL (5)(4)
ReL = = → ReL = 1.323 × 106
ν 1.512 × 10−5

Since 1 × 105 < ReL < 3 × 106 the boundary layer is likely in the transitional range . If
the engineering approximation of an instantaneous transition at Rex = 5 × 105 is used,
then the boundary later would be classified as being in the turbulent range.
(b) For a laminar boundary layer, the growth of the boundary layer is given by Equation
11.18, and the thickness of the boundary layer at the downstream edge of the surface is
calculated as follows,
δ 4.91 δ 4.91
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.017 m = 17 mm
L ReL2 4 (1.323 × 106 ) 2

(c) For a turbulent boundary layer with a one-seventh-power-law profile, the growth of the
boundary layer is given by Equation 11.81, and the thickness of the boundary layer at
the downstream edge of the surface is calculated as follows, as
δ 0.16 δ 0.16
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.085 m = 85 mm
L ReL7 4 (1.323 × 106 ) 7

541
11.90. From the given data: y1 = 3 m, u1 = 30 km/h = 8.333 m/s, and τc = 0.08 Pa. For standard
air, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 , and ν = 1.461 × 10−5 m2 /s (from Appendix B.2).

(a) Using the smooth-turbulent velocity distribution given by Equation 11.98 yields
u1 u ∗ y1 8.33 u∗ (3)
= 2.44 ln +5.0 → = 2.44 ln +5.0 → u∗ = 0.2368 m/s
u∗ ν u∗ 1.461 × 10−5
Using the definition of u∗ gives
√ √
τw τw
u∗ = → 0.2368 = τw = 0.0852 Pa
ρ 1.225

Since τw > τc (i.e., 0.0852 Pa > 0.08 Pa) significant movement of the sand will occur .
(b) The velocity at y2 = 0.10 m can be estimated by direct application of the smooth-
turbulent velocity profile equation as follows
u2 u∗ y2 u2 (0.2368)(0.10)
= 2.44 ln + 5.0 → = 2.44 ln + 5.0
u∗ ν 0.2368 1.461 × 10−5

→ u2 = 6.145 m/s = 22.1 km/h

11.91. The percentage error is calculated using the following formula:

0.455 0.0735
2.58
− 1
(log ReL ) ReL5
percentage error = × 100
0.0735
1
ReL5

For 5×105 ≤ ReL < 107 the above-calculated percentage error is in the range of −4.2% to 2.7% .

11.92. The outer-layer velocity distribution in a smooth-turbulent boundary layer is given by Equa-
tion 11.98 as
u u∗ y
= 2.44 ln + 5.0
u∗ ν
Applying this equation at the edge of the boundary layer, where y = δ and u = 0.99U gives
0.99U u∗ δ
= 2.44 ln + 5.0 (1)
u∗ ν
The definition of the skin-friction factor, cf , is given by
√
τw u2 cf
cf = 1 2 = 2 ∗2 → u∗ = U (2)
2 ρU
U 2

Substituting Equation 2 into Equation 1 gives

√ [ √ ]
2 cf Uδ
= 2.46 ln Reδ + 5.05, where Reδ =
cf 2 ν

542
11.93. The two competing estimates of the skin-friction coefficient are as follows:
√ [ √ ]
2 cf
= 2.46 ln Reδ + 5.05 (1)
cf 2
0.0205
cf = 1 (2)
Reδ6
These estimates are compared for 104 ≤ Reδ ≤ 107 in the following table:

cf cf ∆
Reδ
Equation 1 Equation 2 (%)
104 0.00485 0.00442 9.0
105 0.00310 0.00301 −2.8
106 0.00213 0.00205 −3.9
107 0.00155 0.00140 −10.0

Based on the above-tabulated values, it is apparent that the difference in cf estimates is in

the range of −10% to +9%
11.94. From the given data: U = 4 m/s, and x = 4 m. For water at 20◦ C, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 , and
ν = 1.004 × 10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.1). Using the given data,
Ux (4)(4)
Rex = = = 1.594 × 107
ν 1.004 × 10−6
The friction velocity, u∗ , can be calculated using Equation 11.82, which gives
τw 0.027 2u2∗ 0.027 2u2∗ 0.027
1 2
= 1 → 2
= 1 → 2
= 1 → u∗ = 0.1422 m/s
2 ρU Rex7 U Rex7 4 (1.594 × 107 ) 7
The following quantity is useful in subsequent calculations:
ν 1.004 × 10−6
= = 7.060 × 10−6 m
u∗ 0.1422
(a) The thickness of the boundary layer is estimated using Equation 11.81, which gives
δ 0.16 δ 0.16
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.05988 m = 59.9 mm
x Rex7 4 (1.594 × 107 ) 7

(b) The thickness of the laminar (viscous) sublayer is estimated as follows,

ν
δv = 5 = 5(7.060 × 10−6 ) = 3.530 × 10−5 m ≈ 35.3 µm
u∗
(c) The logarithmic velocity distribution is valid over the following approximate range
ν ν
30 ≤ y ≤ 500 → 30(7.060 × 10−6 ) ≤ y ≤ 500(7.060 × 10−6 )
u∗ u∗

→ 0.2 mm ≤ y ≤ 3.5 mm

543
 (d) The velocity defect law is valid for the following approximate ranges,
y > 500ν/u∗ : y > 500(7.060 × 10−6 ) → y > 3.530 × 10−3 m ≈ 3.5 mm

y/δ > 0.15: y > 0.15(0.05988 m) → y > 8.982 × 10−3 m ≈ 9.0 mm

Combining the above results, the velocity defect law can be taken as valid for
9.0 mm < y ≤ 59.9 mm .

11.95. From the given data: U = 5 m/s, and x = 3 m. For water at 15◦ C, ρ = 999.1 kg/m3 , and
ν = 1.140 × 10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.1). Using the given data,
Ux (5)(3)
Rex = = = 1.316 × 107
ν 1.140 × 10−6
The friction velocity, u∗ , can be calculated using Equation 11.82, which gives
τw 0.027 2u2∗ 0.027 2u2∗ 0.027
1 2
= 1 → 2
= 1 → 2
= 1 → u∗ = 0.1801 m/s
2 ρU Rex7 U Rex7 5 (1.316 × 107 ) 7
The following quantity is useful in subsequent calculations:
ν 1.140 × 10−6
= = 6.330 × 10−6 m
u∗ 0.1801
(a) The logarithmic velocity distribution is valid over the following approximate range
ν ν
30 ≤ y ≤ 500 → 30(6.330 × 10−6 ) ≤ y ≤ 500(6.330 × 10−6 )
u∗ u∗

→ 0.2 mm ≤ y ≤ 3.2 mm

(b) The logarithmic velocity distribution over a smooth flat surface is given by Equation
11.98 as
u u∗ y u (0.1801)y
= 2.44 ln + 5.0 → = 2.44 ln + 5.0 → u = 0.493 ln y + 6.16
u∗ ν 0.1801 1.140 × 10−6
11.96. From the given data: U = 6 m/s, and x = 2 m. For water at 10◦ C, ρ = 999.7 kg/m3 , and
ν = 1.307 × 10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.1). Using the given data,
Ux (6)(2)
Rex = = = 9.181 × 106
ν 1.307 × 10−6
The thickness of the boundary layer is estimated using Equation 11.81, which gives
δ 0.16 δ 0.16
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.03239 m = 32.4 mm
x Rex7 2 (9.181 × 106 ) 7
The friction velocity, u∗ , can be calculated using Equation 11.82, which gives
τw 0.027 2u2∗ 0.027 2u2∗ 0.027
1 2
= 1 → 2
= 1 → 2
= 1 → u∗ = 0.2218 m/s
2 ρU Rex7 U Rex7 6 (9.181 × 106 ) 7
The following quantity is useful in subsequent calculations:
ν 1.307 × 10−6
= = 5.893 × 10−6 m
u∗ 0.2218

544
 (a) The velocity defect law is valid for the following approximate ranges,

y > 500ν/u∗ : y > 500(5.8930 × 10−6 ) → y > 2.946 × 10−3 m ≈ 2.9 mm

y/δ > 0.15: y > 0.15(0.03239 m) → y > 4.859 × 10−3 m ≈ 4.9 mm

Combining the above results, the velocity defect law can be taken as valid for
4.9 mm < y ≤ 32.4 mm .
(b) The velocity-defect law distribution over a smooth flat surface is given by Equation
11.102 as
U −u (y ) 6−u (y ) ( y )
=f → =f → u = 6 − 0.222f
u∗ δ 0.2218 δ 32.4 mm

11.97. From the given data: U = 5.5 m/s, and x = 2.5 m. For water at 5◦ C, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 , and
ν = 1.518 × 10−6 m2 /s (from Appendix B.1). Using the given data,

Ux (5.5)(2.5)
Rex = = = 9.058 × 106
ν 1.518 × 10−6
The thickness of the boundary layer is estimated using Equation 11.81, which gives

δ 0.16 δ 0.16
= 1 → = 1 → δ = 0.04057 m = 40.1 mm
x Rex7 2.5 (9.058 × 106 ) 7

(a) The one-seventh-power-law distribution can usually be applied over the following ap-
proximate range

0.1δ < y ≤ δ → 0.1(40.1 mm) < y ≤ 40.1 mm

→ 4.0 mm < y ≤ 40.1 mm

(b) The one-seventh-power-law distribution distribution over a smooth flat surface is given
by Equation 11.104 as

u (y )1 u ( y )1 ( y )1
7 7 7
= → = → u = 5.5
U δ 5.5 40.1 mm 40.1 mm

11.98. (a) The velocity defect law can be used for either type of flow.
(b) The velocity defect law, as given by Equations 11.105 and 11.114, and the definition of
the average velocity, V , are given by:

R−r
u(r) = umax + 2.44u∗ ln (1)
R
∫ R
1
V = u(r) 2πr dr (2)
πR2 0

545
 Combining Equations 1 and 2 and performing the integration gives
V = umax − 3.66u∗ (3)
The relationship between V and u∗ is defined in terms of the friction factor,f , by Equa-
tion 11.109 as follows √
V 8
= (4)
u∗ f
Combining Equations 3 and 4 to eliminate u∗ gives
V 1
= √
umax 1 + 1.294 f

(c) If a coefficient of 2.5 is used instead of 2.44 in the velocity defect law, then the derivation
is as follows
R−r
u(r) = umax + 2.5u∗ ln (5)
R
∫ R
1
V = u(r) 2πr dr (6)
πR2 0
Combining Equations 5 and 6 and performing the integration gives
V = umax − 3.75u∗ (7)
Combining Equations 7 and 4 to eliminate u∗ gives
V 1
= √
umax 1 + 1.326 f

(d) Both relationship are equally valid since the coefficient actually varies between 2.44
and 2.5. These constants are equal to 1/κ, where κ is the von Kármán constant that
varies between 0.4 and 0.41.
11.99. The applicable equations to be combined are,
( )
umax − u(r) R R
= 2.5 ln → u(r) = umax − 2.5u∗ ln (1)
u∗ R−r R−r
V 1
= √ (2)
umax 1 + 1.326 f
√
f
u∗ = V (3)
8
ln(·) = 2.303 log10 (·) (4)
Using Equation 2 to eliminate umax , using Equation 3 to eliminate u∗ , and using Equation 4
to change ln to log10 , Equation 1 becomes
√ √ R
u(r) = (1 + 1.326 f )V − 2.04 f V log10
R−r

546
11.100. The given relationships can be combined as follows,

V 1 V 1 U
= √ → = √ → = 1.234
umax 1 + 1.326 f 0.99U 1 + 1.326 0.028 V

11.101. The following four equations are to be combined:

1
0.316 0.316ν 4
τw = f 18 ρV 2 , f= 1 Vf = 1 1
Re 4 V 4D4
U
= 1.234, δ = 12 D
V
Substituting into the equations into the shear-stress equation gives
 
 0.316ν 14  [ U ]2 ( ν )1
 1 4
τw =  ( )1 (2δ) 4  1ρ → τ w = 0.0230ρU 2
 U 4  8 1.234 U δ
1.234

547
548
Chapter 12

Compressible Flow

12.1. From the given data: M = 10 kg, T1 = 15◦ C = 288 K, and p1 = 90 kPa. From Appendix
B.5, the specific heats of air can be approximated as cp = 1003 J/kg·K and cv = 716 J/kg·K,
and the specific heat ratio as k = 1.40.

(a) In this case, the temperature is changed such that T2 = 25◦ C. From the definitions of
specific heat, the change in internal energy, ∆U , and the change in enthalpy, ∆H, are
given by

∆U = M cv (T2 − T1 ) = (10)(716)(25 − 15) = 7.16 × 104 J = 71.6 kJ

∆H = M cp (T2 − T1 ) = (10)(1003)(25 − 15) = 1.003 × 105 J = 100.3 kJ

(b) In this case, v1/v2 = 1/0.5 = 2. Equations 12.25 and 12.27 give
( )k−1 ( )1.40−1
v1 1
T1 v1k−1 = T2 v2k−1 → T2 = T1 → T2 = (288) = 380 K = 107◦ C
v2 0.5
( )k ( )1.40
v1 1
p1 v1k = p2 v2k → p2 = p1 → p2 = (90) = 238 kPa
v2 0.5

The change in internal energy, ∆U , and the change in enthalpy, ∆H, are given by

∆U = M cv (T2 − T1 ) = (10)(716)(107 − 15) = 6.59 × 105 J = 659 kJ

∆H = M cp (T2 − T1 ) = (10)(1003)(107 − 15) = 9.23 × 105 J = 923 kJ

12.2. From the given data: p1 = 1500 kPa, ρ1 = 15 kg/m3 , p2 = 200 kPa, and T2 = 77◦ C = 350 K.
From the properties of CO2 given in Appendix B.5: cp = 858 J/kg·K, cv = 670 J/kg·K, and
hence R = 858 − 670 = 188 J/kg·K. Using these data, the required information is calculated
as follows:

p1 1500 × 103
T1 = = = 532 K = 259◦ C
Rρ1 (188)(15)

549
 p2 200 × 103
ρ2 = = = 3.04 kg/m3
RT2 (188)(350)

∆h = cp (T2 − T1 ) = (858)(350 − 532) = −1.56 × 105 J/kg

T2 p2 350 200
∆s = cp ln − R ln = (858) ln − (188) ln = 19.7 J/kg·K
T1 p1 532 1500

12.3. From Equations 12.20 and 12.21,

du p dT dv
ds = + dv = cv +R (1)
T T T v
dh v dT dp
ds = − dp = cp −R (2)
T T T p

Combining these equations yields

dT dv dT dp
cv +R = cp −R
T v T p

which simplifies to ( )
dT dv dp
(cp − cv ) = R + (3)
T v p
From Equation 12.12,
R = cp − cv (4)
Combining Equations 3 and 4 gives

dT dv dp
= + (5)
T v p

Substitute Equation 5 into Equation 2 and simplifying gives

dp dv p2 v2
ds = cv + cp → s2 − s1 = cv ln + cp ln
p v p1 v1

12.4. From the given data: T1 = 25◦ C = 298 K, p1 = 250 kPa, and T2 = 30◦ C = 303 K. From Ap-
pendix B.5, for CO2 , cp = 858 m2 /s2 ·K and M = 44.01 kg/kmol. Since Ru = 8314 J/kmol·K,
then R = 8314/44.01 = 188.9 J/kg·K. Heating the gas in a fixed volume does not change its
density, so
p1 p2 250 p2
ρ1 = ρ2 → = → = → p2 = 254 kPa
T1 T2 298 303
The change in entropy, ∆s, is given by
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
T2 p2 303 254
∆s = cp ln − R ln = (858) ln − 188.9 ln = 11.3 J/kg·K
T1 p1 298 250

550
12.5. From the given data: p1 = 200 kPa, T1 = 120◦ C = 393 K, V1 = 200 m/s, p2 = 220 kPa, T2
= 70◦ C = 343 K, and A = 5 × 10−4 m2 . For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K, and
cv = 716 J/kg·K. The quantities of interest are calculated as follows:

p1 200 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.77 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(393)

ṁ = ρ1 V1 A = (1.77)(200)(5 × 10−4 ) = 0.177 kg/s

∆h = cp (T2 − T1 ) = (1003)(343 − 393) = −50150 J/kg = −50.2 kJ/kg

∆u = cv (T2 − T1 ) = (716)(343 − 393) = −35800 J/kg = −35.8 kJ/kg

T2 p2 343 220
∆s = cp ln − R ln = (1003) ln − (287.1) ln = −164 J/kg·K
T1 p1 393 200

12.6. From the given data: p1 = 101 kPa, and p2 = 400 kPa. From Appendix B.5, for CO2 , M =
28.02 kg/kmol. Since Ru = 8314 J/kmol·K, then R = 8314/28.02 = 296.7 J/kg·K. Heat must
necessarily be lost from the system since compression without heat loss would necessarily
cause an increase in temperature, and hence keep the temperature from increasing heat must
be lost from the system. Since T1 = T2 , the change in entropy, ∆s is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
T2 p2 400
∆s = cp ln − R ln = 0 − 296.7 ln = −408 J/kg·K
T1 p1 101

12.7. From the given data: T1 = 25◦ C = 298 K, p1 = 101 kPa, and p2 = 400 kPa. From Appendix
B.5, for N2 , cp = 1040 m2 /s2 ·K and M = 28.02 kg/kmol. Since Ru = 8314 J/kmol·K, then
R = 8314/28.02 = 296.7 J/kg·K. Since the process is adiabatic, the change in entropy, ∆s, is
equal to zero, hence
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
T2 p2 T2 400
∆s = cp ln −R ln → 0 = (1040) ln −296.7 ln → T2 = 441 K = 168◦ C
T1 p1 298 101

12.8. From the given data: p = 250 kPa, and T = 350◦ C = 623 K. The relevant properties of Helium
(from Appendix B.5) are cp = 5220 J/kg·K, cv = 3143 J/kg·K, and hence R = cp − cv =
5220 − 3143 = 2077 J/kg·K and k = cp /cv = 5220/3143 = 1.661. The speed of sound is
therefore given by
√ √
c = RT k = (2077)(623)(1.661) = 1466 m/s

12.9. From the given data: T = 30◦ C = 303.15 K. The properties of oxygen (O2 ) at 30◦ C are given
in Appendix B.5 as follows: M = 32.00 kg/kmol, ρ = 1.33 kg/m3 , cp = 909 m2 /s2 ·K, and
cv = 649 m2 /s2 ·K. The universal gas constant is given by Ru = 8314 J/kmol·K. Using these
data, the speed of sound, c, is derived as follows:
Ru 8314
R= = = 259.8 J/kg·K
M 32.00

551
 cp 909
k= = = 1.401
cv 649
√ √
c = RT k = (259.8)(303.15)(1.401) = 332.2 m/s = 747 m/h

The speed of sound, c, is related to the bulk modulus of elasticity, Ev , by Equation 12.36
which gives
√ √
Ev Ev
c= → 332.2 = → Ev = 1.468 × 105 Pa = 146.8 kPa
ρ 1.33

The properties of water (H2 O) at 30◦ C are given in Appendix B.1 as follows: Ev = 2.25 × 106 kPa
and ρ = 995.7 kg/m3 . Hence the speed of sound, c is given by
√ √
Ev 2.25 × 109
c= = = 1503 m/s = 3382 m/h
ρ 995.7

12.10. For cast iron, Ev = 100 GPa, ρ = 7200 kg/m3 , and the speed of sound, c, and the time, ∆t,
to travel 1 km are as follows,
√ √
Ev 100 × 109 1000
c= = = 3730 m/s , ∆t = = 0.268 s
ρ 7200 3730

For seawater at 20◦ C, Appendix B.4 gives Ev = 2.300 GPa, ρ = 1023 kg/m3 , and the speed
of sound, c, and the time, ∆t, to travel 1 km are as follows,
√ √
Ev 2.300 × 109 1000
c= = = 1500 m/s , ∆t = = 0.667 s
ρ 1023 1500

For freshwater at 20◦ C, Appendix B.4 gives Ev = 2.171 GPa, ρ = 998 kg/m3 , and the speed
of sound, c, and the time, ∆t, to travel 1 km are as follows,
√ √
Ev 2.171 × 109 1000
c= = = 1470 m/s , ∆t = = 0.680 s
ρ 998 1470

For air at 20◦ C = 293 K, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, k = 1.40, and the speed of sound, c, and the
time, ∆t, to travel 1 km are as follows,
√ √ 1000
c= RT k = (287.1)(293)(1.40) = 343 m/s , ∆t = = 2.92 s
343

12.11. For the commercial aircraft: V = 246 m/s, and z = 9.75 km. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K
and k = 1.40. At an elevation of 9.75 m, the standard atmosphere (Appendix B.3) gives T
= −48.28◦ C = 224.9 K. Hence the Mach number, Ma, at which the aircraft operates is
V 246
Ma = √ =√ = 0.82
RT k (287.1)(224.9)(1.40)

552
 For the F-16: V = 470 m/s, and z = 13 km. At an elevation of 13 m, the standard atmosphere
(Appendix B.3) gives T = −56.50◦ C = 216.7 K. Hence the Mach number, Ma, at which the
F-16 operates is
V 470
Ma = √ =√ = 1.59
RT k (287.1)(216.7)(1.40)

12.12. From the given data: α = 30◦ , p = 101 kPa, and T = 20◦ C = 293.15 K. For air, R =
287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Using Equation 12.41,
( ) ( )
−1 1 ◦ −1 1
α = sin → 30 = sin → Ma = 2
Ma Ma
Using the definition of the Mach number,
V V V
Ma = =√ → 2= √ → V = 687 m/s
c RT k (287.1)(293.13)(1.40)

12.13. From the given data: z = 500 m, Ma = 2.4, and T = 10◦ C = 283 K. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K
and k = 1.40. The velocity of the projectile, V , and the distance, L, are given by the following
calculations:
√ √
V = Ma RT k = (2.4) (287.1)(283)(1.40) = 809 m/s
( ) ( )
−1 1 −1 1
α = sin = sin = 24.6◦
Ma 2.4

z 500
L= = = 1091 m
tan α tan 24.6◦

12.14. From the given data: Ma = 1.5, and ∆z = 3000 m. The Mach angle, α is given by
( ) ( )
−1 1 −1 1
α = sin = sin = 41.8◦
Ma 1.5
Let x be the distance of the sonic boom behind the aircraft at ground level, then
∆z 3000
tan α = → tan 41.8◦ = → x = 3354 m
x x
From Appendix B.3 the speed of sound at an elevation of 3000 m (= 3 km) is 328.58 m/s,
hence the velocity of the aircraft is V = 1.5(328.58) = 493.0 m/s. Therefore, the time ∆t
after which the sonic boom is heard is given by
x 3354
∆t = = = 6.80 s
V 493

12.15. From the given data: ∆z = 5500 m, and ∆x = 9.5 km = 9500 m. The Mach angle, α and
the Mach speed, Ma, of the aircraft are given by
( ) ( )
−1 ∆z −1 5500
α = tan = tan = 30.1◦
∆x 9500

553
 1 1
Ma = = = 2.00
sin α sin 30.1◦
This solution neglects the reality that the aircraft will actually create an oblique shock wave
that has a cone angle larger that the Mach angle. The variation of the speed of sound within
the atmosphere is also neglected; this would cause the actual shock wave to curve downward.
12.16. From the given data: p1 = 5 Pa, and p2 = 10 Pa. Using the definition of decibels given by
Equation 12.42,
( )
p1
L1 = 20 log10
pref
( )
p2
L2 = 20 log10
pref
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( )
p2 p1 p2 10
L2 − L1 = 20 log10 − log10 = 20 log10 = 20 log10 = 6 dB
pref pref p1 5

12.17. From the given data: V = 150 m/s, T = 90◦ C = 363 K, and p = 600 kPa. For air, R
= 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The Mach number, Ma, and stagnation temperature and
pressure, T0 and p0 , respectively, are calculated from the definition of the Mach number and
the isentropic ratios (Equations 12.51 and 12.53) as follows,
V 150
Ma = √ =√ = 0.3927
RT k (287.1)(363)(1.40)
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 p0 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ Ma2
→ = 1+ (0.3927)2
→ p0 = 667 kPa
p 2 600 2

T0 k−1 T0 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma2 → =1+ (0.3927)2 → T0 = 374 K = 101◦ C
T 2 363 2

12.18. From the given data: Ma = 2.0 and T = −45◦ C = 228 K. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k
= 1.40. The stagnation temperature, T0 , is given by Equation 12.53 as
T0 k−1 T0 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma2 → =1+ (2.0)2 → T0 = 410 K = 137◦ C
T 2 228 2
Therefore the nose cone of the aircraft can be expected to be 137◦ C − (−45◦ C) = 182◦ C
hotter than the surrounding air.
12.19. From the given data: T0 = 45◦ C = 318 K, p0 = 400 kPa, Ma = 1.5, and D = 300 mm =
0.300 m. The area of the conduit is A = πD2 /4 = 0.0707 m2 . For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and
k = 1.40. The pressure, p, and temperature, T , are calculated using Equations 12.51 and
12.53 as
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 400 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ Ma 2
→ = 1+ (1.5) 2
→ p = 109 kPa
p 2 p 2

T0 k−1 318 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma2 → =1+ (1.5)2 → T = 219 K = −54◦ C
T 2 T 2

554
 The density, ρ, velocity, V , and mass flow rate, ṁ, are given by
p 109 × 103
ρ= = = 1.73 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(219)
√ √
V = Ma RT k = (1.5) (287.1)(219)(1.40) = 445 m/s

ṁ = ρV A = (1.73)(445)(0.0707) = 54.5 kg/s

if the flow in the duct is isentropic, then the stagnation temperature and pressure remain
unchanged along the duct.

12.20. From the given data: z = 6000 m, and V1 = 240 m/s. In a standard atmosphere at an
elevation of 6000 m, Appendix B.3 gives p1 = 47.217 kPa, and T1 = −23.96◦ C = 249.2 K.
For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40.

(a) Using Equation 12.58 gives

V12 2402
T01 = T1 + = 249.2 + = 277.9 K
2cp 2(1003)
The corresponding Mach number at Section 1, Ma1 , can be calculated using Equation
12.53 which gives
T01 k−1 277.9 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma21 → =1+ Ma21 → Ma1 = 0.7590
T1 2 249.2 2
and hence the stagnation pressure at Section 1 can be determined from Equation 12.51
as follows
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p01 k−1 k−1 p01 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ Ma12
→ = 1+ (0.7590)2
→ p01 = 69.16 kPa
p1 2 47.217 2

Since the flow between Sections 1 and 2 are isentropic, then p02 = p01 = 69.2 kPa and
T02 = T01 = 277.9 K.
(b) For the given compressor, p03 /p02 = 10, and hence the stagnation temperature, T03 , is
given by
( ) k−1
T03 p03 k T03 1.40−1
= → = (10) 1.40 → T03 = 536.5 K
T02 p02 277.4
Hence the net energy per unit mass, e, added to the fluid in the compressor is given by

e = cp (T03 − T02 ) = (1003)(536.5 − 277.9) = 2.59 × 105 J/kg

12.21. For the incompressible flow of an ideal gas, the relationship between the actual pressure, p,
and the stagnation pressure, p0 , is given by
1 p0 ρV 2 V2 kV 2 kV 2
p0 = p + ρV 2 → =1+ =1+ =1+ =1+ 2
2 p 2p 2RT 2RT k 2c

555
 which yields
p0 k
= 1 + Ma2 (1)
p 2
This can be compared with the corresponding equation for compressible flow (Equation 12.51),
[ ] k
p0 k−1 2
k−1
= 1+ Ma (2)
p 2

Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives the magnitude of the relative error (as a percentage) in
using the incompressible-flow equation instead of the compressible-flow equation to estimate
p as 
 [ ] k 
 k k−1 k−1

1 + Ma − 1 +
2
Ma 2

 2 2 
relative error = [ ] k × 100 (3)
k−1 k−1
1+ Ma2
2
Taking k = 1.40 for air and Ma = 0.3, Equation 3 gives the relative error in calculating p0
for any given p as 0.13% . The incompressible-flow equation slightly under-predicts the the
stagnation pressure.

12.22. For the incompressible flow of an ideal gas, the relationship between the actual pressure, p,
and the stagnation pressure, p0 , is given by

1 p0 ρV 2 V2 kV 2 kV 2
p0 = p + ρV 2 → =1+ =1+ =1+ =1+ 2
2 p 2p 2RT 2RT k 2c

which yields
p0 k
= 1 + Ma2 (1)
p 2
This can be compared with the corresponding equation for compressible flow (Equation 12.51),
[ ] k
p0 k−1 2
k−1
= 1+ Ma (2)
p 2

Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives the magnitude of the relative error (as a percentage) in
using the incompressible-flow equation instead of the compressible-flow equation to estimate
p as  
{ }−1 {[ ] k }−1 
 k−1 
 1 + k Ma2
k−1
− 1 + Ma 2 
 2 2 
 
relative error = {[ } × 100 (3)
] k −1
k−1 k−1
1+ Ma2
2

Taking k = 1.40 for air, Equation 3 gives the relative error as 0.1% when Ma = 0.278 .

556
12.23. From Equation 12.51 the stagnation pressure ratio can be expressed as
[ ] k [ ] k
p0 k−1 k−1 p0 − p k−1 k−1
= 1+ Ma2
→ = 1+ Ma 2
−1 (1)
p 2 p 2
Using the ideal gas law, p = ρRT and Equation 1 becomes
[ ] k
p0 − p k−1 k−1
= 1+ Ma2
−1 (2)
ρRT 2
The left-hand-side of Equation 2 can be expressed as
√
p0 − p p0 − p V 2 p0 − p (Ma · RT k)2 p0 − p 1
= 1 2 = 1 2 = 1 2 k Ma2 (3)
ρRT 2 ρV
2RT 2 ρV
2RT 2 ρV
2

Combining Equations 2 and 3 yields

{[ ] k }
p0 − p 2 k−1 k−1
Cp = 1 2 = 1+ Ma2 −1
2 ρV k Ma2 2

12.24. From the given data: p0 = 1300 kPa, and T0 = 150◦ C = 623 K. For pure nitrogen, Appendix
B.5 gives cp = 1040 J/kg·K, cv = 743 J/kg·K, R = cp − cv = 297 J/kg·K, and k = cp /cv =
1.40. At Section 1, p1 = 800 kPa. The other fluid and flow properties are at Section 1 are
calculated as follows:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 1300 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Ma1 → = 1+ Ma12
→ Ma1 = 0.8626
p1 2 800 2
( ) k−1 ( ) 1.40−1
T0 p0 k 623 1300 1.40
= → = → T1 = 368.2 K = 95.1◦ C
T1 p1 T1 800
√ √
V1 = Ma1 RT1 k = (0.8626) (297)(368.2)(1.40) = 338 m/s

The isentropic critical conditions are given by Equations 12.62 and 12.63 as follows,
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k + 1 k−1 1300 1.40 + 1 1.40−1
= → ∗ = → p∗ = 687 kPa
p∗ 2 p 2

T0 k+1 623 1.40 + 1

∗
= → ∗
= → T ∗ = 352.5 = 79.4◦ C
T 2 T 2

12.25. From the given data: V = 200 m/s, T = 27◦ C = 300 K, and p = 150 kPa. For carbon dioxide,
cp = 858 J/kg·K, cv = 670 J/kg·K, R = cp − cv = 188 J/kg·K, and k = cp /cv = 1.281. The
density, ρ, and Mach number, Ma, under the given conditions are:

p 150 × 103
ρ= = = 2.660 kg/m3
RT (188)(300)

557
 V 200
Ma = √ =√ = 0.7441
RT k (188)(300)(1.281)

The pressure, p∗ , at the critical condition is given by

  k−1
k   1.281
k−1 2 1.281 − 1 2 1.281−1
p∗  1 + 2 Ma  p∗ 
1+ (0.7441)

=  → = 2  → p∗ = 116 kPa
p k+1 150 1.281 + 1
2 2
The temperature, T ∗ , at the critical condition is given by
k−1 1.281 − 1
T∗ 1+ Ma2 T ∗ 1+ (0.7441)2
= 2 → = 2 → T ∗ = 284 K = 11◦ C
T k+1 300 1.281 + 1
2 2
The density, ρ∗ , at the critical condition is given by

p∗ 116 × 103
ρ∗ = = = 2.17 kg/m3
RT ∗ (188)(284)

12.26. From the given data: Ma = 0.25, De = 50 mm = 0.050 m, and Q0 = 375 L/s = 0.0375 m3 /s.
Assume that the flow in the conduit is isentropic, air behaves like an ideal gas, and that
k = 1.40. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K. Since the exit is at the critical condition,
π 2 π
A∗ = D = (0.050)2 = 0.001963 m2
4 e 4
The conduit area, A, where Ma = 0.25 can be calculated using Equation 12.77, which gives
  2(k−1)
k+1   1.40+1
k−1 1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
1  1+ Ma2 1+ (0.25)
A 2  A 1  2 
∗
=   → =  
A Ma k+1 0.001963 0.25 1.40 + 1
2 2
√
Solving for A yields A = 0.004717 m2 , which corresponds to a diameter of D = 4(0.004717)/π
= 0.07749 m = 77.5 mm . Since Ma = 0.25 (< 0.3), compressibility effects between the con-
duit entrance and the section of interest can be neglected. Consequently, the velocity, V , can
be estimated as
Q0 0.375
V = = = 79.5 m/s
A 0.004717
The corresponding sonic velocity, c, can be calculated as follows,
V V 79.5
Ma = → c= = = 318 m/s
c Ma 0.25
and the temperature, T , corresponding to a sonic speed of 318 m/s is given by
√ c2 3182
c= RT k → T = = = 251.6 K = −21.6◦ C
Rk (287.1)(1.40)

558
12.27. From the given data: A1 = 2 × 10−3 m2 , Ma1 = 0.4, T1 = 70◦ C = 343 K, p1 = 700 kPa, and
Ma2 = 0.8. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Calculations to determine the mass flow
rate, ṁ, are as follows:

p1 × 103 700 × 103

ρ1 = = = 7.11 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(343)
√ √
V1 = Ma1 RT1 k = (0.4) ∗ (287.1) ∗ (343) ∗ (1.40) = 148 m/s

ṁ = ρ1 V1 A1 = (7.11)(148)(2 × 10−3 ) = 2.11 kg/s

Since the stagnation temperature and pressure remain constant along the conduit (since the
flow is isentropic) Equations 12.51 and 12.53 can each be applied at the downstream and
upstream section to yield,
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
k−1 k−1 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
1+ Ma21 1+ (0.4)2
p2 2 p2 2
=[ ] k → =[ ] 1.40 → p2 = 513 kPa
p1 k−1 k−1 700 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
1+ Ma22 1+ (0.8)2
2 2

k−1 1.40 − 1
T2 1+ Ma21 T 1+ (0.4)2
2 2 T2 = 314 K = 41◦ C
2
= → = →
T1 k−1 343 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma22 1+ (0.8)2
2 2
The velocity at the downstream section, V2 , is given by
√ √
V2 = Ma2 RT2 k = (0.8) (287.1)(314)(1.40) = 284 m/s

12.28. From the given data: pb = 600 kPa, Ae = 2 × 10−3 m2 , p0 = 800 kPa, and T0 = 80◦ C =
353 K. Assume isentropic flow in the nozzle. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. First,
determine the exit pressure that would cause critical conditions to occur at the exit. Denoting
this critical pressure as p∗ , Equation 12.62 gives
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k + 1 k−1 800 1.40 + 1 1.40−1
= → ∗ = → p∗ = 423 kPa
p∗ 2 p 2

Since pb > p∗ , the flow through the nozzle is subsonic. Taking the exit pressure as pe = pb =
600 kPa, Equation 12.51 gives
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 800 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ 2
Mae → Mae = 0.655
pe 2 600 2

The temperature at the exit is given by Equation 12.53 as

T0 k−1 353 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma2e → =1+ (0.655)2 → Te = 325 K
Te 2 Te 2

559
 The mass flux through the nozzle, ṁ, is given by Equation 12.89 as
√ √
k −3 1.40
ṁ = pe Ae Mae = (600 × 10 )(2 × 10 )(0.655)
3
= 3.04 kg/s
RTe (287.1)(325)

12.29. From the given data: T1 = 25◦ C = 298 K, p1 = 100 kPa, V1 = 88 m/s, A1 = 70 cm2 , and
A2 = 45 cm2 . For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The inlet Mach number, Ma1 , is
calculated as follows:
V1 88
Ma1 = √ =√ = 0.2543
RT1 k (287.1)(298)(1.40)

The critical area, A∗ , can be calculated from Equation 12.77 as follows,

  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
A1 1  1 + 2 Ma1 
=  
A∗ Ma1 k+1
2
  1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
70 1 1 + (0.2543)

=  2  → A∗ = 29.59 cm2
A∗ 0.2543 1.40 + 1
2
Since A2 > A∗ the exit flow is subsonic. The exit Mach number can be calculated from
Equation 12.77, which gives
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
A2 1  1 + 2 Ma2 
=  
A∗ Ma2 k+1
2
  1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
45 1 1 + 2
Ma2

=   → Ma2 = 0.4229
29.59 Ma2 1.40 + 1
2
The exit pressure, p2 , and exit temperature, T2 , can be calculated from Equations 12.51 and
12.53 as follows,
  k−1
k   1.40
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2 1.40−1
p2  1 + 2 Ma1  p2 
1+
2
(0.2543)

=  → =  → p2 = 92.5 kPa
p1 k−1 100 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma22 1+ (0.4229)2
2 2
k−1 1.40 − 1
T2 1+ Ma21 T2 1+ (0.2543)2
= 2 → = 2 → T2 = 291 K = 18◦ C
T1 k−1 298 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma22 1+ (0.4229)2
2 2

560
12.30. From the given data: T0 = 15◦ C = 288 K, p0 = 400 kPa, and Ae = 0.0013 m2 . For air, R =
287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The critical pressure, p∗ , can be calculated using Equation 12.62,
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k + 1 k−1 400 1.40 + 1 1.40−1
= → ∗ = → p∗ = 211 kPa
p∗ 2 p 2
Therefore, when the back pressure is less than or equal to 211 kPa the flow is choked and the
mass flow rate is is given by Equation 12.91 as
( ) k+1 √
2 2(k−1) k
ṁ = Ae p0
k+1 RT0
( ) 1.40+1 √
2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
= (0.0013)(400 × 103 ) = 1.24 kg/s
1.40 + 1 (287.1)(288)
When the back pressure is equal to 250 kPa, then pe = 250 kPa and the mass flow rate is
given by the following calculations (using Equations 12.51 and 12.90),
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 400 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ Mae2
→ = 1+ Mae2
→ Mae = 0.8477
pe 2 250 2
√
√ 1.40
k (0.0013)(0.8477)(400 × 10 ) 3
Ae Mae p0 (287.1)(288)
RT0
ṁ = [ ] k+1 → [ ] 1.40+1 = 1.21 kg/s
k−1 2
2(k−1) 1.40 − 1 2
2(1.40−1)
1+ Mae 1+ (0.8477)
2 2

Therefore, the mass flow rate varies in the range of 1.21–1.24 kg/s .

12.31. From the given data: p0 = 150 kPa, T0 = 177◦ C = 450 K, and De = 25 mm = 0.025 m. The
area of the exit port is 4.909 × 10−4 m2 . For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Determine
the critical pressure, p∗ , using Equation 12.62 as follows
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k + 1 k−1 150 1.40 + 1 1.40−1
= → ∗ = → p∗ = 79.24 kPa
p∗ 2 p 2
(a) In this case pb = 50 kPa. Since pb < p∗ then pe = p∗ = 79.2 kPa . Under this condition
the flow is choked and the mass flow rate is given by Equation 12.91 as
( ) k+1 √
2 2(k−1) k
ṁ = Ae p0
k+1 RT0
( ) 1.40+1 √
2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
= (4.909 × 10−4 )(150 × 103 ) = 0.1403 kg/s
1.40 + 1 (287.1)(450)

(b) In this case pb = 85 kPa. Since pb > p∗ then pe = pb = 85 kPa . The Mach number at
the exit can be calculated using Equation 12.51 where
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 150 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ Mae2
→ = 1+ 2
Mae → Mae = 0.9386
pe 2 85 2

561
 The mass flow rate is given by Equation 12.91 as
√
k
Ae Mae p0
RT0
ṁ = [ ] k+1
k−1 2
2(k−1)
1+ Mae
2
√
1.40
(4.909 × 10−4 )(0.9386)(150 × 103 )
(287.1)(450)
= [ ] 1.40+1 = 0.1398 kg/s
1.40 − 1 2
2(1.40−1)
1+ (0.9386)
2

12.32. From the given data: p0 = 101 kPa, T0 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K, and De = 15 mm = 0.015 m.
Assume that the flow through the nozzle is isentropic, air behaves like an ideal gas, and that
k = cp /cv = 1.40 for the conditions encountered in the nozzle. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and
the density of the air, ρ0 , at the entrance to the nozzle and the area of the nozzle at the exit,
Ae , are given by

p 101 × 103
ρ0 = = = 1.221 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(288.15)
π 2 π
Ae = D = (0.015)2 = 1.767 × 10−4 m2
4 e 4
Take the entrance conditions as the stagnation conditions. The maximum flow rate occurs
when the sonic condition exists at the exit of the nozzle. Under the sonic condition, the
pressure at the exit is p∗ and Equation 12.88 gives
( ) k ( ) 1.4
p∗ 2 k−1 p∗ 2 1.4−1
= → = → p∗ = 53.4 kPa
p0 k+1 101 1.4 + 1

Hence the maximum flow rate through the nozzle occurs when pb ≤ 53.4 kPa . The maximum
flow rate under these conditions, ṁmax , is given by Equation 12.91 as
( ) k+1 √
2 k
2(k−1)
ṁmax = Ae p0
k+1 RT0
( ) 1.40+1
√
−4 2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
= (1.767 × 10 )(101 × 10 )
3
1.40 + 1 (287.1)(288.15)
= 0.0425 kg/s

12.33. From the given data: p1 = 900 kPa, T1 = 550◦ C = 823 K, V1 = 170 m/s, and Ae = 0.004 m2 .
For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. First, find the back pressure, p∗ , at which the
flow in the throat is sonic (i.e., choked):
V1 150
Ma1 = √ =√ = 0.2956
RT1 k (287.1)(823)(1.40)

562
 [ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 p0 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Ma1 → = 1+ (0.2956) 2
→ p0 = 956.3 kPa
p1 2 900 2
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k + 1 k−1 956.3 1.40 + 1 1.40−1
= → = → p∗ = 505.2 kPa
p∗ 2 p∗ 2

Therefore, for a back pressure less than 505.2 kPa the exit flow is sonic (i.e., choked), and for
a back pressure greater than 505.2 kPa the exit flow is subsonic. Consider first the case where
pe = 600 kPa. In this case the exit flow is subsonic and the mass flow rate, ṁ, is calculated
as follows:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 956.3 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ 2
Mae → Mae = 0.8439
pe 2 600 2

T0 k−1 T0 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma21 → =1+ (0.2956)2 → T0 = 837.4 K
T1 2 823 2
√
√ 1.40
k (0.004)(0.8439)(956.3 × 103 )
Ae Mae p0 (287.1)(837.4)
RT0
ṁ = [ ] k+1 = [ ] 1.40+1 = 5.22 kg/s
k−1 2(k−1) 1.40 − 1 2(1.40−1)
1+ Ma2e 1+ (0.8439)2
2 2

Consider next the case where pe = 300 kPa. In this case the exit flow is sonic, the exit
pressure is 505.2 kPa (= p∗ ) and the mass flow rate, ṁ, is calculated as follows:
( ) k+1 √ ( ) 1.40+1
√
2 2(k−1) k 2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
ṁ = Ae p0 = (0.004)(956.3 × 103 )
k+1 RT0 1.40 + 1 (287.1)(837.4)

= 5.34 kg/s

12.34. From the given data: patm = 101 kPa, p0 = 200 kPa + 101 kPa = 301 kPa, T0 = 20◦ C =
293 K, and D = 4 mm = 0.004 m. The area of the hole is A = πD2 /4 = 7.854 × 10−7 m2 .
For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Find the back pressure, p∗ , at which the flow
in the throat is sonic (i.e., choked):
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k + 1 k−1 301 1.40 + 1 1.40−1
= → ∗ = → p∗ = 159 kPa
p∗ 2 p 2

Since patm < p∗ (i.e. 101 kPa < 159 kPa) the exit flow is sonic. The exit velocity, Ve , and the
mass flow rate, ṁ, are hence calculated as follows:

T0 k+1 293 1.40 + 1

= → = → T ∗ = 244.2
T∗ 2 T∗ 2
√ √
Ve = RT ∗ k = (287.1)(244.2)(1.40) = 313 m/s

563
 ( ) k+1 √ ( ) 1.40+1
√
2 2(k−1) k 2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
ṁ = A p0 = (7.854 × 10−7 )(301 × 103 )
k+1 RT0 1.40 + 1 (287.1)(293)

= 5.58 × 10−4 kg/s

12.35. From the given data: At = 8 cm2 , and Ma = 2.5. For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k
= 1.40. Since the flow in the throat of the nozzle is sonic, the isentropic area-ratio formula
(Equation 12.77) gives
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
A 1  1 + 2 Ma 
=  k+1 
At Ma
2
  1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
A 1 1 + 2
(2.5)

=   → A = 21 cm2
8 2.5 1.40 + 1
2

12.36. From given data: Aratio = 8, p0 = 3000 kPa, and T0 = 27◦ C = 300 K. For air, take R =
287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The Mach number at the exit, Mae , can be derived from the
area-ratio formula (Equation 12.77) which gives
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
1  1 + 2 Mae 
Aratio =  k+1 
Mae
2
  2(1.40−1)
1.40+1
1.40 − 1
1  1+ Ma2e
2 
8=   → Mae = 3.923
Mae 1.40 + 1
2
The pressure, pe , and temperature, Te , at the exit section are given by the isentropic rela-
tionships (Equations 12.51 and 12.53) as follows
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 3000 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ (3.923) 2
→ pe = 29.2 kPa
pe 2 pe 2

T0 k−1 300 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma2e → =1+ (3.923)2 → Te = 85.8 K = −187◦ C
Te 2 Te 2
The exit velocity, Ve , is derived from Mae and Te as follows
√ √
Ve = Mae RTe k = (3.923) (287.1)(85.8)(1.40) = 729 m/s

Since the test section has an area of 0.01 m2 and the area ratio is 8, then the throat area is
At = 0.01/8 = 0.00125 m2 . Since sonic conditions exit in the throat of the nozzle, the mass

564
 flow rate is given by Equation 12.91 as
( ) k+1 √
2 2(k−1) k
ṁ = At p0
k+1 RT0
( ) 1.40+1
√
2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
= (0.00125)(3000 × 103 ) = 8.75 kg/s
1.40 + 1 (287.1)(300)

12.37. From the given data: T0 = 15◦ C = 288 K, p0 = 400 kPa, At = 0.0015 m2 , and Ae = 0.0045 m2 .
For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Since the flow in the throat is sonic (i.e., Ma
= 1), the possible exit Mach numbers are given by the solutions to Equation 12.77, where
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
Ae 1  1 + 2 Mae 
=  k+1 
At Mae
2
  1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
0.0045 1 1 + 2
Mae

=   → Mae = 0.1974, or Mae = 2.637
0.0015 Mae 1.40 + 1
2
For Mae = 0.1974, the pressure, temperature, and velocity are calculated using the isentropic
relationships as follows:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 400 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ (0.1974) 2
→ pe = 389 kPa
pe 2 pe 2

T0 k−1 288 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma2e → =1+ (0.1974)2 → Te = 286 K = 13◦ C
Te 2 Te 2
√ √
Ve = Mae RTe k = (0.1974) (287.1)(286)(1.40) = 66.6 m/s

For Mae = 2.637, the pressure, temperature, and velocity are calculated as follows:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 400 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ (2.637) 2
→ pe = 18.9 kPa
pe 2 pe 2

T0 k−1 288 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma2e → =1+ (2.637)2 → Te = 120 K = −153◦ C
Te 2 Te 2
√ √
Ve = Mae RTe k = (2.637) (287.1)(120)(1.40) = 580 m/s

At both Mae = 0.1974 and Mae = 2.637 the flow is choked and the mass flow rate through
the nozzle is given by Equation 12.91 as
( ) 2(k−1)
k+1 √ ( ) 2(1.40−1)
1.40+1 √
2 k 2 1.40
ṁ = At p0 = (0.0015)(400) = 1.429 kg/s
k+1 RT0 1.40 + 1 (287.1)(288)

565
12.38. From the given data: A1 = 0.08 m2 , Ma1 = 0.5, T1 = 16◦ C = 289.15 K, p1 = 500 kPa, and
Ma2 = 2.5. For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Air flow throughout the nozzle is
isentropic. Applying Equation 12.77 to both Sections 1 and 2 and dividing the equation at
Section 1 by the equation at Section 2 yields
[ ] k+1
k−1 2
2(k−1)
Ma2 1 + Ma1
A1 2
= [ ] k+1
A2 k−1 2(k−1)
2
Ma1 1 + Ma2
2
[ ] 1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2
2(1.40−1)
(2.5) 1 + (0.5)
0.08 2
= [ ] 1.40+1 → A2 = 0.157 m2
A2 1.40 − 1 2(1.40−1)
2
(0.5) 1 + (2.5)
2

Similarly, applying Equation 12.53 to both Sections 1 and 2 and dividing the equation at
Section 1 by the equation at Section 2 yields
k−1 1.40 − 1
T2 1+ Ma21 T2 1+ (0.5)2
= 2 → = 2 → T2 = 134.4 K = −138.9◦ C
T1 k−1 289.15 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma22 1+ (2.5)2
2 2
In like manner, applying Equation 12.51 to both Sections 1 and 2 and dividing the equation
at Section 1 by the equation at Section 2 yields
  k−1
k   k
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2 k−1
p2  [1 + 2 Ma1  p2 
1+
2
(0.5)

=  → =  → p2 = 34.7 kPa
p1 k−1 500 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma22 1+ (2.5)2
2 2

12.39. From the given data: V1 = 150 m/s, p1 = 450 kPa, T1 = 200◦ C = 473 K, and D1 = D2 =
150 mm = 0.15 m. The areas of the nozzle at Sections 1 and 2 are A1 = A2 = 0.01767 m2 .
For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The Mach number, Ma1 , and density, ρ1 , at Section
1 are given by
V1 150
Ma1 = √ = = 0.3440
RT1 k (287.1)(473)(1.40)
p1 450 × 103
ρ1 = = = 3.314 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(473)
The critical area, A∗ , is derived from Equation 12.77 as follows
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
A1 1  1 + 2 Ma1 
=  
A∗ Ma1 k+1
2

566
   1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
0.01767 1 1 + (0.3440)

∗
=  2  → A∗ = 0.009793 m2
A 0.3440 1.40 + 1
2
Applying Equation 12.77 at Section 2 with A∗ = 0.009793 m2 gives
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
A2 1  1 + 2 Ma2 
=  
A∗ Ma2 k+1
2
  1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
0.01767 1 1 + 2
Ma2

=   → Ma2 = 0.3440, 2.079
0.009793 Ma2 1.40 + 1
2
Here we get two possible Mach numbers which could occur at Sections 2. Both Ma = 0.3440
and Ma = 2.079 are possible, depending on whether subsonic flow or supersonic flow is
occurring in the diverging part of the nozzle. These flow conditions are considered separately
below.
(a) Consider the case of subsonic flow in the diverging part of the nozzle. In this case, the
flow conditions in the downstream section are the same as the (given) flow conditions
in the upstream section with the same area. Therefore, the pressure, temperature,
density, and velocity at Section 2 are 450 kPa , 200◦ C , 3.314 kg/m3 , and 150 m/s ,
respectively.
(b) Consider the case of supersonic flow in the diverging part of the nozzle. In this case, the
flow properties at Section 2 correspond to Ma2 = 2.079 and the pressure and temperature
are calculated as follows,
  k−1
k   1.40
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2 1.40−1
p2  1+ Ma 1 1 + (0.3440)
2 p2  2 
=  → =  → p2 = 55.2 kPa
p1 k−1 2 450 1.40 − 1 2
1+ Ma2 1+ (2.079)
2 2
k−1 1.40 − 1
T2 1+ Ma21 T 1+ (0.3440)2
2 2 → T2 = 260 K = −13◦ C
2
= → =
T1 k−1 473 1.40 − 1 2
1+ Ma22 1+ (2.079)
2 2
The density, ρ2 , and velocity, V2 , can be derived from these results as follows,
p2 55.2 × 103
ρ2 = = = 0.740 kg/m3
RT2 (287.1)(260)
√ √
V2 = Ma2 RT2 k = (2.079) (287.1)(260)(1.40) = 672 m/s

Therefore, the pressure, temperature, density, and velocity at Section 2 are 55.2 kPa ,
−13◦ C , 0.740 kg/m3 , and 672 m/s , respectively.

567
12.40. From the given data: At = 0.12 m2 , V1 = 100 m/s, p1 = 80 kPa, and T1 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K.
For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Since the exit flow is supersonic, choked
conditions must exist in the throat. The Mach number at Section 1, Ma1 , is calculated as
follows:
V1 100
Ma1 = √ =√ = 0.2938
RT1 k (287.1)(288.15)(1.40)
Since there is no shock within the nozzle, the stagnation pressure, p0 , and stagnation tem-
perature, T0 , remain constant and can be calculated using Equations 12.51 and 12.53 as
follows,
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 p0 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Ma1 → = 1+ (0.2938) 2
→ p0 = 84.94 kPa
p1 2 80 2

T0 k−1 T0 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma21 → =1+ (0.2938)2 → T0 = 293.1 K
T1 2 T1 2
The mass flux through the nozzle is then given by Equation 12.96
( ) k+1 √
2 2(k−1) k
ṁ = At p0
k+1 RT0
( ) 1.40+1 √
2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
= (0.12)(84.94 × 10 )
3
= 24.1 kg/s
1.40 + 1 (287.1)(293.1)

12.41. From the given data: p0 = 150 kPa, T0 = 127◦ C = 400 K, Mae = 2.1, and ṁ = 1.8 kg/s.
For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and assume that k = 1.40. Since the exit flow is supersonic the
flow through the throat is at the critical (sonic) condition and the mass flow rate is given by
Equation 12.96 such that
( ) k+1 √
2 2(k−1) k
ṁmax = At p0
k+1 RT0
( ) 1.40+1 √
2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
1.8 = At (150 × 103 ) → At = 0.005939 m2
1.40 + 1 (287.1)(400)

Therefore the required throat diameter, D, is given by

√
4A
D= = 0.0869 m = 86.9 mm ≈ 87 mm
π

12.42. From the given data: p0 = 1100 kPa, T0 = 627◦ C = 900 K, At = 0.0025 m2 , and Mae = 2.3.
For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40.

(a) Since the discharge from the CD nozzle is supersonic, then flow conditions in the throat
must be sonic. Hence determine the sonic conditions as follows:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k + 1 k−1 1100 1.40 + 1 1.40−1
= → ∗ = → p∗ = 581 kPa
p∗ 2 p 2

568
 T0 k+1 900 1.40 + 1
∗
= → ∗
= → T ∗ = 750 K = 477◦ C
T 2 T 2
√ √
V ∗ = RT ∗ k = (287.1)(750)(1.40) = 549 m/s

(b) At the exit of the CD nozzle the fluid properties are determined as follows:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 1100 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ (2.3)2
→ pe = 88.0 kPa
pe 2 pe 2

T0 k−1 900 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma2e → =1+ (2.3)2 → Te = 437 K = 164◦ C
Te 2 Te 2
√ √
Ve = Mae RTe k = (2.3) (287.1)(437)(1.40) = 964 m/s

12.43. From the given data: p0 = 900 kPa, T0 = 277◦ C = 400 K, At = 0.003 m2 , and pe = 30 kPa.
For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The Mach number at the exit is determined by
applying the isentropic pressure relation, Equation 12.51, which gives
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 900 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ 2
Mae → Mae = 2.866
pe 2 30 2
Applying the isentropic area-ratio formula (Equation 12.77) and noting that flow conditions
in the throat must be critical (i.e., A∗ = At ) gives
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1
1  1+ Ma2e
Ae 2 
=  k+1 
At Mae
2
  2(1.40−1)
1.40+1
1.40 − 1
1  1+ (2.866)2
Ae 2 
=   → Ae = 0.01118 m2
0.003 2.866 1.40 + 1
2
Under design conditions, the nozzle is choked and the mass flow rate, ṁ, is given by Equation
12.91 as follows
( ) k+1 √
2 2(k−1) k
ṁ = At p0
k+1 RT0
( ) 1.40+1 √
2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
= (0.003)(900 × 10 )
3
= 4.65 kg/s
1.40 + 1 (287.1)(400)

The temperature at the exit, Te , is given by the isentropic relation (Equation 12.53) which
requires that
T0 k−1 400 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma2e → =1+ (2.866)2 → Te = 208 K = −65◦ C
Te 2 Te 2

569
 The velocity at the exit, Ve is derived from the definition of the Mach number, hence
√ √
Ve = Mae RTe k = (2.866) (287.1)(208)(1.40) = 829 m/s

12.44. From the given data: Dt = 15 mm = 0.015 m, De = 40 mm = 0.040 m, T0 = 150◦ C = 423 K,

p0 = 900 kPa. For the given throat and exit diameters the corresponding cross-sectional areas
are At = 1.767 × 10−4 m2 and Ae = 1.257 × 10−3 m2 . For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k =
1.40.

(a) For the given throat and exit areas, the exit Mach number, Mae , must satisfy Equation
12.77 which requires that
  2(k−1)
k+1   1.40+1
k−1 1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
1  1+ Ma2e 1.257 × 10 −3 1 + Ma
Ae 2  1  2 e
=   → −4
=  
At Mae k+1 1.767 × 10 Mae 1.40 + 1
2 2
which yields two solutions, Mae = 3.55 and Mae = 0.0817. For the design condition,
Mae = 3.55. For Mae = 3.55, Equation 12.51 gives
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 900 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ (3.55) 2
→ pe = 11.0 kPa
pe 2 pe 2

The corresponding mass flow rate is given by Equation 12.96 as

( ) k+1 √
2 k
2(k−1)
ṁ = At p0
k+1 RT0
( ) 1.40+1
√
−4 2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
= (1.767 × 10 )(900 × 10 )
3
= 0.313 kg/s
1.40 + 1 (287.1)(423)

(b) As calculated in Part (a), an exit Mach number of 0.0817 will occur when the flow is
sonic in the throat and subsonic in both the converging and diverging parts of the nozzle.
For Mae = 0.0817, Equation 12.51 gives
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 900 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ (0.0817) 2
→ pe = 896 kPa
pe 2 pe 2

Hence for back pressures greater than 896 kPa the flow will not attain supersonic speed
within the nozzle.

12.45. From the given data: Aratio = 5, p0 = 900 kPa, and pb = 90 kPa. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K
and k = 1.40. The exit Mach number, Mae , is derived from Equation 12.77 where
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
1  1 + 2 Mae 
Aratio =  k+1 
Mae
2

570
   1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
1 1 + 2
Mae

5=   → Mae = 3.175
Mae 1.40 + 1
2
The corresponding exit pressure, pe , is derived from the isentropic pressure relationship,
Equation 12.51, as
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 900 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ 2
Mae → pe = 18.9 kPa
pe 2 pe 2

Since pe < pb (i.e., 18.9 kPa < 90 kPa) the exit flow is overexpanded . This condition will
lead to the occurrence of a shock inside the nozzle such that the exit pressure will become
equal to the back pressure.

12.46. From the given data: Ma1 = 2.5. For air, assume k = 1.40. The Mach number downstream of
the shock and the fractional changes in temperature across the shock are given by Equations
12.107 to 12.108 as follows:
2 2
Ma21 + (2.5)2 +
Ma22 = k − 1 = 1.40 −1 → Ma2 = 0.513
2k 2(1.40)
Ma21 − 1 (2.5)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1
( )( )
k−1 k−1
1+ Ma12
k Ma1 −
2
T2 2 2
= ( )2
T1 k+1
Ma21
2
[ ][ ]
1.40 − 1 1.40 − 1
1+ (2.5) 2
1.40 (2.5) −
2
2 2 T2
= ( )2 → = 2.138
1.40 + 1 2
T1
(2.5)
2

p2 2k k−1 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1 p2

= Ma21 − = (2.5)2 − → = 7.13
p1 k+1 k+1 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1 p1

Based on these results:

downstream Mach number = Ma2 = 0.513

( ) ( )
T2 − T1 T2
change in temperature = × 100 = − 1 × 100 = (2.138 − 1) × 100 = 114%
T1 T1
( ) ( )
p2 − p1 p2
change in pressure = × 100 = − 1 × 100 = (7.13 − 1) × 100 = 613%
p1 p1

12.47. From the given data: Ma1 = 1.8, T1 = −40◦ C = 233 K, and p1 = 30 kPa. For air, R =
287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The stagnation pressure and temperature before the shock, p01

571
 and T01 , and the stagnation pressure and temperature after the shock, p02 and T02 , can be
determined using Equations 12.51, 12.53, 12.111, and 12.112 which give,
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p01 k−1 k−1 p01 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Ma1 → = 1+ (1.8) 2
→ p01 = 172.4 kPa
p1 2 30 2

T01 k−1 T01 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma21 → =1+ (1.8)2 → T01 = 384 K
T1 2 233 2
  k   1.40
k+1 2
k−1 1.40 + 1 2
1.40−1

 Ma 1   (1.8) 
 2   2 
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2
p02 1+ Ma1 p02 1 + (1.8)
=[ 2 → =[ 2
p01 ] 1 172.4 ] 1
2k k − 1 k−1 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
Ma1 −
2
(1.8) −
2
k+1 k+1 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1

→ p02 = 140.1 kPa

T02
=1 → T02 = T01 → T02 = 384 K
T01
The temperature and pressure at the stagnation point on the nose of the aircraft are 384 K =
111◦ C and 140 kPa , respectively. The change in entropy across the normal shock is given
by Equation 12.115 as
p01 172.4
s2 − s1 = R ln = (287.1) ln = 59.6 J/kg·K
p02 140.1

12.48. From the given data: T1 = 10◦ C = 283 K, p1 = 75 kPa, and V1 = 750 m/s. For air, R =
287.1 J/kg·K and assume that k = 1.40. Using these data, the upstream mach number, Ma1 ,
can be calculated as follows,

V1 750
Ma1 = √ =√ = 2.22
RT1 k (287.1)(283)(1.40)

(a) Corresponding fluid and flow properties across a normal shock are given by Equations
12.107 to 12.110, hence
2 2
Ma21 + (2.22)2 +
Ma22 = k − 1 = 1.40 −1 → Ma2 = 0.544
2k 2(1.40)
Ma21 − 1 (2.22)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1
( )( )
k−1 k−1
1+ Ma21 k Ma21 −
T2 2 2
= ( )2
T1 k+1
Ma21
2

572
 [ ][ ]
1.40 − 1 1.40 − 1
1+ (2.22)2 (1.40)(2.22)2 −
T2 2 2
→ = ( )2 → T2 = 531 K = 258◦ C
283 1.40 + 1
(2.22)2
2

p2 2k k−1 p2 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma21 − = = (2.22)2 − → p2 = 420 kPa
p1 k+1 k+1 75 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
k+1 1.40 + 1
ρ2 V1 Ma21 (2.22)2 V1 750
= = 2 = 2 = 2.98 → V2 = = = 251 m/s
ρ1 V2 k−1 1.40 − 1 2.98 2.98
1+ Ma21 1+ (2.22)2
2 2
(b) The air density, ρ1 , upstream of the shock is given by
p1 75 × 103
ρ1 = = = 0.923 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(283)
Using the density ratio calculated in Part (a), the density of the air, ρ2 , downstream of
the shock is given by

ρ2 = 2.98ρ1 = (2.98)(0.923) = 2.75 kg/m3

12.49. From the given data: p0 = 1100 kPa, T0 = 627◦ C = 900 K, and Max = 2.3. For air,
R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Assuming isentropic flow between the nozzle entrance
and upstream of the shock (designated as Section x), the fluid properties are determined as
follows:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 1100 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ Max2
→ = 1+ (2.3)2
→ px = 88.0 kPa
px 2 px 2

T0 k−1 900 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma2x → =1+ (2.3)2 → Tx = 437 K = 164◦ C
Tx 2 Tx 2
√ √
Vx = Max RTx k = (2.3) (287.1)(437)(1.40) = 964 m/s
Let Section y be the section immediately downstream of the shock, then
py 2k k−1 py 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1
= Ma2x − → = (2.3)2 − → py = 528 kPa
px k+1 k+1 88.0 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
( )( )
k−1 k−1
1+ Max2
k Max −
2
Ty 2 2
= ( )2
Tx k+1
Ma2x
2
( )( )
1.40 − 1 1.40 − 1
1+ (2.3)2 1.40(2.3)2 −
Ty 2 2
→ = ( )2 → Ty = 851 K = 578◦ C
437 1.40 + 1
(2.3)2
2

573
 2 2
Ma2x + (2.3)2 +
Ma2y = k−1 = 1.40 − 1 → May = 0.534
2k 2(1.40)
Max − 1
2
(2.3)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1

12.50. From the given data: Dt = 40 mm = 0.040 m, De = 90 mm = 0.090 m,p0 = 101 kPa, and
T0 = 15◦ C = 288 K. The areas of the throat and exit are: At = 0.001257 m2 , and Ae =
0.006362 m2 , respectively. The Mach number just upstream of the exit shock, Max , is given
by Equation 12.77 where
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
Ae 1  1 + 2 Max 
=  k+1 
At Max
2
  1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
0.006362 1 1 + 2
Max

=   → Max = 3.188
0.001257 Max 1.40 + 1
2
The pressures upstream, px , and downstream, py , of the exit shock are given by the isentropic
relationship (Equation 12.51) and normal-shock relationship (Equation 12.108) as follows:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 101 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Max → = 1+ (3.188) 2
→ px = 2.080 kPa
px 2 px 2

py 2k k−1 py 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma2x − → = (3.188)2 − → py = 24.3 kPa
px k+1 k+1 2.080 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1

Under the given condition the flow is choked and the mass flow rate is given by Equation
12.91 as
( ) k+1 √
2 2(k−1) k
ṁ = At p0
k+1 RT0
( ) 1.40+1 √
2 2(1.40−1) 1.40
= (0.001257)(101 × 103 ) = 0.3022 kg/s
1.40 + 1 (287.1)(288)

12.51. From the given data: Dt = 40 mm = 0.040 m, Ds = 65 mm = 0.065 m, De = 90 mm =

0.090 m, p0 = 101 kPa, and T0 = 15◦ C = 288 K. The areas of the throat, shock section, and
exit are: At = 0.001257 m2 , As = 0.003318 m2 , and Ae = 0.006362 m2 , respectively. The
Mach number just upstream of the shock, Max , is given by Equation 12.77 where
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
As 1  1 + 2 Max 
=  k+1 
At Max
2

574
   1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
0.003318 1 1 + 2
Max

=   → Max = 2.502
0.001257 Max 1.40 + 1
2
The pressures upstream, px , and downstream, py , of the shock and the Mach number down-
stream of the shock, May , are given by the isentropic relationship (Equation 12.51) and
normal-shock relationships (Equation 12.108 and 12.107) as follows:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 101 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Max → = 1+ (2.502)2
→ px = 5.897 kPa
px 2 px 2

py 2k k−1 py 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma2x − → = (2.502)2 − → py = 42.07 kPa
px k+1 k+1 5.897 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
v v
u u
u Ma2 + 2 u (2.502)2 + 2
u x
− u − 1 = 0.5128
May = u
t 2k
k 1 =u
t 2(1.40)
1.40
Ma2x − 1 (2.502)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1

The exit Mach number, Mae , is derived from the the isentropic area relationship (Equation
12.77) as

  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
As Mae  1 + 2 May 
=  k−1 
Ae May 2
1+ Mae
2
  1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
0.003318 Mae  1 + 2
(0.5128)

=   → Mae = 0.2372
0.006362 0.5128 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma2e
2
The pressure at the exit, pe , is given by the isentropic relation (Equation 12.51) as

  k−1
k   1.40
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2 1.40−1
1+ Ma 1 + (0.5128)
pe  2 y pe  2 
=  → =  → pe = 48.4 kPa
py k−1 2 42.07 1.40 − 1 2
1+ Mae 1+ (0.2372)
2 2

12.52. From the given data: Mae = 1.5, and p0 = 3 MPa. For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k =
1.40. Assume isentropic flow before and after any normal shock.

(a) Under design conditions the back pressure, pb , is given by Equation 12.51 as
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 3 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ (1.5)2
→ pb = 1.069 MPa
pb 2 pb 2

575
 (b) Under design conditions the area ratio, Ar , is given by Equation 12.77 as
  2(k−1)
k+1   1.40+1
k−1 1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
1  1+ Ma2e 1 + (1.5)
2  1  2 
Ar =  k+1  =  1.40 + 1  = 1.126
Mae 1.5
2 2
Use Equation 12.77 to find the other (subsonic) Mach number, Mae1 that has this same
area ratio:
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1
1  1+ Ma2e1
2 
1.126 =   → Mae1 = 0.6604
Mae1 k+1
2
where k = 1.40 has been used. Find the back/exit pressure corresponding to Mae1 =
0.6604 using Equation 12.51,
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 3 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae1 → = 1+ (0.6604) 2
→ pb1 = 2.612 MPa
pb1 2 pb1 2
Therefore, for back pressures higher than 2.612 MPa the flow in the nozzle will not be
choked.
(c) When the back pressure is slightly less than 2.162 MPa a normal shock will form just
downstream of the throat of the nozzle. As the back pressure is reduced below 2.162 MPa
the shock moves towards the exit. When the shock is just at the exit, the Mach number
just before the shock is Max = 1.5 and the pressure just before the shock, px , is derived
from Equation 12.51 as follows,
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0 k−1 k−1 3 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Max → = 1+ (1.5) 2
→ px = 1.069 MPa
px 2 px 2
and the pressure after the shock, py , is derived from Equation 12.108 as follows,

py 2k k−1 py 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma2x − → = (1.5)2 − → py = 2.337 MPa
px k+1 k+1 1.069 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1

Therefore, where the back pressure is in the range 2.337–2.612 MPa a normal shock
will occur within the nozzle.

12.53. From the given data: Ma = 1.5, p01 = 400 kPa, T01 = 227◦ C = 500 K, D1 = 75 mm, Ds
= 140 mm, and D2 = 200 mm. The areas corresponding to the given diameters are: A1 =
0.004419 m2 , As = 0.01539 m2 , and A2 = 0.03142 m2 . For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k
= 1.40. The Mach number before the shock is derived from Equation 12.77 as follows:
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
A1 Max  1 + 2 Ma1 
=  k−1 
As Ma1
1+ Ma2x
2

576
   1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
0.004419 Max  1 + 2
(1.5)

=   → Max = 2.966
0.01539 1.5 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma2x
2
where x denotes the section before the shock. The pressure and temperature before the shock
are given by Equations 12.51 and 12.53 as
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p01 k−1 k−1 400 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Max → = 1+ (2.966)2
→ px = 11.47 kPa
px 2 px 2

T01 k−1 500 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma2x → =1+ (2.966)2 → Tx = 181.2 K
Tx 2 Tx 2
Conditions after the shock, Section y, are given by Equations 12.107 to 12.112 which yield
v v
u u
u Ma2 + 2 u (2.966)2 + 2
u x
k−1 =u u 1.40 − 1 = 0.4773
May = ut 2k t 2(1.40)
Ma2x − 1 (2.966)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1
py 2k k−1 py 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1
= Ma2x − → = (2.966)2 − → py = 115.7 kPa
px k+1 k+1 11.47 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
[ ][ ]
k−1 k−1
1+ Ma2x k Ma2x −
Ty 2 2
= ( )2
Tx k+1
Ma2x
2
[ ][ ]
1.40 − 1 1.40 − 1
1+ (2.966) 2
1.40(2.966) −
2
Ty 2 2
→ = ( )2 → Ty = 478.2 K
181.2 1.40 + 1 2
(2.966)
2
  k
k+1 2
k−1

 Max 
 2 
k−1
p02 1+ Ma2x
=[ 2
p01 ] 1
2k k − 1 k−1
Max −
2
k+1 k+1
  1.40
1.40 + 1 2
1.40−1

 (2.966) 
 2 
1.40 − 1 2
p02 1 + (2.966)
2
400
=[ ] 1 → p02 = 135.3 kPa
2(1.40) 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
(2.966) −
2
1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1

577
 T02 = T01 = 500 K
The Mach number at the exit is derived from Equation 12.77 as follows:
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
A2 May  1 + 2 Ma2 
=  k−1 
As Ma2 2
1+ May
2
  2(1.40−1)
1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2
0.03142 0.4773  1 + 2
Ma2

=   → Ma2 = 0.2101
0.01539 Ma2 1.40 − 1
1+ (0.4773)2
2
where “2” denotes the exit section. The pressure and temperature at the exit are given by
Equations 12.51 and 12.53 as
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p02 k−1 k−1 135.3 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ Ma22
→ = 1+ (0.2101)2
→ p2 = 131.2 kPa
p2 2 p2 2

T02 k−1 500 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma22 → =1+ (0.2101)2 → T2 = 495.6 K = 222◦ C
T2 2 T2 2

12.54. From the given data: Are = 3, Ars = 1.5, and p0x = 900 kPa. For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K
and k = 1.40. The Mach number before the shock is derived from Equation 12.77 as follows:
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1
1  1+ Ma2x
2 
Ars =  k+1 
Max
2
  2(1.40−1)
1.40+1
1.40 − 1
1  1+ Ma2x
2 
1.5 =   → Max = 1.854
Max 1.40 + 1
2
The Mach number and stagnation pressure after the shock, May and p0y , respectively, are
given by Equations 12.107 and 12.111 as follows,
v v
u u
u Ma2 + 2 u (1.854)2 + 2
u x
k−1 =u u 1.40 − 1 = 0.6048
May = ut 2k t 2(1.40)
Max − 1
2
(1.854)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1
  k   1.40
k+1 2
k−1 1.40 + 1 2
1.40−1

 Max   (1.854) 
 2   2 
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2
p0y 1+ Max p0y 1 + (1.854)
2 2
p0x
=[ ] 1 → 900 = [ ] 1 → p0y = 709 kPa
2k k − 1 k−1 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
Max −
2
(1.854) −
2
k+1 k+1 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1

578
 The Mach number at the exit can be derived from the isentropic area relation, Equation 12.77
as follows
  2(k−1)
k+1   1.40+1
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
Ay Mae  1 + 2 May  1.5 Mae  1 + 2
(0.6048)

=   → =  
Ae May k − 1 3 0.6048 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma2e 1+ Ma2e
2 2

→ Mae = 0.2543

Finally, the pressure at the exit, pe , is derived from Equation 12.51 as follows:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0y k−1 k−1 709 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Mae → = 1+ (0.2543) 2
→ pe = 678 kPa
pe 2 pe 2

12.55. From the given data: p01 = 280 kPa, T0 = 177◦ C = 450 K, D1 = 1 m, D2 = 1.5 m, and D3
= 2 m. The cross-sectional areas (πD2 /4) are: A1 = 0.7854 m2 , A2 = 1.767 m2 , and A3 =
3.142 m2 . For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Between Section 1 and Section 2a,
A∗ = A1 = 0.7854 m2 and the Mach number at Section 2a, Ma2a , is derived from Equation
12.77 as
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1
1  1+ Ma22a
A2 2 
=  
A∗ Ma2a k+1
2
  2(1.40−1)
1.40+1
1.40 − 1
1  1+ Ma22a
1.767 2 
=   → Ma2a = 2.328
0.7854 Ma2a 1.40 + 1
2
The temperature and pressure at Section 2a are given by the isentropic relations
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p01 k−1 k−1 280 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Ma2a → = 1+ (2.328) 2
→ p2a = 21.42 kPa
p2a 2 p2a 2

T0 k−1 450 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma22a → =1+ (2.328)2 → T2a = 215.9 K = −57.3◦ C
T2a 2 T2a 2

The Mach number, temperature, pressure, and stagnation pressure at Section 2b are calcu-
lated using the normal-shock equations as follows,

2 2
Ma22a + (2.328)2 +
Ma22b = k−1 = 1.40 − 1 → Ma2b = 0.5311
2k 2(1.40)
Ma2a − 1
2
(2.328)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1

579
 p2b 2k k−1 p2b 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1
= Ma22a − → = (2.328)2 − → p2b = 131.9 kPa
p2a k+1 k+1 21.42 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
[ ][ ]
k−1 k−1
1+ Ma2a k Ma2a −
2 2
T2b 2 2
= ( )2
T2a k+1
Ma22a
2
[ ][ ]
1.40 − 1 1.40 − 1
1+ (2.328) 2
1.40(2.328) −
2
T2b 2 2
→ = ( )2
215.9 1.40 + 1
(2.328)2
2

→ T2b = 426.0 K = 152.9◦ C

  k
k+1 2
k−1

 Ma2a 
 2 
k−1
p02 1+ Ma22a
=[ 2
p01 ] 1
2k k − 1 k−1
Ma2a −
2
k+1 k+1
  1.40
1.40 + 1 2
1.40−1

 (2.328) 
 2 
1.40 − 1 2
p02 1 + (2.328)
→ =[ 2 → p02 = 159.9 kPa
280 ] 1
2(1.40) 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
(2.328) −
2
1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1

The Mach number at Section 3 is calculated using the isentropic area-flow relation (by ap-
plying Equation 12.77 at both Sections 2b and 3) as follows,

  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
A3 Ma2b  1 + 2 Ma3 
=  k−1 
A2 Ma3
1+ Ma22b
2
  2(1.40−1)
1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2
3.142 0.5311  1 + 2
Ma3

=   → Ma3 = 0.2642
1.767 Ma3 1.40 − 1
1+ (0.5311)2
2
The temperature and pressure at Section 3 are given by the isentropic relations
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p02 k−1 k−1 159.9 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Ma3 → = 1+ (0.2642) 2
→ p3 = 152.3 kPa
p3 2 p3 2

580
 T0 k−1 450 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma23 → =1+ (0.2642)2 → T3 = 443.8 K = 170.7◦ C
T3 2 T3 2

12.56. For air, k = 1.40. The entrance of the nozzle will be taken as Section 1, the center of the
throat as Section t, immediately upstream of the shock as Section x, immediately downstream
of the shock as Section y, and the exit of the nozzle as Section 2. The flow areas, A, at key
locations within the nozzle are as follows:
√ π
entrance/exit: D1 = D2 = 0.3 1 + 4(1.5)2 = 0.9487 m → A1 = A2 = D12 = 0.7069 m2
4
√ ∗ π 2
throat: Dt = 0.3 1 + 4(0) = 0.3 m → At = A = Dt = 0.0707 m
2 2
4
√ π
shock: Dx = Dy = 0.3 1 + 4(1.5 − 0.2)2 = 0.8357 m → Ax = Ay = Dx2 = 0.5485 m2
4
The Mach number at the entrance, Ma1 , and the Mach number immediately before the shock,
Max , can be determined using Equation12.77 with A = A1 at the entrance, A = Ax at the
shock, and A∗ = At at the throat, which yield
  2(k−1)
k+1   1.40+1
k−1 1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
1  1+ Ma21 1 + Ma
A1 2  0.7069 1  2 1
=   → =   → Ma1 = 0.0580
At Ma1 k+1 0.0707 Ma1 1.40 + 1
2 2
  2(k−1)
k+1   1.40+1
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
Ax 1  1 + 2 Max  0.5485 1 1 + 2
Max

=   → =   → Max = 3.644
At Max k + 1 0.0707 Max 1.40 + 1
2 2
The Mach number on the downstream side of the shock, May , can be determined using
Equation 12.107, which yields

2 2
Ma2x + (3.64)2 +
Ma2y = k − 1 = 1.40 −1 → May = 0.4459
2k 2(1.40)
Ma2x − 1 (3.64)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1

The Mach number at the exit of the nozzle, Ma2 , can be determined by applying Equation
12.77 at Sections y and 2, and these combined equations yield
  2(k−1)
k+1
k−1 2
1  1 + 2 May 
 k+1 
May
Ay 2
=   2(k−1)
k+1
A2 k−1 2
1  1 + 2 Ma2 
 k+1 
Ma2
2

581
   1.40+1
1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
1 1 + 2
(0.4459)

 1.40 + 1 
0.4459
0.5485 2
=   1.40+1 → Ma2 = 0.3281
0.7069 1.40 − 1 2 2(1.40−1)
1 1 + 2
Ma2

 1.40 + 1 
Ma2
2

The ratio of the stagnation pressure downstream of the shock, p0y , to the stagnation pressure
upstream of the shock, p0y , can be determined using Equation 12.111 which yields

  k   1.40
k+1 2
k−1 1.40 + 1 2 1.40−1

 Max   (3.644) 
 2   2 
k−1 1.40 − 1
p0y 1+ Max2
1+ (3.644)2 p0y
=[ 2 2 →
p0x ] 1 =[ ] 1 p0x
= 0.1880
2k k − 1 k−1 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
Max −
2
(3.644) −
2
k+1 k+1 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1

The ratio of the stagnation pressure to the local pressure at the entrance and exit of the
nozzle can be determined using Equation 12.51, which yields,

[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0x k−1 k−1 1.40 − 1 1.40−1 p0x
= 1+ 2
Ma1 = 1+ (0.0580) 2
→ = 1.002
p1 2 2 p1
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p0y k−1 k−1 1.40 − 1 1.40−1 p0y
= 1+ 2
Ma2 = 1+ (0.3281) 2
→ = 1.077
p2 2 2 p2

These results can be combined to give the ratio of the entrance pressure, p1 , to the exit
pressure, p2 as follows
( )
p2 p2 p0y p0x 1
= · · = · 0.1880 · 1.002 = 0.1749
p1 p0y p0x p1 1.077

Since p1 = 101 kPa, the exit pressure is p2 = (0.1749)(101) = 17.7 kPa .

12.57. Let the subscript x denote conditions before the shock and the subscript y denote conditions
after the shock. From the given data: p0y = 400 kPa, T0y = 250◦ C = 523.15 K, and px =
80 kPa. For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Using the isentropic relationship
for pressure before the shock (Equation 12.51) and the relationship between the stagnation
pressures across the shock (Equation) yield

[ ] k [ ] k
p0x k−1 k−1 k−1 k−1
= 1+ 2
Max → p0x = px 1 + 2
Max (1)
px 2 2

582
   k
k+1 2
k−1

 Max 
2 [ ] 1
 k−1  2k k − 1 k−1
1+ Ma2x Max −
2
p0y 2 k+1 k+1
=[ ] 1 → p0x = p0y   k (2)
p0x 2k k − 1 k−1 k+1 k−1
2
Max −
2
 Max 
k+1 k+1  2 
k−1
1+ Ma2x
2
Combining Equations 1 and 2 and substituting known values gives
[ ] 1
2k k − 1 k−1
[ ] k Max −
2
k−1 k−1 k+1 k+1
px 1 + Ma2x = p0y   k
2 k+1 k−1
2
 Max 
 2 
k−1
1+ Ma2x
2
[ ] 1
2(1.40) 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
[ ] 1.40 Max −
2
1.40 − 1 1.40−1 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
(80) 1 + Ma2x = (400)   1.40 → Max = 1.87
2 1.40 + 1 1.40−1

 Ma2x 
 2 
1.40 − 1
1+ Ma2x
2
Hence the Mach number of the flow in the conduit is 1.87 . The flow velocity, Vx , is given by
√
Vx = Max RTx k (3)
Since the stagnation temperature is constant across a normal shock, T0x = T0y = 523.15 K
and Equation 12.53 gives
T0x k−1 T0x 523.15
=1+ Ma2x → Tx = = → Tx = 307.8 K
Tx 2 k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2
1+ Max 1+ (1.87)
2 2
Substituting Tx = 307.8 K and Max = 1.87 into Equation 3 gives
√
Vx = (1.87) (287.1)(307.8)(1.40) = 657.9 m/s

Hence, the speed of the air in the conduit is 657.9 m/s .

12.58. Consider this problem from the perspective of a control volume moving at the speed of the
aircraft, and recognize that a normal shock will occur on the stagnation streamline. Locations
upstream and downstream of the shock are denoted by x and y. From the given data: p0y
= 100 kPa. At an elevation of 10 km in a standard atmosphere, Appendix B.3 gives px
= 26.5 kPa and Tx = −49.9◦ C = 223.3 K. For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40.
Equations 12.51 and 12.111 give
[ ] k
p0x k−1 2
k−1
= 1+ Max
px 2

583
   k
k+1 2
k−1

 Max 
 2 
k−1
p0y 1+ Ma2x
=[ 2
p0x ] 1
2k k − 1 k−1
Max −
2
k+1 k+1
which combine to give
  k
k+1 2
k−1

 Ma x 
 2 
[ ] k k−1 2
p0y k−1 k−1 1+ Max
= 1+ Ma2x 2
px 2 [ ] 1
2k k − 1 k−1
Max −
2
k+1 k+1
which requires that
  1.40
1.40 + 1 2 1.40−1

 Max 
 2 
[ ] 1.40 1.40 − 1
100 1.40 − 1 1.40−1 1+ Ma2x
2
] 1 → Max = 1.59
2
= 1+ Max [
26.5 2 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
Max −
2
1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
The air speed, Vx , is derived from the definition of the Mach number, which requires that
√ √
Vx = Max RTx k = (1.59) (287.1)(223.3)(1.40) = 477 m/s

12.59. From the given data: Vs = V1 = 650 m/s, T1 = 15◦ C = 288 K, and p1 = 90 kPa. For air, R
= 287.1 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. The upstream Mach number, Ma1 , is given by
V1 650
Ma1 = √ =√ = 1.911
RT1 k (287.1)(288)(1.40)
Using Equations 12.107 to 12.109 the Mach number, pressure, and temperature downstream
of the normal shock are calculated as follows,
2 2
Ma21 + (1.911)2 +
Ma22 = k−1 = 1.40 − 1 → Ma = 0.5936
2
2k 2(1.40)
Ma21 − 1 (1.911)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1

p2 2k k−1 p2 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma21 − → = (1.911)2 − → p2 = 368 kPa
p1 k+1 k+1 90 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
[ ][ ]
k−1 k−1
1+ Ma21 k Ma21 −
T2 2 2
= [ ]2
T1 k+1
Ma21
2

584
 [ ][ ]
1.40 − 1 1.40 − 1
1+ (1.911)2 1.40(1.911)2 −
T2 2 2
→ = [ ]2 → T2 = 465 K
288 1.40 + 1 2
(1.911)
2
The air velocity, Va , induced by the normal shock is derived from Ma2 as follows
√ √
Vs −Va = V2 = Ma2 RT2 k → 650−Va = (0.5936) (287.1)(465)(1.40) → Va = 393 m/s

Therefore the changes in fluid and flow properties are as follows:

change in pressure = 368 kPa − 90 kPa = 278 kPa

change in temperature = 465 K − 288 K = 177 K = 177◦ C
change in air speed = 393 m/s − 0 m/s = 393 m/s

12.60. From the given data: T0 = 20◦ C = 293 K, p01 = 101 kPa, D = 15 mm = 0.015 m, p1 = 95 kPa,
T2 = 10◦ C = 283 K. The cross-sectional area of the conduit is A = πD2 /4 = 1.78 × 10−4 m2 .
For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Note that the stagnation pressure is the same
between the intake and Section 1, and the saturation temperature is constant throughout
the conduit. Fanno flow exists throughout the conduit. Using subscript numbers to indicate
variables at the respective sections, the following sequence of calculations yields the desired
results:
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p01 k−1 k−1 101 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ Ma12
→ = 1+ 2
Ma1 → Ma1 = 0.297
p1 2 95 2
T0 k−1 293 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma21 → =1+ (0.297)2 → T1 = 288 K
T1 2 T1 2
p1 95 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.15 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(288)
√ √
V1 = Ma1 RT1 k = (0.297) (287.1)(288)(1.40) = 101 m/s

ṁ = ρ1 V1 A = (1.15)(101)(1.78 × 10−4 ) = 0.0205 kg/s

T0 k−1 293 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma22 → =1+ Ma22 → Ma2 = 0.420
T2 2 283 2
√ √
V2 = Ma2 RT2 k = (0.420) (287.1)(283)(1.40) = 142 m/s

ρ1 V 1 (1.15)(101)
ρ2 = = = 0.819 kg/m3
V2 142
p2 = ρ2 RT2 = (0.819)(287.1)(283) = 6.66 Pa = 66.6 kPa
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p02 k−1 k−1 p02 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Ma2 → = 1+ (0.420) 2
→ p02 = 75.2 kPa
p2 2 66.6 2

585
 Ff = (p1 − p2 )A + ṁ(V1 − V2 ) = (95 − 66.6)(103 )(1.78 × 10−4 ) + (0.0205)(101 − 142) = 4.19 N

12.61. From the given data: T0 = 10◦ C = 283.15 K, T1 = 3◦ C = 276.15 K, and p1 = 90 kPa. Since
the fluid is pure oxygen, R = Ru /M = 8314/32 = 259.1 J/kg·K. It will be assumed that
oxygen behaves as an ideal gas with approximately constant values of cp = 909 m2 /s2 ·K, cv
= 649 m2 /s2 ·K, and k = cp /cv = 1.40.
(a) The equations that would be used in plotting the Fanno line are as follows:
T p
∆s = cp ln − R ln (1)
T1 p1

(ρV )2 T 2 (ρV )RT

T+ = T0 → p= √ (2)
2cp (p2 /R2 ) 2cp (T0 − T )
p1 √
ρV = Ma1 RT1 k (3)
RT1
1    12
T0 2
T0
 T1 − 1  
−1

Ma1 =   Ma =  T
 k−1  , k−1 
(4)
2 2
Using the procedure described in the text, the Fanno line is plotted in Figure 12.1.

300
Temperature, T (K)

@ Upstream
250

200
-600 -400 -200 0 200
Change in entropy, Δs (J/kg•K)

Figure 12.1: Fanno line for pure oxygen in a conduit.

(b) Following the calculation procedure described in the text, the Mach number, Ma, and
temperature, T , as a function of the pressure, p, at the downstream control section are
shown in Figure 12.2.
(c) The diameter of the conduit is given as 45 mm, which corresponds to a cross-sectional
area of π(0.045)2 /4 = 1.590 × 10−3 m2 . Using the given upstream conditions, Equations
4 and 3 give
 1   21
T0 2
283.15
 T1 − 1  −1
Ma1 =   =  276.15 
1.40 − 1 
 k−1  = 0.356
2 2

586
 2.0 300

Temperature, T (K)
Mach number, Ma

1.5
200
1.0
100
0.5

0 0
0 30 60 90 0 30 60 90
Pressure, p (kPa) Pressure, p (kPa)

Figure 12.2: Ma and T versus p.

p1 √ 90 × 103 √
ρV = Ma1 RT1 k = (0.356) (259.1)(276.15)(1.40) = 141.7 kg/m2 ·s
RT1 (259.1)(276.15)

ṁ = ρV A = (141.7)(1.590 × 10−3 ) = 0.225 kg/s

At a downstream pressure of p = 30 kPa = 30 × 103 Pa, the temperature T can be

derived from Equation 2 which yields
(ρV )RT (141.7)(259.1)T
p= √ → 30 × 103 = √ → T = 236.9 K
2cp (T0 − T ) 2(909)(283.15 − T )

Hence the temperature at the exit of the conduit is 236.9 K = −36.3◦ C . The corre-
sponding Mach number is derived from Equation 12.133 as
  12   12
T0 283.15
−1 −1
   
Ma =  T  =  236.9
1.40 − 1 
= 0.988
k−1
2 2
12.62. From the given data: Ma1 = 0.2, p1 = 500 kPa, T1 = 127◦ C = 400 K, and Ma2 = 0.6. For
air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. Assume Fanno flow. The velocity at Section 1 (the
given section) is √ √
V1 = RT1 k = (287.1)(400)(1.40) = 401.0 m/s
The pressure, temperature, and velocity at Section 2 can all be obtained by applying Equa-
tions 12.134 to 12.136 at both Sections 1 and 2 and noting that p∗ , T ∗ , and V ∗ are the same,
which leads to
[ ]1 [ ]1
p2 Ma1 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 2 p2 0.2 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.2)2 2
= → = → p2 = 162 kPa
p1 Ma2 2 + (k − 1) Ma22 500 0.6 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.6)2

T2 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 T2 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.2)2

= → = → T2 = 376.1 K = 103◦ C
T1 2 + (k − 1) Ma22 400 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.6)2
[ ]1 [ ]1
V2 Ma2 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 2 V2 0.6 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.2)2 2
= → = → V2 = 1166 m/s
V1 Ma1 2 + (k − 1) Ma22 401.0 0.2 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.6)2

587
12.63. From the given data: D = 25 mm = 0.025m, Ma1 = 0.35, T1 = 5◦ C = 278 K, and p1 =
120 kPa. At 5◦ C, Appendix B.2 gives the dynamic viscosity of air at 5◦ C as µ = 0.0173 mPa·s
= 1.73 × 10−5 Pa·s. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. Since the conduit is smooth,
the friction factor at the entrance section, f1 , is estimated from the following sequence of
calculations,
p1 120 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.504 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(278)
√ √
V1 = Ma1 RT1 k = (0.35) (287.1)(278)(1.40) = 117.0 m/s

ρ1 V 1 D (1.504)(117.0)(0.025)
Re1 = = = 2.54 × 105
µ 1.73 × 10−5
( ) ( )
1 2.51 1 2.51
√ = −2 log √ → √ = −2 log √ → f1 = 0.0149
f1 Re1 f1 f1 Re1 2.54 × 105
Therefore the average friction factor in the duct can be estimated as f¯ = 0.0149. Under the
limiting condition that the inflow is not affected by the length of the duct, the flow at the
exit of the duct is critical (i.e., the flow is at the limiting condition of being choked). Under
this condition, the length of the duct is L∗ as given by Equation 12.141,
[ ]
f¯L∗ 1 − Ma21 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma21
= + ln
D k Ma21 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma21
[ ]
(0.0149)L∗ 1 − (0.35)2 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(0.35)2
= + ln → L∗ = 5.78 m
0.025 1.40(0.35)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.35)2
The pressure, temperature, and velocity at the exit can be can be derived from Equations
12.134 to 12.136, again noting that critical conditions exist at the exit, hence
[ ]1 [ ]1
p1 1 k+1 2 120 1 1.40 + 1 2
= → = → p∗ = 38.8 kPa
p∗ Ma1 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 p∗ 0.35 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.35)2

T1 k+1 278 1.40 + 1

= 2 → T∗ = → T ∗ = 237 K = −36◦ C
T∗ 2 + (k − 1) Ma1 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.35)2
√ √
V∗ = RT ∗ k = (287.1)(237)(1.40) = 309 m/s

12.64. From the given data: D = 75 mm = 0.075 m, V1 = 90 m/s, p1 = 200 kPa, T1 = 127◦ C =
400 K, and f = 0.020. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. The Mach number at Section
1 is given by
V1 90
Ma1 = √ =√ = 0.2245
RT1 k (287.1)(400)(1.40)
Use Equation 12.141 to calculate the length, L∗ , required for choking,
[ ]
f L∗ 1 − Ma21 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma21
= + ln
D k Ma21 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma21

588
 [ ]
(0.020)L∗ 1 − (0.2245)2 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(0.2245)2
= + ln → L∗ = 41.4 m
0.075 1.40(0.2245)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.2245)2

Since the critical length (= 41.4 m) is longer that both the present length (15 m) and the
new length (30 m), the flow will not be choked and hence the mass flow rate is not affected
by the increase in length. Hence there is 0% change in the mass flow rate.

12.65. From the given data: L = 0.50 m, D = 50 mm = 0.050 m, Ma1 = 0.6, p1 = 150 kPa, T1 =
27◦ C = 300 K, and f¯ = 0.020. For air, take k = 1.40. First, calculate Lmax to determine
whether the flow is choked at the exit. Equation 12.141 gives
[ ]
f¯Lmax 1 − Ma21 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma21
= + ln
D k Ma21 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma21
[ ]
(0.020)Lmax 1 − 0.62 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(0.6)2
= + ln → Lmax = 1.227 m
0.050 1.40(0.6)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.6)2

Since L < Lmax (i.e., 0.5 m < 1.227 m), the flow is not choked. The Mach number at the exit,
Ma2 , can be derived by applying Equations 12.141 and 12.142 which yield,
{ [ ]}
f¯L 1 − Ma21 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma21
= + ln −
D k Ma21 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma21
{ [ ]}
1 − Ma22 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma22
+ ln
k Ma22 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma22
{ [ ]}
(0.020)(0.5) 1 − 0.62 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(0.6)2
= + ln −
0.05 1.40(0.6)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.6)2
{ [ ]}
1 − Ma22 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)Ma22
+ ln → Ma2 = 0.6628
1.40Ma22 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1) Ma22
The pressure and temperature at the exit are derived from Equations 12.134 and 12.135 as
follows,
[ ]1 [ ] 12
p2 Ma1 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 2 p2 0.6 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.6)2
= → = → p2 = 135 kPa
p1 Ma2 2 + (k − 1) Ma22 150 0.6628 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.6628)2

T2 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 T2 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.6)2

= → = → T2 = 295.6 K = 22.5◦ C
T1 2 + (k − 1) Ma22 300 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.6628)2

12.71. From the given data: L = 1 m, D = 50 mm = 0.05 m, M a1 = 2.0, p1 = 750 kPa, T1 =

277◦ C = 550 K, and f¯ = 0.015. For air, take k = 1.40. Noting that that shock occurs 0.8 m
downstream of the entrance, the Mach number just before the shock, Max , can be derived by
applying Equations 12.141 and 12.142 which yield,
{ [ ]}
f¯L1 1 − Ma21 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma21
= + ln −
D k Ma21 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma21

589
 { [ ]}
1 − Ma2x k + 1 (k + 1)Ma2x
+ ln
k Ma2x 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma2x
{ [ ]}
(0.015)(0.8) 1 − 2.02 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(2.0)2
= + ln −
0.05 1.40(2.0)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(2.0)2
{ [ ]}
1 − Ma2x 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)Ma2x
+ ln → Max = 1.375
1.40Ma2x 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1) Ma2x
The pressure and temperature just before the shock are derived from Equations 12.134 and
12.135 which give,
[ ]1 [ ]1
px Ma1 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 2 px 2.0 2 + (1.40 − 1)(2.0)2 2
= → = → px = 1529 kPa
p1 Max 2 + (k − 1) Ma2x 750 1.375 2 + (1.40 − 1)(1.375)2

Tx 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 Tx 2 + (1.40 − 1)(2.0)2

= → = → Tx = 828.2 K
T1 2 + (k − 1) Max
2 550 2 + (1.40 − 1)(1.375)2
Using Equations 12.107 to 12.109 the Mach number, pressure, and temperature downstream
of the normal shock are calculated as follows (where the section downstream of the shock is
denoted by the subscript “y”),
2 2
Ma2x + (1.375)2 +
Ma2y = k−1 = 1.40 − 1 → May = 0.7504
2k 2(1.40)
Max − 1
2
(1.375)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1

py 2k k−1 py 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma2x − → = (1.375)2 − → py = 3120 kPa
px k+1 k+1 1529 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
[ ][ ]
k−1 k−1
1+ Max k Max −
2 2
Ty 2 2
= [ ]2
Tx k+1
Ma2x
2
[ ][ ]
1.40 − 1 1.40 − 1
1+ (1.375) 2
1.40(1.375) −
2
Ty 2 2
→ = [ ]2 → Ty = 1026 K
828.2 1.40 + 1 2
(1.375)
2
Noting that that shock occurs 0.2 m from the exit, the Mach number at the exit, Ma2 , can
be derived by applying Equations 12.141 and 12.142 which yield,
{ [ ]}
f¯L2 1 − Ma2y k+1 (k + 1)Ma2y
= + ln −
D k Ma2y 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma2y
{ [ ]}
1 − Ma22 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma22
+ ln
k Ma22 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma22

590
 { [ ]}
(0.015)(0.2) 1 − 0.75042 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(0.7504)2
= + ln −
0.05 1.40(0.7504)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.7504)2
{ [ ]}
1 − Ma22 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)Ma22
+ ln → Ma2 = 0.7994
1.40Ma22 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1) Ma22
The pressure and temperature at the exit of the pipe section are derived from Equations
12.134 and 12.135 which give,
[ ]1 [ ]1
May 2 + (k − 1) May 2
2
p2 p2 0.7504 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.7504)2 2
= → = → p2 = 2908 kPa
py Ma2 2 + (k − 1) Ma22 3120 0.7994 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.7994)2

T2 2 + (k − 1) Ma2y T2 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.7504)2

= → = → T2 = 1012 K = 739◦ C
Ty 2 + (k − 1) Ma22 1026 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.7994)2

12.66. From the given data: W = 350 mm = 0.35 m, H = 250 mm = 0.25 m, ṁ = 40 kg/s, T1 =
20◦ C = 293 K, p1 = 500 kPa, and ρ2 = 0.7ρ1 . From Appendix B.2 µ = 1.82 × 10−5 Pa·s at
20◦ C. For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. The area, A, and
hydraulic diameter, Dh , of the duct are calculated as follows:
A = H × W = 0.25 × 0.35 = 0.0875 m2
P = 2(H + W ) = 2(0.25 + 0.35) = 1.20 m
4A 4(0.0875)
Dh = = = 0.2917 m
P 1.20
The Mach number, Ma1 , at the measurement section (Section 1) is derived as follows,
ṁ 40
(ρV ) = = = 457.1 kg/m2 ·s
A 0.0875
p1 500 × 103
ρ1 = = = 5.944 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(293)
(ρV ) 457.1
V1 = = = 76.91 m/s
ρ1 5.944
V1 76.91
Ma1 = √ = = 0.2241
RT k (287.1)(293)(1.40)
The Reynolds number, Re1 , at Section 1 is calculated as follows,
ρ1 V1 Dh (5.944)(76.91)(0.2917)
Re1 = = = 7.326 × 106
µ 1.82 × 10−5
The friction factor, f1 , at Section 1 is calculated using the Colebrook equation,
( ) ( )
1 2.51 1 2.51
√ = −2 log √ → √ = −2 log √ → f1 = 0.00848
f1 Re1 f1 f1 7.326 × 106 f1
It can be assumed that the friction factor remains constant between Sections 1 and 2. The
Mach number at Section 2 can be obtained using the following sequence of calculations,
ρ2 = 0.7ρ1 = 0.7(5.944) = 4.161 kg/m3

591
 (ρV ) 457.1
V2 = = = 109.9 m/s
ρ2 4.161
V2 V2 76.912 109.92
T1 + 1 = T2 + 2 → 293 + = T2 + → T2 = 289.9 K
2cp 2cp 2(1003) 2(1003)
V2 109.9
Ma2 = √ =√ = 0.3219
RT2 k (287.1)(289.9)(1.40)
The required length, L, to reduce the density by 30% can be estimated using Equation 12.141,
which gives
{ [ ]} { [ ]}
f1 L 1 − Ma21 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma21 1 − Ma22 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma22
= + ln − + ln
Dh k Ma21 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 k Ma22 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma22
{ [ ]}
(0.00848)L 1 − (0.2241)2 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(0.2241)2
= + ln −
0.2917 (1.40)(0.2241)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.2241)2
{ [ ]}
1 − (0.3219)2 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1)(0.3219)2
+ ln
(1.40)(0.3219)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.3219)2

which yields L = 231 m .

12.67. From the given data: w = 0.10 m, d = 0.20 m, L = 3 m, T0 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K, p0 = 101 kPa
= 101 × 103 Pa, pb = 45 kPa, and f = 0.020. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K,
and k = 1.40. The density, ρ0 , corresponding to T0 and p0 can be calculated using the ideal
gas law,
p0 101 × 103
ρ0 = = = 1.221 kg/m3
RT0 (287.1)(288.15)
Since the conduit is not circular, use the hydraulic diameter, Dh , is calculations, where
4A 4(wd) 4(0.10)(0.20)
Dh = = = = 0.1333 m
P 2(w + d) 2(0.10 + 0.20)
Determine if the flow is choked. In such as case, the Mach number at Section 1, Ma1 , can be
calculated using Equation 12.141, which gives
[ ]
f¯L∗ 1 − Ma2 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma2
= + ln
Dh k Ma2 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma2
[ ]
(0.020)(3) 1 − Ma21 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)Ma21
= + ln → Ma1 = 0.6107
0.1333 (1.40) Ma21 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1) Ma21
Using Ma1 = 0.6107, the ratios p1 /p∗ and V1 /V ∗ describing conditions at the beginning of
the duct can be calculated from Equations 12.134 and 12.136 as follows:
[ ]1 [ ]1
p1 1 k+1 2 1 1.40 + 1 2

∗
= = = 1.663
p Ma1 2 + (k − 1) Ma1 2 0.6107 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.6107) 2

[ ]1 [ ]1
V1 k+1 2 1.40 + 1 2
= Ma1 = (0.6107) = 0.6203
V∗ 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.6107)2

592
 Assuming isentropic flow through the entrance nozzle and taking Ma1 = 0.6107, the ratios
p01 /p1 , ρ0 /ρ1 , and T0 /T ∗ at the end of the entrance nozzle are given by Equations 12.51,
12.134 and 12.136 as,
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p01 k−1 2
k−1 1.40 − 1 2
1.40−1
= 1+ Ma1 = 1+ (0.6107) = 1.286
p1 2 2
[ ] 1 [ ] 1
ρ0 k−1 2
k−1 1.40 − 1 2
1.40−1
= 1+ Ma1 = 1+ (0.6107) = 1.197
ρ1 2 2

T0 k+1 1.40 + 1
∗
= = = 1.200
T 2 2
Determine the pressure at the exit of the duct under the assumed choked condition. Since
the source-atmosphere conditions are the stagnation conditions for flow through the entrance
nozzle, p01 = 101 kPa, and
( )
p1 1
p1 = p01 = (101) = 78.52 kPa
p01 1.286
The exit (critical) pressure, p∗ , is derived from the ratio p1 /p∗ for duct flow which yields
( )
∗ p∗ 1
p = p1 = (78.52) = 47.21 kPa
p1 1.663
Since the pressure at the duct exit under the choked-flow condition is 47.21 kPa and the given
back pressure is 45 kPa, then the exit pressure will be 46.76 kPa and the flow is choked. Using
the above results yields
( )
∗ T∗ 1
T = T0 = (288.15) = 240.1 K
T0 1.200
√ √
V ∗ = RT ∗ k = (287.1)(240.1)(1.40) = 310.7 m/s
V1
V1 = V ∗ = (310.7)(0.6203) = 192.7 m/s
V∗
( )
ρ1 1
ρ1 = ρ0 = (1.221) = 1.020 kg/m3
ρ0 1.197

ṁ = ρ1 V1 A1 = (1.020)(192.7)(0.1 × 0.2) = 3.931 kg/s

12.68. From the given data: f¯ = 0.020, D = 0.025, Ma1 = 0.2, Ma2 = 0.6, and Ma3 = 1.0. For air,
k = 1.40. Assume Fanno Flow. Using the friction-loss formula, Equation 12.141, gives the
length of duct between Ma1 and Ma2 , designated as L12 , as
{ [ ]} { [ ]}
f¯L12 1 − Ma21 k+1 (k + 1)Ma21 1 − Ma22 k+1 (k + 1)Ma22
= + ln − + ln
D k Ma21 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 k Ma22 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma22
{ [ ]}
(0.020)L12 1 − (0.2)2 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(0.2)2
= + ln −
0.025 (1.40)(0.2)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.2)2

593
 { [ ]}
1 − (0.6)2 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1)(0.6)2
+ ln
(1.40)(0.6)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.6)2

which yields L12 = 17.6 m . Similarly, the length of duct between Ma2 and Ma3 , designated
as L23 , is given by
{ [ ]} { [ ]}
f¯L23 1 − Ma22 k+1 (k + 1)Ma22 1 − Ma23 k+1 (k + 1)Ma23
= + ln − + ln
D k Ma22 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma22 k Ma23 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma23
{ [ ]}
(0.020)L12 1 − (0.6)2 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(0.6)2
= + ln −
0.025 (1.40)(0.6)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.6)2
{ [ ]}
1 − (1.0)2 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1)(1.0)2
+ ln
(1.40)(1.0)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(1.0)2

which yields L23 = 0.614 m . The fluid accelerates more rapidly between Ma2 and Ma3 than
between Ma1 and Ma2 .

12.69. From the given data: D = 300 mm = 0.300 m, L∗ = 5 m, p01 = 700 kPa, T01 = 65◦ C =
338.15 K, and Ma1 = 0.6. The cross-sectional area of the conduit is A = πD2 /4 = 0.07069 m2 .
For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. Assume Fanno flow upstream of the critical section.

(a) The friction-loss equation in Fanno flow is given by Equation 12.141 which gives
[ ]
f¯L∗ 1 − Ma21 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma21
= + ln
D k Ma21 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma21
[ ]
f¯(5) 1 − (0.6)2 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(0.6)2
= + ln → f = 0.0294
(0.3) k (0.6)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.6)2

(b) Temperature and pressure at the upstream section, T1 and p1 , can be calculated using
Equations 12.53 and 12.51 which give

T01 k−1 338.15 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma21 → =1+ (0.6)2 → T1 = 60.63 K
T1 2 T1 2
[ ] k [ ] 1.40
p01 k−1 k−1 700 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ Ma12
→ = 1+ (0.6) 2
→ p1 = 548.8 kPa
p1 2 p1 2

The mass flow rate, ṁ, can be calculated using these data as follows
√ √
V1 = Ma1 c1 = Ma1 RT1 k = (0.6) (287.1)(60.63)(1.40) = 93.67 m/s
][ [ ]
p1 548.8 × 103
ṁ = ρ1 V1 A = V1 A = (93.67)(0.07069) = 209 kg/s
RT1 (287.1)(60.63)

(The mass flow rate is very approximate in this case since the air is very near its liquid
state; the estimated density is 31.5 kg/m3 )

594
 (c) The temperature, pressure and velocity at the critical section can be calculated using
Equations 12.134 to 12.135 which yield
T1 k+1 60.63 1.40 + 1
∗
= → ∗
= → T ∗ = 54.2 K = −219 K
T 2 + (k − 1) Ma1
2 T 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.6)2
[ ]1 [ ]1
p1 1 k+1 2 548.8 1 1.40 + 1 2
= → = → p∗ = 311 kPa
p∗ Ma1 2 + (k − 1) Ma1
2 p∗ 0.6 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.6) 2

[ ]1 [ ]1
V1 k+1 2 93.67 1.40 + 1 2
= Ma1 → = (0.6) → V ∗ = 148 m/s
V∗ 2 + (k − 1) Ma21 V ∗
2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.6)2

12.70. From the given data: D = 75 mm = 0.075 m, f¯ = 0.020, p0 = 200 kPa, T0 = 150◦ C =
423 K, and under unchoked conditions Ve = 120 m/s. The area of the duct is A = πD2 /4 =
0.004418 m2 . Assume Fanno flow. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K, and k =
1.40. Under Fanno-flow conditions, the temperature, Te , at the entrance to the duct can be
calculated using Equation 12.127 which gives

Ve2 (120)2
Te + = T0 → Te + = 423 → Te = 415.8 K
2cp 2(1003)

The Mach number at the entrance to the duct, Mae , is given by

Ve 120
Mae = √ =√ = 0.2935
RTe k (287.1)(415.8)(1.4)

Choked conditions occur at a distance L∗ from the entrance, where

[ ]
f¯L∗ 1 − Ma2e k+1 (k + 1)Ma2e
= + ln
D k Ma2e 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma2e
[ ]
(0.020)L∗ 1 − (0.2935)2 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)(0.2935)2
= + ln → L∗ = 21.1 m
0.075 1.40(0.2935)2 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.2935)2

In this case, the duct length is given as 50 m and so the flow is choked at the exit of the
duct, which means that L∗ = 50 m. The entrance Mach number under choked conditions,
Maec , is given by
[ ]
f¯L∗ 1 − Ma2ec k + 1 (k + 1)Ma2ec
= + ln
D k Ma2ec 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma2ec
[ ]
(0.025)(50) 1 − Ma2ec 1.40 + 1 (1.40 + 1)Ma2ec
= + ln → Maec = 0.2075
0.050 1.40Ma2ec 2(1.40) 2 + (1.40 − 1)Ma2ec

The mass flow rate under choked conditions is derived from the following calculations,
T0 k−1 423 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma2ec → =1+ (0.2075)2 → Tec = 419.4 K
Tec 2 Tec 2

595
 √ √
Vec = Maec RTec k = (0.2075) (287.1)(419.4)(1.40) = 85.18 m/s

p0 200 × 103
ρ0 = = = 1.647 kg/m3
RT0 (287.1)(423)
[ ] 1 [ ] 1
ρ0 k−1 k−1 1.647 1.40 − 1 1.40−1
= 1+ 2
Maec → = 1+ (0.2075) 2
→ ρec = 1.612 kg/m3
ρec 2 ρec 2

ṁ = ρec Vec A = (1.612)(85.18)(0.004418) = 0.607 kg/s

12.72. From the given data: W = 350 mm = 0.35 m, H = 250 mm = 0.25 m, ṁ = 40 kg/s, T =
20◦ C = 293 K, p1 = 500 kPa, and L = 150 m. From Appendix B.2 µ = 1.82 × 10−5 Pa·s at
20◦ C. For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The area, A, and hydraulic diameter,
Dh , of the duct are calculated as follows:

A = H × W = 0.25 × 0.35 = 0.0875 m2

P = 2(H + W ) = 2(0.25 + 0.35) = 1.20 m
4A 4(0.0875)
Dh = = = 0.2917 m
P 1.20
The Mach number, Ma1 , at the measurement section (Section 1) is derived as follows,
ṁ 40
(ρV ) = = = 457.1 kg/m2 ·s
A 0.0875
p1 500 × 103
ρ1 = = = 5.944 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(293)
(ρV ) 457.1
V1 = = = 76.91 m/s
ρ1 5.944
V1 76.91
Ma1 = √ = = 0.2241
RT k (287.1)(293)(1.40)
The Reynolds number, Re1 , at Section 1 is calculated as follows,
ρ1 V1 Dh (5.944)(76.91)(0.2917)
Re1 = = = 7.326 × 106
µ 1.82 × 10−5
The friction factor, f1 , at Section 1 is calculated using the Colebrook equation,
( ) ( )
1 2.51 1 2.51
√ = −2 log √ → √ = −2 log √ → f1 = 0.00848
f1 Re1 f1 f1 7.326 × 106 f1
It can be assumed that the friction factor remains constant between Sections 1 and 2. Cal-
culate the distance Lmax from Section 1 to the critical section using Equation 12.147,
f1 Lmax 1 − k Ma21
= + ln[k Ma21 ]
Dh k Ma21

(0.00848)Lmax 1 − 1.40(0.2241)2
= + ln[1.40(0.2241)2 ] → Lmax = 363 m
(0.2917) 1.40(0.2241)2

596
 Since L (= 150 m) < Lmax (= 363 m) then the flow is not choked and Equation 12.150 can
be used to calculate p2 , hence
p21 − p22
(ρV )2 = [ ( )]
f1 L p1
RT + 2 ln
Dh p2

(5002 − p22 )106

(457.1)2 = [ ( )] → p2 = 408 kPa
(0.00848)(150) 500
(287.1)(293) + 2 ln
0.2917 p2
The density, ρ2 , and velocity, V2 , at the downstream section are derived as follows,
p2 408 × 103
ρ2 = = = 4.846 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(293)
(ρV ) 457.1
V2 = = = 94.34 m/s
ρ2 4.846
The rate that heat that must be added, q̇, is given by Equation 12.146 as
V22 V12 94.342 76.912
q̇ = − = − = 1.49 × 103 J/kg = 1.49 kJ/kg
2 2 2 2
12.73. From the given data: D = 20 mm = 0.020 m, L = 3 m, p1 = 300 kPa, T = 27◦ C = 300 K, p2
= 140 kPa, and f¯ = 0.025. The area of the duct is A = πD2 /4 = 3.142 × 10−4 m2 . For air,
take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The mass flow per unit area (ρV ) can be estimated as
p2 − p22
(ρV )2 = [¯ 1 ( )]
fL p1
RT + 2 ln
D p2
[ ]
(300)2 − (140)2 106
= [ ( )] → (ρV ) = 393.7 kg/m2 ·s
(0.025)(3) 300
(287.1)(300) + 2 ln
0.020 140
Hence the density, ρ2 , velocity, V2 , and Mach number, Ma2 , at the exit of the duct are given
by
p2 140 × 103
ρ2 = = = 1.625 kg/m3
RT (287.1)(300)

(ρV ) 393.7
V2 = = = 242.2 m/s
ρ2 1.625
V2 242.2
Ma2 = √ =√ = 0.6974
RT k (287.1)(300)(1.4)
1 1
The reference Mach number is Ma = 1/k 2 = 1/(1.40) 2 = 0.8452. Since Ma2 < 0.8452, the
flow is not choked . The mass flow rate, ṁ, is therefore given by

ṁ = (ρV )A = (393.7)(3.142 × 10−4 ) = 0.124 kg/s

597
12.74. From the given data: T0 = 15◦ C = 288.15 K, T1 = 5◦ C = 278.15 K, and p1 = 90 kPa. Since
the fluid is pure oxygen, R = Ru /M = 8314/32 = 259.1 J/kg·K. It will be assumed that
oxygen behaves as an ideal gas with approximately constant values of cp = 909 J/kg·K, cv =
649 J/kg·K, and k = cp /cv = 1.40.

(a) The equations to be used in plotting the Rayleigh line are as follows:

T p
∆s = cp ln − R ln (1)
T1 p1

(ρV )2 RT p(CM − p)
p+ = CM → T = (2)
p R(ρV )2
p1 √
ρV = Ma1 RT1 k (3)
RT1
 1
T0 2

 T1 − 1 
Ma1 = 
 k−1 
 (4)
2

From the given data, calculate Ma1 using Equation 4, CM using Equation 2 with the
upstream conditions, and ρV using Equation 3. These calculations yield Ma1 = 0.424,
CM = 112.7 kPa, and ρV = 168.2 kg/m2 ·s. The corresponding Rayleigh line is plotted
in Figure 12.3.

500
Temperature, T (K)

@ Sec!on 1
250

0
-1000 -500 0 500 1000
Change in entropy, Δs (J/kg•K)

Figure 12.3: Rayleigh line.

(b) The following equations are used in determining the Ma versus p relationship,

√ p (ρV ) V
c= RT k, ρ= , V = → Ma = (5)
RT ρ c

Following the procedure described in the text, the Mach number, Ma, and temperature,
T , as a function of the pressure, p, at the downstream section are shown in Figure 12.35.
The relationships in Equation 5 combine to give that Ma = 1 when

598
 4 500

Temperature, T (K)
Mach number, Ma
400
3
300
2
200
1
100
0 0
10 40 80 120 10 40 80 120
Pressure, p (kPa) Pressure, p (kPa)

Figure 12.4: Ma and T versus p at downstream section.

(ρV )RT 1 (168.2)(259.1)T 1

·√ =1 → ·√ =1
p RT k p (259.1)T (1.40)

In this case, the above equation is satisfied at T = 421.0 K = 147.9◦ C and p = 47.0 kPa.
If heat is being added to the fluid in the conduit, then the pressure at the downstream
section cannot fall below 47.0 kPa.
(c) The downstream pressure is p = 40 kPa = 40 × 103 Pa, and the calculation results from
Part (a) give that the upstream conditions require that CM = 112.7 kPa and (ρV ) =
168.2 kg/m2 ·s. The temperature T can be derived from Equation 12.164 which yields

p(CM − p) (40 × 103 )(112.7 × 103 − 40.0 × 103 )

T = 2
= = 396.5 K = 123.4◦ C
R(ρV ) (259.1)(168.2)2

Using the relationships in Equation 5 yield

√ 40 × 103
c= (259.1)(396.6)(1.40) = 379.2 m/s, ρ= = 0.3893 kg/m3 ,
(259.1)(396.5)
(168.2) 432.0
V = = 432.0 m/s → Ma = = 1.14
0.3893 379.2
Since Ma at the upstream section calculated in Part (a) is equal to 0.424, and Ma at the
downstream section is 1.14 (> 1), then, in accordance with Rayleigh dynamics, heat is
being both added and removed between the two sections. The added heat is used to
raise the Ma to 1 and then heat is removed to increase the Ma above 1.

12.75. From the given data: T1 = 50◦ C = 323 K, p1 = 150 kPa, V1 = 100 m/s, and p2 = 75 kPa.
For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40.

(a) Based on the given upstream conditions,

V1 100
Ma1 = √ =√ = 0.2775
RT1 k (287.1)(323)(1.40)
T01 k−1 T01 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma21 → =1+ (0.2775)2 → T01 = 328.0 K
T1 2 323 2

599
 p1 150 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.618 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(323)
(ρV ) = ρ1 V1 = (1.618)(100) = 161.8 kg/m2 ·s
(ρV )2 RT1 (161.8)2 (287.1)(323)
CM = p1 + = (150 × 103 ) + = 1.662 × 105 Pa
p1 150 × 103
The downstream conditions are determined from the from the upstream conditions as
follows:
p2 (CM − p2 ) (75 × 103 )(1.662 × 105 − 75 × 103 )
T2 = = = 910.3 K = 637.2◦ C
R(ρV )2 (287.1)(161.8)2
p2 75 × 103
ρ2 = = = 0.2870 kg/m3
RT2 (287.1)(910.3)
(ρV ) 161.8
V2 = = = 563.7 m/s
ρ2 0.2870
V2 563.7
Ma2 = √ =√ = 0.9318
RT2 k (287.1)(910.3)(1.40)
T02 k−1 T02 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma22 → =1+ (0.9318)2 → T02 = 1068 K
T2 2 910.3 2
The downstream Mach number is subsonic an so confirms the application of the above
equations.
(b) According to the energy equation (Equation 12.161) the heat added per unit mass, q,
between the upstream and downstream section, is given by

q = cp (T02 − T01 ) = 1003(1068 − 328) = 7.43 × 105 J/kg = 743 kJ/kg

(c) The change in entropy between the upstream and downstream sections, ∆s, is given by
Equation 12.23 as
T2 p2 910.3 75
∆s = cp ln − R ln = (1003) ln − (287.1) ln = 1238 J/kg·K
T1 p1 323 150

12.76. From the given data: T1 = 50◦ C = 323 K, p1 = 120 kPa, V1 = 650 m/s, and Ma2 = 1.2. For
air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. The Mach number at the upstream
section can be calculated as follows:
V1 650
Ma1 = √ =√ = 1.804
RT1 k (287.1)(323)(1.40)

Therefore the flow is supersonic between the upstream and downstream sections.

(a) Applying Equations 12.155 to 12.157 at both the upstream and downstream locations
and recognizing that p∗ , V ∗ , and T ∗ are the same at both sections yield the following:

p1 1 + kMa22 120 1 + (1.40(1.2)2

= → = → p2 = 221 kPa
p2 1 + kMa21 p2 1 + (1.40)(1.804)2

600
 (1 + k) Ma21 (1 + 1.40)(1.804)2
V1 1 + k Ma21 650 1 + (1.40)(1.804)2
= 2 → = → V2 = 530 m/s
V2 (1 + k) Ma2 V2 (1 + 1.40)(1.2)2
1 + k Ma22 1 + (1.40)(1.2)2
[ ] [ ]
(1 + k)Ma1 2 (1 + 1.40)(1.804) 2
T1 1 + k Ma21 323 1 + (1.40)(1.804)2
=[ ]2 → = [ ] → T2 = 485 K = 212◦ C
T2 (1 + k)Ma2 T2 (1 + 1.40)(1.2) 2
1 + k Ma22 1 + (1.40)(1.2)2

(b) The stagnation temperatures at the upstream and downstream sections are calculated
using Equation 12.53 which gives

T01 k−1 T01 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma21 → =1+ (1.804)2 → T01 = 533 K
T1 2 323 2
T02 k−1 T02 1.40 − 1
=1+ Ma22 → =1+ (1.2)2 → T02 = 625 K
T2 2 485 2

According to the energy equation (Equation 12.161) the heat added per unit mass, q,
between the upstream and downstream section, is given by

q = cp (T02 − T01 ) = 1003(625 − 533) = 9.18 × 104 J/kg = 91.8 kJ/kg

12.77. Designate the upstream section with a subscript “1”, and the downstream section with a
subscript “2”. From the given data: p1 = 130 kPa, T1 = 20◦ C = 293.15 K, V1 = 50 m/s, T2
= 700◦ C = 973.15 K, and D = 200 mm = 0.200 m. The area of the conduit is A = πD2 /4 =
0.03142 m2 . For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. The Mach number
at Section 1, Ma1 , the density at Section 1, ρ1 , and the mass flow rate in the conduit, ṁ, are
calculated as follows:
V1 V1 50
Ma1 = =√ =√ = 0.1457
c1 RT1 k (287.1)(293.15)(1.40)

p1 130 × 103
ρ1 = = = 1.545 kg/m3
RT1 (287.1)(293.15)

ṁ = ρ1 V1 A = (1.545)(50)(0.03142) = 2.426 kg/s

The ratio of temperatures at the two sections can be derived by applying Equation 12.156 at
both sections and then dividing the resulting equations by each other to give
   
(1 + k)Ma1 2 (1 + 1.40)(0.1457) 2
T1  1 + k Ma21   2 
 → 293.13 =  1 + 1.40 (0.1457)  → Ma2 = 0.2876
=
T2  (1 + k)Ma2  973.15  (1 + 1.40)Ma2 
2
1 + k Ma2 1 + 1.40 Ma22

601
 The heat addition rate, Q̇, can be determined by applying the energy equation (Equation
12.121) as follows,
√ √
V2 = Ma2 RT2 k = (0.2896) (287.1)(973.15)(1.4) = 179.9 m/s

h2 − h1 = cp (T2 − T1 ) = 1003(973.15 − 293.15) = 6.820 × 105 J/kg

[ ]
1( 2 )
Q̇ = ṁ (h2 − h1 ) + V − V1 2
2 2
[ ]
1( )
= (2.426) 6.820 × 10 +5
179.9 − 50
2 2
= 1.691 × 106 J/s = 1.691 MJ/s
2

12.78. From the given data: Ma1 = 0.3, p1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 27◦ C = 300 K, and q = 80 kJ/kg =
8 × 104 J/kg. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. First, calculate
the stagnation temperature, T01 , at the entrance using Equation 12.53 as follows,

T01 k−1 T01 1.40 − 1

=1+ Ma21 → =1+ (0.3)2 → T01 = 305.4 K
T1 2 300 2

Calculate the stagnation temperature at the exit, T02 , using Equation 12.161 which gives

q 8 × 104
T02 = T01 + = 305.4 + = 385.2 K
cp 1003

The stagnation temperatures T01 and T02 must satisfy Equation 12.159 such that
[ ]
(k + 1)Ma21 2 + (k − 1) Ma21
( )2
T01 1 + k Ma21
= [ ]
T02 (k + 1)Ma22 2 + (k − 1) Ma22
( )2
1 + k Ma22
[ ]
(1.40 + 1)(0.3)2 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.3)2
[ ]2
305.4 1 + 1.40(0.3)2
= [ ] → Ma2 = 0.3492
385.2 (1.40 + 1)Ma22 2 + (1.40 − 1) Ma22
( )2
1 + 1.40 Ma22

The exit pressure and temperature are obtained using Equations 12.155 and 12.156, which
yield

p2 1 + k Ma21 p2 1 + 1.40(0.3)2
= → = → p2 = 96.2 kPa
p1 1 + k Ma22 100 1 + 1.40(0.3492)2
   
(1 + k)Ma2 2 (1 + 1.40)(0.3492) 2
T2  1 + kMa22   2 
 →  1 + 1.40(0.3492)  → T2 = 376 K = 103◦ C
=
T1  (1 + k)Ma1   (1 + 1.40)(0.3) 
2
1 + kMa1 1 + 1.40(0.3)2

602
12.79. From the given data: D = 100 mm, T1 = 227◦ C = 500 K, p1 = 450 kPa, V1 = 50 m/s, HV
= 40 MJ/kg, and AFMR = 30. It will be assumed that combustion is complete, there is no
change in the chemical composition of the fluid, and the increase in mass flow rate caused by
fuel injection can be neglected. The fluid properties are taken as those of air, which are R =
287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. The necessary computations are as follows
(using Equations 12.155 to 12.159 to find the relationship between fluid properties at Sections
1 and 2):

V1 50
Ma1 = √ =√ = 0.1115
RT1 k (287.1)(500)(1.40)

V12 (50)2
T01 = T + = 500 + = 501.2 K
2cp 2(1003)

HV 40 × 106
q= = = 1.333 × 106 J/kg
AFMR 30
q = cp (T02 − T01 ) → 1.333 × 106 = (1003)(T02 − 501.2) → T02 = 1831 K
[ ]
(k + 1)Ma21 2 + (k − 1) Ma21
( )2
T01 1 + k Ma21
= [ ]
T02 (k + 1)Ma22 2 + (k − 1) Ma22
( )2
1 + k Ma22
[ ]
(1.40 + 1)(0.1115)2 2 + (1.40 − 1)(0.1115)2
( )2
501.2 1 + 1.40(0.1115)2
→ = [ ] → Ma2 = 0.2233
1831 (1.40 + 1)Ma22 2 + (1.40 − 1) Ma22
( )2
1 + 1.40 Ma22

p1 1 + k Ma22 450 1 + 1.40(0.2233)2

= → = → p2 = 428 kPa
p2 1 + k Ma21 p2 1 + 1.40(0.1115)2
[ ] [ ]
(1 + k)Ma1 2 (1 + 1.40)(0.1115) 2
T1 1 + k Ma21 500 1 + 1.40(0.1115)2 ◦
=[ ]2 → =[ ]2 → T2 = 1813 K = 1540 C
T2 (1 + k)Ma2 T 2 (1 + 1.40)(0.2233)
2 1 + 1.40(0.2233)2
1 + k Ma2

(1 + k) Ma21 (1 + 1.40)(0.1115)2
V1 1 + k Ma21 50 1 + 1.40(0.1115)2
= 2 → = → V2 = 191 m/s
V2 (1 + k) Ma2 V2 (1 + 1.40)(0.2233)2
1 + k Ma22 1 + 1.40(0.2233)2

12.80. From the given data: V1 = 85 m/s, p1 = 200 kPa, T1 = 77◦ C = 350 K, and q = 800 kJ/kg.
The fluid properties are R = 287.1 J/kg·K, cp = 1003 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40.

603
(a) The stagnation temperatures at the entrance (Section 1) and exit (Section 2) of the
combustion chamber, and the entrance Mach number are calculated as follows:
V12 852
T01 = T1 + = 350 + = 353.6 K
2cp 2(1003)

q = cp (T02 − T01 ) → 800 × 103 = (1000)(T02 − 353.6) → T02 = 1151 K

V1 85
Ma1 = √ =√ = 0.2266
RT1 k (287.1)(350)(1.40)
The exit Mach number, Ma2 can be calculated using Equation 12.159 which gives
[ ]
(k + 1)Ma21 2 + (k − 1) Ma21
( )2
T01 1 + k Ma21
= [ ]
T02 (k + 1)Ma22 2 + (k − 1) Ma22
( )2
1 + k Ma22
[ ]
(1.40 + 1)(0.2266)2 2 + (1.40 − 1) (0.2266)2
( )2
353.6 1 + 1.40 (0.2266)2
= [ ] → Ma2 = 0.5099
1151 (1.40 + 1)Ma22 2 + (1.40 − 1) Ma22
( )2
1 + 1.40 Ma22
Using Ma2 = 0.5099, p2 , T2 , and V2 can be calculated using Equations 12.155 to 12.156
as follows
p1 1 + k Ma22 200 1 + 1.40(0.5099)2
= → = → p2 = 157 kPa
p2 1 + k Ma21 p2 1 + 1.40(0.2266)2
   
(1 + k)Ma1 2 (1 + 1.40)(0.2266) 2
T1  1 + k Ma21   2 
 → 350 =  1 + 1.40(0.2266) 
= → T2 = 1094 K = 821◦ C
T2  (1 + k)Ma2  T2  (1 + 1.40)(0.5099) 
2 1 + 1.40(0.5099)2
1 + k Ma2

(1 + k) Ma21 (1 + 1.40)(0.2266)2
V1 1 + k Ma21 85 1 + 1.40(0.2266)2
= 2 → = → V2 = 338 m/s
V2 (1 + k) Ma2 V2 (1 + 1.40)(0.5099)2
1 + k Ma22 1 + 1.40(0.5099)2
(b) The stagnation temperature under sonic conditions, T0∗ , can be calculated using Equation
12.159 as follows,
[ ]
T01 (k + 1)Ma21 2 + (k − 1) Ma21
= ( )2
T0∗ 1 + k Ma21
[ ]
353.6 (1.40 + 1)(0.2266)2 2 + (1.40 − 1) Ma1 (0.2266)2
= → T0∗ = 1631 K
T0∗ (1 + 1.40(0.2266)2 )2

604
 Therefore the maximum heat that can be added, qmax , is given by

qmax = cp (T0∗ − T01 ) = 1003(1631 − 353.6) = 1.28 × 106 J/kg

12.81. From the given data: L1x = 8.0 m, Ly2 = 2.0 m, D = 300 mm = 0.200 m, f¯ = 0.010, and
Ma1 = 3.0. For helium, R = 2077 J/kg·K, cp = 5220 J/kg·K and k = cp /cv = 1.66. Between
the entrance and the shock, Fanno flow can be assumed and Equations 12.141 and 12.142
combine to give
{ [ ]}
f¯L1x 1 − Ma21 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma21
= + ln −
D k Ma21 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma21
{ [ ]}
1 − Ma2x k + 1 (k + 1)Ma2x
+ ln
k Ma2x 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma2x
{ [ ]}
(0.010)(8.0) 1 − (5.0)2 1.66 + 1 (1.66 + 1)(4.0)2
= + ln −
0.300 1.66 (4.0)2 2(1.66) 2 + (1.66 − 1) (4.0)2
{ [ ]}
1 − Ma2x 1.66 + 1 (1.66 + 1)Ma2x
+ ln → Max = 1.44
(1.66) Ma2x 2(1.66) 2 + (1.66 − 1) Ma2x
The relationship between Max and May is given by Equation 12.173,
2 2
Ma2x + (1.44)2 +
Ma2y = k−1 = 1.66 − 1 → May = 0.737
2k 2(1.66)
Max − 1
2
(1.44)2 − 1
k−1 1.66 − 1
Between the shock and the exit, Fanno flow can again be assumed, and Equations 12.141 and
12.142 combine to give
{ [ ]}
f¯Ly2 1 − Ma2y k+1 (k + 1)Ma2y
= + ln −
D k Ma2y 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma2y
{ [ ]}
1 − Ma22 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma22
+ ln
k Ma22 2k 2 + (k − 1) Ma22
{ [ ]}
(0.010)(2.0) 1 − (0.737)2 1.66 + 1 (1.66 + 1)(0.737)2
= + ln −
0.300 1.66 (0.737)2 2(1.66) 2 + (1.66 − 1) (0.737)2
{ [ ]}
1 − Ma22 1.66 + 1 (1.66 + 1)Ma22
+ ln → Ma2 = 0.814.
(1.66) Ma22 2(1.66) 2 + (1.66 − 1) Ma22
The the pressure-ratio relationship developed in the similar worked example in the text can
be applied to this problem. Hence,
v
u k−1
u Ma2x 1 + c0 Ma2
p2 Ma1 uu 1 + c0 Ma 2 1+
2 y
= 1
· ·
Ma2 t 1 + c0 Ma2x
(1)
p1 k−1 2
2 1 + c0 Ma2
1+ May
2

605
 From the given data and from the Mach numbers calculated above,
kR (1.66)(2077)
c0 = = = 0.330, Ma1 = 3.0, Max = 1.44, May = 0.737, Ma2 = 0.814
2cp 2(5220)
Substituting these data into Equation 1 yields
v
u 1.66 − 1
u (1.44)2 1 + (0.330)(0.737)2
p2 3.0 uu 1 + (0.330)(3.0)2 1+
2
= · ·
0.738 t 1 + (0.330)(1.44)2
= 6.66
p1 1.66 − 1 1 + (0.330)(0.814)2
1+ (0.737)2
2

12.82. From the given data: Ma1 = 3.0, and θ = 10◦ /2 = 5◦ . For the standard atmosphere at an
elevation of 9 km (see Appendix B.3) the pressure is given by p1 = 30.80 kPa. For air, R =
287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40.

(a) The wave angle, β, must satisfy Equation 12.197, where

2 cot β(Ma21 sin2 β − 1)

tan θ =
Ma21 (k + cos 2β) + 2

2 cot β(3.02 sin2 β − 1)

tan 5◦ = → β = 23.1◦ and 88.2◦
3.02 (1.40 + cos 2β) + 2

where β = 23.1◦ is the wave angle of the weak shock and β = 88.2◦ is the wave angle
of the strong shock.
(b) For the weak shock, the downstream Mach number and pressure are calculated as follows,

Ma1n = Ma1 sin β = (3.0) sin 23.1◦ = 1.179

2 2
Ma21n + (1.179)2 +
Ma22n = k−1 → Ma22n = 1.40 − 1 → Ma2n = 0.8558
2k 2(1.40)
Ma21n − 1 (1.179)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1
Ma2n 0.8558
Ma2 = = = 2.75
sin(β − θ) sin(23.1◦ − 5◦ )

p2 2k k−1 p2 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma21n − → = (1.179)2 − → p2 = 44.8 kPa
p1 k+1 k+1 30.80 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
For the strong shock, β = 88.2◦ and the downstream Mach number and pressure are
calculated as follows,

Ma1n = Ma1 sin β = (3.0) sin 88.2◦ = 2.999

2 2
Ma21n + (2.999)2 +
Ma22n = k−1 → Ma22n = 1.40 − 1 → Ma2n = 0.4753
2k 2(1.40)
Ma21n − 1 (2.999)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1

606
 Ma2n 0.4753
Ma2 = = = 0.479
sin(β − θ) sin(88.2◦ − 5◦ )

p2 2k k−1 p2 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma21n − → = (2.999)2 − → p2 = 318 kPa
p1 k+1 k+1 30.80 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
12.83. From the given data: Ma1 =2.3, θ = 8◦ = 0.1396 radians, p1 = 85 kPa. For air, R =
287.1 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. The shock angle, β, is given by the solution of Equation 12.197
as follows
[ ]
tan β 2
tan(β − θ) = k−1+
k+1 Ma21 sin2 β
[ ]
tan β 2
tan(β − 0.1396) = 1.40 − 1 + → β = 32.4◦ and 86.1◦
1.40 + 1 (2.3)2 sin2 β
The lower value of β (= 32.4◦ ) corresponds to the weak shock, and the higher value of β (=
86.1◦ ) corresponds to the strong shock. Since we are interested in the weak shock, take β =
32.4◦ = 0.5658 radians. The following calculations give the downstream Mach number, Ma2 ,
and pressure, p2 , (angles are given in radians)
Ma1n = Ma1 sin β = (2.3) sin(0.5658) = 1.233
v v
u u
u Ma2 + 2 u (1.233)2 + 2
u 1n
k−1 =u u 1.40 − 1 = 0.8224
Ma2n =u
t 2k t 2(1.40)
Ma21n − 1 (1.233)2 − 1
k−1 1.40 − 1
Ma2n 0.8224
Ma2 = = = 1.990
sin(β − θ) sin(0.5658 − 0.1396)

p2 2k k−1 p2 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma21n − → = (1.233)2 − → p2 = 137 kPa
p1 k+1 k+1 85 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
12.84. From the given data: V1 = 1650 m/s, T1 = −2◦ C = 271.2 K, p1 = 100 kPa, and θ = 20.2◦ =
0.3526 rad. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. The Mach number of the flow upstream
of the shock is given by
V1 1650
Ma1 = √ =√ = 4.998
RT1 k (287.1)(271.2)(1.40)
The shock angle, β, satisfies Equation 12.197 such that
[ ]
tan β 2
tan(β − θ) = k−1+
k+1 Ma21 sin2 β
[ ]
tan β 2
tan(β − 0.3526) = 1.40 − 1 +
1.40 + 1 (4.998)2 sin2 β
The solution of this equation is β = 30.0◦ and β = 84.5◦ . In this case a weak shock is specified
in the problem, therefore the shock is oriented at an angle of approximately 30◦ relative to
the velocity upstream of the shock.

607
12.85. From the given data: Ma1 = 2.0, β = 35◦ = 0.6109, T1 = 30◦ C = 303 K, and p1 = 30 kPa.
For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The deflection angle, θ, of the velocity is given by
Equation 12.197, where

2 cot β(Ma21 sin2 β − 1) 2 cot 30◦ (2.02 sin2 30◦ − 1)

tan θ = = → θ = 5.75◦
Ma21 (k + cos 2β) + 2 2.02 (1.40 + cos 60◦ ) + 2
The Mach number, Ma1n , normal to the shock is given by Equation 12.189 as

Ma1n = Ma1 sin β = (2.0) sin 30◦ = 1.147

and the pressure, p2 , and temperature, T2 , downstream of the shock are given by Equations
12.192 and 12.193 as
p2 2k k−1 p2 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1
= Ma21n − → = (1.147)2 − → p2 = 41.1 kPa
p1 k+1 k+1 30 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1
[ ][ ]
k−1 k−1
1+ Ma1n kMa1n −
2 2
T2 2 2
= ( )2
T1 k+1
Ma21n
2
[ ][ ]
1.40 − 1 1.40 − 1
1+ (1.147) 2
1.40(1.147) −
2
T2 2 2
→ = ( )2 → T2 = 331.7 K = 58.6◦ C
303 1.40 + 1
(1.147)2
2

12.86. Let the cone angle be α. The deflection angle, θ, is related to α by θ = α/2 and the Mach
number, Ma1 , is given as 2.3. The relationship between α and the angle that the shock makes
with the flow direction, β, is given by Equation 12.197 as
[ ]
−1 2 cot β(2.3 sin β − 1)
2 2
α = 2 tan
2.32 (k + cos 2β) + 2
which gives a maximum value of αmax = 54.91◦ . Since the diameter of the missile is 3 m, the
minimum length of the cone, Lmin , is related to αmax by
αmax 1.5 54.91◦ 1.5
tan = → tan = → Lmin = 2.81 m
2 Lmin 2 Lmin

12.87. The flow at the leading edge of the airfoil can be viewed as shown in Figure 12.5, where the
view has been rotated so that the upstream flow is aligned with the horizontal axis. Therefore,
there are two separate deflection angles, one on the upper surface and the other on the lower
surface. These are denoted by θu = 1.5◦ and θℓ = 3.5◦ . From the given data, V1 = 550 m/s,
T1 = 5◦ C = 277.2 K, and p1 = 95 kPa. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. The
upstream Mach number can be calculated as
V1 550
Ma1 = √ =√ = 1.798
RT1 k (287.1)(277.2(1.40)

608
 V = 550 m/s 1.5o
3.5o

Figure 12.5: Flow impinging on airfoil.

On the upper surface, using the weak shock,

[ ]
tan βu 2
tan(βu − θu ) = k−1+
k+1 Ma21 sin2 βu
[ ]
◦ tan βu 2
→ tan(βu − 1.5 ) = 1.40 − 1 +
1.40 + 1 (1.798)2 sin2 βu

→ βu = 35.6◦ (weak), or 88.6◦ (strong)

Ma1n = Ma1 sin βu = (1.798) sin(35.6◦ ) = 1.046

p2 2k k−1 p2 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma21n − → = (1.046)2 − → p2 = 111 kPa
p1 k+1 k+1 95 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1

On the lower surface, using the weak shock,

[ ]
tan βℓ 2
tan(βℓ − θℓ ) = k−1+
k+1 Ma21 sin2 βℓ
[ ]
tan βℓ 2
→ tan(βℓ − 3.5◦ ) = 1.40 − 1 +
1.40 + 1 (1.798)2 sin2 βℓ

→ βℓ = 37.5◦ (weak), or 86.8◦ (strong)

Ma1n = Ma1 sin βℓ = (1.798) sin(37.5◦ ) = 1.094

p2 2k k−1 p2 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma21n − → = (1.094)2 − → p2 = 123 kPa
p1 k+1 k+1 95 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1

12.88. From the given data: Ma1 = 2.3, θ = 8◦ = 0.1396 rad, p1 = 85 kPa, and T1 = 20◦ C =
293 K. For air, R = 287.1 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. The downstream Mach number satisfies the
Prandtl-Meyer supersonic expansion function (Equation 12.208), hence
√ {[ (√ ) √ ]
k+1 −1 k−1 −1
θ= tan (Ma22 − 1) − tan ( Ma2 − 1) −
2
k−1 k+1
[ (√ ) √ ]}
−1 k−1 −1
tan (Ma21 − 1) − tan ( Ma1 − 1)
2
k+1

609
 √ {[ (√ ) √ ]
1.40 + 1 −1 1.40 − 1 −1
0.1396 = tan (Ma22 − 1) − tan ( Ma22 − 1) −
1.40 − 1 1.40 + 1
[ (√ ) ]}
1.40 − 1 √
−1 −1
tan (2.32 − 1) − tan ( 2.32 − 1)
1.40 + 1

which yields Ma2 = 2.639 . Since the flow across Mach waves are assumed to be isentropic,
Equations 12.210 and 12.211 give
  k−1
k   1.40−1
1.40
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2
p2  1 + Ma 1 1 + (2.3)
2 p2  2 
=  → =  → p2 = 50.2 kPa
p1 k−1 2 85 1.40 − 1 2
1+ Ma2 1+ (2.639)
2 2
k−1 1.40 − 1
T2 1+ Ma21 T2 1+ (2.3)2
= 2 → = 2 → T2 = 252 K = −21◦ C
T1 k−1 293 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma22 1+ (2.639)2
2 2
12.89. From the given data: Ma1 = 1.5, p1 = 250 kPa, and T1 = 550◦ C = 823 K. For air, R =
287.1 J/kg·K, and k = 1.40. Since the flow is isentropic the turn is equivalent to a single
turn of 40◦ = 0.6981 radians. The downstream Mach number satisfies the Prandtl-Meyer
supersonic expansion function (Equation 12.208), hence
√ {[ (√ ) √ ]
k+1 −1 k−1 −1
θ= tan (Ma2 − 1) − tan ( Ma2 − 1) −
2 2
k−1 k+1
[ (√ ) √ ]}
k−1
tan−1 (Ma21 − 1) − tan−1 ( Ma21 − 1)
k+1
√ {[ (√ ) √ ]
1.40 + 1 1.40 − 1
0.6981 = tan−1 (Ma22 − 1) − tan−1 ( Ma22 − 1) −
1.40 − 1 1.40 + 1
[ (√ ) ]}
1.40 − 1 √
tan−1 (1.52 − 1) − tan−1 ( 1.52 − 1)
1.40 + 1

which yields Ma2 = 3.114 . Since the flow across Mach waves are assumed to be isentropic,
p0 = constant and T0 = constant and Equations 12.210 and 12.211 give
  k−1
k   1.40−1
1.40
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2
p2  1 + 2 Ma1  p2 
1+
2
(1.5)

=  → =  → p2 = 21.1 kPa
p1 k−1 2 250 1.40 − 1 2
1+ Ma2 1+ (3.114)
2 2

k−1 1.40 − 1
T2 1+ Ma21 T2 1+ (1.5)2
= 2 → = 2 → T2 = 406 K = 133◦ C
T1 k−1 823 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma22 1+ (3.114)2
2 2

610
 The velocities before and after the bend, V1 , and V2 , are derived from the definition of the
Mach number as
√ √
V1 = Ma1 RT1 k = (1.5) (287.1)(823)(1.40) = 863 m/s
√ √
V2 = Ma2 RT2 k = (3.114) (287.1)(406)(1.40) = 1258 m/s

12.90. The flow at the leading edge of the airfoil can be viewed as shown in Figure 12.6, where the
view has been rotated so that the upstream flow is aligned with the horizontal axis. It is

V = 650 m/s
T = 4 oC 4o
p = 90 kPa 12o

Figure 12.6: Flow over a airfoil.

expected that an expansion wave will occur above the sharp edge and a weak oblique shock
will occur below the sharp edge. From the given data: V1 = 650 ms/, T1 = 4◦ C = 277.2 K,
and p1 = 90 kPa. For air, take R = 287.1 J/kg·K and k = 1.40. The Mach number of the
upstream flow is given by

V1 650
Ma1 = √ =√ = 1.948
RT1 k (287.1)(277.2)(1.40)

For the top surface, applying the Prandtl-Meyer supersonic expansion function and noting
that the deflection angle is 4◦ , requires that

θ = ω(Ma2 ) − ω(Ma1 )
[√ (√ ) √ ]
k+1 −1 k−1 −1
θ= tan (Ma2 − 1) − tan ( Ma2 − 1) −
2 2
k−1 k+1
√ (√ ) √
k+1 −1 k − 1 −1
tan (Ma1 − 1) − tan ( Ma21 − 1)
2
k−1 k+1

[√ (√ ) √ ]
1.40 + 1 1.40 − 1
4◦ = tan−1 (Ma22 − 1) − tan−1 ( Ma22 − 1) −
1.40 − 1 1.40 + 1
√ (√ )
1.40 + 1 1.40 − 1 √
tan−1 (1.9482 − 1) − tan−1 ( 1.9482 − 1)
1.40 − 1 1.40 + 1

611
Which yields Ma2 = 2.092. Since the flow is assumed to be isentropic across an expansion
wave,
  k−1
k   1.40
k−1 2 1.40 − 1 2 1.40−1
p2  1 + 2 Ma1  p2 
1+
2
(1.948)

=  → =  → p2 = 71.7 kPa
p1 k − 1 90 1.40 − 1
1+ Ma22 1+ (2.092)2
2 2
Below the sharp edge, an oblique shock is assumed to occur with a given deflection angle of
θ = 4◦ + 12◦ = 16◦ . The corresponding wave angle, β, satisfies Equation 12.197 such that
[ ]
tan β 2
tan(β − θ) = k−1+
k+1 Ma21 sin2 β
[ ]
◦ tan β 2
tan(β − 16 ) = 1.40 − 1 + 2 2 → β = 48.1◦ (weak) or 78.2◦ (strong)
1.40 + 1 (1.948) sin β

Since a weak oblique wave is assumed, take β = 48.1◦ . The normal component of the upstream
Mach number, Ma1n , and the pressure ratio across the oblique shock, p2 /p1 , are as follows,

Ma1n = Ma1 sin β = (1.948) sin(48.1◦ ) = 1.450

p2 2k k−1 p2 2(1.40) 1.40 − 1

= Ma21n − → = (1.450)2 − → p2 = 205.8 kPa
p1 k+1 k+1 90 1.40 + 1 1.40 + 1

612