Mechanisms . Introduction
Article Contents
Moncef Zouali, Inserm & University Paris Diderot-Paris 7, France . Ways of Inducing Tolerance
doi: 10.1002/9780470015902.a0000950.pub2
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES & 2007, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.els.net 1
Immunological Tolerance: Mechanisms
Orally induced systemic tolerance drainage. After administration of the antigen and discon-
tinuation of the treatment, full immunocompetence is re-
Early studies showed that oral administration of a hapten
gained but the animal remains tolerant. Not only can T and
resulted in the suppression of systemic responses to that
B lymphocytes undergo tolerance, but the two cell types
particular hapten (Chase, 1946). Further studies confirmed
can become tolerant independently of each other. For
that foreign proteins that enter the body through the diges-
example, 2 months after injection of deaggregated human
tive tract suppress immune responses to those proteins in-
g globulin, mice carry tolerant T cells and responsive B
stead of triggering them, creating a state of immune
cells. In addition, T and B cells exhibit different temporal
hyporesponsiveness to oral antigens. Oral tolerance has
patterns of tolerance induction. As opposed to B cells, T
been used successfully to prevent, delay or treat autoimmune
cells can be made tolerant rapidly and remain tolerant for
diseases in animal models, including collagen-induced ar-
longer time periods. Importantly, B cells can be tolerized in
thritis (with type II collagen), EAE (with myelin basic pro-
the absence of T-cell involvement when the animal is
tein), experimental autoimmune uveitis (with retinal S
treated with tolerogenic doses of a T-independent antigen.
antigen or interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein),
See also: B Lymphocytes; Immune System
IDDM in NOD mice (with porcine insulin), experimental
autoimmune thyroiditis (with thyroglobulin) and my-
asthenia gravis in Lewis rats (with acetylcholine receptor). Molecular characteristics of the antigen
Work from animal models has been extended into human
The size of the antigen is particularly important for mol-
clinical trials (multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, dia-
ecules that form aggregates and for antigens that exist in
betes, uveitis and allergy) with variable degrees of success.
monomeric and polymeric forms. Flagellin from Salmo-
For example, a clinical trial in which patients with multiple
nella adelaide, for example, is a potent immunogen in its
sclerosis were treated with repeated doses of oral myelin was
polymeric form (molecular weight 104 kDa). However, in
unsuccessful in reducing disease exacerbations. However,
its monomeric form (molecular weight 4 kDa), flagellin in-
other results are encouraging and more work is required to
duces tolerance when administered at high dose and an
identify factors that may modulate the response. Several ob-
immune response when administered at low dose. Fur-
servations indicate that, depending on the experimental sys-
thermore, a smaller fragment (molecular weight 1.8 kDa)
tem, oral tolerance operates through different mechanisms,
obtained from monomeric flagellin becomes tolerogenic at
including immune deviation, clonal deletion, clonal anergy
low doses. Thus, the size of the molecule consisting of the
and immune suppression (discussed later). See also: Auto-
same repeating subunits underlies its propensity to induce
immune Disease: Aetiology and Pathogenesis; Autoimmune
tolerance. Similarly, serum proteins, such as albumin and g
Disease: Treatment; Immunological Tolerance: Therapeutic
globulin, are strongly immunogenic in an aggregated form,
Induction; Multiple Sclerosis; Rheumatoid Arthritis
but tolerogenic in a deaggregated form. Presumably, the
differences reflect distinct fates of the two forms of the an-
Systemic tolerance induced through the airway tigen. Aggregated molecules are taken up rapidly by pro-
mucosa fessional antigen presenting cells (APCs), processed and
Profound tolerance can also be induced to soluble protein presented to competent T cells. Deaggregated molecules,
antigens delivered by aerosol through the airway mucosa. by contrast, remain in the circulation for longer time pe-
The mechanisms involved in oral tolerance and its respira- riods and are processed slowly. When incorporated into
tory tract equivalent seem to be similar. For allergens ex- suitable adjuvants, they become immunogenic. Strikingly,
posed through the airway mucosa, it seems that high levels a slight chemical modification of an immunogen may
induce tolerance dominated by anergy and deletion, and render it tolerogenic. For example, following ace-
low-level exposure elicits adoptively transferable immune toacetylation, monomeric flagellin becomes tolerogenic at
deviation. Autoantigen administration via nasal mucosal doses that normally are immunogenic.
tissue can induce systemic tolerance more effectively than Also important for tolerance induction is the epitope
oral administration in a number of experimental autoim- density. When the hapten dinitrophenyl conjugated to po-
mune diseases, including antibody-mediated experimental lymerized flagellin is incubated with spleen cells in tissue
autoimmune myasthenia gravis. See also: Allergens culture, the outcome of the encounter depends on the
number of dinitrophenyl groups per flagellin molecule: at a
low density (0.7 groups per molecule) an immune response
is observed, but at a higher density (3.8 groups per mol-
Factors Determining the Induction, ecule) a state of unresponsiveness is induced over a wide
Duration and Extent of Tolerance range of antigen concentrations. The chemical nature of
the antigen is also critical. At the same doses, D-amino acid
Competence of the immune system polymers induce tolerance and L-amino acid polymers are
immunogenic. With regard to self-tolerance and induction
Tolerance induction is easier in animals with an immature of autoimmune disease, there is probably no fundamental
immune system or with a mature immune system that has difference between self antigens and exogenous antigens.
been compromised by irradiation, drugs or thoracic drug It is rather the mechanism of exposure and the
2 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES & 2007, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.els.net
Immunological Tolerance: Mechanisms
characteristics of the confrontation between the antigen administration of antigen has been reported to favour
and immune effectors that will determine the outcome of tolerance induction. Likewise, changing the route of ad-
the response. See also: Autoimmune Disease: Pathogen- ministration of an immunogenic molecule may render it
esis; Epitopes tolerogenic.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES & 2007, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.els.net 3
Immunological Tolerance: Mechanisms
4 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES & 2007, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.els.net
Immunological Tolerance: Mechanisms
costimulatory signal results in functional unresponsive- process operates during normal B-cell development, as
ness. In conjunction with a second antigen-unspecific cost- suggested by the induction of secondary functional light-
imulatory signal, this first signal leads to activation. In vivo, chain rearrangements in response to anti-idiotype treat-
when self antigen is encountered intrathymically on thymic ment of a murine B-cell lymphoma. Hence, receptor editing
epithelium, reactive T cells may become anergic, refractory is a chief mechanism in maintaining B-cell tolerance to self.
to subsequent exposure to antigen. Such functionally See also: B Lymphocytes: Receptors
silenced T cells are selectively incapable of producing the
autocrine growth factor interleukin (IL)-2 and proliferat- Peripheral tolerance
ing upon exposure to antigen and the proper costimulatory
ligands. It is an active process that is not associated with Thus, central tolerance purges the repertoire of immature
expression of low TCR levels. Remarkably, T-cell anergy lymphocytes with overt reactivity for self antigens encoun-
is reversible and stimulation with IL-2 abolishes the unre- tered in primary organs and is crucial for preventing au-
sponsive state. It has been proposed that the state of anergy toimmune diseases. However, antigens synthesized only in
results from defective antigen presentation, but recent peripheral nonlymphoid tissues do not circulate in suffi-
studies suggest that this state of cell paralysis is associ- cient amounts in primary lymphoid organs. Peripheral tol-
ated with a block in signal transduction with a defect erance is therefore required for lymphocytes that have not
in TCR-mediated signalling along the protein kinase been silenced in primary organs. In the periphery, T and B
C (PKC)–Ras–mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cells can reach different levels of tolerance, from anergy
activation pathway. Other models propose that anergy is with few phenotypic changes to silencing by receptor ed-
an active process, as shown by the partial phosphorylation iting or physical elimination by deletion. This peripheral
of substrates and its blockade by the inhibition of protein tolerance is highly dynamic and flexible, and often easily
synthesis. Here, the central gap is the failure to activate reversible. It also operates through additional mechanisms.
mediators of the cell cycle for progression from G1 to S
phase. In this model, CD28 and IL-2–IL-2 receptors act as Immune deviation
surrogates that stimulate signals for cell cycle progression Lymphocytes differentiate towards antigen-specific cells
that are not provided by T-cell receptor ligation. Recently, endowed with effector functions: secretion of different an-
a pathway has been defined linking cell cycle inhibitor tibody classes for B cells and production of distinct cyto-
p27Kip1 to the inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinase 2 and kine patterns for T cells. Early studies noted a general
its phosphorylation of transcription factor Smad3 in the reciprocal relationship between cell-mediated, delayed-
induction of anergy (Li et al., 2006). Insight into the bio- type hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions and antibody pro-
chemical mechanisms underlying the development and duction of particular classes as a function of antigen dose.
maintenance of the anergic state also comes from data The basis for this phenomenon is a cellular dichotomy in
suggesting that immune tolerance relies on the active two reciprocally regulated, interacting T-cell populations
suppression of an essential stimulatory pathway in anergic that exhibit the same specificity for the antigen, but secrete
T cells, with diacylglycerol playing a central function distinct spectra of cytokines with distinct functional activ-
(Olenchock et al., 2006; Spitaler et al., 2006; Zha et al., ities (Mosmann et al., 1986). Following antigen activation,
2006). See also: Interleukins; Lymphocyte Activation CD4+ T-cell precursors differentiate into T helper (TH)
Signals: Transduction type 1 cells (producing IL-2, interferon g (INFg) and tu-
mour necrosis factor b (TNFb), activating macrophages
and controlling DTH reactions and protection against in-
Receptor editing tracellular pathogens) and TH2 cells (producing IL-4, IL-5,
Recent studies of mice bearing immunoglobulin transgenes IL-10 and IL-13, inhibiting macrophage functions and re-
indicate that B-cell tolerance occurs in newly formed bone sponsible for strong antibody responses, for controlling
marrow cells through receptor editing, a form of receptor extracellular pathogens and for mediating allergic reac-
processing that markedly alters the variable region genes tions). This polarization of the immune response seems to
expressed by B cells and, consequently, changes the be related to cytokine cross-regulation, INFg inhibiting
specificity of the surface immunoglobulin (Gay et al., proliferation of TH2 cells and IL-10 inhibiting stimulation
1993; Tiegs et al., 1993). In contrast to clonal selection, of TH1 cells by APCs. Recent evidence indicates that pref-
where antigen encounter eliminates autoreactive clones erential activation of T-cell subsets can be a mechanism of
and allows survival and maturation of unreactive B cells, tolerance induction. Deviating the immune response from
receptor editing is a selection mechanism where autoanti- a cell-mediated TH1 type to an antibody-mediated TH2
gen confrontation triggers secondary heavy- and light- type represents a strategy to avoid responses harmful to
chain gene rearrangements that will effectively alter the the organism, which becomes tolerant. Thus, in orally in-
BCR specificity and extinguish the autoreactivity, allowing duced tolerance, the cytokines IL-4 and IL-10 are pro-
the primary B-cell repertoire to develop and populate sec- duced, favouring TH2 as opposed to TH1 cells. In addition,
ondary lymphoid organs. After they have exhausted their a subset of regulatory CD4+ T cells secreting the inhib-
potential for successive immunoglobulin gene rearrange- itory cytokine transforming growth factor b (TGF-b) and
ments, B cells may undergo apoptosis. Importantly, this designated TH3 cells, downmodulate the activity of TH1
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES & 2007, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.els.net 5
Immunological Tolerance: Mechanisms
cells, further deviating the immune response to a TH2-type grow progressively and corneal allografts are well tolerated
response. See also: Cytokines; Hypersensitivity: T Lym- in the absence of tissue matching or immunosuppres-
phocyte-mediated (Type IV); Immunological Accessory sive therapy. Sites that seem to be exempt from immune
Molecules; T Lymphocytes: Helpers responses include the brain, the eye and the testis. Initially,
privileged sites were thought to lack lymphatic drainage
Suppression and to be separated from the immune system by natural
blood-tissue barriers, making them inaccessible to immune
In at least some situations, tolerance is a process that can be
effectors. The current view is that immune privilege results
transferred by lymphocytes from tolerant animals to naive
from active dynamic phenomena and that it represents the
recipients by T lymphocytes. This phenomenon was
consequence of interactions between the immune system
thought to be mediated by suppressor T cells and cytotox-
and specialized tissues (Van Parijs and Abbas, 1998;
ic T cells (Bloom et al., 1992). Recently, regulatory T cells
O’Connell et al., 1999). For example, CD95L, the ligand
(Treg) re-emerged as a population crucial to maintenance
for the death receptor CD95, is expressed constitutively in
of tolerance, and there is currently an expansion of the field
privileged sites, such as the eye and the testis, and activated
in order to understand and manipulate this cell population
CD95+ T cells that enter these sites undergo apoptosis.
to devise strategies for controlling autoimmunity, trans-
Thus, in addition to other factors, such as the lack of lym-
plantation tolerance, tumour immunity, allergy and infec-
phatic drainage and the presence of anatomical barriers,
tious diseases (Sakaguchi, 2000). Two important Treg
apoptosis through interactions between CD95L+ cells and
subsets have been categorized. The first, called natural Treg
CD95+ inflammatory cells in immune-privileged sites may
(nTreg) is a naturally occurring T-cell CD4+ T subset
represent a powerful tolerance mechanism.
constitutively expressing CD25 (IL-2Ra), found in the
thymus and in peripheral lymphoid organs, and compris-
ing 5–10% of the total CD4+ T cells in mice and humans. Network-mediated regulation
Freshly isolated CD4+CD25+ Treg are anergic to TCR It has been proposed that normal recognition of self an-
stimulation in vitro. However, once activated, nTreg are tigens involves a network of B and T lymphocytes inter-
robust suppressors and can mediate the inhibition of acting with one another and maintaining the homoeostasis
CD4+CD25– responder T cells by means of a cell-contact- of the immunoregulatory system (Jerne, 1984). These cir-
dependent mechanism involving transforming growth fac- cuits prevent the immune system from attacking self com-
tor (TGF)-b. In mice, depletion of CD4+CD25+ T cells ponents and ensure the potential for efficient responses to
by neonatal (day 3) thymectomy leads to spontaneous de- exogenous antigens (Zouali et al., 1996). There are exam-
velopment of organ-specific autoimmune diseases. ples where the B-cell repertoire can influence the nature of
In addition to nTreg, abundant evidence has demon- the T-cell repertoire and vice versa. Thus, treatment of mice
strated the extra-thymic generation of T cells with sup- with anti-IgM antibody alters their repertoire of suppres-
pressive properties and an anergic phenotype. This second sor T cells. Administration of highly connected antibodies
Treg subset is called inducible Treg (iTreg). The best char- (derived from newborn animals and capable of interacting
acterized, inducible Treg (iTreg) are known as the Tr1 cells. with the variable region of other antibodies) to neonatal
Typically, they are generated under conditions involving mice can perturb the immune repertoire and affect the an-
T-cell activation in the presence of immunomodulating tibody response. It is, however, unclear whether such in-
cytokines or repetitive stimulation with nonprofessional teractions have a major impact on immune response and
antigen-presenting cells. iTreg cells secrete a pattern of tolerance. See also: Immune Response: Regulation;
cytokines distinct from that of the more usual TH1–TH2 Immunoregulation
profile, and are characterized by high levels of IL-10 and,
generally, low levels of TGF-b and IL-5. Moreover, Tr1 Coreceptor modulation
cells are functionally suppressive in vivo and able to prevent
In addition to these various mechanisms, TCR or corecep-
the development of TH1 autoimmune diseases, such as col-
tor modulation may lead to peripheral tolerance to self
itis. Tr1 cells were also identified in humans and it appeared
antigens. It has been proposed that the immune system
that besides IL-10, also IFNa is important for the devel-
does not distinguish between self and nonself, but between
opment of these cells. Suppression by iTreg is contact in-
dangerous and harmless entities, and that APCs are the
dependent and mediated by cytokines, in particular IL-10
primary distinctive elements (Ridge et al., 1996). When ex-
and, to a lesser extent, TGF-b. See also: T Lymphocytes:
posed to ‘alarm signals’ (such as apoptotic cells and path-
Cytotoxic
ogen-derived products), APCs are capable of being
activated to upregulate costimulatory molecules. As a re-
Immune privilege sult, lymphocytes are tolerant when they recognize antigen
It has been known for some time that certain anatomical in the absence of costimulatory signals. This line of argu-
areas are more favourable for grafting than others and that ment is used to propose that the nature of APCs determines
immune privileged sites are locations where allogeneic and the outcome of neonatal exposure to an exogenous antigen
xenogeneic tissues are frequently tolerated. For example, (i.e. tolerance or immunization). In this view, T cells may be
tumour cells placed in the anterior chamber of a rabbit’s eye activated to either type of response by appropriate APCs,
6 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES & 2007, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.els.net
Immunological Tolerance: Mechanisms
costimulatory signals and antigen. See also: Immunologi- Tolerance to environmental antigens
cal Danger Signals
In summary, several mechanisms are involved in induc- In addition to self-tolerance, the maintenance of immuno-
tion and maintenance of tolerance, including deletion, an- logical homoeostasis requires tolerance to exogenous,
ergy, editing, receptor downmodulation and lymphocyte nonpathogenic antigens present ubiquitously in the environ-
sequestration. The number of APCs, the number and ac- ment, including airborne antigens and food antigens. Orally
tivity of Treg, the nature and amount of antigenic peptides administered antigens encounter a well-developed immune
generated and the presence of costimulatory signals in a network, called the gut-associated lymphoid tissue, which is
particular tissue are also important. Depending on the sites able to discriminate effectively between harmful pathogens
and the levels of antigen expression, different states of pe- and essential innocuous nutrients. While avoiding a response
ripheral B- and T-cell tolerance will be reached. In certain to food antigens, the intestinal mucosal immune system is
situations, they could act in an additive manner. able to guard against invasion by pathogens. This selective
immunoregulation is dependent on APCs (dendritic cells)
that process and present gut antigens. See also: Mucosal
Lymphoid Tissues
Situations Where Tolerance Induction Although failure to tolerate proteins that are part of the
normal diet is rare, failure to tolerate antigens present in
is Desirable biological dusts (including molecules of both plant and
animal origin) is relatively common, resulting in immune
Understanding the mechanisms that maintain tolerance reactions at the level of the mucosal respiratory tract with
is important to understand the physiology of the clinical consequences, such as allergic rhinitis and allergic
immune system. It also is useful for designing novel means bronchial asthma. It is thought that very early exposure to
of inducing or restoring tolerance in conditions where it is allergens predisposes to long-term allergic sensitization
not functioning properly. Situations where tolerance in- and that high-level exposure to airborne allergens during
duction is desirable represent a major cause of morbidity the first 3 months of life, as occurs by birth during the
and mortality in humans. They include autoimmune dis- pollen season, can markedly increase the probability of
eases, rejection of transplants and hypersensitivity developing an allergic disease during adulthood. Multiple
reactions. mechanisms are engaged in tolerance to ubiquitous non-
pathogenic environmental antigens and their breakdown
Tolerance to self antigens probably explains the appearance of allergic reactions in
Throughout development, two major opposing pressures the adult. Among the treatment and prophylactic strategies
act on the immune system. The first drives the generation of for controlling allergy, induction of peripheral tolerance is
sufficient immune receptor diversity to recognize the wide a promising approach. Therapeutic applications of oral
variety of exogenous antigens. The second must avoid ag- tolerance to autoimmunity are in progress both experi-
gressive immune responses against self components. In mentally and clinically. See also: Allergens; Allergy
normal conditions, self antigens are available to the im-
mune system early in ontogeny and the corresponding Transplantation tolerance
clones become tolerant to the body’s own components,
preventing the organism from mounting an immune re- Transplantation of tissues and organs from one individual
sponse to self antigens and from developing autoimmune to another has become a potent treatment for chronic fail-
disease (Zouali, 2005). Although lymphocyte tolerance is ure of the kidney, heart, liver and lungs. Because of the
induced continuously in central organs, T cells reactive with shortage of donor organ tissues, current studies attempt to
self antigens not present in sufficient amounts can develop, use animal organs and tissues for transplantation. This
escape censorship and migrate to the periphery. As a result, success in transplantation of major organs is due to the
lymphocytes from normal individuals can be activated in availability of drugs able to control the immune response of
vitro against a variety of self antigens. However, they re- the recipient against the graft and to prevent its rejection.
main silent in vivo, causing no damage. Factors that main- Immune responses leading to graft rejection consist of both
tain this tolerance include low-level expression of MHC innate immunity (natural antibodies, complement and
molecules and absence of costimulatory molecules on most natural killer cells) that pre-exists the transplantation and
nonlymphoid tissue cells, insufficient expression of target adaptive immune responses elicited by the grafted tissue.
autoantigens, low precursor frequency of autoreactive cells Natural antibodies generally do not trigger an immediate
and low affinity of their immunoreceptors and restricted rejection response in allotransplantation when the blood
pathways of lymphocyte homing. If one of these factors is groups of the two individuals are compatible. However,
overcome, an autoimmune disease may develop. The mech- natural killer cells can be responsible for early failure of
anisms responsible for activation of sufficient numbers of bone marrow transplantation. Adaptive T cell-mediated
self-reactive lymphocytes and for induction of clinical immune responses play an important role in the rejection of
symptoms remain the focus of investigation. See also: allografts and xenografts. While graft acceptance is TH2
Autoimmune Disease: Aetiology and Pathogenesis mediated, TH1-dependent effector mechanisms, such as
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES & 2007, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.els.net 7
Immunological Tolerance: Mechanisms
DTH and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity, play a central delivery, fetal cells carrying the self antigens disappear and
role in acute allograft rejection. In the absence of immuno- the disease is reactivated.
suppressive agents, they cause acute cell-mediated rejection It appears that fetus-derived forces operate to immuno-
and can destroy the graft in days or weeks. Cytotoxic drugs suppress the mother and to deviate her immune response
that attack proliferating lymphocytes and suppress immu- towards a TH2-like pattern, and that TH1-type cytokines
nity, and immunosuppressive agents (cyclosporin and may damage the placenta directly or indirectly. The ma-
mycophenolic acid) that inhibit cell activation, allow tol- ternal response seems to be modulated by several cells and
erance induction to transplanted organs. However, the soluble factors, such as progesterone-induced blocking
transplant recipients become more susceptible to infections factor, placental suppressor factor, trophoblast cell-
and tumours. See also: Graft Rejection: Mechanisms; derived factor and cytokines (IL-10, TGF-b). It is likely
Immunosuppressive Drugs; Natural Killer (NK) Cells; that progesterone-mediated production of TH2 cytokines
Transplantation contributes to the maintenance of a successful pregnancy.
To improve the outcome of organ transplantation, other Also, the nonclassical class I antigen, human leucocyte an-
strategies are being sought, including modulation of donor tigen (HLA)-G, has been shown to play a role in fetoma-
grafts to reduce immunogenicity, encapsulation of tissue ternal tolerance by interacting with inhibitory receptors to
and induction of a state of immunological tolerance with- downregulate natural killer and T-cell cytotoxic functions.
out chronic use of immunosuppressive drugs. Strategies for Recently, an augmentation in the number of Tregs during
tolerance induction include inhibition of alloreactive T pregnancy was described, and, most importantly, dimin-
lymphocytes in an antigen-specific manner by interfering ished numbers of Tregs were associated with immunolog-
with costimulatory receptors or with the TCR. It would be ical rejection of the fetus. Interestingly, the evidence
possible to trigger activation and proliferation of cells with suggests that, to be protective, Tregs need to be activated
a potential specifically to inhibit or divert the effector func- by male antigens during pregnancy. Thus, it seems that it is
tions of undesirable lymphocytes. Another possibility for the fetus who successfully eludes the mother’s immune at-
inducing donor-specific T-cell unresponsiveness is to trans- tack by diminishing initiation of the response, shifting
plant bone marrow cells to the donor, causing elimination it towards a nonaggressive response, and avoiding its
of lymphocytes that would attack the graft. Finally, in as destructive effects.
much as Tregs probably play a key role in the control of
alloimmune responses, augmentation or manipulation of Undesirable tolerance of tumours
Tregs could improve organ allograft survival or control
graft-versus-host disease. See also: Immunological Toler- The majority of tumours express antigens potentially recog-
ance: Therapeutic Induction; Immunosuppression: Use in nizable by T cells, including peptides derived from mutated
Transplantation oncogenes, tumour-suppressor genes and viral antigens
(in virus-associated malignancies), nonmutated self proteins
Tolerance of the fetus not normally expressed in adult tissues but transcriptionally
activated within the tumour, and lineage-specific differenti-
Under physiological conditions, the successful implanta- ation antigens shared by the tumour and the cell lineage from
tion of the fetus expressing histocompatibility antigens of which the tumour arose. Despite the existence of these target
the father in the uterus of the histoincompatible mother is antigens, the immune system is unable to reject cancers that
an intriguing example of natural tolerance. Despite the develop de novo. Also intriguing are observations that there
presence of maternal T cells specific for paternally inherited is no increased incidence of common tumours in animals and
antigens, the semiallogeneic fetus survives, and the humans that lack a competent immune system. See also:
mother’s T-cell phenotype and responsiveness are restored Tumour Antigens Recognized by T Lymphocytes; Tumour
after delivery, indicating that the pregnant woman tran- Immunology
siently acquires tolerant lymphocytes specific for paternal Obviously, the mechanisms used to induce self-tolerance
alloantigens. The reasons for this tolerance are not fully are relevant to understanding the strategies adopted by
understood and it is thought that elucidation of the mech- tumours to escape immune surveillance. One possibility is
anisms might be applicable to organ transplantation. that in vivo unresponsiveness to tumours is the result of
See also: Fetal–Maternal Immunological Relationships abnormal T-cell help. This has led to studies of the role of
Normal pregnancy is characterized by a lack of strong APCs in determining whether development of a tumour
maternal antifetal cell-mediated immunity and a dominant will result in tolerance or activation of effector lymph-
humoral immune response. To account for the success of ocytes, and several studies have highlighted the importance
the fetal allograft, it was proposed that, under the partic- of antigen presentation. The CD95–CD95L system also
ular hormonal environment of the pregnant female, con- seems to be part of an escape strategy used by tumour cells
frontation of fetal antigens with maternal lymphocytes in various neoplastic malignancies. Several other mecha-
triggers a state of temporary silencing. Parenthetically, nisms are being investigated. For example, malignant hu-
tolerance induction may account for the temporary amel- man melanoma cells can exhibit high levels of HLA-G and
ioration of certain autoimmune diseases during pregnancy, inhibit natural killer cytolysis, thus potentially impeding
as seen in multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis. After elimination of malignant cells by antitumour immune
8 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES & 2007, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.els.net
Immunological Tolerance: Mechanisms
effectors. Recent studies indicate that elevated proportions O’Connell J, Bennett M, O’Sullivan G, Collins J and Shanahan F
of Treg cells are present in various types of cancers, and (1999) The Fas counterattack: cancer as a site of immune priv-
that tumour-specific Treg cells can inhibit immune re- ilege. Immunology Today 20: 46–52.
sponses only when they are exposed to antigens presented Olenchock BA, Guo R, Carpenter JH et al. (2006) Disruption of
by tumour cells. diacylglycerol metabolism impairs the induction of T cell an-
In summary, immune tolerance is an active field of ergy. Nature Immunology 7: 1174–1181.
research where the experimental approaches and the Owen RD (1945) Immunogenetic consequences of vascular an-
concepts are evolving rapidly. It holds promise for de- astomoses between bovine twins. Science 102: 400–401.
signing novel strategies to modulate autoimmune, aller- Ridge JP, Fuchs EJ and Matzinger P (1996) Neonatal tolerance
revisited: turning on newborn T cells with dendritic cells.
gic and tumour diseases, and to prevent rejection of
Science 271: 1723–1726.
transplants.
Sakaguchi S (2000) Regulatory T cells: key controllers of immu-
nologic self-tolerance. Cell 101: 455–458.
References Spitaler M, Emslie E, Wood CD and Cantrell D (2006) Diacyl-
glycerol and protein kinase D localization during T lymphocyte
Burnet MF (1959) The Clonal Selection Theory of Acquired activation. Immunity 24: 535–546.
Immunity. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press. Tiegs SL, Russell DM and Nemazee D (1993) Receptor editing in
Billingham RE, Brent L and Medawar PB (1953) Actively ac- self-reactive bone marrow B cells. Journal of Experimental
quired tolerance to foreign cells. Nature 172: 603–606. Medicine 177: 1009–1020.
Bloom B, Salgame P and Diamond B (1992) Revisiting and re- Van Parijs L and Abbas A (1998) Homeostasis and self-tolerance
vising suppressor T cells. Immunology Today 13: 131–136. in the immune system: turning lymphocytes off. Science 280:
Chase M (1946) Inhibition of experimental drug allergy by prior 243–248.
feeding of the sensitizing agent. Proceedings of the Society of Zha Y, Marks R, Ho AW et al. (2006) T cell anergy is reversed by
Experimental Biology 61: 257–259. active Ras and is regulated by diacylglycerol kinase-alpha.
Chen C, Nagy Z, Radic MZ et al. (1995) The site and stage of anti- Nature Immunology 7: 1166–1173.
DNA B-cell deletion. Nature 373: 252–255. Zouali M, Isenberg D and Morrow JWW (1996) Idiotype network
Gay D, Saunders T, Camper S and Weigert M (1993) Receptor manipulation for autoimmune diseases: where are we going.
editing: an approach by autoreactive B cells to escape tolerance. Autoimmunity 24: 55–63.
Journal of Experimental Medicine 177: 999–1008. Zouali, M (ed.) (2005). Molecular Autoimmunity. New York:
Goodnow CC, Crosbie J, Adelstein S et al. (1988) Altered Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 730 pp.
immunoglobulin expression and functional silencing of self-
reactive B lymphocytes in transgenic mice. Nature 334:
676–682. Further Reading
Healy JI, Dolmetsch RE, Timmerman LA et al. (1997) Different
nuclear signals are activated by the B cell receptor during pos- Garcia G and Weiner HL (1999) Manipulation of Th responses by
itive versus negative signaling. Immunity 6: 419–428. oral tolerance. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology
Jerne N (1984) Idiotypic networks and other preconceived ideas. 238: 23–45.
Immunological Reviews 79: 5–24. Griffith TS and Ferguson TA (1997) The role of FasL-induced
Kappler JW, Roehm N and Marrack P (1987) T cell tolerance by apoptosis in immune privilege. Immunology Today 18: 240–244.
clonal elimination in the thymus. Cell 49: 273–280. Healy J and Goodnow C (1998) Positive versus negative signaling
Li L, Iwamoto Y, Berezovskaya A and Boussiotis VA (2006) by lymphocyte antigen receptors. Annual Reviews of Immunol-
A pathway regulated by cell cycle inhibitor p27Kip1 and check- ogy 16: 645–670.
point inhibitor Smad3 is involved in the induction of T cell Klein J (1982) Immunology. The Science of Self–Nonself Discrim-
tolerance. Nature Immunology 7: 1157–1165. ination. New York: Wiley.
Mosmann TR, Cherwinski H, Bond MW, Giedlin MA and Coff- MacDonald TT (1999) Effector and regulatory lymphoid cells and
man RL (1986) Two types of murine helper T cell clone. I. cytokines in mucosal sites. Current Topics in Microbiology and
Definition according to profiles of lymphokine activities and Immunology 236: 113–135.
secreted proteins. Journal of Immunology 136: 2348–2357. Paul W (1993) Fundamental Immunology, 3rd edn. New York:
Nemazee DA and Bürki K (1989) Clonal deletion of B lymph- Raven Press.
ocytes in a transgenic mouse bearing anti-MHC class I antibody Platt JL (1998) New directions for organ transplantation. Nature
genes. Nature 337: 562–566. 392 (Supplement 6679): 11–17.
Nossal GJ and Pike BL (1980) Clonal anergy: persistence in tol- Radic MZ and Zouali M (1996) Receptor editing, immune diver-
erant mice of antigen-binding B lymphocytes incapable of re- sification and self-tolerance. Immunity 5: 505–511.
sponding to antigen or mitogen. Proceedings of the National Schwartz RH (1989) Acquisition of immunologic self-tolerance.
Academy of Sciences of the USA 77: 1602–1606. Cell 57: 1073–1081.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LIFE SCIENCES & 2007, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.els.net 9